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NOTES <strong>ON</strong> SOME ADVERBIAL AND PREPOSITI<strong>ON</strong>AL<br />
FORMATI<strong>ON</strong>S IN ROMANCE<br />
Hugh E. Wilk<strong>in</strong>s<strong>on</strong><br />
It has frequently been observed (e.g. by Gr<strong>and</strong>gent, Bourciez) that<br />
new <strong>adverbial</strong> formati<strong>on</strong>s developed <strong>in</strong> Romance, <strong>and</strong> that many new<br />
prepositi<strong>on</strong>s were formed out of a comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of a prepositi<strong>on</strong> with<br />
another prepositi<strong>on</strong> or an adverb, <strong>and</strong> <strong>some</strong>times with an adjective or noun;<br />
moreover, <strong>in</strong> such formati<strong>on</strong>s there was a wide degree of comm<strong>on</strong><br />
development throughout the Romance-speak<strong>in</strong>g area. Most of these<br />
formati<strong>on</strong>s are transparent, but there are <strong>some</strong> which have always been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>troversial, <strong>and</strong> I would like to look at <strong>some</strong> of these, exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong><br />
parallel with other related forms.<br />
The word that first attracted my attenti<strong>on</strong> was Fr. ailleurs ‘elsewhere’,<br />
which was traditi<strong>on</strong>ally referred to ALIORSUM. Then others noted that this<br />
would not account for the diphth<strong>on</strong>g <strong>and</strong> proposed *ALIORE + <strong>adverbial</strong> -S<br />
(the existence of OFr. forms like aillors is no proof that the diphth<strong>on</strong>g<br />
developed later, as meilleu(rs) also appears as meillor(s)). An exam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the forms <strong>in</strong> other languages shows the etym<strong>on</strong> to have been ALIUBI with<br />
the additi<strong>on</strong> of two adverb-form<strong>in</strong>g elements, -RE <strong>and</strong> -S; this formati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
parallel to, <strong>and</strong> <strong>some</strong>times c<strong>on</strong>fused with, a similar *ALICUBI-RE-S<br />
1
‘<strong>some</strong>where’. The forms are:<br />
*ALIUBIRE ‘elsewhere’: Rum. aiure(a)/aire(a), Fr. ailleurs, Prov.<br />
alhor(s), Cat. alloure, <strong>ON</strong>av. allobre, OCast. ajubre, OLe<strong>on</strong>.<br />
allu(m)bre/allure, now Ast. dayure/-ri ‘<strong>some</strong>where’, OGal.<br />
(d’)allur(es), OPtg. alhur, now alhures. (Italian, Rhaeto-Romance <strong>and</strong><br />
Sard<strong>in</strong>ian form from *ALTERUBI: It. altrove, Surs. autro(ra), Eng.<br />
otrô/utrô, OSard. ateru(b)e, Nuor. atterube, Log. atterue.)<br />
The variati<strong>on</strong> between u <strong>and</strong> o <strong>in</strong> the t<strong>on</strong>ic vowel is c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the<br />
respective developments of UBI, <strong>and</strong> the proposed *ALIORE is expla<strong>in</strong>able<br />
as an <strong>in</strong>termediate stage <strong>in</strong> the development of the French <strong>and</strong> Provençal<br />
forms; the Cat. alloure is barely attested, <strong>and</strong> the vocalism po<strong>in</strong>ts to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> with a lloure/a lleure ‘freely’, cf. Fr. à loisir. In the same<br />
way as modern Ast. dayure/-ri has come to mean ‘<strong>some</strong>where’, so Ptg.<br />
alhures is often c<strong>on</strong>fused with algures
NECUNU, <strong>and</strong> see nigliur etc. below), <strong>and</strong> these are paralleled by North<br />
Italian forms, Istr. ignuri/ignori <strong>and</strong> Tic. <strong>in</strong>gu ‘nowhere’. (These may also<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d a counterpart <strong>in</strong> Ast. denyures, if this is correctly glossed by García de<br />
Diego as ‘<strong>some</strong>where’ (< DE ALIUBI), but see below.) The f<strong>in</strong>al stage of<br />
development is seen <strong>in</strong> the forms with a prefixed n- <strong>and</strong> the mean<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
‘nowhere’, so Surs. negliur/nigliur (auter), LEng. (i)n<strong>in</strong>glur, UEng.<br />
<strong>in</strong>üngür, old n<strong>in</strong>gür (Friul. <strong>in</strong> nìo seems to corresp<strong>on</strong>d); these are paralleled<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Iberian pen<strong>in</strong>sula by Ast. nenyures (<strong>and</strong> nenchures <strong>in</strong> the area where<br />
ll > ch; here it occurs to me to w<strong>on</strong>der whether denyures bel<strong>on</strong>gs here, with<br />
the change of n to d seen <strong>in</strong> dengun for n<strong>in</strong>gun(o)), OGal. nenllur, <strong>and</strong> also<br />
nengur, now n<strong>in</strong>gures, evidently remodelled <strong>on</strong> nengun/n<strong>in</strong>gun, OPtg.<br />
nenlhur, nenhur, now nenhures. A similar negative formati<strong>on</strong> is Rum.<br />
nicăieri, with alternative forms such as nicăiurea, necăiuri, necăire, nicăiri,<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g from *NEC ALIUBIRE <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘nowhere’.<br />
Next I would like to list the forms com<strong>in</strong>g from ALIUNDE(-RE-S),<br />
ALICUBI(-RE-S), ALIQUANDO <strong>and</strong> the pr<strong>on</strong>om<strong>in</strong>al ALIQUIS, ALIQUID/-QUOD,<br />
ALIQUANTU, *ALIQU-UNU, <strong>and</strong> then discuss them:<br />
ALIUNDE(-RE-S) ‘from elsewhere’: Rum. dial. a<strong>in</strong>de(re-a), Trans.<br />
al<strong>in</strong>derea ‘elsewhere’, OLEng. altlgu<strong>on</strong>der (= alchglu<strong>on</strong>der)<br />
‘<strong>some</strong>where’, Prov. alh<strong>on</strong>s, alh<strong>on</strong>dre(s), Cat. dial.<br />
all<strong>on</strong>re/al<strong>on</strong>dre/aj<strong>on</strong>ra/enll<strong>on</strong>reienj<strong>on</strong>dre ‘elsewhere’, Gl. Sil.<br />
3
algodre (?), WAst. allundes/(d)ayundes/d’allund(r)es<br />
‘<strong>some</strong>where’ (<strong>and</strong> nayundes/ney-/ni- ‘nowhere’). Cf. Bannio (Tic.)<br />
oltundzә ‘from elsewhere’, It. altr<strong>on</strong>de ‘elsewhere’, from<br />
*ALTERUNDE.<br />
ALICUBI(-RE-S) ‘<strong>some</strong>where’: Mac. Rum. arcò, Misox (Graub.) algó,<br />
V.Sass. (Tic.) algö, Tyr. <strong>in</strong>valgó, Friul. <strong>in</strong> algó, OGal., OPtg. algur,<br />
now algures ‘<strong>some</strong>where’, ‘elsewhere’.<br />
ALIQUANDO(-RE-S) ‘at <strong>some</strong> time’: OSp. algu<strong>and</strong>re, Gl.Sil. algodre (?),<br />
alquantre, OPtg. algu<strong>and</strong>res, OLog. aliqu<strong>and</strong>o/alic-, OCamp. alig<strong>and</strong>u.<br />
ALIQUIS ‘<strong>some</strong><strong>on</strong>e’: OSard. alikis. Cf. OSp. alguí, alguién, now<br />
alguien, Ast. dalguien, Gal. alguén, Ptg. alguém, with the<br />
vocalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> stressed syllable of qui, quien, quen, quem.<br />
ALIQUID/-QUOD ‘<strong>some</strong>th<strong>in</strong>g’: OLomb. alget, Friul. alc, Tyr.<br />
valk/velk,V.Gard. vèlk (<strong>and</strong> velgamìa ‘quite a bit’, from ALIQUA MICA),<br />
Eng. a(i)lch, alchet, OFr., Prov. alques, Sp., Gal., Ptg. algo.<br />
ALIQUANTU ‘<strong>some</strong>’: It. alquanto, <strong>ON</strong>It. alguant(o), OFr. alquant,<br />
Prov. alquant/alc-, OSp. alquanto/algu-, Gl. Emil. alqu<strong>and</strong>as, OPtg.<br />
alquanto.<br />
*ALIQU-UNU ‘<strong>some</strong>(<strong>on</strong>e)’: It. alcuno, <strong>ON</strong>It. algun, Lomb. algün,<br />
vergün, Mant. vargün, V.Gard. valgùn, Tyr. valgú, OSurs. anch<strong>in</strong> ><br />
4
entg<strong>in</strong>, Eng. alchün, LEng. <strong>in</strong>chün, Fr. aucun (old pl. alques-uns),<br />
Prov. alcun, OCat. alcú(n), Cat. algú(n), Sp. alguno/algún, Ast.<br />
angún, dalgún, Gal. algún, Ptg. algum, OLog. al(i)cunu (Sard.<br />
algunu is from Sp.).<br />
OLEng. altlgu<strong>on</strong>der shows a mixture of ALIUNDE <strong>and</strong> ALICUNDE<br />
similar to that of ALIUBI <strong>and</strong> ALICUBI seen above. The algodre of the Gl.<br />
Sil. is often referred here, but seems to me more likely to be equivalent<br />
to algu<strong>and</strong>re; another possibility would be that it represents ALICUNDE,<br />
but it glosses “<strong>in</strong> occasi<strong>on</strong>e”, so seems to be an adverb of time. The v-<br />
of the various Tyrolean forms is puzzl<strong>in</strong>g. Meyer-Lübke traces it to a<br />
cross<strong>in</strong>g of *ALIQU-UNU with VERE UNU, as seen <strong>in</strong> the Lombard<br />
vergün/var-, for which he quotes vergot(a) < VERE GUTTA ‘noth<strong>in</strong>g’ as<br />
the source of the -g- (Rohlfs also suggests nigün < NEC UNU); he also<br />
adds for comparis<strong>on</strong> Bergam. vergló, V.Tell. <strong>in</strong>vergoló ‘<strong>some</strong> where’.<br />
OSp. alguién, Ptg. alguém became the basis for new formati<strong>on</strong>s OSp.<br />
n<strong>in</strong>guién, Ptg. nenguém > n<strong>in</strong>guém ‘no <strong>on</strong>e’, <strong>and</strong> to f<strong>in</strong>d the background<br />
for this I would like to look next at the forms for ‘no’, ‘n<strong>on</strong>e’. Here we<br />
have, <strong>in</strong> additi<strong>on</strong> to forms go<strong>in</strong>g back to classical NULLUS, a variety of<br />
forms reflect<strong>in</strong>g NE UNU, NEC/NEQUE UNU <strong>and</strong> NE IPSE UNU, with <strong>some</strong><br />
forms show<strong>in</strong>g a palatalizati<strong>on</strong> of the -S- that I will deal with later.<br />
(There are also forms com<strong>in</strong>g from VERE UNU <strong>in</strong> the sense of ‘any’ but<br />
<strong>in</strong> most areas <strong>on</strong>ly used <strong>in</strong> a negative c<strong>on</strong>text, as <strong>in</strong>deed are those from<br />
5
ALI-QU-UNU <strong>in</strong> many areas, thus Rum. vreun/vrun, Mac. Rum.<br />
verun/vârun, OLomb. verun, Lomb. vergün/vargün (as we have just<br />
seen), <strong>and</strong> Sard. (Camp.) verunu; this last appears as the <strong>in</strong>tervocalic<br />
form of perunu, which I would have taken as a back-formati<strong>on</strong> from<br />
verunu, were it not for the fact that Old Ragusan has parun, show<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that there must have been <strong>in</strong>terference from PER.)<br />
NE (IPSE) UNU, NEC/NEQUE UNU ‘no(ne)’: Rum. nici un, It. nessuno,<br />
<strong>ON</strong>It. nesun/nexun/nisun/nixun/nes<strong>on</strong>, now Bol. <strong>in</strong>ci<strong>on</strong>, Lomb.<br />
nisün, Ven. nissun, OSic. nissun/nixun, now nisciunu, Neap., Apul.<br />
nәsciunә/nisciunә, Calab. nesciunu/ni-, Cors. nigiunu, OTusc.,<br />
OUmbr. neuno/ni-, <strong>ON</strong>It. negun(o)/ni-/neg<strong>on</strong>o/neungun, OMarch.<br />
negunu, now Lomb. negün/ni-, NWTusc. niguno, Umbr. gnuno,<br />
Pied。, gnün, Posch. nügün, Istr. n<strong>in</strong>goun, Friul. nis(s)un/niš-,<br />
Tyr. negun/de-, V.Gard. degùn, Surs. neg<strong>in</strong>, Eng. <strong>in</strong>gün, old<br />
üngiün, OFr. neun/nun/negun/nesun/nisun (<strong>and</strong> neul/niul, surely<br />
re-formed from neun by associati<strong>on</strong> with nul, as there is no<br />
evidence of ULLU surviv<strong>in</strong>g), ODauph. niun, Prov.<br />
negun/degun/nengun/neisun/neun, now also digun, Cat. n<strong>in</strong>gú(n),<br />
old <strong>and</strong> dial. negú/degú/nengú/dengú/d<strong>in</strong>gú, OArag.<br />
negun/ni(n)gun, Sp. n<strong>in</strong>guno/-gún, OSp. ne(n)guno/nigun, Andal.<br />
denguno, Le<strong>on</strong>., Ast. nengun/de(n)gún, Gal. nengun/n<strong>in</strong>gun, old<br />
6
nehun/n<strong>in</strong>hun/nenhun/ niun/negun, Ptg. nenhum, old<br />
nẽhum/neun/niun/nengũ/n<strong>in</strong>gũ/negum, (Sard., old neunu/niunu,<br />
Cent. nessunu, Log. nešunu, Camp. nišunu all from It.), Vegl.<br />
nenčo<strong>in</strong>.<br />
It will be seen that certa<strong>in</strong> of these forms are nasalized as nen-/n<strong>in</strong>-,<br />
<strong>and</strong> others have dissimilati<strong>on</strong> of the n- to d-.<br />
I would like to take next words formed with the additi<strong>on</strong> of -QUE. In<br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> the suffix -QUE (to be dist<strong>in</strong>guished from the enclitic -QUE ‘<strong>and</strong>’,<br />
which is presumably also to be found <strong>in</strong> NEQUE, ATQUE (AD + -QUE ?) <strong>and</strong><br />
QUOQUE) was used to form <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite pr<strong>on</strong>ouns <strong>and</strong> adverbs from<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogatives, rather like Japanese -ka <strong>in</strong> dareka ‘<strong>some</strong><strong>on</strong>e’, nanika<br />
‘<strong>some</strong>th<strong>in</strong>g’, itsuka ‘<strong>some</strong> time’ <strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong>, formed from the corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogatives mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’; these Lat<strong>in</strong> forms had the<br />
force of ‘any at all’ <strong>and</strong> so ‘every’, ‘each’. So we have the forms QUISQUE<br />
‘each’, UTERQUE ‘each of two’, UBIQUE ‘everywhere’, UNDIQUE ‘from<br />
everywhere’, CUMQUE (later restricted <strong>in</strong> use) <strong>and</strong> QUANDOQUE ‘every time’,<br />
UTIQUE ‘anyhow’, USQUE ‘all the way’; there are also parallel formati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with -QUAM, QUISQUAM ‘any<strong>on</strong>e at all’, UMQUAM/UN- ‘ever’ (related to<br />
CUMQUE), QUAMQUAM ‘although’ (developed from the sense ‘<strong>in</strong> any way’<br />
7
via ‘however + adj.’), QUOQUAM ‘<strong>some</strong>where’, UTIQUAM (rare) ‘<strong>in</strong> any<br />
way’ (with neg. NEUTIQUAM, late NEUTIQUE ‘<strong>in</strong> no way’), USQUAM<br />
‘anywhere’. (It seems to me that -QUE, like -QUAM, must come from an<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogative-relative form, as Buck compares UTROQUE with Oscan<br />
pútereí-píd, <strong>and</strong> gives píd as corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to QUID; this use of the relative<br />
may have <strong>some</strong> relevance to the later Romance formati<strong>on</strong>s.) There is no<br />
doubt <strong>in</strong> my m<strong>in</strong>d that the <strong>in</strong>terrogative forms UTER, UBI, UNDE <strong>and</strong> the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong>terrogative UT lost their orig<strong>in</strong>al C- through a mistaken divisi<strong>on</strong><br />
of SI-CUT, NE-CUBI or SIC-CUT, NEC-CUBI etc. as SIC-UT, NEC-UBI etc.;<br />
UMQUAM also, like CUMQUE, is related to CUM, <strong>and</strong> there may be a similar<br />
orig<strong>in</strong> for USQUE/-QUAM (perhaps *CU-S- from *CU ‘whither’ corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
HUC, ILLUC). Evidence for this is seen <strong>in</strong> the parallelism between ALIQUIS,<br />
ALIQUANTUS, ALIQUANDO etc. <strong>and</strong> ALICUBI, ALICUNDE, <strong>and</strong> between SI QUIS, SI<br />
QUANDO etc. <strong>and</strong> SICUBI, SICUNDE, SICUT <strong>and</strong> SICUMQUAM; note also the relati<strong>on</strong><br />
between UMQUAM <strong>and</strong> CUMQUE. Similar forms beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with NEC- are<br />
NECUTER, NECUNDE (<strong>and</strong> cf. UNDECUNDE ‘from everywhere’) <strong>and</strong><br />
NECUMQUAM; <strong>in</strong> the case of UBI we have an old NE CUBI for NECUBI, a read<strong>in</strong>g<br />
CUBITUS <strong>in</strong> a manuscript of Plautus which has been emended as UBI TUS (=<br />
THUS), <strong>and</strong> “NESCIOUBI n<strong>on</strong> NESCIOCUBE” <strong>in</strong> the Appendix Probi. The fact<br />
that these forms all orig<strong>in</strong>ally began with a C- (or QU-) is vouched for<br />
bey<strong>on</strong>d doubt shown by the corresp<strong>on</strong>dence between UBI, UT <strong>and</strong> Oscan puf,<br />
puz, not to speak of the Greek <strong>and</strong> Sanskrit forms. Another po<strong>in</strong>ter is the<br />
8
close relati<strong>on</strong>ship between SI <strong>and</strong> SIC. At the earliest stage of Lat<strong>in</strong> we can<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>e that the subjunctive mood al<strong>on</strong>e expressed the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (cf.<br />
English “had I been there”, “were I to tell you”, “should it not be so”), <strong>and</strong><br />
the SI was an adverb ‘so’ (cf. “so help me God” <strong>and</strong> the hesitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Romance between si <strong>and</strong> se for ‘if’, perhaps result<strong>in</strong>g from such a<br />
collocuti<strong>on</strong>; similarly QUAMQUAM, as noted above, was an adverb, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
mood al<strong>on</strong>e expressed the c<strong>on</strong>cessive idea, as <strong>in</strong> “be it ever so humble”).<br />
This is comparable to the situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Japanese, where the verb end<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
-eba, -tara al<strong>on</strong>e express the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the opti<strong>on</strong>al moshi at the head<br />
of the clause is an adverb express<strong>in</strong>g the idea ‘(if), say’, ‘supposedly’, <strong>and</strong><br />
the time may come <strong>some</strong> day when this moshi becomes a c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g a c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al clause (a similar adverb tatoe adds emphasis to<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>cessive idea <strong>in</strong> clauses mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘even if...’). The c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong><br />
between SI <strong>and</strong> SIC is seen further <strong>in</strong> Rhaeto-Romance, where the scha < SI<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> is picked up by schi < SIC <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
apodosis.<br />
An offshoot of this is the attachment of CUMQUE ‘ever’ to<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogatives to form universal relatives of the type ‘whoever’,<br />
‘whenever’; cf. the use of “ever” <strong>in</strong> English <strong>and</strong> “immer” <strong>in</strong> German. So<br />
we get QUICUMQUE, QUALISCUMQUE, UBICUMQUE, QUANDOCUMQUE <strong>and</strong> the like.<br />
This process is repeated <strong>in</strong> Romance, us<strong>in</strong>g the other word for ‘ever’, UMQUAM<br />
9
(*UNQUE), produc<strong>in</strong>g comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s like QUI (QUOD/*QUE) UMQUAM, QUALIS<br />
(QUOD/*QUE) UMQUAM <strong>in</strong> the senses, first, of ‘whoever’, ‘whatever’, <strong>and</strong> then<br />
of ‘any(<strong>on</strong>e) whatever’. There also developed <strong>in</strong> Romance new formati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g –QUE; *ANQUE <strong>and</strong> *DUMQUE. The orig<strong>in</strong>al mean<strong>in</strong>g of AN, which<br />
was used to <strong>in</strong>troduce an alternative questi<strong>on</strong>, seems to have been ‘<strong>in</strong> that<br />
case’, <strong>and</strong> the additi<strong>on</strong> of -QUE seems to have given it the sense of ‘<strong>in</strong><br />
whatever case’, ‘<strong>on</strong> any occasi<strong>on</strong>’. In the modern languages the mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
has developed variously <strong>in</strong>to ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘even’, ‘ever’. *DUMQUE,<br />
from DUM (while) (cf. late D<strong>ON</strong>IQUE from D<strong>ON</strong>EC), perhaps had the mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of ‘at <strong>some</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t’, <strong>and</strong> then ‘at that po<strong>in</strong>t’, ‘then’, also develop<strong>in</strong>g to ‘then’<br />
<strong>in</strong> the sense of ‘<strong>in</strong> that case’. Here I would like to set out the Romance<br />
forms that have evolved from or replaced QUISQUE, QUICUMQUE, QUALISCUMQUE,<br />
QUANTUSCUMQUE, UBICUMQUE., QUANDOCUMQUE, *ANQUE <strong>and</strong> *DUMQUE.<br />
QUISQUE > *KISQUE, *QUISQUE/*KISQUE (ET) UNU, *QUIS CATA UNU (with<br />
CATA from Greek katá ‘per’, as <strong>in</strong> kath’héna ‘per (<strong>on</strong>e) pers<strong>on</strong>)’, also<br />
*CASQUE UNU, <strong>and</strong> the pla<strong>in</strong> CATA UNU ‘each’: OIt.<br />
cescaduno/cescheduno, now ciascheduno (with the vowel of CATA),<br />
ciascuno, also OIt. cascuno, catauno/cadauno, OApul. scaduno, <strong>ON</strong>It.<br />
çasca(d)un(o)/za-, çascun(o)/za-, çiscu, OBergam. zeschadun/çes-,<br />
OGen. çascaun, OVicent. caske, ORom. ciasche, Surs. scad<strong>in</strong>, Eng.<br />
s-chadün/scodün (REW also quotes a form chascol, for which I can<br />
10
f<strong>in</strong>d no support), Fr. cescun/chescun/chascun > chacun (from which<br />
chaque), OFr. also cadhuna (Oaths), cheun, Prov. (us)quecs (fem.<br />
(una)quega), cascun, cad(a)un, Gasc. quiscun, quisquedun, OCat.<br />
(un) quec (fem. (una) quega), quiscun, cascun, now cadascú(n),<br />
cada un, dial. cadú(n), OArag. quiscun, OSp. quiscataqui (Gl.<br />
Emil.), cascun(o) (Berceo, Alex.; also quisque, perhaps a Lat<strong>in</strong>ism),<br />
Sp. cada uno, OGal., OPtg. quiscadaun/-um, Gal. cada un, Ptg.<br />
cada um, OLog. kis, uniskis/unuchis, also OSard., Cent, cada unu,<br />
with zascatunu, časkadunu etc. from Italian. (These forms are to be<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guished from others mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘whoever’, which have come<br />
from QUI(S)… QUOD/*QUE, so It. chi che, Fr., Prov. qui que, OCat.<br />
quis que; cf., from QUALIS…QUOD/*QUE, OIt. qual che(d)<br />
‘whatever’, which becomes qualche ‘<strong>some</strong>’ (so also qualcun,<br />
qualchedun), Friul. qualchi, Eng. qualche, (ün)qualchün,<br />
qualchedün, Fr. quel que, quelque, quelqu’un, Prov. qual(s) que,<br />
calque, qualcun/qualchedun/cal-, Cat. qual que, qualque/calque,<br />
qualcú/calcú, OArag. (Berceo, Alex.) qual... que/qualque, Sard.<br />
(Cent.) calchi, qualcunu/cal<strong>in</strong>cunu, (Log.) calchi,<br />
calecunu/calikiunu, (Camp.) calecunu/cali(n)cunu/cuncunu. For<br />
‘whoever’, ‘whatever’, ‘any...whatever’, each language has, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>, created out of its own materials compounds <strong>on</strong> the pattern<br />
‘whoever/whatever it be’, ‘whom/what you will’, comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
11
QUI(S)/QUALIS . . . QUOD/*QUE with the appropriate verb.)<br />
QUICUMQUE, *QUI (QUE) UMQUAM ‘whoever’: It. chiunque, OIt.<br />
chiunche/-qua/-ca, Abruzz. chәnungә, Neap. c<strong>on</strong>ca/cunca, Laz.<br />
ch<strong>in</strong>ca, Salent. c<strong>in</strong>ca (also, from QUID-, OIt. cheunque, Laz. chenca,<br />
Salent. cenca ‘whatever’), Fr. quic<strong>on</strong>que, OFr. qui qu’<strong>on</strong>-que(s), ki<br />
<strong>on</strong>ques, qui unques. Provençal <strong>and</strong> Catalan have words mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘<strong>some</strong>th<strong>in</strong>g’ com<strong>in</strong>g from what the FEW takes to be<br />
QUIDAM-CUM(QUE)/QUIDDAM-, so Prov. quiacom > quic<strong>on</strong>,<br />
que(z)acom, OCat. que(d)ocom, queucom > quelcom,<br />
queacom/quia-; the modern quelcom has sprung from a ph<strong>on</strong>etic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> has no relati<strong>on</strong> to QUALIS, but such forms also exist,<br />
see below. Italian <strong>and</strong> Rhaeto-Romance also have forms go<strong>in</strong>g back<br />
to *OMNI-UMQUAM, so OIt. ognunche/-que/-ca(na), OLomb.<br />
omiunqua/-ca, OUmbr. kignunca, OMil., Pied. m<strong>in</strong>ca, Surs. m<strong>in</strong>tga,<br />
m<strong>in</strong>tg<strong>in</strong>, Eng. m<strong>in</strong>cha, m<strong>in</strong>chün.<br />
QUALISCUMQUE, *QUALIS UMQUAM ‘whatever’: It. qualunque, OIt.<br />
qualunche/-qua/-ca, OCampan. qualecumqua, now Neap. cac<strong>on</strong>ca,<br />
Eng. qualunque, Fr. quelc<strong>on</strong>que, OFr. quel ke <strong>on</strong>ques/quels que<br />
unca, Prov. qualsacom/qualacom/calacom, Gasc. quaucom<br />
‘<strong>some</strong>th<strong>in</strong>g’, OCat. cal(o)com, now qualcom ‘ditto’, OSard.<br />
qualunque/calunqua/-ca (does Camp. cuncunu ‘<strong>some</strong><strong>on</strong>e’ bel<strong>on</strong>g<br />
here rather than above?).<br />
12
QUANTUSCUMQUE, *QUANTUS UMQUAM ‘however much’: It.<br />
quantunque ‘although’, OIt. also quantunche, OCampan.<br />
quantumqua ‘however much’, Neap. quant<strong>on</strong>ca, Calab. quantunca<br />
‘although’, Eng. quantunque ‘however much’ (OSard. cantunke is<br />
unc<strong>on</strong>nected, be<strong>in</strong>g cantu + ple<strong>on</strong>astic <strong>in</strong>ke < HINC).<br />
UBICUMQUE, *UBI UMQUAM ‘wherever’: It. (d)ovunque ‘wherever’,<br />
‘anywhere’, OMarch. oveunqua, Neap. (ad)dov<strong>on</strong>ca/add<strong>on</strong>ca,<br />
Calab. (ad)dunca/unca.<br />
UNDECUMQUE, ‘from wherever’: this seems to be the source of Prov.<br />
<strong>on</strong>dacom > endacom/endac<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> similar forms, Cat. <strong>on</strong>tocom/<strong>on</strong>t<br />
a com ‘<strong>some</strong>where’.<br />
QUANDOCUMQUE, *QUANDO UMQUAM ‘whenever’: OIt. qu<strong>and</strong>unque/<br />
-qua/-che, OFriul. quant unche; cf. also Vegl. kun ke ‘whenever’, as<br />
It. dial. qu<strong>and</strong>o che. We also have the similarly formed It.<br />
comunque ‘however’ (as from *QUOMODO UMQUAM), OCampan.<br />
com’unqua.<br />
*ANQUE ‘<strong>in</strong> any case’ (perhaps <strong>some</strong>times crossed with UMQUAM):<br />
Rum. încă/ORum. nke (<strong>in</strong> Hungarian orthography), Mac. Rum.<br />
n<strong>in</strong>gă/nică ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘(<strong>on</strong>e) more’, It. anche, old <strong>and</strong><br />
Tusc. anco, (O)Lomb. anc/an (before a c<strong>on</strong>s.), Cors. ancu, NIt.<br />
anca(mò), NPied. <strong>in</strong>ca ‘also’, ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘(<strong>on</strong>e) more’,<br />
13
‘ever’ (also old unquanche/-co), Ven. anche ben ‘pretty well’, also<br />
the negative forms neanche/neanco, OLomb. ni anc, NIt.<br />
gnanca/nanca/gnan, NPied. gn<strong>in</strong>ca, Pral. (Pied.) nәenko ‘not even’,<br />
Tyr. (Badia) chiamó, Friul. ancja(mò)/<strong>in</strong>cja(mò)/anciemò, old<br />
anc/anchie/ancie ‘also’, ‘still’, ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘(<strong>on</strong>e) more’, with the<br />
negative nance ‘not even’, Surs. aunc, LEng. anca, UEng. aunch(a),<br />
‘still’, ‘yet’ (aunc mai ‘never yet’), ‘(<strong>on</strong>e) more’, with the negatives<br />
gnaunc, gnanca, niaunch(a) ‘not even’, OFr. anc, anque(s), ans, also<br />
a<strong>in</strong>c, a<strong>in</strong>ques, a<strong>in</strong>s, (× a<strong>in</strong>s ‘before’) ‘ever yet’, ‘(the best) ever’,<br />
‘moreover’, (neg.) ‘never yet’, ‘not even’, Prov. anc (also anc mais,<br />
anc jorn) ‘ever yet’, ‘(the best) ever’, (neg.) ‘never yet’, ‘never<br />
more’, s’anc ‘if ever’, ancse(mpre) ‘always’, Cat. anc ‘ever yet’,<br />
‘(the best) ever’, (neg.) ‘never yet’, anc que ‘even if’, OSard. anku<br />
‘also’, now used to <strong>in</strong>troduce a wish (so also Camp. anki), Log., Camp.<br />
anca (also ancu(s)), Camp. anki ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ankus ki<br />
‘although’, Vegl. nanka ‘not even’. (The rustic Sp. anque ‘although’<br />
has come from aunque, <strong>and</strong> the Gal. anque, OPtg. emque either<br />
from Spanish or from a<strong>in</strong>da que.)<br />
There are also compounds beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with anc- or related forms<br />
which have traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been referred to HANC or HINC but may <strong>in</strong><br />
fact bel<strong>on</strong>g here. The first of these has this element comb<strong>in</strong>ed with AD<br />
HORAM: It. ancora, ancor (before a c<strong>on</strong>s.), SIt. also angora, ancore,<br />
14
OLomb. anc(u)or, Romagn. <strong>in</strong>cora/<strong>in</strong>cú, Umbr. ancó, Laz. nco,<br />
Campan. angò, Pied. ncu, Lig. ancú, OVen. ancò, Ven. ancúo ‘still’,<br />
‘yet’, ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘(<strong>on</strong>e) more’, ‘even’, ancor(a)chè ‘although’, Ven.<br />
ancura ben ‘pretty well’ (Rohlfs says all the Italian forms are from<br />
French; note that ancora also penetrated Old Ragusan, from<br />
Venetian), Fr. encore, old encor ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘(<strong>on</strong>e) more’,<br />
‘even’, Prov. ancar/ancara(s)/enquer(s)/enquera(s)/encora(s) ‘ditto’.<br />
Cat encara, old encar(s)/encare/enquara/enquera/ancara/ancor<br />
‘ditto’, OArag. encar(a) ‘ditto’ (also <strong>in</strong> Berceo <strong>and</strong> Alex.), OGal.<br />
ancora, encar, now encara (Sard. ncora(s) is from It.). Comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />
HODIE we have: OTusc., OEmil., OLomb. ancoi, Pied. ancöi, Lig.<br />
ancö, Emil., Lomb. <strong>in</strong>cö, Istr. ancui, V.Gard. ancuei, Tyr. (Badia)<br />
<strong>in</strong>cö, OFr. ancui/en-, Prov. ancoi/ancuei/en- ‘today’. Comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />
AD NOCTEM: OFr. anquenuit/en-, Prov. ancanueit/en- ‘t<strong>on</strong>ight’.<br />
*DUMQUE/-QUAM ‘at <strong>some</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t’, DUNC (<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>scripti<strong>on</strong>s) ‘then’: It.<br />
dunque, OTusc. d<strong>on</strong>qua/dun-/adomqua/(a)dumqua/(a)d<strong>on</strong>que/-dun-,<br />
OSIt. (a)dunqua/-ca/-que, (O)NIt. d<strong>on</strong>ca, vulgar Flor. d<strong>on</strong>che, Neap.<br />
d<strong>on</strong>ca, March. d<strong>on</strong>ga, Calab., Sic. (ad)dunca, Friul. d<strong>on</strong>cje (ORh.<br />
dunque < It.), Fr. d<strong>on</strong>c, OFr. d<strong>on</strong>ques/ad<strong>on</strong>(c)/dunc/idunc, Prov.<br />
d<strong>on</strong>c(s)/ad<strong>on</strong>c(s)/(a)d<strong>on</strong>cas/dunc/idunc, with nequed<strong>on</strong>c ‘all the<br />
same’ (cf. OFr. nequedent), Gasc. lad<strong>on</strong>cs, Cat. d<strong>on</strong>cs, old<br />
d<strong>on</strong>s/ad<strong>on</strong>(c)s/(l)lad<strong>on</strong>(c)s/d<strong>on</strong>ces/d<strong>on</strong>ques, with si d<strong>on</strong>s (d<strong>on</strong>ch(e)s)<br />
15
no ‘unless’, OArag. (Berceo) d<strong>on</strong>cas, si d<strong>on</strong>cas n<strong>on</strong>, Sard.<br />
addunca/(e)duncas, Vegl. dunkwe.<br />
As I have already <strong>in</strong>troduced UMQUAM ‘ever’, let me now give the reflexes<br />
of this word <strong>in</strong> Romance, together with its negative counterpart NUMQUAM<br />
‘never’. They could both be augmented by MAGIS or IAM MAGIS, orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
to give the sense ‘evermore’, ‘nevermore’, <strong>and</strong> these have now ousted<br />
UMQUAM <strong>in</strong> the areas where it survived, <strong>and</strong> also NUMQUAM <strong>in</strong> the same<br />
areas.<br />
UMQUAM, *UNQUE ‘ever’: (for possible traces <strong>in</strong> Rum. see încă above),<br />
OIt. unque(mai)/unqua (<strong>and</strong> the unquanche/-co above), <strong>ON</strong>It.<br />
unca(mai)/unche, OFr. omque (Eul.)/<strong>on</strong>c/<strong>on</strong>ques/unc/unques,<br />
Fr.-Prov. unques, Prov. <strong>on</strong>ca(s)/unca, OCat. (rare) unqua (these<br />
words are all used like the English “ever”, that is, ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> negative<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts).<br />
NUMQUAM ‘never’: OFr. n<strong>on</strong>que(s), Prov. n<strong>on</strong>ca(s), OCat.<br />
nunca/nunqua, OArag. nunqua/nuncas, Sp. nunca, old<br />
nuncas/nunqua(s), Gal. nunca, Ptg. nunca, old nunqua/n<strong>on</strong>ca.<br />
There is a similar end<strong>in</strong>g *-QUE, *-CE, formed by add<strong>in</strong>g a vowel of<br />
support to Lat<strong>in</strong> words end<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> -C (cf. Lat. HUIUSCE, HORUMCE etc.).<br />
Many of the forms c<strong>on</strong>cerned are deictic words which have ECCE or<br />
ECCU/*ACCU prefixed, so I will also <strong>in</strong>clude other pr<strong>on</strong>om<strong>in</strong>al forms with<br />
the same prefix, by way of <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong> other comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s of these<br />
16
pr<strong>on</strong>ouns which have not always received comparative treatment.<br />
TUNC/*TUNCE ‘then’: Rum. atunci(a)/-cea, OVen., Posch. t<strong>on</strong>ca,<br />
V.Tell. tunc (<strong>in</strong> the senses of It. dunque), Arag. ent<strong>on</strong>z/-nç/-nce/es-,<br />
Sp. ent<strong>on</strong>ces, old ent<strong>on</strong>(z)/-nç/-nce/est<strong>on</strong>(z)/-nce(s), Ast.<br />
ent<strong>on</strong>ce/es-/ent<strong>on</strong>cenes/ant<strong>on</strong>cies/nant<strong>on</strong>cias/est<strong>on</strong>cias/entós, Gal.<br />
(d’)entón/est<strong>on</strong>ce(s)/(d)est<strong>on</strong>cias/est<strong>on</strong>zas, Ptg. entom > então, old<br />
ent<strong>on</strong>ce/est<strong>on</strong>ce(s) (<strong>in</strong> the other areas TUNC was replaced first by<br />
*DUMQUE <strong>and</strong> then by other locuti<strong>on</strong>s).<br />
ECCE HIC etc. ‘here’: Rum. aci(i) (< *ECCU HIC (IBI)), ice/ici (< *HICCE or<br />
*HICQUE), aici (a- + ici), acice (< *ECCU HICCE or *HICQUE), acía (<<br />
*ECCU HIC HAC), It. qui, OTusc. quici, It. ci/ce, March., NIt., SIt. ki,<br />
Emil. ké, Romagn. què, Cors. chici, OVen. coçii, Pied. zì, Trent. cì,<br />
SWPied. chizí, Friul. achi, Eng. qui(a)/a(c)qui(a) (cf. Rum. acía), Fr.<br />
ici, ci, Fr.-Prov. iqui, Prov. aissí/eissí/aicí/aizí/ci ‘here’, aquí ‘here’,<br />
‘there’, Cat. ací/assí/aicí/aissí/així/(-)ci ‘here’, aquí ‘here’, ‘there by<br />
you’, Arag., Sp. aquí, Ast. aiquí, aqu<strong>in</strong>a (with analogical paragogic -n,<br />
-a), Gal. e(i)quí, OGal., OPtg. aqué ‘here is’, Ptg. aquí, old qui, Vegl.<br />
čajk.<br />
ECCE HAC etc. ‘this way’: It. qua, OSic. quaci, Apul. qua/acquà, Neap.<br />
accà, Campan., Calab., Sic. ca, OVen. za/ça, Emil. za, Pied. sa, Lomb.<br />
cià, Tic. scià, Friul. cha, Surs. cau > cheu, tscheu, LEng. (ac)qua, ca,<br />
17
(a)tscha, UEng. (ac)cò, (a)tschò, Fr. ça, Prov. (ai)sa/(ai)sai/eisa/en<br />
sa/en ça/essa, Cat. açà/assà/ça/ençà, Sp. acá, Gal., OPtg. acá, Ptg. cá.<br />
Also IN HAC: Ven. <strong>in</strong>à, Friul. <strong>in</strong>ná, Surs. (en)nau > (en)neu, LEng.<br />
(<strong>in</strong>)nan, UEng. <strong>in</strong>nò, Cent. annou.<br />
ECCU HOC ‘hither’: Rum. acoace/încoace ‘here’, ‘hither’, ‘this way’,<br />
Mac. Rum. acò, also dial. aoace/-ci (= a- + oace < *HOCCE or<br />
*HOCQUE), Gal., OPtg. acó, Vegl. kawk ‘there’. Also IN HOC: Mil. <strong>in</strong>óga,<br />
Comasc. <strong>in</strong>oga, Sard. (Cent.) <strong>in</strong>oke, (Log.) <strong>in</strong>noghi, (Camp.) <strong>in</strong>noi<br />
‘here’.<br />
ECCU HUC ‘hither’: OLog. cuke/cue/cui, Cent. (<strong>in</strong>)kue, Log.<br />
kughe/igue/<strong>in</strong>kui, Camp, <strong>in</strong>guni ‘there’.<br />
(ECCU) HINC ‘hence’: It. qu<strong>in</strong>ci, OVen. quence, OPad. quenze ‘hence’,<br />
OIt. <strong>in</strong>ci, <strong>ON</strong>eap. <strong>in</strong>ce, OAbruzz. nci, SIt. nce ‘there’, Alp. d<strong>in</strong>k,<br />
OLog. nce, now <strong>in</strong>ke, Camp. <strong>in</strong>či ‘here’, also ab<strong>in</strong>ke/a(v)<strong>in</strong>ke<br />
‘bey<strong>on</strong>d’ (< ABHINC). Cat. aquén, Sp. aquende, old aquén, Gal., OPtg.<br />
aquende, Ptg. aquem‘<strong>on</strong> this side (of)’ have traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been referred<br />
to ECCU INDE, but more recent op<strong>in</strong>i<strong>on</strong> places them here, regard<strong>in</strong>g -de<br />
as the fused prepositi<strong>on</strong> de taken from the prepositi<strong>on</strong>al use. Support<br />
for this view is found, it seems to me, <strong>in</strong> the OAst. aquence, which<br />
allows us to suppose that aquén was formed from this — the<br />
expected form — as entón from ent<strong>on</strong>ce (cf. ILLINC).<br />
18
ECCE/ECCU IBI ‘there’: It. quivi, OSien. quive, Pad. chive (taken as<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘here’ <strong>and</strong> giv<strong>in</strong>g rise to a new live for‘there’), Gasc., Aran.<br />
aci(e)u ‘here’, aqui(e)u ‘there’ (the Prov., Cat. a(i)cí, aquí given<br />
above may comb<strong>in</strong>e HIC <strong>and</strong> IBl). Also IN IBI: OSard. <strong>in</strong>iui, Cent,<br />
<strong>in</strong>ibe, Log. <strong>in</strong>nie, Camp. <strong>in</strong>ní.<br />
ECCU INDE ‘thence’: It. qu<strong>in</strong>di ‘thence’, ‘therefore’, Eng. qu<strong>in</strong>der<br />
‘henceforth’ (for aquen(de) see ECCU HINC above).<br />
(AD) ILLIC ‘there’: It. li, OIt. lici, Bol. lè, OTusc. (-)gli, <strong>ON</strong>It. ge/ie,<br />
Friul. lì., Prov. li, Cat. allí, OArag. alyí (from which astí ‘here’ was<br />
formed), Sp. allí, Ast. ellí/illí/all<strong>in</strong>(a), Gal. alí/elí, old ly, Ptg. alí.<br />
(AD, DE) ILLAC ‘that way’: Rum. dial. aoace/-ci ‘there’, Mac. Rum.<br />
auá/auaţe, Rum. la ‘to’ (< ILLAC AD , cf. dela ‘from’), It. là (di là),<br />
OIt. laci, Elba illá, Neap., Apul. allà, Campan., Calab. llà, Calab.,<br />
Sic. ddà (<strong>and</strong> these southern dialects also use the same forms to mean<br />
‘to’, ‘at’, perhaps also com<strong>in</strong>g from ILLAC AD), Friul. lá (di lá) ‘there’<br />
(<strong>and</strong> lá di ‘to’), Surs. leu, LEng. (al)là, UEng. (al)lò, Fr. là (delà), Prov.<br />
la(i)/aila(i)/eila(i) (dela(i)), Cat. lla/allà/e(n)llà (dellà), Sp. allá, Ast.<br />
allá/alá, Gal., OPtg. aid, Ptg. là, Log. addae (<strong>and</strong> cf. <strong>in</strong>ella > <strong>in</strong>edda<br />
‘over there’), Vegl. lu(o)k.<br />
19
ECCU ILLAC ‘that way’: Rum. tncod, Megl. cod ‘there’, It. colá, Cors.<br />
culà/quallà ‘over there’, Tyr. colá, Sp. acullá, Gal. a(l)colá Ptg. acolá,<br />
Sard. (Cent.) accuddae/<strong>in</strong>cuddae.<br />
(AD, ECCU) ILLOC ‘thither’: Rum. acolo/colo/(a)colea/încolo/d<strong>in</strong>-, Mac.<br />
Rum. aclò/acloţe ‘there’, OIt. (× IN LOCO?) iloco, OLomb.<br />
il(l)ò/<strong>in</strong>lò/<strong>in</strong>loga/illoga/aló/aloga/quilò‘there’, alò ‘straightaway’<br />
Pied. chilò, Bergam. chelò/chilò/ilò/ilöga, Posch. ilò/quilò, Apul. ddo<br />
(<strong>in</strong> Old Italian <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Latium <strong>and</strong> the south there are also forms<br />
corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to LOCO; similarly, IN LOCO has also given words like<br />
Elb.<strong>in</strong>lCors. <strong>in</strong>locu/-gu which are used <strong>in</strong> a negative c<strong>on</strong>text for<br />
‘nowhere’), Tyr. tlo (< ECCU ILLOC), OFr. illo/<br />
iloc/iluec/a-/e(n)-/ilueques etc., Prov. alo/alloc/aloec ‘straightaway’<br />
(cf. Prov. enloc, Cat. enlloc ‘<strong>some</strong>where’, ‘nowhere’), Ast. alló/aló,<br />
Gal., OPtg. aló, Sard. (Camp.) illoi > iddoi (the OLog. illoe given <strong>in</strong><br />
REW is not supported elsewhere; cf. <strong>in</strong> logu verunu ‘nowhere’).<br />
ILLINC ‘thence’: OIt. l<strong>in</strong>ci ‘thence’, Parm. lenca ‘hereabouts’, Lallé<br />
alenc, LLim. (o)len ‘over there’, Cat. allèn/allent/allens, Sp. allende,<br />
OSp. allen(t)/dallen(de), OAst., OGal. allence, Gal. alén/alende,<br />
OPtg. alende, now além; at first sight it looks as if these were formed<br />
to balance aquende etc. (taken as com<strong>in</strong>g from ECCU INDE; <strong>in</strong>deed<br />
20
Rohlfs also says that l<strong>in</strong>ci was formed <strong>on</strong> the model of qu<strong>in</strong>ci), but<br />
the OAst., OGal. allence, <strong>and</strong> perhaps the Cat. allens, po<strong>in</strong>t to a<br />
development from ILLINC parallel to that of aquende etc. from ECCU<br />
HINC.<br />
ECCU ISTAC/ISTIC/ISTINC ‘(from) there by you’: It. costà, costì, cost<strong>in</strong>ci<br />
‘ditto’.<br />
ECCU SIC ‘so’: ORum. aşi, now aşa (= aşi + -a), Mac.Rum. acşi, It.<br />
cosí, OLomb. encosí, <strong>ON</strong>eap. cossì, OCampan. cuscì, OSic. cus(s)ì,<br />
Neap. accossí, SIt. accus(s)í/-ší (lead<strong>in</strong>g to new formati<strong>on</strong>s like assuší,<br />
astuší, alluší, accullí), Emil. acsí, Romagn. acšè, Friul. (a)chusí, Sard.<br />
gasi/gosi, now also gai/goi (< ECCU HAC SIC), Vegl. kosajk.<br />
(ECCU, AD) MODO ‘now’: Rum. acum(a)/acu/amu, ORum. acmu ‘now’,<br />
acuşi ‘straightaway’, Mac. Rum. amó/acmó ‘now’, OIt. mò, Lomb.<br />
mò ‘now’, Tic. mò, Lomb. a(n)mò/ancamò ‘still’(cf.also *ANQUE),<br />
amò/zamò (< AM MODO?) ‘already’, SIt. mò, <strong>ON</strong>eap. modo ‘now’,<br />
SCalab., Sic. (ac)comora, cam(ad)ora (< ECCU MODO (AD) HORA) ‘now’,<br />
Friul. (a)cumò, mo ‘now’ ancjamò ‘still’ (<strong>and</strong> cf. *ANQUE), V.Gard., mo,<br />
Tyr. (Badia) chiamó, Comac., Tyr. amó ‘still’, ‘besides’, Eng. amò<br />
‘now’, Sard. (OLog.) comodo/ecomo, now kòmo, (OCamp.) modo,<br />
now immò/immou/immoi, Vegl. mut ‘now’, jamo ‘still’.<br />
ECCE/ECCU HOC ‘this’: It. ciò ‘that’ (pr<strong>on</strong>oun of reference), <strong>ON</strong>It. ço/zo,<br />
21
Pied., Lig. sò (giv<strong>in</strong>g rise to lò ‘that’ <strong>in</strong> the same way as allò was<br />
created <strong>in</strong> Catalan <strong>and</strong> Benasque, <strong>and</strong> also astò <strong>in</strong> Benasque), SIt. zo<br />
(< OFr.), OEmil., OPied. co, Friul. ço/zo, Eng. co (<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
like LEng. avant co cha, UEng. aunz co cha ‘before’, da co chあ ‘just<br />
as’), atscho cha ‘so that’ (= It. acciocchè), OFr. ço/iço/ice/ceo, now<br />
ce, Fr.-Prov. co, su, (s)ce, Prov. ais(s)o/aizo/eisso/eizo/aisço/so/ço/zo,<br />
aquo/aco, Gasc. aquo, Cat. a(i)çò/a(i)ssò/a(i)xò/aizò/ço/so/zo,<br />
Benasque asó, OUArag. aço/ço/zo, aquo, Sard. cio/zo (< It。, Cat.,<br />
also azo qui as acciocchè), Vegl. kó.<br />
ECCE/ECCU ILLE/ILLU ‘that’: Rum. cel, acel, It. quello, Neap., Laz. chillo,<br />
chello (neut.), SIt. quillo/chillu/chiddu/cuddu, OLomb. quelo, now quel,<br />
rustic chel, Pied., Parm. col, V. Ses. chiel, Tyr. kel, Friul. chel, ORh.<br />
(a)quil, Surs. quel, quei (neut.) ‘this’, tschel, tschei (neut.) ‘that’,<br />
LEng. quel, quai (neut.), tschel ‘that’, UEng. quel, aquel, que/old<br />
aque (neut.) ‘that’, OFr. cel/icel/iceol, now celui, celle, OFr.-Prov.<br />
echel, Prov. cel/a(i)cel/aquel, Cat. aquell, old<br />
achel/a(i)cel/aizel/cel/zel, Sp. aquel, aquello, Ast. aquel/aquil,<br />
aquello/aquilo, Gal. aquel/aquil, aquelo/aquilo, Ptg. aquêle, aquilo,<br />
old aquel(o), OSard. (i)cullu/e-, now icudde/(i)cuddu, Vegl. kol.<br />
ECCE/ECCU ISTE/ISTU ‘that by you’, later ‘this’: Rum. acest, ORum.<br />
22
cest, It. questo, Neap., Laz. chisto, chesto (neut.), SIt.<br />
quisto/chistu/custu, Lomb. quest/chest, Pied., Parm. cost, V.Ses.<br />
quest/cust, Tyr. kest, Friul. chest, Surs. quest, Eng. quaist/quist/old<br />
aquaist, OFr. cist (Oaths)/cest/icest, now ce(t), OFr.-Prov. echest,<br />
Prov. cest/aicest, aquest/e-, Cat. aquest, old achest/aicest/cest, Sp.<br />
aqueste, aquesto, Gal. aqueste/aquiste, aquesto/aquisto, OPtg. aqueste,<br />
aquesto/aquisto, OSard. ecuste/ecustu/i-, now (i)custe/custu, Vegl.<br />
kost.<br />
ECCE/ECCU IPSE/IPSU ‘the very’, later ‘that by you’: It. (Elba) quesso,<br />
Neap., Laz. chisso, chesso (neut.), SIt. quisso/chissu/cussu, V.Tell.<br />
kwéš, Cat. aqueix, Sp. (poet.) aquese, aqueso, OPtg. (rare) aquesse,<br />
aquesso, OSard. icusse/icussu/ e-, now cusse/cussu.<br />
Hav<strong>in</strong>g looked at the dem<strong>on</strong>stratives formed <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> with<br />
ECCE/ECCU, I would like here to take <strong>some</strong> other comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g IPSE,<br />
such as ILLE IPSE, ISTE IPSE, IPSE ILLE, METIPSE, as well as IPSE itself (but<br />
ignor<strong>in</strong>g the simple ILLE, ISTE).<br />
ILLE IPSE ‘self’: Rum. acelaş(i) ‘same’ (suppos<strong>in</strong>g that -şi, or -aşi,<br />
comes from IPSE rather than SIC; <strong>in</strong> that case either the plural form<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g from IPSI has been extended to the s<strong>in</strong>gular, or we may have to<br />
do with IPSIU(S), see below), Surs. lez, gliez (neut), old pl. -ls ezs ‘he’,<br />
‘it’, ‘they’,Eng. less, gliess (neut), old pl. ls’ ess ‘ditto’, Cat.<br />
23
ele(i)x/ilex ‘self’, ‘same’, OArag. eleisco (Gl. Emil.)/eleiso (Gl. Sil.)<br />
(= eleixo) ‘self’, OPtg. elesso. In these <strong>and</strong> other forms below,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the French <strong>and</strong> Provençal forms, we see a palatalizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the S, <strong>and</strong> this has generally been referred to an alternative form ICSE<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed by Suet<strong>on</strong>ius. However, there was also a form IPSIUS,<br />
found <strong>in</strong> a 3rd-century <strong>in</strong>scripti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> northern Italy <strong>and</strong> also used <strong>in</strong><br />
early documents <strong>in</strong> France, <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e case comb<strong>in</strong>ed with lue (= lui); I<br />
suspect that this form was accented <strong>on</strong> the first syllable, <strong>and</strong> is a<br />
clearer po<strong>in</strong>ter to palatalizati<strong>on</strong> than ICSE. It also has the advantage of<br />
avoid<strong>in</strong>g the rather surpris<strong>in</strong>g change from PS to CS (but ICSE may<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly be an alternative graphy for ISSE anyway).<br />
ISTE IPSE ‘self’: ORum. acestaş(i) ‘same’, It. (i)stesso, OCampan., Sic.<br />
stissu, Emil., Lomb. istess, OVen. <strong>in</strong>stesso, Surs. stess, Eng. (i)stess,<br />
Prov. (eu, tu, el) esteus ‘self’, Vegl. istjás ‘same’.<br />
NE/NEC (ILLE) IPSE ‘not. . . self’: It. nessuno ‘not even <strong>on</strong>e’, ‘no’, Friul.<br />
nisun ‘ditto’, OFr. neis/nes/nis ‘not even’, nesun/ni- ‘no’, Prov.<br />
neis/neps/neus/negue(i)s/negueus ‘(not) even’, neisun ‘no’, OCat.<br />
neix/neis/nele(i)x/negue(lei)x ‘(not) even’.<br />
IPSE ILLE ‘he himself’: Rum. dânsul ‘he’, întrânsa ‘<strong>in</strong> it’, ORum.<br />
cunusul ‘with him’. The d- is usually expla<strong>in</strong>ed as orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> like la dânsu ‘to him’, with the D of AD, but see below;<br />
24
for the <strong>in</strong>serted n cf. Late Lat<strong>in</strong> forms <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>s-.<br />
METIPSE, *METIPSIMU ‘self’ (the forms com<strong>in</strong>g from *METIPSIMU,<br />
wherever they are found, seem to have orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> French): It.<br />
medesimo ‘same’, ‘self’, OTusc. medesmo, <strong>ON</strong>eap. mademmo, OSal.<br />
medesmo/-emmo, Ven., Rom. medemo, Gen. mèžimu, Pied.<br />
meesme/meisme/medem, OAbruzz. medemme, OVen. medhesemo,<br />
OBol. meesemo, OSic. medemmi, Surs. medem, OFr.<br />
meesme/meisme/methime, now même, Prov.<br />
meteis/mat-/medeis/medeps/mezeis/me(d)esme/mezesme, Cat. mateix,<br />
old meteix/meseix, OSp. me(e)smo/meismo, now mismo, OPtg. medês,<br />
meesmo, now mesmo, Sard. metessi (< Cat.). (Note that <strong>in</strong> many areas<br />
use is made of PROP(R)IU ‘own’ to give the mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘same’, ‘self’: It.<br />
proprio, OEng. pröpia, Fr. propre, Cat. propi, Sp. propio, Ptg.<br />
proprio.)<br />
IPSE ‘self’, ‘the very’: Rum. însumi, însuţi etc. ‘myself’, ‘yourself’<br />
etc., OIt. esso lui ‘he himself’, c<strong>on</strong> esso ‘with himself’, essa lei (also<br />
esso lei, <strong>in</strong>decl<strong>in</strong>able) ‘she herself’, c<strong>on</strong> esso le mani ‘with these very<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s’, ORh. sipse ‘himself’, Surs. jeu mez, ti tez, el sez etc. ‘I<br />
myself’, ‘you yourself’, ‘he himself’ etc., quel sez mument ‘this very<br />
moment’, OSurs. amwess ‘myself’, te dvessa ‘yourself’, nus us sves<br />
‘ourselves’, now svess (<strong>in</strong>decl.) ‘self’, OFr. en es le jor ‘that very<br />
day’, en eis l’oure ‘that very hour’, Prov. el eis/eus/eps ‘he himself’,<br />
25
eissa la ma ‘this very h<strong>and</strong>’, en epsa l’ora ‘that very hour’, OCat. tu<br />
eys ‘you yourself’, si eis/eus ‘himself’, now dial. eix ‘that by you’,<br />
Arag. exe ‘that’ (exa ora, OArag. por ejso), <strong>ON</strong>av. por si eneys ‘for<br />
himself’, OSp. el enés ‘he himself’, sese ‘himself’, por sise ‘for<br />
himself’, de suyose ‘of their own’, now ese, eso ‘that by you’, Ptg.<br />
êsse, isso, old esso ‘ditto’, Sard. (OLog.) isse/-su, (OCamp.)<br />
issi/-su.<br />
We also have <strong>some</strong> cases of IPSE preceded by an element<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a D, perhaps AD or ID, frequently found <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>variable<br />
form ID IPSUM, firstly <strong>in</strong> the sense of an emphatic pr<strong>on</strong>oun. We have<br />
already looked at Rum. dânsul, which may orig<strong>in</strong>ally have bel<strong>on</strong>ged<br />
here; there is also an ORum. ad<strong>in</strong>s el ‘he himself’. In Italian we<br />
have desso, firstly as <strong>in</strong> io desso ‘I myself’, <strong>and</strong> then predicatively<br />
with the idea of ‘the <strong>on</strong>e <strong>in</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>’, as <strong>in</strong> s<strong>on</strong> io quel desso ‘I am<br />
the <strong>on</strong>e’. Then we have Surs. il di adessa ‘the Last Day’, with the<br />
fem. adessa echo<strong>in</strong>g “dies illa”, ‘that (fateful) day’.<br />
Another group of forms are those with a temporal sense, which<br />
are cautiously referred to AD IPSU; the problem is that they have<br />
vowels which go back to an open E, so <strong>in</strong>terference by *AD PRESSU has<br />
been suggested. The forms are: Rum. înad<strong>in</strong>s, într’ad<strong>in</strong>s ‘<strong>on</strong> purpose’,<br />
‘really’, It adesso ‘now’, ‘immediately’, ‘always’, Ven. adéso, Lomb.,<br />
Pied. adés, Romagn. adèš, OFr., adès ‘immediately’, ‘always’, Cat.<br />
26
adès ‘now’, OSp. adiesso ‘immediately’. L<strong>in</strong>ked with these are certa<strong>in</strong><br />
fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e formati<strong>on</strong>s, such as OIt. adessa ‘immediately’ <strong>and</strong> Dante’s<br />
issa ‘now’, evidently of dialectal orig<strong>in</strong>, like V.Breg. issa, Como,<br />
Posch. isa, Bormio ésa, <strong>and</strong> probably com<strong>in</strong>g from IPSA HORA (see<br />
below); the same element is presumably to be seen <strong>in</strong> Surs. ussa, Eng.<br />
uossa ‘now’, which have been referred to HOC IPSA. Similar forms are<br />
OSien. <strong>in</strong> issa via, OUmbr. essavia, now savía, ‘immediately’. (Rum.<br />
însă ‘but’ also seems to bel<strong>on</strong>g here, perhaps orig<strong>in</strong>ally hav<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
sense ‘that is true (but)’.)<br />
*IPSA MENTE ‘<strong>in</strong> the same way’: OFr. essement/ense-, Prov.<br />
eissamen/epsa-/eussa-/ensa-/aissa-/issa-, Cat. eixament, OArag.<br />
eissament/issa-.<br />
Next I would like to take other comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s with <strong>some</strong> of the<br />
elements we have looked at, beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with HOC, which has also survived<br />
<strong>in</strong> isolati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
HOC ‘this’: OFr. o, preserved <strong>in</strong> oui (< HOC ILLI) ‘yes’, Prov. oc/ò/òi<br />
‘yes’, Cat. ho ‘it’, OSp. (Cid) o que ‘that which’.<br />
PER/*POR HOC ‘for this’: It. (im)però ‘however’, old <strong>and</strong> dial. ‘for that<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>’ (now replaced by perciò), Surs. per<strong>on</strong>, Eng. però ‘however’,<br />
OFr. por o/poruec ‘for that reas<strong>on</strong>’. Prov. (em)però, ‘however’, ‘for that<br />
27
eas<strong>on</strong>’, Cat. (em)però ‘however’, OSp. (Cid) por o ‘for that reas<strong>on</strong>’,<br />
(em)però ‘however’, now empero ‘however’, pero ‘but’, Gal. pero/pro<br />
‘but’, old empero ‘however’, OPtg. (em)pero ‘however’.<br />
APUD HOC ‘by this’: Fr. avuec > avec ‘with’.<br />
INTER HOC (+ -S), ‘meanwhile’ (the supposed <strong>in</strong>terference of USQUE seems<br />
unlikely): OIt. <strong>in</strong>trocque ‘meanwhile’, <strong>in</strong>trocque che ‘while’, OSien.<br />
<strong>in</strong>tro che, OLomb. (en)tro qe ‘until’, ‘as l<strong>on</strong>g as’, OSurs.<br />
antroqua/antrocca, now entocca/entochen ‘until’, ‘as far as’, OEng.<br />
(Müst.) <strong>in</strong>troekk <strong>in</strong>/e<strong>in</strong>tt ‘as far as’, OFr.<br />
entre/entrues/entruesque/tresque a ‘until’, ‘up to’, OFr.-Prov. entro(b)<br />
‘as far as’, entro (c<strong>on</strong>j.) ‘until’, tro a/trosque a ‘as far as’, Prov.<br />
(en)tro (a)/tro(s)que/trecia que/entroque/ -ca ‘as far as’, ‘until’, OCat<br />
(en)tro (a)/estro (a/en)/(d-en)tro que ‘as far as’, ‘until’, OArag. tro(a)<br />
que/ (Alex. P) enroa que ‘until’, (en)tro a ‘as far as’, now entro (a),<br />
OGal. tra/tro en/trões ‘as far as’, tro/trões (que) ‘until’.<br />
We also f<strong>in</strong>d HOC <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> Romance formati<strong>on</strong>s mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘because’,<br />
‘<strong>in</strong> order that’ or ‘although’, <strong>and</strong> I would like to take these next, together<br />
with the cognate forms <strong>in</strong> other areas, <strong>and</strong> also the words for ‘why’, even<br />
though they do not c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> HOC.<br />
PER (ECCE HOC) QUOD/QUID ‘because’, ‘although’: Rum. pentru că (< PER INTRO<br />
QUOD) ‘because’, OIt. perocchè, perciocchè ‘because’, ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’, now<br />
28
perchè ‘ditto’, also ‘for which reas<strong>on</strong>’ (= perlo(c)chè) <strong>and</strong> (old) ‘although’,<br />
OGen. per que, OLomb. per quel que, OFriul. <strong>in</strong> perzo chu ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’,<br />
Surs. pertgei (che), LEng. perchai, UEng. perche ‘because’, OFr. por ce que<br />
‘<strong>in</strong> order that’ > parce que ‘because’, pour que ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’, Prov. per so<br />
(ço) que/car, per que ‘because’, ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’, ‘<strong>in</strong> case’, OGasc. per sso<br />
que ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’, Cat. perquè, old per qe qar/per ço (zo) que/cor/c<strong>on</strong><br />
‘because’, per ço (zo) que ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’, OArag. perque/per ço que<br />
‘because’, porque ‘because’, ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’, ‘for which reas<strong>on</strong>’, ‘although’<br />
pero que (Berceo, Alex.) ‘although’, Sp., Gal., Ptg. porque ‘because’, old<br />
porque ‘<strong>in</strong> order that’ (now para que), ‘for which reas<strong>on</strong>’ (now por lo que, pelo<br />
que), old pero que ‘although’, Sard. pro ca (old), (Cent., Log.) proite chi,<br />
(Camp.) poita chi ‘because’ (cf. the words for ‘why’ below), ORag. perchì,<br />
Vegl. perké/-kó ‘because’.<br />
PER/PRO/*POR QUID ‘why?’: Rum. pentru ce (cf. pentru că above ; PER<br />
QUID is also seen <strong>in</strong> cât pe ce ‘almost’), It. perchè, <strong>ON</strong>It. perqué, NPied.<br />
pәrquè, Neap. pәcché, Calab. pecchí, Sic. pirchí/picchí, Apul. percè,<br />
SApul. purcè/puccè, OFriul. parce, Surs. per tgei, LEng. per chai,<br />
UEng. per che, Fr. pourquoi, Prov. per què, Cat. per que, Sp. por qué,<br />
Ptg. porquê, Sard. (OLog.) prokitteu/progitteu, now p(r)oiteu (< PRO<br />
QUID DEU(S) ‘why ever?’).<br />
I would like to c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue by tak<strong>in</strong>g the reflexes of the simple forms of <strong>some</strong><br />
words we have already looked at <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>, IBI, INDE, UBI, UNDE, SIC,<br />
29
which also appear <strong>in</strong> other comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> with them the word for ‘how’,<br />
QUOMODO.<br />
IBI ‘there’ (also crossed with HIC ‘here’): (Rum., see UBI), It. ivi,<br />
(unacc.) vi, OMarch., ORom. be, OIt., Pied. i, OLomb., OVen. ie, Fr.<br />
y, old i (Oaths), Prov. i/hi/ie, Bearn. be, Cat. i/hi/y, OArag.<br />
ive/vi/i/ie, ay ‘there’, des i ‘then’, now i/bi (with haber), OSp.<br />
i/hi/y/hy, por i, des i, now ahí ‘there by you’, Ast. ah<strong>in</strong>a, OGal. dy<br />
‘from there’, OGal., OPtg. (h)i/(h)y, des i ‘then’, now aí ‘there by<br />
you’, Sard. ibi/ibe/iui/iue/bi/bie/vi/ive.<br />
INDE ‘thence’, later ‘of that’: cf. Rum. îndemna ‘<strong>in</strong>cite’ (< INDE<br />
MINARE, as Fr. emmener), pretut<strong>in</strong>deni/-rea ‘everywhere’, It. poet.<br />
<strong>in</strong>di, (unacc.) nde, ne, Calab. ndi, Friul. <strong>in</strong>/end, Surs. lit., Eng.<br />
<strong>and</strong>/d’/n’, V.Breg. davent, Surs. daven/na-, Eng. davent (< DE AB<br />
INDE) ‘forth’ (cf. dad hoz davent ‘from today <strong>on</strong>’), Fr. en, old ent<br />
(Eul.), Prov. en(t)/ne, Cat. en/ne, old ende, OArag., OSp.<br />
en(ne)/end(e)/en/ent, dend(e)/dent, desend(e)/desent ‘from there’,<br />
‘after that’, por en(de) ‘for that reas<strong>on</strong>’, OGal. end(e)/en, des ende<br />
‘after that’, Gal. dende(s)/dendesde ‘from’, OPtg. end(e)/en ‘from<br />
there’, porende ‘for that reas<strong>on</strong>’, now porém ‘however’, Sard. (Log.)<br />
<strong>in</strong>de, (Camp.) <strong>in</strong>di/<strong>in</strong>ni, OLog. au<strong>in</strong>de (AB INDE), Log.<br />
posk<strong>in</strong>de/dabos-, Camp. deboš<strong>in</strong>de (DE (AB) POSTEA INDE). There is also<br />
<strong>on</strong>e belt where INDE AD has given words for ‘towards’, ‘as far as’, so<br />
30
Prov. enta/enda, Gasc. enta/ena, Cat. dial. enda, Arag. enta/ta.<br />
These are to be dist<strong>in</strong>guished from similar Italian <strong>and</strong><br />
Rhaeto-Romance forms, which are to be referred to INTU(S) AD (see<br />
below). Similar, but perhaps <strong>in</strong>dependently developed are Murc. <strong>in</strong>da<br />
‘until’, Ast. (a)<strong>in</strong>da, Salam. entá/entadia/entavia ‘still’, <strong>and</strong> Gal., Ptg.<br />
a<strong>in</strong>da, old <strong>in</strong>da ‘still’, ‘besides’; cf. also OPtg. <strong>in</strong>dagora ‘just now’.<br />
UBI ‘where’: Rum. (old <strong>and</strong> dial.) i(u)o/iu(ă) (< IBI UBI) ‘where’,<br />
încotro (< IN C<strong>ON</strong>TRA UBI) ‘which way’, Mac. Rum. iu(ă) ‘where’, It.<br />
dove ‘where’ (orig<strong>in</strong>ally d’ove ‘from where’), vulgar Tusc.<br />
<strong>in</strong>dove/(i)ndó, OIt. ove/o/u, OMarch. ovi, OCampan. obe, Campan.<br />
addove/addó, Apul. addó, Lomb. dua, Tic. du, Ven. <strong>in</strong>dove, Berg. ndo,<br />
Pied. anuà, Istr. ula (UBI ILLAC), Tyr. iola/dola, Friul. ula/(<strong>in</strong>)dula (Bec<br />
gives <strong>in</strong>dulà), Surs. nua, LEng. <strong>in</strong>gio(a), UEng. <strong>in</strong>ua (< IN (DE) UBI), Fr.<br />
où, old u, Prov. o, OCat. o, Moz. ob, OArag. (Gl. Emil.) obe, o, Arag.<br />
do, OSp. o/u/do, OLe<strong>on</strong>., Ast. u, OGal., OPtg. u, du ‘(from) where’,<br />
‘when’, ‘while’, Sard,<br />
ube/<strong>in</strong>ube/uba/<strong>in</strong>uba/uve/ue/<strong>in</strong>ue/ibue/ebue/ibua/abua/aua/ui/aui/<strong>in</strong><br />
ui.<br />
UNDE ‘whence’: Rum. unde ‘where’, de unde ‘whence’, dial.<br />
niciunde ‘nowhere’, It. <strong>on</strong>de/d<strong>on</strong>de ‘whence’, ‘from/of which’, used<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>some</strong> areas for ‘where’, as SCalab. undi, Sic. unni (dunni, dundi<br />
‘whence’). NIt. (d)unde ‘where’ (dedunde, d<strong>and</strong>unda ‘whence’),<br />
31
d<strong>on</strong>de/d<strong>on</strong>t ‘where’ (Posch. da<strong>in</strong>d<strong>on</strong>t ‘whence’), Pied. lunde<br />
‘where’. Friul. d<strong>on</strong>tri ‘whence’, Surs. (da)nunder ‘whence’ (<strong>and</strong><br />
lunder ‘from that’, as It. la<strong>on</strong>de ‘whence’, ‘thence’, ‘wherefore’ ?),<br />
LEng. (d)<strong>in</strong>gi<strong>on</strong>der, UEng. (d)<strong>in</strong>u<strong>on</strong>der ‘whence’ (
which’.<br />
(AC, IN) SIC ‘so’ : Rum. şi ‘<strong>and</strong>’, ‘(so) also’, şi cu ‘al<strong>on</strong>g with’, It.<br />
(OGen.) asi, OLomb. aisì (<strong>and</strong> cf. acsí, acšè above), sì. ..come, (lit.)<br />
sì (gr<strong>and</strong>e), sicchè, siccome, siffatto, OPied., Lomb. <strong>in</strong>sí, Lomb.,<br />
NPied. <strong>in</strong>ší, Friul. si, V.Gard. nši, Surs. aschi(a), schi, OSurs. scha (<strong>in</strong><br />
apodosis), Eng. uschè/-eja, schi (<strong>in</strong> apodosis), Fr. a<strong>in</strong>si, old<br />
aissi/eissi/issi/ansi/ensi/e<strong>in</strong>si, si (gr<strong>and</strong>), old si cum, OFr.-Prov. aisi,<br />
Prov. aissi(n-s)/enaissi/aixi/assi/eissi/ens<strong>in</strong>s/an-, si (gran), si cum, Cat.<br />
així, old aixis/axi/aissi/assi(s)/exi/en a(i)xi, sí, OArag. assi(n), Sp. así,<br />
old sí, adsi/ansi/as<strong>in</strong>, Ast. assí/ansí/as<strong>in</strong>a, Gal.<br />
assí/así/ansí/as<strong>in</strong>a/asiña, Ptg. assim, old as(s)i, si, Sard. si (now used<br />
to <strong>in</strong>troduce a wish), ORag. sì.<br />
*ALI-SIC ‘so’: OIt. (modelled <strong>on</strong> Fr.) alsí, Fr. aussi, Occ. aus<strong>in</strong>.<br />
*ALTERI/-RO-SIC ‘so’: It. altresì, old altressí, OUmbr. altresie, OLomb.<br />
autresì, Rh. altresì. OFr. altresi (Oaths)/autressi/autersi, Prov.<br />
a(l)tressi/autresi, Cat. a(l)tressi, OArag., OSp. otrossí, now otrosí,<br />
Gal., OPtg. outrossi, Ptg. outrossim.<br />
QUOMODO (AC, ET, -MENTE) ‘how’, ‘as’: Rum. cumu > cum ‘how’, ‘as’,<br />
cum să ‘so that’, It. come, siccome, old como, vulgar Tusc., Sic., Cors.<br />
comed, <strong>ON</strong>It. comente, NIt. com/c<strong>on</strong>/co/cmed/cmè, OBerg. xi cum,<br />
OMarch. quomo, Calab. cuomu, SApul., SCalab., Sic. comu, SIt.<br />
33
coma/comu a/com’a/cum’a, Friul. come/com/cum/c<strong>on</strong>, OFriul. sichu,<br />
ORh. sicu, Surs. co/sco/cu, Eng. cun/cu (cha)/co/sco/scu/ (old) scoa,<br />
Fr. comme, comment, OFr. cume/com/c<strong>on</strong>/cum/sicum, Prov. come/<br />
coma/cuma/comen/co/c<strong>on</strong>. /cum/si cum/cossi/c<strong>on</strong>sì, Cat. com/(old)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>/co/sí com/aixíco/enaxí/c<strong>on</strong>, OArag. com, Sp. como, OSp. cuomo<br />
cuemo cuamo, assi commo, OLe<strong>on</strong>. com, Gal. como/coma, Ptg. como,<br />
OPtg. come/coma, Sard. co/co a/ca/co e/ke/comente/<br />
sicommenti/(Camp.) comenti, ORag. com, Vegl. kojza ‘as’.<br />
I have already had occasi<strong>on</strong> to menti<strong>on</strong> MAGIS <strong>and</strong> IAM MAGIS as<br />
alternatives to NUMQUAM, so I would like to take these words next, as well<br />
as the comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> N<strong>ON</strong> MAGIS QUAM, which came to mean ‘<strong>on</strong>ly’, <strong>and</strong> (DE<br />
EX) AD HORAM/HODIE MAGIS ‘now’, ‘from now <strong>on</strong>’, which will be a natural<br />
<strong>in</strong>troducti<strong>on</strong> to other <strong>adverbial</strong> phrases express<strong>in</strong>g time.<br />
IAM ‘already’: Rum. deja, It. già, di già, Cors. diggià, <strong>ON</strong>It. ça/za,<br />
Emil., Lomb. zamò, Friul. za, Surs. gia, Eng. già, OUEng., giò, Fr.<br />
déjà, OFr. ja, Prov. ja, deja, Cat., Arag. ja, Sp. ya, Ast., Gal. ja, Ptg.<br />
já, Sard. (Cent.) ya, (Log.) ga, Camp. gai.<br />
IAM MAGIS ‘ever’, (neg.) ‘never’: It. giammai, <strong>ON</strong>It. çamai/zamai,<br />
Friul. zamai, Fr. jamais, Prov. jamais, Cat. jamai/old yamai, OCat.<br />
enjamai, james/yames, Sp. jamás, OSp. yamas, OLe<strong>on</strong>. iammais,<br />
OGal. <strong>in</strong> maes, Gal., Ptg. jamais.<br />
34
N<strong>ON</strong>. . .MAGIS ‘no more’, ‘never’: Rum. nu mai ‘no more’, It. n<strong>on</strong><br />
mai ‘never’, OFriul. no(n) mai/mai n<strong>on</strong> ‘never’, Surs. mai, ma<strong>in</strong>a,<br />
LEng. nu mai, UEng. nu mè, (old) nun mæ ‘never’, OFr. ne mais<br />
‘never’, Prov. no ma(i)s, Cat. no mai ‘never’, Sp. no más, Gal. n<strong>on</strong><br />
mais, Ptg. não mais ‘no more’, Sard. n<strong>on</strong> mai ‘never’, Vegl. no(n)<br />
muj/muj no(n) ‘never’.<br />
N<strong>ON</strong> MAGIS QUAM/*QUE ‘no more than’, ‘<strong>on</strong>ly’: Rum. numai, OIt.<br />
n<strong>on</strong> ma (che), now n<strong>on</strong>. . . che, Cors. un ma che, OPad. nomè/lomè,<br />
OLomb. nomá, Ven. nomé/nomá, Lomb., Tic. dumá, Istr.<br />
dóma/nama, Rovigo domè, Pied. mak, NPied., OGen. ma, Friul.<br />
nomé, Eng. numé, OFr. ne mais (que), now ne. . .que, Prov. no<br />
ma(i)s (que), now no que, Cat. només, OCat. no mas, Sp. no más<br />
que, Ptg. não mais que.<br />
(DE EX) AD HORAM MAGIS ‘now’, ‘from now <strong>on</strong>’: It. or(a)mai,<br />
OMarch. oromay, Rh. oramai, OFr. ormai ‘now’, desoremais, now<br />
désormais ‘henceforth’, OCat. deshores mays (<strong>in</strong> imitati<strong>on</strong> of Fr.).<br />
(DE EX) HODIE MAGIS ‘from now <strong>on</strong>’: OUmbr. ogimai, OVen. oima,<br />
OUEng. huzmê, OFr. (de) uimais/maishui, Prov. oimais/ueimais,<br />
OCat. uymays, Sp. de hoy más, OGal., OPtg. (des) oje mais/desoi<br />
mais.<br />
35
As I <strong>in</strong>dicated just now, (c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong>s) I would like to take next group<br />
of adverbs are those denot<strong>in</strong>g time, beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with QUANDO ‘when’ <strong>and</strong> the<br />
analogically formed *TANDO ‘then’. Here there is an important group<br />
formed with the use of HORA, which developed the sense of ‘time’ (though<br />
<strong>in</strong> Rumanian the usual sense is ‘(<strong>on</strong>e) time’), as we have already seen <strong>in</strong><br />
*ANQUE AD HORAM, AD HORAM MAGIS. Basically this group resolves itself<br />
<strong>in</strong>to words for ‘now’ <strong>and</strong> ‘then’. In the first case we have two dist<strong>in</strong>ct types,<br />
as Sp. ahora, Ptg. ora, <strong>and</strong> OSp., Ptg. agora; the latter clearly go back to<br />
HAC HORA, but there is no trace of a C <strong>in</strong> any of the reflexes of the former,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> usually posited is AD HORAM ‘at the appo<strong>in</strong>ted time’,<br />
which is <strong>in</strong> fact used by St. Jerome <strong>in</strong> the sense of ‘at the moment’. The<br />
words for ‘then’ are based <strong>on</strong> ILLA HORA or, occasi<strong>on</strong>ally, IPSA HORA, ISTA<br />
HORA. There are also a few other isolated comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s. To complete the<br />
group I would like to take the words that go back to SEMPER ‘always’ <strong>and</strong><br />
SUBINDE ‘straightaway’, ‘c<strong>on</strong>stantly’, which developed new forms<br />
*SUBENTE <strong>and</strong> *SUBENTIUS <strong>in</strong> the sense of ‘often’, a development which<br />
Rohlfs traces to the <strong>in</strong>fluence of FREQUENTIUS.<br />
QUANDO ‘when’ (which also replaced CUM as a c<strong>on</strong>j.): Rum. când,<br />
It. qu<strong>and</strong>o, Umbr., Laz. quanno, SIt. qu<strong>and</strong>u/quannu, NIt.<br />
36
quant/quan, qu<strong>and</strong>o che, Friul. quant/quan(t) che, Tyr. can, Fr.<br />
qu<strong>and</strong>, Prov. quan/can, Cat. quan, old can, Moz. c<strong>and</strong>/cu<strong>and</strong>, Arag.<br />
cuan, old qu<strong>and</strong>(o)/quan(t), Sp. cu<strong>and</strong>o, Gal. c<strong>and</strong>o, Ptg. qu<strong>and</strong>o,<br />
old qu<strong>and</strong>o/c<strong>and</strong>o, Sard. (OLog.) qu<strong>and</strong>o, now c<strong>and</strong>o, (Camp.)<br />
c<strong>and</strong>u, Vegl. ku<strong>on</strong>d ke/kun ke.<br />
*TANDO ‘then’ : ORum. tând…tând ‘now…now’, ORom.,<br />
OMarch., OApul. <strong>in</strong>t<strong>and</strong>o, ORom. <strong>in</strong>tanno, Neap. tanno, Calab.,<br />
SApul. t<strong>and</strong>u, Calab., Sic. tannu, Laz. (a)ndanno, Sard. (Log.)<br />
t<strong>and</strong>o, (Camp.) t<strong>and</strong>u, <strong>in</strong>t<strong>and</strong>us.<br />
QUA HORA ‘when’: Tic.(<strong>in</strong>)cora, V.Tell. quora/cora, Surs. cu(ra),<br />
Eng. cur(a) (che), Prov. quora/cor(a), coras que, cora…cora<br />
‘now…now’, OCat. cora.<br />
AD HORAM ‘now’: It. ora/or ‘now’, or ora ‘just now’, ‘<strong>in</strong> a<br />
moment’, d’ora <strong>in</strong>nazi ‘henceforth’, <strong>ON</strong>It., Elba aora, NIt.<br />
aúra/áura/a(v)óa ‘now’, Mil. a vora che ‘until’, Fr. or ‘now’<br />
(sentence c<strong>on</strong>nector), dorénavant ‘henceforth’, old ore(s) ‘now’,<br />
desor/desore(s) ‘from now’, desorenavant, Prov.<br />
or/ora(s)/ar/ara(s)/er/era(s)/aor/aora(s)/aura,<br />
dora-en-avant/d’or(as)enavan, Gasc. (Ariège) desaro<br />
37
‘immediately’, Cat. ara, old are <strong>and</strong> Provençaliz<strong>in</strong>g or, OArag.<br />
(Berceo, Alex.) oras…oras ‘now…now’, Sp. ahora, old ora, aora<br />
‘now’, ora…ora ‘now…now’, por ahora ‘for now’, Gal. oora ><br />
hora ‘now’, Ptg. ora ‘now’ (now used as sentence. c<strong>on</strong>nector.), por<br />
ora ‘for now’, ora…ora ‘now…now’, d’ora em diante<br />
‘henceforth’.<br />
HAC HORA ‘now’: OArag., OSp., OLe<strong>on</strong>., OGal., Ptg. agora.<br />
AD (IN) ILLA(S) HORA(S) ‘then’: Rum. ad<strong>in</strong>eoară/ad<strong>in</strong>eaori/(a)d<strong>in</strong>eoarea<br />
‘just now’, Mac.Rum. (a)deaneavră, It. allora, old alloramai, allore (cf.<br />
allorchè ‘when’), lora, lor (lorchè), OLomb. enlora, <strong>in</strong>lora, illora,<br />
OBerg. illora, now ilora/ilura/igliura, Surs. lu(ra)/allura, LEng.<br />
(i)lura/illura, UEng. a(l)lur(a), old alhura, Fr. alors, lors, lorsque, old<br />
alores/lor/lore(s)/ilor(e)s, Prov. laor/alara/alera, Cat. aleshores,<br />
llavors, old les hores/a<br />
l’ora/alhora/llavor/lavo(e)slavos/(a)llavores/-vors, OArag.<br />
allora/alora/(a) la ora, cf. Sp. a la hora, Ptg. à hora ‘at the<br />
moment’, ‘just <strong>in</strong> time’.<br />
(AD/IN?) IPSA HORA ‘then’: OSp. essora ‘then’, Ast. a sa ora ‘now’,<br />
OLog. issara/<strong>in</strong>s-, now issara(s), Camp., <strong>in</strong>saras, assóra(s) ‘then’.<br />
ISTA HORA ‘now’: Gal. arastora (< AD HORAM ISTA HORA) ‘at the<br />
moment’, OLog. avestara (< AB ISTA HORA ) ‘from now <strong>on</strong>’ (cf. MFr.<br />
38
astheure < à cette heure ‘now’, so also Prov. astora).<br />
SUB/SU(R)SU HORA ‘just now’ (Corom<strong>in</strong>as suggests SU(R)SU, but I w<strong>on</strong>der<br />
if SUB IPSA doesn’t fit better): OCat. susara/suara ‘just now’, OSp.<br />
ass(o)ora, sus horas, a sos oras ‘suddenly’, then adeshora(s) (< a de so<br />
hora), OGal. adesora, OPtg. adeshoras, now Sp. a deshora(s), Ptg. a<br />
desoras ‘at an untimely hour’, by associati<strong>on</strong> with des- used to<br />
express a negative sense. One more isolated formati<strong>on</strong> is Surs.<br />
trasora ‘all the time’, apparently from TRANS HORAM.<br />
SEMPER ‘always’: It. sempre, OGen. semper, OVer. sempro, Neap.,<br />
NCalab. sembә, Calab. sémpi, Pied, sémpi, Mil. semper/sempr’, Friul.<br />
simpri, ORh. semper, Surs. semper, Eng. saimper, Fr., Prov.<br />
sempre(s) ‘always’, ‘straightaway’, Prov. ancse(mpre)/de(s)se-/jasse-<br />
‘always’, Cat., OUArag., OWLe<strong>on</strong>. sempre, Sp. siempre, Gal., Ptg.<br />
sempre, Sard, sempre, Vegl. sjanpro.<br />
SUBINDE, *-ENTE, *-ENTIUS ‘straightaway’, ‘c<strong>on</strong>stantly’: It. lit. sovente<br />
‘often’, (adjectivalized) soventi volte ‘oftentimes’, OLomb. sovenz/-ço,<br />
(adj.) sovençe fiadhe, OGen. sovençe fiade, Pied. su(v)énz/-ns, Surs.<br />
savens, LEng. sovent, UEng. s(o)venz/su(v)enz, Fr. souvent, Prov.<br />
soven(t)/soen(t)/soentre, Cat. sov<strong>in</strong>t, old sovent/soven/sov<strong>in</strong>/suv<strong>in</strong>,<br />
OUArag. sovent.<br />
We come next to two groups of miscellaneous words denot<strong>in</strong>g time. In<br />
39
the first I take up (IN) HOC/*HOQUE ANNO ‘this year’, *ANTE ANNU(M) ‘last<br />
year’, HAC NOCTE ‘last night’ <strong>and</strong> (IN) DE MANE or variants thereof ‘morn<strong>in</strong>g’,<br />
‘tomorrow’, ‘the next day’. With these I l<strong>in</strong>k the classical HERI ‘yesterday’<br />
by way of <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g HERI SERO/SERA ‘last night’; this compound<br />
exemplifies the use of SERO/SERA <strong>in</strong> <strong>some</strong> areas to mean ‘even<strong>in</strong>g’, so I<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>e with this TARDE, which basically meant ‘late’ but <strong>in</strong> <strong>some</strong> areas<br />
developed the mean<strong>in</strong>g of ‘even<strong>in</strong>g’ (Catalan uses neither but sticks to<br />
VESPERE > vespre). I also <strong>in</strong>clude the classical CRAS ‘tomorrow’, to show<br />
where it survived. HODIE ‘today’ has already been basically covered under<br />
the phrases HODIE MAGIS, HINC HODIE, but I will add a few other examples.<br />
(IN) HOC/*HOQUE ANNO ‘this year’: It. uguanno, Tusc. unguanno,<br />
Calab., Sic. aguannu, OLomb. aguan, OBol. anguano, OLig.<br />
oguano, (i)nguanu, Pied. awàn, Surs. u<strong>on</strong>n, LEng. <strong>in</strong>g<strong>on</strong>/-gan,<br />
UEng. <strong>in</strong>guan, OFr. (enc)oan (*ANQUE- ?), Prov. o(g)an, <strong>on</strong>gan,<br />
ugan, Cat. enguany, Sp. hogaño, Ast. i(n)guaño, uguaño, Gal.<br />
hogano, OPtg. ogano, Sard. ocanno (old), okkannu.<br />
*ANTE ANNU(M) ‘last year’: OFr., Prov. antan, Cat. antany/en-, Sp.<br />
antaño, Gal., OPtg. antano, Sard. (Cent.) antiannu.<br />
HAC NOCTE ‘last night’: OFr. anuit, Prov. anoch, anuech, Cat. anit,<br />
Sp. anoche, Ast. anueite ‘yesterday’, WAst. o<strong>in</strong>te ‘yesterday’, Gal.<br />
anoite ‘last night’, <strong>on</strong>te ‘yesterday’, Ptg. ogyte/oõte/o<strong>on</strong>tem ><br />
40
<strong>on</strong>tem (popular <strong>on</strong>te) ‘yesterday’ (<strong>on</strong>tem à noite ‘last night’).<br />
(IN) DE MANE ‘(<strong>in</strong> the) morn<strong>in</strong>g’, ‘tomorrow’: Rum. mâ(i)ne<br />
‘tomorrow’, demăneaţă > dim<strong>in</strong>eaţă ‘morn<strong>in</strong>g’, It. domani<br />
‘tomorrow’, l’<strong>in</strong>domani ‘the next day’, OTusc. dimani, Umb.<br />
dimane, Neap. rimane, SCalab. domani, Sic. dumani, Ven. doman,<br />
Lomb., Pied., Lig. duman, Emil. әdman, Laz., Campan., Abruzz.<br />
addәmanә, Comel. dadman, Breg. dumen, Posch. duman, V.Tell.<br />
domann, Friul. doman, Surs. demaun, endamaun, Eng. damaun, Fr.<br />
dema<strong>in</strong>, l’endema<strong>in</strong> > lendema<strong>in</strong>, Prov. dema(n), l’endema,<br />
lendeman, Cat. demà, endemà, old deman, lendemà, sen(t)demà, Sp.<br />
mañana ‘morn<strong>in</strong>g’, ‘tomorrow’, Gal. mañán, Ptg. manhã, amanhã,<br />
Sard. (Cent., Log.) m<strong>and</strong>zanu, (Camp.) manğanu ‘morn<strong>in</strong>g’, (Sass.,<br />
Gall.) arimani ‘yesterday’, Vegl. dizmun/desmun ‘morn<strong>in</strong>g’.<br />
HERI ‘yesterday’: Rum. ieri, It. ieri, OSic. eri, Sic. ajèri, Neap.<br />
ajierә, Apul. ajirә, Lomb., Pied., Emil. ier, Ven. gèri, Comel.<br />
ndžeri, Friul. ir, Surs. ier, eir, Eng. her, Fr. hier, Prov. (h)er, (a)ier,<br />
OGasc. ger, Cat. ahir, old ahi, hir, OArag. hier, Sp. ayer, OSp.<br />
(Berc.) (h)eri, Andal. hier, Ast. ayeri, Gal. aer, OPtg. eire, eiri,<br />
Sard, eri(s), deris.<br />
HERI SERO /SERA ‘last night’: Rum. ieri seară (= aseară), It. ieri<br />
sera, Tusc. iersera, OSien. ieisera, SCal. arzira, Sic.<br />
41
arsira, Pied. ierseira, OVen. ersira, Posch. ersra, Friul. ersère,<br />
Surs. ier sera, Eng. her saira, arsaira, Fr. hier soir, old ersoir,<br />
Prov. arser/-sera, Sard. erisero, ariseru, cf. Vegl. sa(j)ra.<br />
TARDE ‘late’: (Mac. Rum. (n)tardu ‘late’), It. tardi ‘late’, NIt. tardi,<br />
tart, > (SIt. tardu, tardә), Friul. tart, Rh. tard, Fr. tard, old tort,<br />
Prov., Cat. tard, tart, Sp., Ptg. tarde ‘late’, ‘afterno<strong>on</strong>’,<br />
‘even<strong>in</strong>g’, (Sard. tardu ‘late’), Vegl. tuort/tuord.<br />
CRAS ‘tomorrow’: OIt. crai, NCalab., Luc., Campan., SApul. crai,<br />
NApul. crei, OSp., OGal., OPtg. cras, Sard. eras, kraza.<br />
HODIE ‘today’ (additi<strong>on</strong>al examples): st<strong>and</strong>ard It. oggi, Calab. oje,<br />
Sic. oji, Friul. uei/uè, Surs. oz, Eng. hoz, old oaz, houz, huoz mod.<br />
Cat. avui, Arag., Ast. huey, mod. Ptg. hoje, Sard. oe. Rumanian<br />
has different formati<strong>on</strong>s: azi, astăzi, Mac. Rum. asîndzi.<br />
The next group is even more miscellaneous <strong>in</strong> character. Here I beg<strong>in</strong><br />
with INTERIM ‘meanwhile’, which is mostly found comb<strong>in</strong>ed with DUM<br />
‘while’ to give a ph<strong>on</strong>etically more solid c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘while’. For<br />
‘meanwhile’ the comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s IN TANTO or INTER TANTU(M) (INFRA TANTU(M))<br />
are used. Then there are various comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s with UNU/UNA used to mean<br />
‘at the same time’, ‘together’, ‘always’, ‘<strong>in</strong> accord’. A noun *AGINA ‘haste’<br />
has given an adverb for ‘<strong>in</strong> haste’ <strong>in</strong> <strong>some</strong> areas, <strong>and</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
42
PRESSA/*PRESSIA are used <strong>in</strong> the West <strong>in</strong> the same sense. The classical<br />
SUBITO ‘suddenly’ has survived marg<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the West PRAESTO ‘at<br />
h<strong>and</strong>’ <strong>and</strong> TOSTU ‘roasted’ <strong>and</strong> so ‘straight off the fire’ provided new words<br />
for ‘quickly’, ‘so<strong>on</strong>’. Also SEQUENTER ‘follow<strong>in</strong>g after’ has left reflexes <strong>in</strong><br />
a limited area, the last survivors of the adverbs <strong>in</strong> -TER, <strong>and</strong> IN C<strong>ON</strong>TINENTI<br />
‘immediately’, a phrase of literary <strong>in</strong>troducti<strong>on</strong>, became widely popular.<br />
INTERIM ‘meanwhile’, DUM INTERIM ‘while’: It. mentre (che),<br />
OAbruzz. m<strong>in</strong>tri chi, OLomb. domentre che, OPav. domente che,<br />
OGen. demente che, Campan. ammente che, Abruzz. (× INTRA)<br />
ntramenti, tramendә, Neap. pәttramendә, Calab. ntramente (che),<br />
attramente, also nterimme, ntarimma ‘meanwhile’, OFr. domentres,<br />
(en)dementre(s), entre(de)mentre(s), dement que, Prov. domentre(s)<br />
que, (de)mentre que, entramen, Cat. mentre, old mentre(s) que,<br />
mentra que, mentrimentes, domentre que/de-, OArag. (de)mientre,<br />
OCast. (do)mientre, (de)mientra, Sp. mientras ‘meanwhile’,<br />
mientras que ‘while’, Ast. mientres, OLe<strong>on</strong>. (Alex. O) entramientre,<br />
(do)mientre, OGal. mentre, enmentre(s), now mentres/-as, mentes,<br />
namentres/-as, entrementres, mentramentes, OPtg. (de)mentre<br />
‘while’, popular entremente(s)/-tra-, em mentre(s), em mentes<br />
‘meanwhile’, Sard, mentras/-tres (< Sp., Cat.) ‘meanwhile’, Log. <strong>in</strong><br />
s’<strong>in</strong>téri/-re, Camp. <strong>in</strong> s’<strong>in</strong>téris ‘meanwhile’.<br />
IN TANTO, INTER (INFRA) TANTU(M) ‘meanwhile’: It. <strong>in</strong>tanto,<br />
43
frattanto, (<strong>in</strong>) tanto che ‘while’ Calab. fra di tantu, Mil. <strong>in</strong>tant,<br />
OLomb. enfra tanto, Lomb. <strong>in</strong> tan che, Pied, ntant che, Lig. tantu<br />
che ‘while’, OMarch. emfratantu che ‘until’, Friul. <strong>in</strong>tant,<br />
<strong>in</strong>fratanto, Surs. dent<strong>on</strong>, (da)fert<strong>on</strong>, LEng. <strong>in</strong>tant, fratant, UEng.<br />
<strong>in</strong>taunt, frataunt, OFr. en tant, entretant, Prov. en tan, entretan,<br />
OCat. entant, now mentrestant, Sp. en tanto, entre tanto, Ast.<br />
mentantu, Ptg. entanto, entretanto (entretanto que ‘while’), Sard.<br />
<strong>in</strong>tertantu qui ‘while’.<br />
(TOTU) DE/AD/IN/SUB UNU/UNA ‘at the same time’ etc.: Rum.<br />
totde(a)una ‘always’, Mac.Rum. totdiună ‘ditto’, de adun‘at the<br />
same time’, OIt. ad una, <strong>in</strong> un/una, now <strong>in</strong> uno ‘together’, OLomb.,<br />
OVen. adun, Calab. tuttuna ‘ditto’, Asti dene, Pied. düna, Breg.<br />
edüna ‘straightaway’, It. una ‘<strong>in</strong> accord’, V.Gard. adum/aduna,<br />
Surs. ad<strong>in</strong>a, Eng. adüna ‘always’ (<strong>in</strong> OEng. = ‘<strong>in</strong> accord’), OFr. a<br />
une, Prov. az una ‘together’, Cat. tot d’una ‘straightaway’, ‘all at<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce’, OSp. (Gl. Emil.) aduna, (Berceo, Alex.) a una ‘together’,<br />
now also ‘with <strong>on</strong>e accord’, en uno ‘together’, desso uno/desuno<br />
‘together’, de c<strong>on</strong>suno ‘<strong>in</strong> accord’, OGal. en huum, OPtg. en hũu,<br />
de(s)su(u)m/desũu etc. ‘together’, ‘at the same time’, Ptg. à uma ‘<strong>in</strong><br />
accord’ (was there any <strong>in</strong>fluence from AD UNU at work <strong>in</strong> the<br />
change from adu < ADHUC ‘still’ (as <strong>in</strong> OArag.) to Sp. aún, Gal.<br />
a<strong>on</strong>, OPtg. aum ?), Sard., una cum/cun ‘together with’.<br />
44
*AGINA ‘haste’: OIt. agg<strong>in</strong>a, a(g)<strong>in</strong>a ‘haste’, OSp. a(h)<strong>in</strong>a, ayna,<br />
ag<strong>in</strong>a ‘<strong>in</strong> haste’, Ast. a<strong>in</strong>a, OGal. agĩa, now aigiña/ei-, OPtg. agĩa,<br />
ag<strong>in</strong>ha, as<strong>in</strong>ha, az<strong>in</strong>ha ‘<strong>in</strong> haste’.<br />
AD/DE/IN PRESSA/*PRESSIA ‘<strong>in</strong> haste’: SIt. <strong>in</strong> pressa, <strong>in</strong>/di prescia,<br />
Neap. ambrèssә, de pressa, Surs., Eng. en prescha, OFr. a grant<br />
presse, MFr. en presse, Occ. en preisso, Cat. de pressa, a gran<br />
pressa, Sp. apriessa > aprisa, de prisa, Gal. de presa, Ptg. à(s)<br />
pressa(s), depressa. Cf. OLog. ad presse, de presse, now<br />
impresse/debresse, Camp. impress(is)/ap-.<br />
SUBITO ‘suddenly’: Prov. sopte, OCat. sopte, now de sobte.<br />
PRAESTO ‘at h<strong>and</strong>’: It. presto ‘quickly’, ‘so<strong>on</strong>’, Calab., Sic. priestu,<br />
Friul. prest, Surs. prest, Eng. praist, OFr., Prov., Cat. prest, OArag.,<br />
OSp. priesto, now presto, OPtg. presto.<br />
TOSTU ‘roasted’, then ‘straight off the fire’: It. tosto ‘quickly’,<br />
‘so<strong>on</strong>’, OMil. tost, OMarch. <strong>in</strong> un tostu, OIt. tantosto, V.Gard. tost.<br />
Fr. tôt/tantôt, Prov.. tost, tantost/ Cat. tost, tantost, (old) ten-,<br />
OArag. tantost (OSp., OGal., OPtg. tosto, toste, tost are borrowed ).<br />
SEQUENTER ‘follow<strong>in</strong>g after’: OLomb. soentre, Friul. se<strong>on</strong>tri, Surs.<br />
sianter, suenter, Eng. sua<strong>in</strong>ter ‘after’, OFr. soantre, so(v)entre,<br />
OFr.-Prov. soentre, su-. sogentre. Prov. soentre, seguentre,<br />
45
IN C<strong>ON</strong>TINENTI ‘immediately’: It. <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ente, OIt.<br />
<strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>tanente/-ten-, Friul., OSurs. <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ent, Fr. <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ent, MFr.<br />
enc<strong>on</strong>tenant etc., Prov. enc<strong>on</strong>tenen, <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ent, Cat., OArag.<br />
enc<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ent, Sp., Ptg. <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ente, OSard. <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ente/-ti,<br />
<strong>in</strong>cuntanente, Ragus. <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ent. (This calls to m<strong>in</strong>d a similar<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to *MANU TENENTE: It. immant<strong>in</strong>ente,<br />
OIt. (im)mantenente/-ta-, Fr. ma<strong>in</strong>tenant, Prov. mantenen, OCat.<br />
mantenent, (de) mant<strong>in</strong>ent, OSp. (a) manteniente, OGal., OPtg. (a)<br />
mantenente, mantẽente, mod. Gal. a mantenta.)<br />
We come now to a f<strong>in</strong>al group of adverbs which defy classificati<strong>on</strong>. I<br />
take first the classical INSIMUL ‘together’, which has tended to take the<br />
forms *INSEMUL or *INSEMEL. Then we have TOTA VIA ‘the whole way’,<br />
with various Romance significati<strong>on</strong>s, ‘all the time’, ‘always’, ‘all the same’,<br />
‘still’, ‘nevertheless’, <strong>and</strong> PER TOTU(M) ‘everywhere’. I have then lumped<br />
together a goup of words from various Romance languages which have no<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> etym<strong>on</strong> (Corom<strong>in</strong>as suggests a pre-IE root), but seem to me to be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>nected, <strong>and</strong> I have referred them to EA RE ‘for that matter’ (<strong>in</strong> the case<br />
of the French forms DE EA RE is usually posited, to account for the <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
c<strong>on</strong>s<strong>on</strong>ant, but it seems to me that they could have developed from EA > *JA,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the same way as we have je from EGO). Classical FORSIT(AN), FORSAN<br />
‘perhaps’ have <strong>on</strong>ly survived <strong>in</strong> Italian, Rhaeto-Romance <strong>and</strong> Sard<strong>in</strong>ian ; <strong>in</strong><br />
southern France <strong>and</strong> northern Spa<strong>in</strong> we f<strong>in</strong>d BENE LEVE ‘very easily’ used,<br />
46
<strong>and</strong> this phrase was perhaps more widespread at <strong>on</strong>e stage, cf. German<br />
vielleicht (there are also other locuti<strong>on</strong>s such as those corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
“maybe”, “<strong>some</strong>times”). BENE is also found <strong>in</strong> a limited area <strong>in</strong><br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> with TAN(TO) to give the mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘also’, cf. Engl. “as well”.<br />
Then we have AD SATIS, the augmented form of SATIS ‘enough’, preserved<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>some</strong> areas. Another comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> is N<strong>ON</strong>…SI N<strong>ON</strong> ‘noth<strong>in</strong>g but’, ‘<strong>on</strong>ly’,<br />
<strong>and</strong> I am also <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g here *NE GENTE, which gave a pr<strong>on</strong>oun for<br />
‘noth<strong>in</strong>g’, as I previously <strong>in</strong>cluded words for ‘no <strong>on</strong>e’. Then we have QUASI<br />
‘as if’, which was adopted as a semi-learned word for ‘almost’. F<strong>in</strong>ally, as<br />
we are after all deal<strong>in</strong>g with adverbs, I <strong>in</strong>clude MENTE, which was used<br />
everywhere <strong>in</strong> the formati<strong>on</strong> of adverbs from adjectives. This was the<br />
ablative of MENS ‘m<strong>in</strong>d’, which could be used <strong>in</strong> classical Lat<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> with an adjective to describe a pers<strong>on</strong>’s mood, thus PLACIDA<br />
MENTE ‘with a quiet m<strong>in</strong>d’, ‘calmly’, but then came to be simply a<br />
formative suffix, so that we f<strong>in</strong>d solamente gloss<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>gulariter ‘<strong>on</strong>ly’ <strong>in</strong><br />
the Gl. Reich.<br />
INSIMUL/*INSEMUL/*INSEMEL ‘together’: It. <strong>in</strong>sieme, OAret., OUmbr.<br />
enseme, Lomb. <strong>in</strong>sema, Emil., Lig. <strong>in</strong>seme, Pied. ansem, OGen.<br />
<strong>in</strong>semel, OVen. ensembre, ensembramente, Istr. <strong>in</strong>sembru, OMarch.<br />
ensemmore, ORom. ensembori, Abruzz. nsembra, Neap. nzembra,<br />
Apul. nsemmәrә/-lә, Calab. nsemula, ansembra, Sic. nsemmula,<br />
OSic. <strong>in</strong>sembra, <strong>in</strong>sembramente, Surs. ensem(m)en, ensemblamen,<br />
47
LEng. <strong>in</strong>sembel, UEng. <strong>in</strong>sembel/-mel, Fr. ensemble, OFr. ensems<br />
(Pass.), Prov. ensemble, ensem(s), Cat. ensems, OCat. ensemps,<br />
sems, OArag., OUArag. ens(s)emble, OSp. ensiemo (OSp.<br />
ensembla, OGal., OPtg. ensembra are borrowed).<br />
TOTA VIA ‘all the way’, ‘completely’: It. tuttavia (old) ‘all the time’,<br />
(now) ‘all the same’, ‘nevertheless’, Surs. tuttavia, Eng. tuottavia,<br />
OFr. tote(s) veie(s) (now re-formed ad by toutefois ‘nevertheless’),<br />
Prov. totavia, OCat. totavia ‘all the time’, ‘nevertheless’, Sp.<br />
todavia (old) ‘all the time’, (now) ‘nevertheless’, Ast. entavia (×<br />
enta = aún), Ptg. todavia.<br />
PER TOTU(M) ‘throughout’, ‘everywhere’: Rum. pretut<strong>in</strong>deni, peste<br />
(< PER SUPER) tot, It. dappertutto, Friul. pardut, Surs. (da)pertut,<br />
Eng. (d)apertuot, Fr. partout, Prov. pertot, Cat. per tot, (cf. Sp. en<br />
todo y por todo ‘wholly’, Ptg. estar por titdo ‘agree completely’).<br />
EA RE ‘for that matter’: Rum. iar(ă), iarăs ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘<strong>and</strong>’ (is dară<br />
‘but’ c<strong>on</strong>nected ?), Surs. er(a), è, Eng. eir, (old) er ‘also’, ‘even’,<br />
OFr. giere, gier(e)s ‘then’, regiere(s) ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, Arbois jaré ‘also’,<br />
Neuchâtel džire/-ro ‘also’, Prov. era/er(as)/ara ‘also’, Cat. er,<br />
era(s) ‘also’, OGal., OPtg. ar, er ‘aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘also’.<br />
FORSIT(AN), FORSAN ‘perhaps’: It. forse, OLomb. fors(i), OGen. for,<br />
Rom. forzi, Laz. forcia, Neap. fuorze, Calab. fuorsica, Abruzz.<br />
48
forzaca, OUmbr. fors(i)a, OSic. forsi, Friul. forsi, fuars, Rh. forsa,<br />
Sard. forsis.<br />
BENE LEVE ‘very easily’, then ‘perhaps’: Prov. ben leu, beleu, OCat.,<br />
Rouss. belleu, OArag. (Berceo, Alex.) bien lieve.<br />
TANTO BENE ‘as well’, then ‘also’: OIt. tambene ‘as’, ‘that is’, Prov.<br />
tanben/tam-, Gasc. taben, Cat. també, old tanbé, Sp. también, Gal.<br />
tambén, Ptg. também, Log. tambene(s) (< Sp., Cat.).<br />
AD SATIS ‘enough’: It. assai, Emil. asé, Pied., asé, Friul. assai, Fr.<br />
assez, Prov. assatz, asaz, OCat. assats, assau, OArag. assatç, (OSp.,<br />
OPtg.. Sard., assaz are borrowed).<br />
N<strong>ON</strong>…SI N<strong>ON</strong> ‘noth<strong>in</strong>g if not’, ‘<strong>on</strong>ly’: It. n<strong>on</strong>...se n<strong>on</strong>, NIt. n<strong>on</strong>...se<br />
no, Eng. nu...scha na, Fr. ne...s<strong>in</strong><strong>on</strong>, (old) ne...se... n<strong>on</strong>, Prov.<br />
no...si/ se...no, Cat. no... s<strong>in</strong>ò, OArag. n<strong>on</strong>...s<strong>in</strong><strong>on</strong>, Sp. no...s<strong>in</strong>o, Ptg.<br />
não...senão, (old) nom...senom.<br />
*NE GENTE ‘not a soul’, then ‘noth<strong>in</strong>g’: It. niente, OIt. neiente,<br />
ne(e)nte, OSic. neente, nenti, <strong>ON</strong>It. neente, nient(e), now NIt. n<strong>in</strong>te,<br />
ñente, ñ(e)<strong>in</strong>t, Calab., Sic. nènte, nènti, Campan., Abruzz., Luc.<br />
niendә, OFr. nient, neient, now néant, Prov. nien(t), ne(i)en(t),<br />
OCat. nient, (OSp. nient <strong>and</strong> OGal. niente are borrowed).<br />
QUASI ‘as if’, then ‘almost’: It. quasi, WTusc. guasi, so guascotto<br />
49
‘half-cooked’, Cal. càsica, OGen. quaxi, OLomb. quas, OUmbr.,<br />
Rom. guasi, OPad. squase, Friul. quasi, squasi(t), OFr. gascru (<<br />
QUASI CRUDU) ‘half raw’, Prov. cais, OCat. quaix, OArag. quasi, Sp.<br />
casi, cuasi, Gal. case, caše, quase (que), Ptg. quase, Sard. gasi.<br />
MENTE ‘with (a certa<strong>in</strong>) m<strong>in</strong>d’, then ‘-ly’: Rum. <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> aim<strong>in</strong>tre,<br />
aim<strong>in</strong>terea, altm<strong>in</strong>teri, alm<strong>in</strong>telea, altm<strong>in</strong>trelea ‘otherwise’, It.<br />
–mente, SIt. -menti, <strong>ON</strong>It. -mentre (also altrimenti, as Rum.), Friul.<br />
-ment(r)i, Surs. -me<strong>in</strong>, Eng. -ma<strong>in</strong>g, Fr. -ment, Prov. -men(s), Cat.<br />
-ment, Sp. -mente, OSp. -mient(r)e, Gal., Ptg. -mente, Sard. (Cent.,<br />
Log.) -mente, (Camp.) -menti.<br />
My f<strong>in</strong>al secti<strong>on</strong> is devoted to comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s of a prepositi<strong>on</strong> with an<br />
adverb or other part of speech to form a new adverb or prepositi<strong>on</strong>, or<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s of two prepositi<strong>on</strong>s to form a new prepositi<strong>on</strong>. Here I will<br />
first make <strong>some</strong> <strong>in</strong>troductory remarks, <strong>and</strong> then I should like to make <strong>some</strong><br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g phenomen<strong>on</strong>. Late Lat<strong>in</strong> abounded <strong>in</strong> such<br />
compounds of prepositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> prepositi<strong>on</strong> or prepositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> adverb of<br />
place (many of the latter also acquir<strong>in</strong>g a prepositi<strong>on</strong>al functi<strong>on</strong>) to express<br />
such ideas as ‘from <strong>in</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t of’, ‘to the side of’, ‘from above’, ‘from<br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d’. Thus we have, with AB: ab ante, ab <strong>in</strong>tus, a c<strong>on</strong>tra, a foris/foras;<br />
with AD: ad prope; with EX: e c<strong>on</strong>tra; with IN: <strong>in</strong> ante, <strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tra, <strong>in</strong> foras<br />
50
(note also <strong>in</strong>tus <strong>in</strong>, already <strong>in</strong> Cicero, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tus as a prepositi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong> Virgil);<br />
with PRO: pro ad. (We f<strong>in</strong>d also <strong>some</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s of prepositi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
noun, as <strong>in</strong> gyro, per gyrum (cf. Rum. în jur, împrejur, It. <strong>in</strong> giro, Sp. Lat<strong>in</strong><br />
a giro ‘around’), <strong>and</strong> de latus (OFr. delez) <strong>and</strong> simply latus (Fr. lez, lès <strong>in</strong><br />
place names, Prov. latz ‘beside’).) Above all we have comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
DE: de ante, de circa, de c<strong>on</strong>tra, de deorsum, de ex, de foris/foras, de <strong>in</strong>fra,<br />
de <strong>in</strong>super, de <strong>in</strong>ter, de <strong>in</strong>tra, de <strong>in</strong>tro, de <strong>in</strong>tus, de iuxta, de post, de postea,<br />
de retro, de sub, de subter, de subtus (Fr. de sous), de super (already <strong>in</strong><br />
classical Lat<strong>in</strong>; Fr. de sur), de supra, de sursum, de trans, de ultra, de<br />
usque, to which we may add * de ab,* de ad <strong>and</strong>*de ab ante, *de <strong>in</strong> ante,<br />
based <strong>on</strong> the evidence of the Romance forms. (We also f<strong>in</strong>d comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of adverb + DE, as foris/foras de, a c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> which has enjoyed a wide<br />
extensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Romance.)<br />
All these c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s orig<strong>in</strong>ally expressed moti<strong>on</strong> to or from a<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> positi<strong>on</strong>, but they came simply to be the equivalents of the simple<br />
adverb or prepositi<strong>on</strong>. This development is especially noteworthy <strong>in</strong> the<br />
case of DE, which can be used <strong>in</strong> compounds express<strong>in</strong>g the place ‘where’<br />
or even the place ‘whither’. Examples of the orig<strong>in</strong>al use to mark the po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
of departure are given by Bourciez (Élém. de L<strong>in</strong>g. Rom., §125), thus “de<br />
subtus pedes” from Chiro, “si quis de foris venerit” from Jerome (Reg.<br />
Pachom.), “via quae mittit de trans alveum” from the surveyors, <strong>and</strong><br />
“accessit de retro” from the Vetus Lat<strong>in</strong>a. He also gives “de <strong>in</strong>tus curte”<br />
51
from the Salic Law (§243d), without <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g whether this expresses<br />
moti<strong>on</strong> or state. Another example from Chiro presumably <strong>in</strong>dicates the<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t of departure: “sangu<strong>in</strong>is detracti<strong>on</strong>em fieri oportet de cervice...vel<br />
desub causa illius loci, ubi se humor morbi dem<strong>on</strong>straverit”. But Bourciez<br />
says that the loss of the ablative sense goes back to the 2nd century <strong>in</strong> the<br />
case of de post, as <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>scripti<strong>on</strong> “de post cuius morte”, <strong>and</strong> also quotes<br />
the strictures of grammarians aga<strong>in</strong>st such locuti<strong>on</strong>s as “de post illum<br />
ambulant”, “de post forum” <strong>and</strong> the use of de <strong>in</strong>tus <strong>and</strong> de foras as<br />
equivalent to <strong>in</strong>tus <strong>and</strong> foras. Other examples are “Vade de post me,<br />
Satanas” from the Vetus Lat<strong>in</strong>a, <strong>and</strong> “Et post haec labes de post alumen”<br />
from the 8th-century Compositi<strong>on</strong>es; cf. also de postea ‘afterwards’ <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Salic Law. A locative desub is found <strong>in</strong> the Examen Testium of 715: “ab<br />
antiquo tempore oraculus fuit desub ecclesia Sancte Marie <strong>in</strong> Pac<strong>in</strong>a”. In<br />
the Peregr<strong>in</strong>atio Silviae we have de c<strong>on</strong>tra mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘<strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>trary’, <strong>and</strong><br />
“ubi autem missa facta fuerit de ante cruce”. In this last case we may see an<br />
echo of the sense of the place of orig<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> also <strong>in</strong> the next, from the Salic<br />
Law: “si quis <strong>in</strong>genuus (accusative case) de foris casa...furaverit”. The<br />
purely locative functi<strong>on</strong> may have orig<strong>in</strong>ated, it seems to me, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
transferred use of DE from <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the quarter of orig<strong>in</strong>, as <strong>in</strong> Virgil’s<br />
“Boreae de parte”, to <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the quarter <strong>in</strong> which <strong>on</strong>e th<strong>in</strong>g is placed <strong>in</strong><br />
relati<strong>on</strong> to another. Thus <strong>in</strong> early documents <strong>in</strong> Catal<strong>on</strong>ia deal<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
sale of l<strong>and</strong> we f<strong>in</strong>d “de oriente...de occidente... de super...de subtus...” ‘to<br />
52
the east’ etc., or “de parte orientis...de parte occidentis...de subtus...”, <strong>and</strong><br />
this “de parte” rema<strong>in</strong>s a popular term <strong>in</strong> later Romance documents, so OSp.<br />
“de parte de suso”, “de la parte deyuso”, “de una part...de otra...”, “de todas<br />
partes”, It. “da una parte...dall’altra parte...”, Fr. “d’une part...d’autre<br />
part…”, <strong>and</strong> also “de ambas partes” <strong>in</strong> the Compositi<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
We come now to the “<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g development” that I foreshadowed<br />
earlier. This is the use of DE to turn a prepositi<strong>on</strong>al phrase <strong>in</strong>to a noun<br />
qualifier, a c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> the earliest attestati<strong>on</strong>s of which are <strong>on</strong>ly to be<br />
found <strong>in</strong> what may be termed Lat<strong>in</strong>ized Romance. My old Lat<strong>in</strong> teacher<br />
used to tell us, whimsically, that you could not say “homo <strong>in</strong> luna” for ‘the<br />
man <strong>in</strong> the mo<strong>on</strong>’, but had to use a relative clause, “homo qui <strong>in</strong> luna est”.<br />
Japanese employs a locuti<strong>on</strong> similar to the latter, but can also say the<br />
equivalent of “the man of <strong>in</strong> the mo<strong>on</strong>”, or, to be more down to earth, “the<br />
way of to Rome” — “Roma e no michi” (us<strong>in</strong>g the possesive no) —<br />
corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to the “via de ad Roma(m)” which emerged at the<br />
Proto-Romance stage; similarly it can say “mae no kuruma” for ‘the fr<strong>on</strong>t<br />
wheels’, corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to the “rotas de davante” found <strong>in</strong> the Leges Alam.<br />
(Bour., §243). (Another c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of the same sort found <strong>in</strong> early<br />
Romance is “alia serna de super karrera” <strong>in</strong> a document from Spa<strong>in</strong> dated<br />
940.) This c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> is particularly noticeable <strong>in</strong> Rumanian, where any<br />
prepositi<strong>on</strong>al phrase can be l<strong>in</strong>ked to a noun by the use of de, as <strong>in</strong> casa d<strong>in</strong><br />
pădure ‘the house <strong>in</strong> the wood’ (as if Lat<strong>in</strong> *casa illa de <strong>in</strong> palude; c<strong>on</strong>trast<br />
53
casa este în padure ‘the house is <strong>in</strong> the wood’), iarba d<strong>in</strong>tre copaci ‘the<br />
grass between the trees’, câmpul dimprejurul satului ‘the fields (open<br />
country) around the village’. Adverbs of place can be l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>in</strong> the same<br />
way (cf. rotas de davante, which I take to be roatable d<strong>in</strong>a<strong>in</strong>te <strong>in</strong><br />
Rumanian), thus partea de sus/de asupra ‘the upper part’ (<strong>and</strong> partea de<br />
asupra capetelor noastre ‘the part above our heads’), partea d<strong>in</strong>ăuntru/d<strong>in</strong><br />
afară ‘the <strong>in</strong>side/outside’, partea de jos/de desubt ‘the lower part’, uşa de<br />
d<strong>in</strong> dos ‘the back door’ (d<strong>in</strong> =’from’) (d<strong>in</strong>=’from). De asupra (deasupra)<br />
capetelor noastre is also typical of many locuti<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>sist<strong>in</strong>g of a<br />
prepositi<strong>on</strong> formed of de + adverb + article followed by a noun <strong>in</strong> the<br />
genitive; thus we have dedesubtul pământului ‘beneath the earth’,<br />
de-a-lungul râului ‘al<strong>on</strong>g the river’, d<strong>in</strong>a<strong>in</strong>tea casei ‘<strong>in</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t of the house’.<br />
In the other languages this c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> with DE is generally limited<br />
to l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g an adverb to a noun <strong>in</strong> the style of rotas de davante. So It. le<br />
ruote davanti (=di avanti) ‘the fr<strong>on</strong>t wheels’, le zampe di dietro ‘the<br />
h<strong>in</strong>d legs’, il piano disopra ‘the floor above’, l’appartamento disotto<br />
‘the flat below’, la parte di dentro ‘the <strong>in</strong>side’, la parte/ildi fuori di<br />
unacasa’the outside of a hose’; also al disopra di, al disotto di, as Rum.<br />
deasupra, dedesubtul. In Rhaeto-Romance we have, for example, Surs.<br />
ils peis dav<strong>on</strong>/davos ‘the forefeet/h<strong>in</strong>d feet’, la vart dadora ‘the outside’,<br />
la vart dadens ‘the <strong>in</strong>side’; corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to Surs. il carr dav<strong>on</strong>/davos<br />
‘the fr<strong>on</strong>t/rear car’ we f<strong>in</strong>d Eng. il char davaunt/davous. In French we<br />
54
f<strong>in</strong>d les roues de devant ‘the fr<strong>on</strong>t wheels’, un siège d’avant ‘a fr<strong>on</strong>t<br />
seat’, les pattes de derrière ‘the h<strong>in</strong>d legs’, s<strong>on</strong> vêtement de dessus/de<br />
dessous ‘his outer/under garments’; also les gens d’en haut<br />
(d’au-dessus)/d’en bas (d’au-dessous)/d’à côté ‘the people<br />
above/below/next door’, <strong>and</strong> (les gens d’) au-dessus/au-dessous/àcôté<br />
de nous ‘above/below/next door to us’. Catalan has la part de dalt/de<br />
baix/de davant/de darrera/de d<strong>in</strong>s/de fora, ‘the<br />
upper/lower/fr<strong>on</strong>t/back/<strong>in</strong>ner/outer part (side)’, la part de d<strong>in</strong>tre d’una<br />
capsa ‘the <strong>in</strong>side of a box’, <strong>and</strong> al davant de tots ‘<strong>in</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t of everybody’.<br />
In Spanish we have already seen la parte de suso/deyuso; another old<br />
document from Navarre has la plazta devant ‘the square <strong>in</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t’, <strong>and</strong><br />
the Alex<strong>and</strong>re has los delante ‘those <strong>in</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t’, while <strong>in</strong> modern Spanish<br />
we have la parte de adentro/afuera ‘the <strong>in</strong>side/outside’. Portuguese has<br />
do lado de fora ‘<strong>on</strong> the outside’, a de dentro/fora ‘the <strong>in</strong>side/outside’, a<br />
parte de cima/ de baixo ‘the upper/lower part’, a porta detrás da casa<br />
‘the back door of the house’. It is probably go<strong>in</strong>g too far to say that the<br />
use of dans for en <strong>in</strong> French has its orig<strong>in</strong> here, but I am tempted to see<br />
a similar use of *DE AD <strong>in</strong> Italian phrases like una tazza da tè ‘a teacup’,<br />
una macch<strong>in</strong>a da scrivere ‘a typewriter’, compared with the French une<br />
tasse à thé, une mach<strong>in</strong>e à écrire, especially as we f<strong>in</strong>d the same<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Rhaeto-Romance, Surs. <strong>in</strong>a scadiola da te, Eng. üna<br />
tazza (cupp<strong>in</strong>a) da tè, Surs., Eng. <strong>in</strong>a/üna masch<strong>in</strong>a da scriver.<br />
55
I would now like to tabulate the Romance prepositi<strong>on</strong>al forms,<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with the comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s of prepositi<strong>on</strong> with adverb or<br />
prepositi<strong>on</strong> with prepositi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the simple form <strong>in</strong> <strong>some</strong> cases:<br />
DE SUPER, DE SUPRA ‘above’: Rum. despre ‘about’, înspre<br />
‘towards’, asupra, deasupra, It. disopra, OMod. de sovra, Pied.<br />
desore/desure, Friul. disore, parsore, (Surs. sur, Eng. sur(a)),<br />
OFr. desour(e)/deseur/desor(e)/desur, OFr.-Prov., Prov. desobre,<br />
Cat. de sobre, persobre de, Sp. de sobre, de sobra, Ptg. por<br />
sobre, de sobra, Sard.,daue supra, (supra (de), subra).<br />
(DE) SUBTU(S)/*SUBTA, (DE) SUB ‘below’: Rum. (de)sub(t), dedesubt,<br />
It. (di)sotto, OMarch. sotta, Calab., (O)Sic. sutta, OMod. de sota,<br />
OLomb. sot, OPied., OLig. sota, Friul. sot, parsot/per sot, Surs. sut,<br />
Eng. suot, Fr. (de)sotz > (des)sous, Prov. (de)sotz, Cat. de<br />
sota/(des)sota, desot, old (de)sots/-sotz, OArag. soç, sots (sots-),<br />
sota, OSp. (de) soto, so (de so ‘from under’), sota, now soto-, sota-,<br />
OGal., OPtg. soto, sota, (de) sob, now soto-, sota-, Sard. suttu.<br />
(DE, IN) SU(R)SU(M) ‘above’: Rum. (de)sus, în susul, presus, It. (<strong>in</strong>)sù, su<br />
(prep.), OIt. suso, <strong>ON</strong>It. susa, Ven. su, Lomb. sü, SIt. suso/susu. Friul. <strong>in</strong> sù,<br />
su(n), Surs. si(n), ensi, Eng. sü(n), <strong>in</strong>sü, Fr. (des)sus, OFr. ensus, Prov. (de)<br />
56
sus, dessus, ensus, OCat. (de)sus, en sus, OArag. dessus, desuso, asuso,<br />
OSp., OGal., OPtg. (de)suso, asuso, OPtg. also soso, Sard. susu, Vegl. sojs<br />
sul.<br />
(DE, IN) DEO(R)SU(M)/*DEUSU ‘below’: Rum. jos, înjosul, în/d<strong>in</strong>/jos de, prejos,<br />
It. (<strong>in</strong>)giù, OIt. (<strong>in</strong>) giuso, gioso, <strong>ON</strong>It. ço(s), zo(s), zoxo, Mil. giò, OGen. zù,<br />
Laz. joso, SIt. jusu, Friul. jù, Surs. giu, engiu, Eng. giò, <strong>in</strong>giò, OFr. jus,<br />
OFr.-Prov. jous, Prov. (de)jos, (de)jus, enjos, OCat. (de)jós, (de)/jús, enjós,<br />
enjúg, ajús, OArag. (de) yus(o), dius(o), ayuso, OSp. yoso, (de) yuso, ayuso,<br />
OLe<strong>on</strong> de yuso, OGal., OPtg. (de)juso, a jouso Sard. (OSard., Cent.) yosso,<br />
(Log.) gosso/dzosso, (Camp.) gossu.<br />
ANTE(S), *ANTJ- ‘before’: ORum. între, ad<strong>in</strong>te, It. anz, dianzi, OIt. anti,<br />
ante, OLomb. ançi, anz, OApul. anci, V.Gard. danz, Friul. anzi(t), Surs.<br />
<strong>on</strong>z, LEng. ant, UEng. aunt, aunz, OFr. anz (desanz), a<strong>in</strong>z, e<strong>in</strong>z, a(i)nçois<br />
(< *ANTJ-IDIUS), Fr.-Prov. a(i)nz, Prov. anz, ant(es), anceis (as a(i)nçois),<br />
Cat. ans, old anz, ens, OArag. ante (de), ant, anzes (Gl. Sil), ances (Gl.<br />
Emil.), Sp. antes (de), ante, OLe<strong>on</strong>. ante, OGal. ante, now antes, Ptg. ante,<br />
antes(de), dante, dantes, Sard. ante(s), anti(s), anzis (Italian <strong>in</strong>fluence),<br />
anta (= ante a) (de).<br />
(DE) INANTE ‘before’: Mac.Rum. nănte, n<strong>in</strong>te, d<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>te, It. <strong>in</strong>nanzi, d<strong>in</strong>(n)anzi,<br />
OIt. nanzi, Lomb. <strong>in</strong>anz, OEmil. <strong>in</strong>nanci, <strong>in</strong>ançe/-ço, OVen. enanço,<br />
OUmbr., OMarch. nançi, Neap, nnanzi, SApul. annanzi, OIt. <strong>in</strong>nanti,<br />
57
<strong>in</strong>ante, OUmbr. (e)nante, OTusc.. ORom., OAbruzz. nanti, Cal. nanti,<br />
SApul. annanti, Neap. nn<strong>and</strong>ә, Luc. n<strong>and</strong>i, Cors. nnant, OTusc. d<strong>in</strong>ant.,<br />
OMarch. denanti/-te, OVen. dananti, OEmil. denanci/-ço, d<strong>in</strong>anzi,<br />
(O)Lomb. denanz, SPied. dnanz, Romagn. dnes, SLaz. denanzi, V.Gard.,<br />
Friul. <strong>in</strong>ant, denant, OFr. enanz, ODauph. (d)enant, Prov. enant, enan(z),<br />
denan, entrenan, d(es)erenan, Cat. d<strong>in</strong>ant, old (a)denant, enant/enans/an-,<br />
<strong>in</strong>ant(e). Arag. delant, old denant, denante (Gl. Sil.), enant, adelant, Sp.<br />
delante, (en) adelante, de hoy/deaquí(en) adelante, old (d)enante(s),<br />
popular enantes, (en)denantes, (a)denante(s), OLe<strong>on</strong>. adelantre, endelantre,<br />
Ast. anantia, adiante, Salam. enantes, Gal. (en)diante, deante, endeantes,<br />
didiante, <strong>in</strong>diante, denantes/di- (evidently from Spanish), Ptg. (em) diante,<br />
de hoje/de agora/daqui/em diante, adiante(s), adeante, Sard. (abe) <strong>in</strong>nanti,<br />
<strong>in</strong>nantis de, (daue) nanti, a da<strong>in</strong>anti, danantis, dananzi a, a denant de,<br />
anant é, Ragus. nanti, Vegl. an<strong>in</strong>ç.<br />
(DE, IN) ABANTE ‘before’: ORum. a<strong>in</strong>te, now îna<strong>in</strong>te(a)/d<strong>in</strong>-,<br />
na<strong>in</strong>te(a), de acum/azi îna<strong>in</strong>te. (<strong>in</strong>) avanti, d’ora <strong>in</strong> avanti, davanti,<br />
OSic. avante, OLomb. davanto/-ço, OVen. davançi/-ço, OPied.<br />
devan/da-, Friul. avant, Surs. (en) av<strong>on</strong>(t), dav<strong>on</strong>, LEng. (<strong>in</strong>) avant,<br />
davant, UEng. (<strong>in</strong>) avaunt, d’avaunt (davaunt), Fr. (en) avant,<br />
dorénavant, devant, Prov. avan(t), abans, (a/de)davan(t)/de-,<br />
OGasc. dabant, endeant, Cat. (en) avant, avans/-ens/abans,<br />
davant/de-, vant, endavant, old debans, evant, OArag. avant,<br />
58
(a)devant, devan-, davant, OSp. avante, avan-, devant, OLe<strong>on</strong>.<br />
devan-, OGal. abante, diabante, deban-, Ptg. avante, old avan,<br />
davante.<br />
(DE (EX), IN, AD) POST/POSTEA/*POSTJ- (Lomb. Lat<strong>in</strong> POSTIUS) ‘after’:<br />
ORum. dipu, dupu, apu, poi, păi, now după, apoi, înapoi(a)/d<strong>in</strong>-, It.<br />
poi, old po, ORom. post, OUmbr. puoi(e), OMarch. poe, OLomb.<br />
pos, Tic. pos, Lig., Pied. pöi, Emil. pò, Romagn., Ven. pu, Campan.<br />
pò, Calab. pue, SApul. puei, OIt. depoi/di-/do-, depo/di-. appo,<br />
dap(p)oi, now dopo, SIt. doppu, Laz. dap(p)ó, Sic. appo(i), Ven.<br />
despo, OPad. daspò, OEmil. dappò, OGen. dapue, <strong>ON</strong>eap. dapò,<br />
Mil. depos, Crem. dapus, Abruzz. dapù, dapuó, Istr. despui, It.<br />
poscia, OLomb. posta/possa, OUmbr. poscio, V.Gard. pö, de pò,<br />
Friul. po, dopo, daspò, dispus, dispues, Surs. pia, epi, dapi(a), LEng.<br />
poi, OUEng. (da)pöja, daspö(ja) (cf. upoeia ‘except’), OFr. post<br />
(Eulal), Fr. puis, depuis, Prov. pois(t), pueis, pos, pus, depost,<br />
depois/des-, poissas, Gasc. pux/puish, Cat. puix, old po(i)s, pu(i)s,<br />
pux, depu(i)s, despuis, depuix, OArag. de puisca (Gl. Sil.), pues,<br />
depues, depuis, despues, empues, en pos (Berc.), now dimpues, Sp.<br />
pues, despues, old pos, poix, depo(i)s, depués, empos, empués, de<br />
empuesta, OAst. pois, now (d)empués, Gal. Ptg. pois, depois,<br />
despois, old pus, após/ apús, de(s)pos/-pús, empǒs, -pus, (Gal.)<br />
dempois, despoixa(s), Sard. pos(t), pus(t), de pus, appus, ad pusti,<br />
59
appusti(s), (a) pustis (de), Vegl. dapú,<br />
(IN, DE, AD) RETRO ‘back’, later ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’: Rum. îndărăt, d(e)a<br />
îtndăratele/-ră-/-re-, It. retro, dietro, addietro, <strong>in</strong>dietro, old rietro,<br />
arretro, arrietro, diretro, <strong>in</strong>diretro, <strong>in</strong>dirietro, Tusc. dr(i)eto,<br />
addreto, ORom., OCampan., OApul. dereto, OUmbr. dirieto,<br />
OEmil. dreo, OVen. dre(o), now (<strong>in</strong>)drio, OLomb. dreo, dred,<br />
endre(d)o, OPied. dredo, OLig. endere(r), Lig., Pied. daré, Lomb.<br />
dedré, OVen. are(r), Lomb. adré, Lig. <strong>in</strong>dré, Neap, arretә, Calab.<br />
arretu, arrieti, Sic. arrèri, darré, OFriul. dririo, Fr. arrière,<br />
derrière, old rière, OFr.-Prov. arrier, Prov. (a, de, en) reire, darera,<br />
OGasc. deirer, darrei, Cat. rera, arrera, (de)darrera, enrera,<br />
endarrera, old derer, Benasque derre, OSp. (Berc., Alex.) a riedro,<br />
arriedro, OLe<strong>on</strong>. (Alex. O) riedo, OGal. (a) redro, OPtg. (a) redro,<br />
arredo, Ragus. <strong>in</strong>dret.<br />
(AD, DE) TRANS ‘across’, ‘<strong>on</strong> the other side of’: (Rum. stră-, ×EXTRA,<br />
cf. It. stra-). It. tra(s)- ‘very’, Surs. tras, atras, entras ‘through’,<br />
cheutras (< ECCU HAC TRANS) ‘through this’, ‘hereby’, LEng. tras,<br />
quatras, UEng. três, cotrês, Fr. très ‘very’, old tres, detrès, atrès de<br />
‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’, Prov. tras ‘bey<strong>on</strong>d’, a tras, detras ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’. Cat. detràs<br />
‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’, old tras ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’, atras ‘backwards’, trastot ‘wholly’, Sp.,<br />
Gal., Ptg. tras (trás), atrás, detrás ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’, Sard. atrás(su) ( Sp.).<br />
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(DE, DE AD, DEDE) INTUS ‘<strong>in</strong>’; also INTU(S) AD/ IN as prep., to be<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guished from other forms from INDE AD above: OIt. (d)<strong>in</strong>to,<br />
vulgar Tusc. qu<strong>in</strong>enti (< ECCU HIC INTUS), OBerg., OLomb., OVen.<br />
<strong>in</strong>t, OPied. nta, Ven., Lig. <strong>in</strong>t’, nt’, Pied. әnt, ant (there are also NIt.<br />
forms with unexpla<strong>in</strong>ed nd), Umbr., Calab., Sic. nt’, Neap. <strong>in</strong>do,<br />
Sal., Luc. <strong>in</strong>da, Apul. <strong>in</strong>d’ a l<strong>in</strong> these areas nd is the normal<br />
development), Umbr., Sic. <strong>in</strong>t’a, ta, Posch. da<strong>in</strong>t, Tyr. te, V.Gard.<br />
(<strong>in</strong>)t(e), Friul. <strong>in</strong>t, ta (also mysterious vento, chento, lenti, ‘there’<br />
may bel<strong>on</strong>g here, cf. e<strong>in</strong>tt, Tusc. qu<strong>in</strong>enti), ORh. (12 c.) <strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>, Surs.<br />
enten, enta, (en)dadens, OEng.(Müst) Eng. a<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong>, LEng. dadatnt,<br />
UEng. dada<strong>in</strong>s, OFr. enz en (Eulal.), (en)enz, denz, dedenz, çaenz<br />
(with ECCE HAC), laienz (with ILLAC), now dans, dedans (<strong>in</strong> de<br />
dedans ‘from <strong>in</strong>side’ we have DE three times!), céans, léans, Prov.<br />
<strong>in</strong>(t)z/<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>in</strong>tz en, en(t)z, en<strong>in</strong>z/-<strong>in</strong>s, d<strong>in</strong>z/d<strong>in</strong>s, ded<strong>in</strong>s, çaienz/sa<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
laienz/la<strong>in</strong>z/la<strong>in</strong>s, Gasc. dens, deguens, Cat. d<strong>in</strong>s (de), end<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
ded<strong>in</strong>s, old ens, denz, <strong>in</strong>s, ça<strong>in</strong>s, la<strong>in</strong>s, OArag. d<strong>in</strong>s, OSard. <strong>in</strong>tu,<br />
(per) <strong>in</strong>tus, Vegl. fenta ‘until’ (×FINE).<br />
(DE) INTRO, INTRA ‘<strong>in</strong>’: Rum. întru, dentru > d<strong>in</strong>tru ‘from’, ‘out of’,<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>tru ‘through’(replac<strong>in</strong>g în, d<strong>in</strong>, pr<strong>in</strong> before vowels), pritntru ><br />
pentru ‘for’ (Mold, p<strong>in</strong>tru, Mac.Rum. t(r)u), înlauntru,<br />
înauntru/d<strong>in</strong>- ‘<strong>in</strong>side’ (< IN ILLAC INTRO), It. entro, dentro, per<br />
entro ‘<strong>in</strong>side’, vulg. drento, qu<strong>in</strong>entro, <strong>in</strong>tra, tra ‘between’,<br />
61
‘am<strong>on</strong>g’ (<strong>in</strong> the dialects <strong>in</strong>tra, entra mean ‘<strong>in</strong>’), <strong>ON</strong>eap. <strong>in</strong>tro,<br />
d(r)<strong>in</strong>to, now r<strong>in</strong>do, Calab. d<strong>in</strong>tru, SApul., SCal., Sic. <strong>in</strong>tra, ntra,<br />
d<strong>in</strong>tra, OUmbr. entra, OLomb. <strong>in</strong>tro, entro, entre, now enter,<br />
denter, OVen. <strong>in</strong>tro, dentre, now drento, OPied. <strong>in</strong>ter, now dr<strong>in</strong>ta,<br />
OGen. enter, Lig. drentu, Friul. entri, dentri (di), parentro ‘<strong>in</strong>side’,<br />
tra ‘between’, ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’, Prov. d<strong>in</strong>tre, la<strong>in</strong>tre, Cat. (en)d<strong>in</strong>tre, per<br />
d<strong>in</strong>tre de, OArag. (Berc.) entro, Sp. dentro (de), Ast. (Luarca)<br />
dientro, Gal. dentro, drento, Sard. (Log.) (a) <strong>in</strong>tro (de), Camp. (a)<br />
<strong>in</strong>tru (de), a<strong>in</strong>tra (= a<strong>in</strong>tru a).<br />
(DE) INTER ‘between’, ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’: Rum. între ‘between’, d<strong>in</strong>tre<br />
‘between’, ‘(from) am<strong>on</strong>g’, pr<strong>in</strong>tre ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’, OLomb. entre, now<br />
enter, OVen. dentre (<strong>in</strong> Italian INTER has become c<strong>on</strong>fused with<br />
INTRO <strong>and</strong> INTRA, so (<strong>in</strong>)tra above, but cf. entrambi, <strong>in</strong>trambo(due)<br />
etc. ‘both’ as Sp., Ptg. entrambos, which orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> a mistaken<br />
divisi<strong>on</strong> of dentrambos (‘between the two’), Surs. denter, LEng.<br />
t(r)anter, UEng. traunter, Fr. entre, d’entre, Prov., Cat., Sp., Ptg.<br />
entre, Ptg. dentre ‘from am<strong>on</strong>g’, Sard., <strong>in</strong>ter, now also <strong>in</strong>tra.<br />
(DE) INFRA ‘below’: It. fra, lit. <strong>in</strong>fra ‘between’, ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘with<strong>in</strong> (a<br />
time)’ (largely replac<strong>in</strong>g tra), OMarch. emfra, OSic., OLomb. enfra,<br />
62
Neap. nfra, Apul. (Bari) mbra, Friul. jenfri, fra, Rh. cf. (da)fert<strong>on</strong>,<br />
frata(u)nt above, Prov. enfra, enfre, amfre, denfra, de(n)fre ‘below’,<br />
‘am<strong>on</strong>g’, OCat. enfre/em- ‘below’, ‘between’, ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘with<strong>in</strong> (a<br />
time)’ Ragus. <strong>in</strong>fra ‘with<strong>in</strong>’.<br />
(DE, AD) FORIS /-AS ‘outside’: Rum. în/d<strong>in</strong> afară ‘outside’, afară de<br />
‘outside’, ‘apart from’, ‘bey<strong>on</strong>d’, fără ‘without’, It. (di) fuori, (<strong>in</strong>)<br />
fuori di ‘out of’, ‘outside’, ‘bey<strong>on</strong>d’, ‘apart from’, OIt. fuora, for(i),<br />
OEmil. fori, OMarch., OApul., OCampan. fore, OLomb. fora, fò,<br />
OBergam. de fora, Mil. föra, Calab. fora, fore, Lig. föa, Pied., Ven.,<br />
Cors., Neap. fora, OIt. for ‘except’, ‘without’, fuorchè ‘except<br />
(that)’, Friul. fur, difur, old four de ‘outside’, daùr ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’, <strong>in</strong>daùr<br />
‘backwards’, al<strong>in</strong>furdi ‘except’, Surs. ora, ano(ra), (or)dado(ra),<br />
Eng. our(a), dadour(a), Fr. dehors, hors de, for-, old (de)fors,<br />
Fr.-Prov. fors, Prov. for(s), fora(s), defor(a)s, defora, for(s)-, Cat.<br />
(a) fora, fora de, enfora ‘outside’, old for(s) ‘out of’, ‘except’,<br />
fores, defora, defores, defor(e) de, fors-, OArag. defueras (Gl.<br />
Emil.), Arag. (Sobrarbe)fora, Sp. fuera (de), de fuera (defuera),<br />
afuera, old fueras ‘apart from’, OLe<strong>on</strong>. fueras, fora, defora, Gal.<br />
fora, foras ‘apart from’, Ptg. (a, de) fora, fora de, afora ‘apart<br />
from’, Sard. foras (de), OSard. force ‘except that’.<br />
(AB, IN) EXTRA ‘outside’: Rum. stră-, It. stra-, ‘more than’ (partly<br />
derived from TRANS), Neap. estra ‘outside’, Calab. ab avestra,<br />
63
nnèstra ‘ditto’, OFr. estre, Prov. estra, OCat. estra(s), estres,<br />
OArag. (Gl. Sil.) gestra.<br />
(DE) EXTERIUS ‘outside’: OVen. dastier ‘apart from’, OFr. esters,<br />
est(r)iers, ODauph. ester, Prov. estiers, esters, isters, Gasc. esteirs,<br />
OCat. esters, estirs ‘without’, ‘apart from’, OSp. en estero (?),<br />
OLog. esteris (< Gen.).<br />
ULTRA ‘bey<strong>on</strong>d’: It. oltre ‘bey<strong>on</strong>d’, ‘besides’, OIt. oltra, ultra, Friul.<br />
oltri, Surs., Eng. ultra, Fr. outre, Prov. oltra, o(u)tra, OCat. oltra,<br />
now ultra, OArag. oltras, ultra, Sp., Ptg. ultra, Vegl. ultra.<br />
(IN, EX) C<strong>ON</strong>TRA ‘aga<strong>in</strong>st’, ‘opposite to’: Rum. cătră > către<br />
‘towards’, în/d<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tra ‘aga<strong>in</strong>st’ (<strong>and</strong> cf. încotro above, under UBI),<br />
It. c<strong>on</strong>tra > c<strong>on</strong>tr’a, c<strong>on</strong>tro, Mil. c<strong>on</strong>tra, Calab., Posch. cuntra, It.<br />
<strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>tra, <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>tro (a), ORom., OLomb. enc<strong>on</strong>tra, Neap., nc<strong>on</strong>tra,<br />
Pied. <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>tr, Friul. cu<strong>in</strong>tri, <strong>in</strong>cu<strong>in</strong>tre, Surs. (en)cunter, Eng.<br />
(<strong>in</strong>)cunter, Fr. c<strong>on</strong>tre, OFr. enc<strong>on</strong>tre, encuntres, OFr.-Prov.<br />
encuntres, Prov. (en)c<strong>on</strong>tra, Cat. c<strong>on</strong>tra, OCat. enc<strong>on</strong>tra, OArag.<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tra, cuentra, Sp. (en) c<strong>on</strong>tra, OSp. (es)cuentra, esc<strong>on</strong>tra, Gal.<br />
(des)c<strong>on</strong>tra, Ptg. c<strong>on</strong>tra, old esc<strong>on</strong>tra, Sard. c<strong>on</strong>tra, c<strong>on</strong>tras (de).<br />
(AD) PROPE ‘close to’: Rum. aproape, OIt. prope, OMarch.<br />
aprope, OLomb. (a)pruovo, aprov(o), Lomb., Pied., Berg. apröf,<br />
OVen. (d)aprovo, OEmil. aprovo, OGen. provo, Pied. apreu,<br />
64
V.Gard. prò, kaprò (< ECCU HAC PROPE), Friul. da pruf, LEng. pro,<br />
old proa, nanpro ‘so<strong>on</strong>’ (< IN HAC PROPE), OFr. (a)pruef, (en)<br />
aprof, Prov. (a)prop, (a)prob (de), aprep, en aprop, Cat. prop (de),<br />
aprop, old prob, OArag. prob de, apropb, prueb de, OSard.<br />
(ap)prope (de), Log. (ap)probe a, approba, Camp. approbi.<br />
(DE) IUXTA ‘next to’, ‘<strong>in</strong> accordance with’: It. giusta ‘<strong>in</strong> accordance<br />
with’, OFr. (de)jouste, Prov. (de)josta, dejusta ‘next to’, Sard.<br />
(Cent.) yusta, (Log., Camp.) gusta.<br />
(AD, DE) CIRCA ‘around’: (It. lit. circa ‘about’), OVer. de cerca<br />
‘round about’, Sp. cerca (de) ‘near’, ‘about’, acerca de ‘with’<br />
regard to’, de cerca ‘closely’, en cerca ‘round about’, Gal. cerca (<strong>and</strong><br />
cerco < CIRCUM), Ptg. cêrca (de) ‘near’, ‘about’, acêrca de ‘with<br />
regard to’, de cêrca ‘close by’.<br />
(IN) DE USQUE (AD) ‘all the way (to)’: Fr. jusque, jusqu’à ‘as far as’, ‘up<br />
to’, OFr. jusque(s), (en)dusque, (en)josque, enjusque, Prov. dusque,<br />
dosca, enjusca, (en)josca, (Cat. Lat<strong>in</strong> usque ad), OArag. usque (a), (Sp.<br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> usque ad), OSard. usce/-ke/-que a/usca. (In <strong>some</strong> areas *FINE AD<br />
has taken over: It. f<strong>in</strong>e/f<strong>in</strong>’/f<strong>in</strong>o a (also de-/<strong>in</strong>-/per-), Friul. f<strong>in</strong>, Surs.<br />
enf<strong>in</strong>, LEng. <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong> a, UEng. <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>a, perf<strong>in</strong>, OFr. f<strong>in</strong> a (< Prov.), Prov.<br />
f<strong>in</strong>(s), Cat. f<strong>in</strong>s (a), OSard. f<strong>in</strong>a a, now f<strong>in</strong>as <strong>and</strong> Camp. f<strong>in</strong>tsa(s) <<br />
Cat., <strong>and</strong> fusca, fisca, isca etc. (× usca), Vegl. fenta.)<br />
65
DE EX (DE) ‘from (out of)’: Fr. dès, Prov. des, deis, OCat., OSp., OGal.<br />
des, now desde, Ptg. dês, desde.<br />
DE AB ‘from’, partly ×DE AD ‘to’: It. da ‘from’, ‘by’, ‘to/at the house<br />
of’, ‘for’, Surs. da, de, prevocalic dad, ded ‘from’, ‘of’, ‘to (do)’<br />
(both pr<strong>on</strong>ounced as [də, dəd], <strong>and</strong> artificially separated), Eng. da,<br />
dad ‘ditto’ (<strong>and</strong> cf. dad üna vart ‘<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e side’), Prov. da, daz, OCat.<br />
da nitz ‘at night’, OArag. da Roma ‘from Rome’, OCast. da oriente<br />
‘from the east’, Sard. daba/daua/daue/dae/dai ‘from’, ‘by’.<br />
(IN, DE (AD)) VERSU ‘towards’: It. verso, <strong>in</strong>verse (di), OVen. enverso,<br />
de verso, OMil. <strong>in</strong>vers, Lomb. <strong>in</strong>ves, a, Calab. mbersu, Friul.<br />
viers/viars, Surs. viers, enviers, Eng. vers, <strong>in</strong>verŝ (Surs. tier, LEng.<br />
tar, UEng. tiers ‘to’ have been referred to INDE VERSU or INTU VERSU),<br />
Fr. vers, envers, devers, Prov. vers, ves, vas, enve(r)s/envas,<br />
deve(r)s/devas/ devais/daves/davas/deus/daus/dous, Cat. vers, old<br />
ves, envers/-vés, devers/-vés, OArag. deves.<br />
SECUNDUM ‘accord<strong>in</strong>g to’: It. sec<strong>on</strong>do, <strong>ON</strong>It. segundo, seg<strong>on</strong>d(o),<br />
Friul. se<strong>on</strong>t(ri), sec<strong>on</strong>t, Surs. secund, Eng. segu<strong>on</strong>d, OFr. se<strong>on</strong>, Prov.<br />
seg<strong>on</strong>(s), Cat. seg<strong>on</strong>s, OArag. seg<strong>on</strong>(t), segund, segunt(es), OSp.<br />
seg<strong>on</strong>do, segund/-gunt, now según, OAst. segundo, Gal.<br />
(a)según/-undo, OPtg. seg<strong>on</strong>do, segum, now segundo, Sard. (Cent.)<br />
sikunde, (Log., Camp.) segundu.<br />
66
F<strong>in</strong>ally we come to a group of adverbs denot<strong>in</strong>g positi<strong>on</strong> or directi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
formed by the comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of a prepositi<strong>on</strong> with a noun or adjective (<strong>some</strong><br />
of them also becom<strong>in</strong>g prepositi<strong>on</strong>s), <strong>and</strong> then a h<strong>and</strong>ful of others. Here we<br />
have IN/DE ALTO, AD ALTU(M) ‘above’, IN/DE BASSO, AD BASSU(M) ‘below’, AD<br />
M<strong>ON</strong>TE(M) ‘up the mounta<strong>in</strong>’ <strong>and</strong> so ‘up’, AD VALLE(M) ‘down to the valley’<br />
<strong>and</strong> so ‘down’, IN TORNO ‘around’ (replac<strong>in</strong>g IN GYRO, cf. <strong>in</strong> giro <strong>in</strong> Pereg.<br />
Silviae), IN/DE TRAVERSO, AD TRAVERSU(M) ‘across’, DE AVORSO for DE<br />
AVERSO ‘from the back’, which has been more recently posited as the<br />
etym<strong>on</strong> of the Rhaeto-Romance words for ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’ rather than DE POST<br />
(though I am bound to say that the existence of vart < PARTE, extracted<br />
from davart ‘from the side of’, ‘<strong>on</strong> the part of’, <strong>and</strong> of dado(u)ra, Fr.<br />
dehors, compared with forms with f elsewhere < FORIS, <strong>in</strong> both of which<br />
cases <strong>in</strong>tervocalic leniti<strong>on</strong> has taken place, does argue for derivati<strong>on</strong> from<br />
DE POST), PER MEDIU(M), IN MEDIO ‘<strong>in</strong> the midst (of)’, ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’, AD PARTE(M),<br />
DE (AB) PARTE ‘to the side’, ‘apart’, AD LATU(S)/LATERA ‘at the side (of)’, AD<br />
DORSU(M), IN DORSO ‘at/<strong>on</strong> the back’, AD REVERSU(M), DE REVERSO ‘<strong>in</strong><br />
reverse’, ‘the wr<strong>on</strong>g way round’, AD PRESSU(M), IN/DE PRESSO, PRESSE ‘close<br />
by’. Then we have *DE-RE-CAPU(T) ‘from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘anew’, <strong>and</strong><br />
various comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s with L<strong>ON</strong>GU with mean<strong>in</strong>gs such as ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘at a<br />
distance’, then ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, ‘near’, beside which I place (DE) L<strong>ON</strong>GE ‘(from)<br />
far away’ for comparis<strong>on</strong>. F<strong>in</strong>ally we have ABSENTIA ‘<strong>in</strong> the absence of’,<br />
67
which <strong>in</strong> <strong>some</strong> areas has replaced SINE as the word for ‘without’, though<br />
los<strong>in</strong>g the AB- <strong>in</strong> the process, apparently by associati<strong>on</strong> with SINE. At the<br />
same time, the areas which kept SINE tended to add an -s to it, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
southern France we f<strong>in</strong>d forms with a further -a added to this, so that there<br />
was evidently a merg<strong>in</strong>g of the two forms here. That *SINES al<strong>on</strong>e cannot<br />
account for all the Romance forms is shown by the vocalism <strong>in</strong> Vegliot,<br />
which requires an open E. Many of the above comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s developed at a<br />
late date, as is shown by their absence from Rumanian.<br />
IN/ DE ALTO, AD ALTU(M) ‘above’: It. <strong>in</strong> alto ‘<strong>on</strong> high’, d’alto, dal’alto,<br />
‘from above’, d’alto <strong>in</strong> basso ‘down’, Surs. ad ault ‘up’, dad ault,<br />
Eng. dad ot ‘out loud’, Fr. en haut ‘<strong>on</strong> high’, de/du/d’en haut ‘from<br />
above’, de/du/haut en bas ‘down’, Prov. en alt/aut, d’aut, d’aut en<br />
bas, Cat. (de) dalt ‘above’, daltabaix ‘down’, ‘topsy-turvy’,OArag.<br />
alto ‘above’. Sp. en alto ‘<strong>on</strong> high’, de (lo) alto ‘from above’, de alto<br />
a bajo ‘from top to bottom’, Ptg. ao/ no alto ‘<strong>on</strong> high’, em alto<br />
‘loudly’, de/do alto ‘from above’, de alto a baixo ‘from top to<br />
bottom’.<br />
IN/ DE BASSO, AD BASSU(M) ‘below’: It. <strong>in</strong> basso, abbasso ‘below’, a<br />
basso! ‘down with’, da basso ‘downstairs’, Friul. abas, Surs., Eng.<br />
a bass ‘down’, Surs. da bass ‘softly’, Fr. en bas ‘below’, à bas<br />
‘down’, à bas! ‘down with’, de/du/d’en bas ‘from below’, Prov. en<br />
bas, Occ. abas, debas, Cat. de baix ‘below’, a baix (vulgar embaix)<br />
68
‘down’, Arag. debais, Sp. abajo ‘below’, ‘down’, ¡abajo! ‘down<br />
with’, debajo ‘below’, Ptg. abaixo ‘below’, ‘down’, abaixo! ‘down<br />
with’, debaixo ‘below’, embaixo ‘below’, ‘down’.<br />
AD M<strong>ON</strong>TE(M) ‘up the mounta<strong>in</strong>’, then ‘up’: It dial. (Rom.) amm<strong>on</strong>te,<br />
Surs., Eng. amunt, Fr. am<strong>on</strong>t, Prov. a m<strong>on</strong>(t), Cat. amunt, damunt,<br />
OCat. am<strong>on</strong>(t), dam<strong>on</strong>t, dem<strong>on</strong>t/-munt, OArag. dam<strong>on</strong>tditas<br />
‘above-menti<strong>on</strong>ed’.<br />
AD VALLE(M) ‘down to the valley’, then ‘down’: Rum. la vale,<br />
devale, It. dial. (Rom., Abruzz.) abballe, Surs., Eng. aval, Fr. aval,<br />
Prov. a val, Cat. avall, davall, devall, OCat. daval, OArag.<br />
devallantes ‘go<strong>in</strong>g down’.<br />
IN TORNO ‘around’: It. (d)<strong>in</strong>torno (a), Friul. <strong>in</strong>tor, Surs. (d)entuorn,<br />
Eng. (d)<strong>in</strong>tuorn/en-, OFr. entorn > entour, autour (de), alentour,<br />
Prov. (d’)entorn, Cat. (d)entorn, a l’entorn, Sp. en torno a, en<br />
c<strong>on</strong>torno, old dentorno, Ptg. em torno de/a, em c<strong>on</strong>torno.<br />
IN/DE TRAVERSO, AD TRAVERSU(M) ‘across’: It. attraverso (a)<br />
‘across’, di traverso ‘amiss’, Friul. traviars di, Surs. (a) traviers,<br />
Eng. trav(i)ers ‘across’, Fr. à travers ‘across’, de travers ‘amiss’,<br />
en travers ‘crosswise’, Prov. a/en travers/-vès, Cat. de/a(l) través<br />
(de), Sp. (< Cat.) de través, al travès (de), OSp. de traviesso/-erso,<br />
69
a travieso de, travieso, Ptg. de travès, atravès (de), ao través de,<br />
OPtg. travesso, Sard. (OLog.) travessu, (OCamp.) treessu, (rustic<br />
Camp.) (a) truessu.<br />
DE AVORSO ‘from the back’: Friul. davous, Surs. davos, anavos,<br />
LEng. davò, <strong>in</strong> avò, UEng. davous, <strong>in</strong>avous ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d’.<br />
PER MEDIU(M), IN MEDIO ‘<strong>in</strong> the midst’, then ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’: Rum. în miez de,<br />
It. <strong>in</strong> mezzo a ‘amid’, per mezzo di ‘by means of’, OIt. per me(i) ‘<strong>in</strong> the<br />
middle of’, ‘<strong>in</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t of’, <strong>in</strong> me(i) (a) ‘<strong>in</strong> the middle of’, OPad. en mei<br />
‘ditto’, ORavenn. a me, March. me ‘<strong>in</strong>’, March., Rom. ma ‘to’, V.Gard.<br />
permez ‘towards’, Friul. parmis ‘beside’, Surs. (en)amiez, Eng. immez<br />
‘<strong>in</strong> the middle of’, Surs. enpermiez ‘asunder’, Fr. parmi ‘am<strong>on</strong>g’, OFr.<br />
en mi/emmi, Prov. per miei, en miei, Cat. enmig<br />
de, al mig de, Sp. en medio de ‘<strong>in</strong> the middle of’, por medio de ‘by<br />
means of’. Gal. en medio, no medio, por medio de, Ptg. em meio<br />
a/de, no meio de ‘<strong>in</strong> the middle of’, por meio de ‘by means of’, Sard.<br />
me <strong>in</strong> ‘<strong>in</strong>’.<br />
AD PARTE(M), (AB)DE PARTE ‘to the side’, ‘apart’: Rum. aparte<br />
‘apart’, departe ‘far’, It. a parte ‘apart’, da parte ‘aside’, da una<br />
parte ‘ditto’, ‘<strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<strong>and</strong>’, da parte a parte ‘right through’,<br />
d’altra parte ‘<strong>on</strong> the other h<strong>and</strong>’, da/per parte mia ‘<strong>on</strong>/for my part’,<br />
70
Surs. d’<strong>in</strong>a vart, da l’autra vart, da vart da ‘from the side of’, ‘<strong>on</strong><br />
the part of’, da mia vart, dapart ‘asunder’, Eng. dad üna vart,<br />
davart da, Fr. à part (old apart) ‘apart’, ‘aside’, de part en part (à,<br />
l’autre) d’une part, d’autre part, de/ pour ma part, Prov. d’una part,<br />
d’autra part, a part, de part, Occ. a part, de part (de part en part, a<br />
d’autra), Cat. de part (de part a part), d’altra part, Sp. a parte (old<br />
a part) ‘aside’, aparte (de) ‘apart (from), de parte, de parte a parte,<br />
a la otra parte, por mi parte, Ptg. a parte (old aparte) (de) ‘apart<br />
(from)’, de parte ‘aside’, de parte a parte, da outra parte, de/por<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ha parte, Sard. a pparte a ‘towards’.<br />
AD LATU(S)/LATERA ‘at the side (of)’: Rum. alăturea, alături, It.<br />
allato/al lato/a lato (a, di), OFr. delez/da-, lez > lès, Prov. delatz,<br />
latz (de), OCat. a lats (llats) de, Sp. al lado (de), Ptg. ao lado (de),<br />
lado a lado ‘side by side’. Vegl. a lič, a lai.<br />
AD DORSU(M), IN DORSO ‘at/<strong>on</strong> the back’: Rum. în dos ‘at the back’,<br />
în dosul casei ‘at the back of the house’, uşa de d<strong>in</strong> dos ‘the back<br />
door’, dea îndoaselea, de-<strong>and</strong>oasele ‘back to fr<strong>on</strong>t’, ‘c<strong>on</strong>trariwise’.<br />
It. addosso, <strong>in</strong> dosso/<strong>in</strong>dosso (of clothes) ‘<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e’s back’, Friul.<br />
aduès ‘<strong>on</strong>’, Surs. a dies, en dies, Eng. <strong>in</strong> döss ‘<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e’s back’, Eng.<br />
a(d)döss ‘<strong>on</strong> another pers<strong>on</strong>’s back’, Fr. au dos (de) ‘at the back<br />
(of)’, à dos de ‘<strong>on</strong> the back of’, Occ. à dos, endos, OCat. a dors (cf.<br />
terr<strong>and</strong>òs/ta- ‘a k<strong>in</strong>d of mushroom’), OSp. al dorso de.<br />
71
AD REVERSU(M), DE REVERSO ‘<strong>in</strong> reverse’, ‘the wr<strong>on</strong>g way round’: It.<br />
a/al rovescio ‘the wr<strong>on</strong>g way round’, Fr. à/au/de revers ‘at the<br />
back’, Prov. a revers, Occ. à/de revès, al rebès ‘ditto’, Cat. al revés,<br />
Sp. al/del revds, Ptg. ao/de revés ‘the wr<strong>on</strong>g way round’, ‘<strong>on</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trary’ (cf. OSp. a aviessas, ad abiessas (Gl. Sil.), Ptg. as avessas<br />
‘the wr<strong>on</strong>g way round’, from AVERSU, also OPtg. às vessas).<br />
AD PRESSU(M), IN/DE PRESSO, PRESSE ‘close by’: It. presso (a) ‘near’,<br />
a un dipresso ‘approximately’, OIt. appresso (a), ORom.<br />
appriesso/ad priesso (a) ‘near’, ‘after’, Rom., SIt. appresso, OAret.<br />
apresso ‘after’, OLomb. apres(s)o, après ‘near’, ‘after’, Fr.<br />
(au)près (de) ‘near’, à peu près ‘almost’, après ‘after’, d’après<br />
‘accord<strong>in</strong>g to’, OFr. emprès, Prov. près, (en)après, deprès, emprès,<br />
O/après de Cat. pres ‘near’, (en)aprés, emprès Cat. de(s)prés (de)<br />
‘after’, OArag. aprés, emprés ‘after’, OArag., OSp, aprés (de)<br />
‘near’, ‘after’ (< Prov.), OPtg. (d)aprés ‘ditto’.<br />
*DE-RE-CAPU(T) ‘from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>’, ‘anew’: OIt. di recapo<br />
(cf. It. da capo), OVen. de recavo > darecao, M<strong>on</strong>ferr. derkó, Friul.<br />
darcjà, Müst. darchiau, LEng. darcheu, UEng. darcho, OFr.<br />
derechief, OWald. dereco, Prov. derecap, derescabs.<br />
(DE) L<strong>ON</strong>GO (AD), AD L<strong>ON</strong>GU(M) ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, also acquir<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
temporal sense ‘al<strong>on</strong>g with that’, AD L<strong>ON</strong>GA(M) ‘at a distance’, ‘for a<br />
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l<strong>on</strong>g time’: Rum. lângă ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, de-a-lungul (+ gen.) ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, It.<br />
lungo ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, OIt. di lungo a/da, OVer. de l<strong>on</strong>go,<br />
OLaz. a l<strong>on</strong>gu ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, It. di lungo, Ven. de l<strong>on</strong>go, Emil. d’lunc,<br />
Lomb. (Bormio) de lunc, Tic. de l<strong>on</strong>c, Breg. dalung(a)<br />
‘straightaway’, Pied. (Ormea) dlunga ‘all al<strong>on</strong>g’, It. a lungo ‘at<br />
(great) length’, OVer. da la l<strong>on</strong>ga, OAret. a da l<strong>on</strong>ga ‘from a<br />
distance’, OAret. da lunga, Sic. a lunga ‘far away’ (I doubt<br />
M<strong>on</strong>aci’s gloss of the former as ‘for a l<strong>on</strong>g time’), It. di gran lunga<br />
‘by far’, alla lunga ‘<strong>in</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g run’, V.Gard. dl<strong>on</strong>gia ‘nearby’, a la<br />
l<strong>on</strong>gia ‘<strong>in</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g run’, dl<strong>on</strong>k ‘everywhere’, Tyr. dl<strong>on</strong>ğa, Friul.<br />
d<strong>on</strong>gje ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, ‘nearby’, di lunc ‘throughout’, Surs. alla liunga<br />
‘<strong>in</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g run’, LEng., Surm. dalunga, UEng. dalungia, dalum<br />
‘straightaway’, Fr. le/au l<strong>on</strong>g (de) ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, OFr.<br />
l<strong>on</strong>c/lunc ‘by’, sel<strong>on</strong>c/so- ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘near’ (> sel<strong>on</strong> ‘accord<strong>in</strong>g to’),<br />
du l<strong>on</strong>g de, en lunge ‘near’, al<strong>on</strong>c, l<strong>on</strong>ges ‘for a l<strong>on</strong>g time’, Prov.<br />
l<strong>on</strong>c (de), de l<strong>on</strong>c ‘near’, ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, OCat. de ll<strong>on</strong>c: ‘at full length’, a<br />
la ll<strong>on</strong>ga ‘<strong>in</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>g run’, OArag. (Gl. Sil.) por luenga ‘lengthily’,<br />
OSp. a la luenga ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘at full length’, en luengo ‘lengthwise’,<br />
Ptg. ao l<strong>on</strong>go de ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, ‘al<strong>on</strong>gside’, de l<strong>on</strong>go ‘al<strong>on</strong>g’, OPtg. à<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ga ‘far’, de/ao l<strong>on</strong>go ‘far away’.<br />
(DE) L<strong>ON</strong>GE ‘(from) far away’: It. (da) lungi, OAret. (de) logne/<br />
lunge, OGen. (de) l<strong>on</strong>zi, OLomb., OPied. da lunze/l<strong>on</strong>ze, OVen. de<br />
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Addenda<br />
lunçi, V.Gard. da l<strong>on</strong>č, Surs. (da) lunsch, Eng. (da)löntsch. Fr. (de)<br />
lo<strong>in</strong>, Prov. (de) l<strong>on</strong>h/ luenh/lo<strong>in</strong>g, Cat. (de) lluny, OArag. (Gl. Sil.)<br />
luenge, OSp. (de) lueñe, Ast. luentše tšuentši, Maragatería luenxe,<br />
Cabranes lloñe, Sanab. ll<strong>on</strong>ge, Gal., Ptg. (de) l<strong>on</strong>ge.<br />
ABSENTIA (× SINE ?) ‘without’: It. senza (di), vulgar Tusc. <strong>in</strong>senza,<br />
OTusc., OPied., OLomb., OSic. sanza, OLomb., OBol., OVen.<br />
çença, OBol. sens, Tic. senze, OMil. asensa, Friul. cence, senze,<br />
Surs. senza, Eng. sa<strong>in</strong>za, (OFr. sen(z), sens, now sans), ODauph.<br />
senso, Prov. sensa, sansa besides san(e)s etc., (Cat. sens(e) besides<br />
old sen(e), senes, OArag. si(e)nse, besides s(i)en, s<strong>in</strong>e(s)), Vegl.<br />
sjanza de.<br />
I have come across two more formati<strong>on</strong>s that are worthy of menti<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
first is a c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> for ‘unless’, *AD MINUS QUAM,which is found <strong>in</strong> those<br />
languages which ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed close cultural comtact; this was imitated <strong>in</strong><br />
Middle English as ‘<strong>on</strong> less than’, the ancestor of the present unless. The<br />
forms <strong>in</strong> the various languages are: It. a meno che, Fr. à mo<strong>in</strong>s que, Prov. a<br />
menhs que, Cat. a menys que, Sp., Ptg. a menos que. The other is a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>jugati<strong>on</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘for’ which developed out of the Lat<strong>in</strong> QUARE ‘why?’,<br />
The process of semantic change is the same as that seen <strong>in</strong> a sentence like<br />
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“You can’t be hungry already; why, you’ve <strong>on</strong>ly just had breakfast”, where<br />
the “why” is used elliptically for “Why is that? Because…” Some of the<br />
forms seem <strong>on</strong>ly to reflect QUA, but they appear to be c<strong>on</strong>nected: Rum. că,<br />
OIt. ca, OFriul. che, Fr., Prov., Cat. car, OCat.quar/cor, OSp., OPtg. ca,<br />
<strong>and</strong> cf. OSard. pro ca.<br />
75