notes on some adverbial and prepositional formations in ... - Page ON

NOTES ON SOME ADVERBIAL AND PREPOSITIONAL
FORMATIONS IN ROMANCE
Hugh E. Wilkinson
It has frequently been observed (e.g. by Grandgent, Bourciez) that
new adverbial formations developed in Romance, and that many new
prepositions were formed out of a combination of a preposition with
another preposition or an adverb, and sometimes with an adjective or noun;
moreover, in such formations there was a wide degree of common
development throughout the Romance-speaking area. Most of these
formations are transparent, but there are some which have always been
controversial, and I would like to look at some of these, examining them in
parallel with other related forms.
The word that first attracted my attention was Fr. ailleurs ‘elsewhere’,
which was traditionally referred to ALIORSUM. Then others noted that this
would not account for the diphthong and proposed *ALIORE + adverbial -S
(the existence of OFr. forms like aillors is no proof that the diphthong
developed later, as meilleu(rs) also appears as meillor(s)). An examination
of the forms in other languages shows the etymon to have been ALIUBI with
the addition of two adverb-forming elements, -RE and -S; this formation is
parallel to, and sometimes confused with, a similar *ALICUBI-RE-S
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‘somewhere’. The forms are:
*ALIUBIRE ‘elsewhere’: Rum. aiure(a)/aire(a), Fr. ailleurs, Prov.
alhor(s), Cat. alloure, ONav. allobre, OCast. ajubre, OLeon.
allu(m)bre/allure, now Ast. dayure/-ri ‘somewhere’, OGal.
(d’)allur(es), OPtg. alhur, now alhures. (Italian, Rhaeto-Romance and
Sardinian form from *ALTERUBI: It. altrove, Surs. autro(ra), Eng.
otrô/utrô, OSard. ateru(b)e, Nuor. atterube, Log. atterue.)
The variation between u and o in the tonic vowel is consistent with the
respective developments of UBI, and the proposed *ALIORE is explainable
as an intermediate stage in the development of the French and Provençal
forms; the Cat. alloure is barely attested, and the vocalism points to
contamination with a lloure/a lleure ‘freely’, cf. Fr. à loisir. In the same
way as modern Ast. dayure/-ri has come to mean ‘somewhere’, so Ptg.
alhures is often confused with algures

NECUNU, and see nigliur etc. below), and these are paralleled by North
Italian forms, Istr. ignuri/ignori and Tic. ingu ‘nowhere’. (These may also
find a counterpart in Ast. denyures, if this is correctly glossed by García de
Diego as ‘somewhere’ (< DE ALIUBI), but see below.) The final stage of
development is seen in the forms with a prefixed n- and the meaning of
‘nowhere’, so Surs. negliur/nigliur (auter), LEng. (i)ninglur, UEng.
inüngür, old ningür (Friul. in nìo seems to correspond); these are paralleled
in the Iberian peninsula by Ast. nenyures (and nenchures in the area where
ll > ch; here it occurs to me to wonder whether denyures belongs here, with
the change of n to d seen in dengun for ningun(o)), OGal. nenllur, and also
nengur, now ningures, evidently remodelled on nengun/ningun, OPtg.
nenlhur, nenhur, now nenhures. A similar negative formation is Rum.
nicăieri, with alternative forms such as nicăiurea, necăiuri, necăire, nicăiri,
coming from *NEC ALIUBIRE and meaning ‘nowhere’.
Next I would like to list the forms coming from ALIUNDE(-RE-S),
ALICUBI(-RE-S), ALIQUANDO and the pronominal ALIQUIS, ALIQUID/-QUOD,
ALIQUANTU, *ALIQU-UNU, and then discuss them:
ALIUNDE(-RE-S) ‘from elsewhere’: Rum. dial. ainde(re-a), Trans.
alinderea ‘elsewhere’, OLEng. altlguonder (= alchgluonder)
‘somewhere’, Prov. alhons, alhondre(s), Cat. dial.
allonre/alondre/ajonra/enllonreienjondre ‘elsewhere’, Gl. Sil.
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algodre (?), WAst. allundes/(d)ayundes/d’allund(r)es
‘somewhere’ (and nayundes/ney-/ni- ‘nowhere’). Cf. Bannio (Tic.)
oltundzә ‘from elsewhere’, It. altronde ‘elsewhere’, from
*ALTERUNDE.
ALICUBI(-RE-S) ‘somewhere’: Mac. Rum. arcò, Misox (Graub.) algó,
V.Sass. (Tic.) algö, Tyr. invalgó, Friul. in algó, OGal., OPtg. algur,
now algures ‘somewhere’, ‘elsewhere’.
ALIQUANDO(-RE-S) ‘at some time’: OSp. alguandre, Gl.Sil. algodre (?),
alquantre, OPtg. alguandres, OLog. aliquando/alic-, OCamp. aligandu.
ALIQUIS ‘someone’: OSard. alikis. Cf. OSp. alguí, alguién, now
alguien, Ast. dalguien, Gal. alguén, Ptg. alguém, with the
vocalization and stressed syllable of qui, quien, quen, quem.
ALIQUID/-QUOD ‘something’: OLomb. alget, Friul. alc, Tyr.
valk/velk,V.Gard. vèlk (and velgamìa ‘quite a bit’, from ALIQUA MICA),
Eng. a(i)lch, alchet, OFr., Prov. alques, Sp., Gal., Ptg. algo.
ALIQUANTU ‘some’: It. alquanto, ONIt. alguant(o), OFr. alquant,
Prov. alquant/alc-, OSp. alquanto/algu-, Gl. Emil. alquandas, OPtg.
alquanto.
*ALIQU-UNU ‘some(one)’: It. alcuno, ONIt. algun, Lomb. algün,
vergün, Mant. vargün, V.Gard. valgùn, Tyr. valgú, OSurs. anchin >
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entgin, Eng. alchün, LEng. inchün, Fr. aucun (old pl. alques-uns),
Prov. alcun, OCat. alcú(n), Cat. algú(n), Sp. alguno/algún, Ast.
angún, dalgún, Gal. algún, Ptg. algum, OLog. al(i)cunu (Sard.
algunu is from Sp.).
OLEng. altlguonder shows a mixture of ALIUNDE and ALICUNDE
similar to that of ALIUBI and ALICUBI seen above. The algodre of the Gl.
Sil. is often referred here, but seems to me more likely to be equivalent
to alguandre; another possibility would be that it represents ALICUNDE,
but it glosses “in occasione”, so seems to be an adverb of time. The v-
of the various Tyrolean forms is puzzling. Meyer-Lübke traces it to a
crossing of *ALIQU-UNU with VERE UNU, as seen in the Lombard
vergün/var-, for which he quotes vergot(a) < VERE GUTTA ‘nothing’ as
the source of the -g- (Rohlfs also suggests nigün < NEC UNU); he also
adds for comparison Bergam. vergló, V.Tell. invergoló ‘some where’.
OSp. alguién, Ptg. alguém became the basis for new formations OSp.
ninguién, Ptg. nenguém > ninguém ‘no one’, and to find the background
for this I would like to look next at the forms for ‘no’, ‘none’. Here we
have, in addition to forms going back to classical NULLUS, a variety of
forms reflecting NE UNU, NEC/NEQUE UNU and NE IPSE UNU, with some
forms showing a palatalization of the -S- that I will deal with later.
(There are also forms coming from VERE UNU in the sense of ‘any’ but
in most areas only used in a negative context, as indeed are those from
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ALI-QU-UNU in many areas, thus Rum. vreun/vrun, Mac. Rum.
verun/vârun, OLomb. verun, Lomb. vergün/vargün (as we have just
seen), and Sard. (Camp.) verunu; this last appears as the intervocalic
form of perunu, which I would have taken as a back-formation from
verunu, were it not for the fact that Old Ragusan has parun, showing
that there must have been interference from PER.)
NE (IPSE) UNU, NEC/NEQUE UNU ‘no(ne)’: Rum. nici un, It. nessuno,
ONIt. nesun/nexun/nisun/nixun/neson, now Bol. incion, Lomb.
nisün, Ven. nissun, OSic. nissun/nixun, now nisciunu, Neap., Apul.
nәsciunә/nisciunә, Calab. nesciunu/ni-, Cors. nigiunu, OTusc.,
OUmbr. neuno/ni-, ONIt. negun(o)/ni-/negono/neungun, OMarch.
negunu, now Lomb. negün/ni-, NWTusc. niguno, Umbr. gnuno,
Pied。, gnün, Posch. nügün, Istr. ningoun, Friul. nis(s)un/niš-,
Tyr. negun/de-, V.Gard. degùn, Surs. negin, Eng. ingün, old
üngiün, OFr. neun/nun/negun/nesun/nisun (and neul/niul, surely
re-formed from neun by association with nul, as there is no
evidence of ULLU surviving), ODauph. niun, Prov.
negun/degun/nengun/neisun/neun, now also digun, Cat. ningú(n),
old and dial. negú/degú/nengú/dengú/dingú, OArag.
negun/ni(n)gun, Sp. ninguno/-gún, OSp. ne(n)guno/nigun, Andal.
denguno, Leon., Ast. nengun/de(n)gún, Gal. nengun/ningun, old
6

nehun/ninhun/nenhun/ niun/negun, Ptg. nenhum, old
nẽhum/neun/niun/nengũ/ningũ/negum, (Sard., old neunu/niunu,
Cent. nessunu, Log. nešunu, Camp. nišunu all from It.), Vegl.
nenčoin.
It will be seen that certain of these forms are nasalized as nen-/nin-,
and others have dissimilation of the n- to d-.
I would like to take next words formed with the addition of -QUE. In
Latin the suffix -QUE (to be distinguished from the enclitic -QUE ‘and’,
which is presumably also to be found in NEQUE, ATQUE (AD + -QUE ?) and
QUOQUE) was used to form indefinite pronouns and adverbs from
interrogatives, rather like Japanese -ka in dareka ‘someone’, nanika
‘something’, itsuka ‘some time’ and so on, formed from the corresponding
interrogatives meaning ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’; these Latin forms had the
force of ‘any at all’ and so ‘every’, ‘each’. So we have the forms QUISQUE
‘each’, UTERQUE ‘each of two’, UBIQUE ‘everywhere’, UNDIQUE ‘from
everywhere’, CUMQUE (later restricted in use) and QUANDOQUE ‘every time’,
UTIQUE ‘anyhow’, USQUE ‘all the way’; there are also parallel formations
with -QUAM, QUISQUAM ‘anyone at all’, UMQUAM/UN- ‘ever’ (related to
CUMQUE), QUAMQUAM ‘although’ (developed from the sense ‘in any way’
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via ‘however + adj.’), QUOQUAM ‘somewhere’, UTIQUAM (rare) ‘in any
way’ (with neg. NEUTIQUAM, late NEUTIQUE ‘in no way’), USQUAM
‘anywhere’. (It seems to me that -QUE, like -QUAM, must come from an
interrogative-relative form, as Buck compares UTROQUE with Oscan
pútereí-píd, and gives píd as corresponding to QUID; this use of the relative
may have some relevance to the later Romance formations.) There is no
doubt in my mind that the interrogative forms UTER, UBI, UNDE and the
originally interrogative UT lost their original C- through a mistaken division
of SI-CUT, NE-CUBI or SIC-CUT, NEC-CUBI etc. as SIC-UT, NEC-UBI etc.;
UMQUAM also, like CUMQUE, is related to CUM, and there may be a similar
origin for USQUE/-QUAM (perhaps *CU-S- from *CU ‘whither’ corresponding to
HUC, ILLUC). Evidence for this is seen in the parallelism between ALIQUIS,
ALIQUANTUS, ALIQUANDO etc. and ALICUBI, ALICUNDE, and between SI QUIS, SI
QUANDO etc. and SICUBI, SICUNDE, SICUT and SICUMQUAM; note also the relation
between UMQUAM and CUMQUE. Similar forms beginning with NEC- are
NECUTER, NECUNDE (and cf. UNDECUNDE ‘from everywhere’) and
NECUMQUAM; in the case of UBI we have an old NE CUBI for NECUBI, a reading
CUBITUS in a manuscript of Plautus which has been emended as UBI TUS (=
THUS), and “NESCIOUBI non NESCIOCUBE” in the Appendix Probi. The fact
that these forms all originally began with a C- (or QU-) is vouched for
beyond doubt shown by the correspondence between UBI, UT and Oscan puf,
puz, not to speak of the Greek and Sanskrit forms. Another pointer is the
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close relationship between SI and SIC. At the earliest stage of Latin we can
imagine that the subjunctive mood alone expressed the condition (cf.
English “had I been there”, “were I to tell you”, “should it not be so”), and
the SI was an adverb ‘so’ (cf. “so help me God” and the hesitation in
Romance between si and se for ‘if’, perhaps resulting from such a
collocution; similarly QUAMQUAM, as noted above, was an adverb, and the
mood alone expressed the concessive idea, as in “be it ever so humble”).
This is comparable to the situation in Japanese, where the verb endings
-eba, -tara alone express the condition, and the optional moshi at the head
of the clause is an adverb expressing the idea ‘(if), say’, ‘supposedly’, and
the time may come some day when this moshi becomes a conjunction
introducing a conditional clause (a similar adverb tatoe adds emphasis to
the concessive idea in clauses meaning ‘even if...’). The connection
between SI and SIC is seen further in Rhaeto-Romance, where the scha < SI
introducing the condition is picked up by schi < SIC introducing the
apodosis.
An offshoot of this is the attachment of CUMQUE ‘ever’ to
interrogatives to form universal relatives of the type ‘whoever’,
‘whenever’; cf. the use of “ever” in English and “immer” in German. So
we get QUICUMQUE, QUALISCUMQUE, UBICUMQUE, QUANDOCUMQUE and the like.
This process is repeated in Romance, using the other word for ‘ever’, UMQUAM
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(*UNQUE), producing combinations like QUI (QUOD/*QUE) UMQUAM, QUALIS
(QUOD/*QUE) UMQUAM in the senses, first, of ‘whoever’, ‘whatever’, and then
of ‘any(one) whatever’. There also developed in Romance new formations
using –QUE; *ANQUE and *DUMQUE. The original meaning of AN, which
was used to introduce an alternative question, seems to have been ‘in that
case’, and the addition of -QUE seems to have given it the sense of ‘in
whatever case’, ‘on any occasion’. In the modern languages the meaning
has developed variously into ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘again’, ‘even’, ‘ever’. *DUMQUE,
from DUM (while) (cf. late DONIQUE from DONEC), perhaps had the meaning
of ‘at some point’, and then ‘at that point’, ‘then’, also developing to ‘then’
in the sense of ‘in that case’. Here I would like to set out the Romance
forms that have evolved from or replaced QUISQUE, QUICUMQUE, QUALISCUMQUE,
QUANTUSCUMQUE, UBICUMQUE., QUANDOCUMQUE, *ANQUE and *DUMQUE.
QUISQUE > *KISQUE, *QUISQUE/*KISQUE (ET) UNU, *QUIS CATA UNU (with
CATA from Greek katá ‘per’, as in kath’héna ‘per (one) person)’, also
*CASQUE UNU, and the plain CATA UNU ‘each’: OIt.
cescaduno/cescheduno, now ciascheduno (with the vowel of CATA),
ciascuno, also OIt. cascuno, catauno/cadauno, OApul. scaduno, ONIt.
çasca(d)un(o)/za-, çascun(o)/za-, çiscu, OBergam. zeschadun/çes-,
OGen. çascaun, OVicent. caske, ORom. ciasche, Surs. scadin, Eng.
s-chadün/scodün (REW also quotes a form chascol, for which I can
10

find no support), Fr. cescun/chescun/chascun > chacun (from which
chaque), OFr. also cadhuna (Oaths), cheun, Prov. (us)quecs (fem.
(una)quega), cascun, cad(a)un, Gasc. quiscun, quisquedun, OCat.
(un) quec (fem. (una) quega), quiscun, cascun, now cadascú(n),
cada un, dial. cadú(n), OArag. quiscun, OSp. quiscataqui (Gl.
Emil.), cascun(o) (Berceo, Alex.; also quisque, perhaps a Latinism),
Sp. cada uno, OGal., OPtg. quiscadaun/-um, Gal. cada un, Ptg.
cada um, OLog. kis, uniskis/unuchis, also OSard., Cent, cada unu,
with zascatunu, časkadunu etc. from Italian. (These forms are to be
distinguished from others meaning ‘whoever’, which have come
from QUI(S)… QUOD/*QUE, so It. chi che, Fr., Prov. qui que, OCat.
quis que; cf., from QUALIS…QUOD/*QUE, OIt. qual che(d)
‘whatever’, which becomes qualche ‘some’ (so also qualcun,
qualchedun), Friul. qualchi, Eng. qualche, (ün)qualchün,
qualchedün, Fr. quel que, quelque, quelqu’un, Prov. qual(s) que,
calque, qualcun/qualchedun/cal-, Cat. qual que, qualque/calque,
qualcú/calcú, OArag. (Berceo, Alex.) qual... que/qualque, Sard.
(Cent.) calchi, qualcunu/calincunu, (Log.) calchi,
calecunu/calikiunu, (Camp.) calecunu/cali(n)cunu/cuncunu. For
‘whoever’, ‘whatever’, ‘any...whatever’, each language has, in the
main, created out of its own materials compounds on the pattern
‘whoever/whatever it be’, ‘whom/what you will’, combining
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QUI(S)/QUALIS . . . QUOD/*QUE with the appropriate verb.)
QUICUMQUE, *QUI (QUE) UMQUAM ‘whoever’: It. chiunque, OIt.
chiunche/-qua/-ca, Abruzz. chәnungә, Neap. conca/cunca, Laz.
chinca, Salent. cinca (also, from QUID-, OIt. cheunque, Laz. chenca,
Salent. cenca ‘whatever’), Fr. quiconque, OFr. qui qu’on-que(s), ki
onques, qui unques. Provençal and Catalan have words meaning
‘something’ coming from what the FEW takes to be
QUIDAM-CUM(QUE)/QUIDDAM-, so Prov. quiacom > quicon,
que(z)acom, OCat. que(d)ocom, queucom > quelcom,
queacom/quia-; the modern quelcom has sprung from a phonetic
confusion and has no relation to QUALIS, but such forms also exist,
see below. Italian and Rhaeto-Romance also have forms going back
to *OMNI-UMQUAM, so OIt. ognunche/-que/-ca(na), OLomb.
omiunqua/-ca, OUmbr. kignunca, OMil., Pied. minca, Surs. mintga,
mintgin, Eng. mincha, minchün.
QUALISCUMQUE, *QUALIS UMQUAM ‘whatever’: It. qualunque, OIt.
qualunche/-qua/-ca, OCampan. qualecumqua, now Neap. caconca,
Eng. qualunque, Fr. quelconque, OFr. quel ke onques/quels que
unca, Prov. qualsacom/qualacom/calacom, Gasc. quaucom
‘something’, OCat. cal(o)com, now qualcom ‘ditto’, OSard.
qualunque/calunqua/-ca (does Camp. cuncunu ‘someone’ belong
here rather than above?).
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QUANTUSCUMQUE, *QUANTUS UMQUAM ‘however much’: It.
quantunque ‘although’, OIt. also quantunche, OCampan.
quantumqua ‘however much’, Neap. quantonca, Calab. quantunca
‘although’, Eng. quantunque ‘however much’ (OSard. cantunke is
unconnected, being cantu + pleonastic inke < HINC).
UBICUMQUE, *UBI UMQUAM ‘wherever’: It. (d)ovunque ‘wherever’,
‘anywhere’, OMarch. oveunqua, Neap. (ad)dovonca/addonca,
Calab. (ad)dunca/unca.
UNDECUMQUE, ‘from wherever’: this seems to be the source of Prov.
ondacom > endacom/endacon and similar forms, Cat. ontocom/ont
a com ‘somewhere’.
QUANDOCUMQUE, *QUANDO UMQUAM ‘whenever’: OIt. quandunque/
-qua/-che, OFriul. quant unche; cf. also Vegl. kun ke ‘whenever’, as
It. dial. quando che. We also have the similarly formed It.
comunque ‘however’ (as from *QUOMODO UMQUAM), OCampan.
com’unqua.
*ANQUE ‘in any case’ (perhaps sometimes crossed with UMQUAM):
Rum. încă/ORum. nke (in Hungarian orthography), Mac. Rum.
ningă/nică ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘again’, ‘(one) more’, It. anche, old and
Tusc. anco, (O)Lomb. anc/an (before a cons.), Cors. ancu, NIt.
anca(mò), NPied. inca ‘also’, ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘again’, ‘(one) more’,
13

‘ever’ (also old unquanche/-co), Ven. anche ben ‘pretty well’, also
the negative forms neanche/neanco, OLomb. ni anc, NIt.
gnanca/nanca/gnan, NPied. gninca, Pral. (Pied.) nәenko ‘not even’,
Tyr. (Badia) chiamó, Friul. ancja(mò)/incja(mò)/anciemò, old
anc/anchie/ancie ‘also’, ‘still’, ‘again’, ‘(one) more’, with the
negative nance ‘not even’, Surs. aunc, LEng. anca, UEng. aunch(a),
‘still’, ‘yet’ (aunc mai ‘never yet’), ‘(one) more’, with the negatives
gnaunc, gnanca, niaunch(a) ‘not even’, OFr. anc, anque(s), ans, also
ainc, ainques, ains, (× ains ‘before’) ‘ever yet’, ‘(the best) ever’,
‘moreover’, (neg.) ‘never yet’, ‘not even’, Prov. anc (also anc mais,
anc jorn) ‘ever yet’, ‘(the best) ever’, (neg.) ‘never yet’, ‘never
more’, s’anc ‘if ever’, ancse(mpre) ‘always’, Cat. anc ‘ever yet’,
‘(the best) ever’, (neg.) ‘never yet’, anc que ‘even if’, OSard. anku
‘also’, now used to introduce a wish (so also Camp. anki), Log., Camp.
anca (also ancu(s)), Camp. anki ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘again’, ankus ki
‘although’, Vegl. nanka ‘not even’. (The rustic Sp. anque ‘although’
has come from aunque, and the Gal. anque, OPtg. emque either
from Spanish or from ainda que.)
There are also compounds beginning with anc- or related forms
which have traditionally been referred to HANC or HINC but may in
fact belong here. The first of these has this element combined with AD
HORAM: It. ancora, ancor (before a cons.), SIt. also angora, ancore,
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OLomb. anc(u)or, Romagn. incora/incú, Umbr. ancó, Laz. nco,
Campan. angò, Pied. ncu, Lig. ancú, OVen. ancò, Ven. ancúo ‘still’,
‘yet’, ‘again’, ‘(one) more’, ‘even’, ancor(a)chè ‘although’, Ven.
ancura ben ‘pretty well’ (Rohlfs says all the Italian forms are from
French; note that ancora also penetrated Old Ragusan, from
Venetian), Fr. encore, old encor ‘still’, ‘yet’, ‘again’, ‘(one) more’,
‘even’, Prov. ancar/ancara(s)/enquer(s)/enquera(s)/encora(s) ‘ditto’.
Cat encara, old encar(s)/encare/enquara/enquera/ancara/ancor
‘ditto’, OArag. encar(a) ‘ditto’ (also in Berceo and Alex.), OGal.
ancora, encar, now encara (Sard. ncora(s) is from It.). Combined with
HODIE we have: OTusc., OEmil., OLomb. ancoi, Pied. ancöi, Lig.
ancö, Emil., Lomb. incö, Istr. ancui, V.Gard. ancuei, Tyr. (Badia)
incö, OFr. ancui/en-, Prov. ancoi/ancuei/en- ‘today’. Combined with
AD NOCTEM: OFr. anquenuit/en-, Prov. ancanueit/en- ‘tonight’.
*DUMQUE/-QUAM ‘at some point’, DUNC (in inscriptions) ‘then’: It.
dunque, OTusc. donqua/dun-/adomqua/(a)dumqua/(a)donque/-dun-,
OSIt. (a)dunqua/-ca/-que, (O)NIt. donca, vulgar Flor. donche, Neap.
donca, March. donga, Calab., Sic. (ad)dunca, Friul. doncje (ORh.
dunque < It.), Fr. donc, OFr. donques/adon(c)/dunc/idunc, Prov.
donc(s)/adonc(s)/(a)doncas/dunc/idunc, with nequedonc ‘all the
same’ (cf. OFr. nequedent), Gasc. ladoncs, Cat. doncs, old
dons/adon(c)s/(l)ladon(c)s/donces/donques, with si dons (donch(e)s)
15

no ‘unless’, OArag. (Berceo) doncas, si doncas non, Sard.
addunca/(e)duncas, Vegl. dunkwe.
As I have already introduced UMQUAM ‘ever’, let me now give the reflexes
of this word in Romance, together with its negative counterpart NUMQUAM
‘never’. They could both be augmented by MAGIS or IAM MAGIS, originally
to give the sense ‘evermore’, ‘nevermore’, and these have now ousted
UMQUAM in the areas where it survived, and also NUMQUAM in the same
areas.
UMQUAM, *UNQUE ‘ever’: (for possible traces in Rum. see încă above),
OIt. unque(mai)/unqua (and the unquanche/-co above), ONIt.
unca(mai)/unche, OFr. omque (Eul.)/onc/onques/unc/unques,
Fr.-Prov. unques, Prov. onca(s)/unca, OCat. (rare) unqua (these
words are all used like the English “ever”, that is, mainly in negative
contexts).
NUMQUAM ‘never’: OFr. nonque(s), Prov. nonca(s), OCat.
nunca/nunqua, OArag. nunqua/nuncas, Sp. nunca, old
nuncas/nunqua(s), Gal. nunca, Ptg. nunca, old nunqua/nonca.
There is a similar ending *-QUE, *-CE, formed by adding a vowel of
support to Latin words ending in -C (cf. Lat. HUIUSCE, HORUMCE etc.).
Many of the forms concerned are deictic words which have ECCE or
ECCU/*ACCU prefixed, so I will also include other pronominal forms with
the same prefix, by way of introducing certain other combinations of these
16

pronouns which have not always received comparative treatment.
TUNC/*TUNCE ‘then’: Rum. atunci(a)/-cea, OVen., Posch. tonca,
V.Tell. tunc (in the senses of It. dunque), Arag. entonz/-nç/-nce/es-,
Sp. entonces, old enton(z)/-nç/-nce/eston(z)/-nce(s), Ast.
entonce/es-/entoncenes/antoncies/nantoncias/estoncias/entós, Gal.
(d’)entón/estonce(s)/(d)estoncias/estonzas, Ptg. entom > então, old
entonce/estonce(s) (in the other areas TUNC was replaced first by
*DUMQUE and then by other locutions).
ECCE HIC etc. ‘here’: Rum. aci(i) (< *ECCU HIC (IBI)), ice/ici (< *HICCE or
*HICQUE), aici (a- + ici), acice (< *ECCU HICCE or *HICQUE), acía (<
*ECCU HIC HAC), It. qui, OTusc. quici, It. ci/ce, March., NIt., SIt. ki,
Emil. ké, Romagn. què, Cors. chici, OVen. coçii, Pied. zì, Trent. cì,
SWPied. chizí, Friul. achi, Eng. qui(a)/a(c)qui(a) (cf. Rum. acía), Fr.
ici, ci, Fr.-Prov. iqui, Prov. aissí/eissí/aicí/aizí/ci ‘here’, aquí ‘here’,
‘there’, Cat. ací/assí/aicí/aissí/així/(-)ci ‘here’, aquí ‘here’, ‘there by
you’, Arag., Sp. aquí, Ast. aiquí, aquina (with analogical paragogic -n,
-a), Gal. e(i)quí, OGal., OPtg. aqué ‘here is’, Ptg. aquí, old qui, Vegl.
čajk.
ECCE HAC etc. ‘this way’: It. qua, OSic. quaci, Apul. qua/acquà, Neap.
accà, Campan., Calab., Sic. ca, OVen. za/ça, Emil. za, Pied. sa, Lomb.
cià, Tic. scià, Friul. cha, Surs. cau > cheu, tscheu, LEng. (ac)qua, ca,
17

(a)tscha, UEng. (ac)cò, (a)tschò, Fr. ça, Prov. (ai)sa/(ai)sai/eisa/en
sa/en ça/essa, Cat. açà/assà/ça/ençà, Sp. acá, Gal., OPtg. acá, Ptg. cá.
Also IN HAC: Ven. inà, Friul. inná, Surs. (en)nau > (en)neu, LEng.
(in)nan, UEng. innò, Cent. annou.
ECCU HOC ‘hither’: Rum. acoace/încoace ‘here’, ‘hither’, ‘this way’,
Mac. Rum. acò, also dial. aoace/-ci (= a- + oace < *HOCCE or
*HOCQUE), Gal., OPtg. acó, Vegl. kawk ‘there’. Also IN HOC: Mil. inóga,
Comasc. inoga, Sard. (Cent.) inoke, (Log.) innoghi, (Camp.) innoi
‘here’.
ECCU HUC ‘hither’: OLog. cuke/cue/cui, Cent. (in)kue, Log.
kughe/igue/inkui, Camp, inguni ‘there’.
(ECCU) HINC ‘hence’: It. quinci, OVen. quence, OPad. quenze ‘hence’,
OIt. inci, ONeap. ince, OAbruzz. nci, SIt. nce ‘there’, Alp. dink,
OLog. nce, now inke, Camp. inči ‘here’, also abinke/a(v)inke
‘beyond’ (< ABHINC). Cat. aquén, Sp. aquende, old aquén, Gal., OPtg.
aquende, Ptg. aquem‘on this side (of)’ have traditionally been referred
to ECCU INDE, but more recent opinion places them here, regarding -de
as the fused preposition de taken from the prepositional use. Support
for this view is found, it seems to me, in the OAst. aquence, which
allows us to suppose that aquén was formed from this — the
expected form — as entón from entonce (cf. ILLINC).
18

ECCE/ECCU IBI ‘there’: It. quivi, OSien. quive, Pad. chive (taken as
meaning ‘here’ and giving rise to a new live for‘there’), Gasc., Aran.
aci(e)u ‘here’, aqui(e)u ‘there’ (the Prov., Cat. a(i)cí, aquí given
above may combine HIC and IBl). Also IN IBI: OSard. iniui, Cent,
inibe, Log. innie, Camp. inní.
ECCU INDE ‘thence’: It. quindi ‘thence’, ‘therefore’, Eng. quinder
‘henceforth’ (for aquen(de) see ECCU HINC above).
(AD) ILLIC ‘there’: It. li, OIt. lici, Bol. lè, OTusc. (-)gli, ONIt. ge/ie,
Friul. lì., Prov. li, Cat. allí, OArag. alyí (from which astí ‘here’ was
formed), Sp. allí, Ast. ellí/illí/allin(a), Gal. alí/elí, old ly, Ptg. alí.
(AD, DE) ILLAC ‘that way’: Rum. dial. aoace/-ci ‘there’, Mac. Rum.
auá/auaţe, Rum. la ‘to’ (< ILLAC AD , cf. dela ‘from’), It. là (di là),
OIt. laci, Elba illá, Neap., Apul. allà, Campan., Calab. llà, Calab.,
Sic. ddà (and these southern dialects also use the same forms to mean
‘to’, ‘at’, perhaps also coming from ILLAC AD), Friul. lá (di lá) ‘there’
(and lá di ‘to’), Surs. leu, LEng. (al)là, UEng. (al)lò, Fr. là (delà), Prov.
la(i)/aila(i)/eila(i) (dela(i)), Cat. lla/allà/e(n)llà (dellà), Sp. allá, Ast.
allá/alá, Gal., OPtg. aid, Ptg. là, Log. addae (and cf. inella > inedda
‘over there’), Vegl. lu(o)k.
19

ECCU ILLAC ‘that way’: Rum. tncod, Megl. cod ‘there’, It. colá, Cors.
culà/quallà ‘over there’, Tyr. colá, Sp. acullá, Gal. a(l)colá Ptg. acolá,
Sard. (Cent.) accuddae/incuddae.
(AD, ECCU) ILLOC ‘thither’: Rum. acolo/colo/(a)colea/încolo/din-, Mac.
Rum. aclò/acloţe ‘there’, OIt. (× IN LOCO?) iloco, OLomb.
il(l)ò/inlò/inloga/illoga/aló/aloga/quilò‘there’, alò ‘straightaway’
Pied. chilò, Bergam. chelò/chilò/ilò/ilöga, Posch. ilò/quilò, Apul. ddo
(in Old Italian and in Latium and the south there are also forms
corresponding to LOCO; similarly, IN LOCO has also given words like
Elb.inlCors. inlocu/-gu which are used in a negative context for
‘nowhere’), Tyr. tlo (< ECCU ILLOC), OFr. illo/
iloc/iluec/a-/e(n)-/ilueques etc., Prov. alo/alloc/aloec ‘straightaway’
(cf. Prov. enloc, Cat. enlloc ‘somewhere’, ‘nowhere’), Ast. alló/aló,
Gal., OPtg. aló, Sard. (Camp.) illoi > iddoi (the OLog. illoe given in
REW is not supported elsewhere; cf. in logu verunu ‘nowhere’).
ILLINC ‘thence’: OIt. linci ‘thence’, Parm. lenca ‘hereabouts’, Lallé
alenc, LLim. (o)len ‘over there’, Cat. allèn/allent/allens, Sp. allende,
OSp. allen(t)/dallen(de), OAst., OGal. allence, Gal. alén/alende,
OPtg. alende, now além; at first sight it looks as if these were formed
to balance aquende etc. (taken as coming from ECCU INDE; indeed
20

Rohlfs also says that linci was formed on the model of quinci), but
the OAst., OGal. allence, and perhaps the Cat. allens, point to a
development from ILLINC parallel to that of aquende etc. from ECCU
HINC.
ECCU ISTAC/ISTIC/ISTINC ‘(from) there by you’: It. costà, costì, costinci
‘ditto’.
ECCU SIC ‘so’: ORum. aşi, now aşa (= aşi + -a), Mac.Rum. acşi, It.
cosí, OLomb. encosí, ONeap. cossì, OCampan. cuscì, OSic. cus(s)ì,
Neap. accossí, SIt. accus(s)í/-ší (leading to new formations like assuší,
astuší, alluší, accullí), Emil. acsí, Romagn. acšè, Friul. (a)chusí, Sard.
gasi/gosi, now also gai/goi (< ECCU HAC SIC), Vegl. kosajk.
(ECCU, AD) MODO ‘now’: Rum. acum(a)/acu/amu, ORum. acmu ‘now’,
acuşi ‘straightaway’, Mac. Rum. amó/acmó ‘now’, OIt. mò, Lomb.
mò ‘now’, Tic. mò, Lomb. a(n)mò/ancamò ‘still’(cf.also *ANQUE),
amò/zamò (< AM MODO?) ‘already’, SIt. mò, ONeap. modo ‘now’,
SCalab., Sic. (ac)comora, cam(ad)ora (< ECCU MODO (AD) HORA) ‘now’,
Friul. (a)cumò, mo ‘now’ ancjamò ‘still’ (and cf. *ANQUE), V.Gard., mo,
Tyr. (Badia) chiamó, Comac., Tyr. amó ‘still’, ‘besides’, Eng. amò
‘now’, Sard. (OLog.) comodo/ecomo, now kòmo, (OCamp.) modo,
now immò/immou/immoi, Vegl. mut ‘now’, jamo ‘still’.
ECCE/ECCU HOC ‘this’: It. ciò ‘that’ (pronoun of reference), ONIt. ço/zo,
21

Pied., Lig. sò (giving rise to lò ‘that’ in the same way as allò was
created in Catalan and Benasque, and also astò in Benasque), SIt. zo
(< OFr.), OEmil., OPied. co, Friul. ço/zo, Eng. co (in conjunctions
like LEng. avant co cha, UEng. aunz co cha ‘before’, da co chあ ‘just
as’), atscho cha ‘so that’ (= It. acciocchè), OFr. ço/iço/ice/ceo, now
ce, Fr.-Prov. co, su, (s)ce, Prov. ais(s)o/aizo/eisso/eizo/aisço/so/ço/zo,
aquo/aco, Gasc. aquo, Cat. a(i)çò/a(i)ssò/a(i)xò/aizò/ço/so/zo,
Benasque asó, OUArag. aço/ço/zo, aquo, Sard. cio/zo (< It。, Cat.,
also azo qui as acciocchè), Vegl. kó.
ECCE/ECCU ILLE/ILLU ‘that’: Rum. cel, acel, It. quello, Neap., Laz. chillo,
chello (neut.), SIt. quillo/chillu/chiddu/cuddu, OLomb. quelo, now quel,
rustic chel, Pied., Parm. col, V. Ses. chiel, Tyr. kel, Friul. chel, ORh.
(a)quil, Surs. quel, quei (neut.) ‘this’, tschel, tschei (neut.) ‘that’,
LEng. quel, quai (neut.), tschel ‘that’, UEng. quel, aquel, que/old
aque (neut.) ‘that’, OFr. cel/icel/iceol, now celui, celle, OFr.-Prov.
echel, Prov. cel/a(i)cel/aquel, Cat. aquell, old
achel/a(i)cel/aizel/cel/zel, Sp. aquel, aquello, Ast. aquel/aquil,
aquello/aquilo, Gal. aquel/aquil, aquelo/aquilo, Ptg. aquêle, aquilo,
old aquel(o), OSard. (i)cullu/e-, now icudde/(i)cuddu, Vegl. kol.
ECCE/ECCU ISTE/ISTU ‘that by you’, later ‘this’: Rum. acest, ORum.
22

cest, It. questo, Neap., Laz. chisto, chesto (neut.), SIt.
quisto/chistu/custu, Lomb. quest/chest, Pied., Parm. cost, V.Ses.
quest/cust, Tyr. kest, Friul. chest, Surs. quest, Eng. quaist/quist/old
aquaist, OFr. cist (Oaths)/cest/icest, now ce(t), OFr.-Prov. echest,
Prov. cest/aicest, aquest/e-, Cat. aquest, old achest/aicest/cest, Sp.
aqueste, aquesto, Gal. aqueste/aquiste, aquesto/aquisto, OPtg. aqueste,
aquesto/aquisto, OSard. ecuste/ecustu/i-, now (i)custe/custu, Vegl.
kost.
ECCE/ECCU IPSE/IPSU ‘the very’, later ‘that by you’: It. (Elba) quesso,
Neap., Laz. chisso, chesso (neut.), SIt. quisso/chissu/cussu, V.Tell.
kwéš, Cat. aqueix, Sp. (poet.) aquese, aqueso, OPtg. (rare) aquesse,
aquesso, OSard. icusse/icussu/ e-, now cusse/cussu.
Having looked at the demonstratives formed in combination with
ECCE/ECCU, I would like here to take some other combinations involving IPSE,
such as ILLE IPSE, ISTE IPSE, IPSE ILLE, METIPSE, as well as IPSE itself (but
ignoring the simple ILLE, ISTE).
ILLE IPSE ‘self’: Rum. acelaş(i) ‘same’ (supposing that -şi, or -aşi,
comes from IPSE rather than SIC; in that case either the plural form
coming from IPSI has been extended to the singular, or we may have to
do with IPSIU(S), see below), Surs. lez, gliez (neut), old pl. -ls ezs ‘he’,
‘it’, ‘they’,Eng. less, gliess (neut), old pl. ls’ ess ‘ditto’, Cat.
23

ele(i)x/ilex ‘self’, ‘same’, OArag. eleisco (Gl. Emil.)/eleiso (Gl. Sil.)
(= eleixo) ‘self’, OPtg. elesso. In these and other forms below,
including the French and Provençal forms, we see a palatalization of
the S, and this has generally been referred to an alternative form ICSE
mentioned by Suetonius. However, there was also a form IPSIUS,
found in a 3rd-century inscription in northern Italy and also used in
early documents in France, in one case combined with lue (= lui); I
suspect that this form was accented on the first syllable, and is a
clearer pointer to palatalization than ICSE. It also has the advantage of
avoiding the rather surprising change from PS to CS (but ICSE may
only be an alternative graphy for ISSE anyway).
ISTE IPSE ‘self’: ORum. acestaş(i) ‘same’, It. (i)stesso, OCampan., Sic.
stissu, Emil., Lomb. istess, OVen. instesso, Surs. stess, Eng. (i)stess,
Prov. (eu, tu, el) esteus ‘self’, Vegl. istjás ‘same’.
NE/NEC (ILLE) IPSE ‘not. . . self’: It. nessuno ‘not even one’, ‘no’, Friul.
nisun ‘ditto’, OFr. neis/nes/nis ‘not even’, nesun/ni- ‘no’, Prov.
neis/neps/neus/negue(i)s/negueus ‘(not) even’, neisun ‘no’, OCat.
neix/neis/nele(i)x/negue(lei)x ‘(not) even’.
IPSE ILLE ‘he himself’: Rum. dânsul ‘he’, întrânsa ‘in it’, ORum.
cunusul ‘with him’. The d- is usually explained as originating in a
combination like la dânsu ‘to him’, with the D of AD, but see below;
24

for the inserted n cf. Late Latin forms in ins-.
METIPSE, *METIPSIMU ‘self’ (the forms coming from *METIPSIMU,
wherever they are found, seem to have originated in French): It.
medesimo ‘same’, ‘self’, OTusc. medesmo, ONeap. mademmo, OSal.
medesmo/-emmo, Ven., Rom. medemo, Gen. mèžimu, Pied.
meesme/meisme/medem, OAbruzz. medemme, OVen. medhesemo,
OBol. meesemo, OSic. medemmi, Surs. medem, OFr.
meesme/meisme/methime, now même, Prov.
meteis/mat-/medeis/medeps/mezeis/me(d)esme/mezesme, Cat. mateix,
old meteix/meseix, OSp. me(e)smo/meismo, now mismo, OPtg. medês,
meesmo, now mesmo, Sard. metessi (< Cat.). (Note that in many areas
use is made of PROP(R)IU ‘own’ to give the meaning ‘same’, ‘self’: It.
proprio, OEng. pröpia, Fr. propre, Cat. propi, Sp. propio, Ptg.
proprio.)
IPSE ‘self’, ‘the very’: Rum. însumi, însuţi etc. ‘myself’, ‘yourself’
etc., OIt. esso lui ‘he himself’, con esso ‘with himself’, essa lei (also
esso lei, indeclinable) ‘she herself’, con esso le mani ‘with these very
hands’, ORh. sipse ‘himself’, Surs. jeu mez, ti tez, el sez etc. ‘I
myself’, ‘you yourself’, ‘he himself’ etc., quel sez mument ‘this very
moment’, OSurs. amwess ‘myself’, te dvessa ‘yourself’, nus us sves
‘ourselves’, now svess (indecl.) ‘self’, OFr. en es le jor ‘that very
day’, en eis l’oure ‘that very hour’, Prov. el eis/eus/eps ‘he himself’,
25

eissa la ma ‘this very hand’, en epsa l’ora ‘that very hour’, OCat. tu
eys ‘you yourself’, si eis/eus ‘himself’, now dial. eix ‘that by you’,
Arag. exe ‘that’ (exa ora, OArag. por ejso), ONav. por si eneys ‘for
himself’, OSp. el enés ‘he himself’, sese ‘himself’, por sise ‘for
himself’, de suyose ‘of their own’, now ese, eso ‘that by you’, Ptg.
êsse, isso, old esso ‘ditto’, Sard. (OLog.) isse/-su, (OCamp.)
issi/-su.
We also have some cases of IPSE preceded by an element
containing a D, perhaps AD or ID, frequently found in the invariable
form ID IPSUM, firstly in the sense of an emphatic pronoun. We have
already looked at Rum. dânsul, which may originally have belonged
here; there is also an ORum. adins el ‘he himself’. In Italian we
have desso, firstly as in io desso ‘I myself’, and then predicatively
with the idea of ‘the one in question’, as in son io quel desso ‘I am
the one’. Then we have Surs. il di adessa ‘the Last Day’, with the
fem. adessa echoing “dies illa”, ‘that (fateful) day’.
Another group of forms are those with a temporal sense, which
are cautiously referred to AD IPSU; the problem is that they have
vowels which go back to an open E, so interference by *AD PRESSU has
been suggested. The forms are: Rum. înadins, într’adins ‘on purpose’,
‘really’, It adesso ‘now’, ‘immediately’, ‘always’, Ven. adéso, Lomb.,
Pied. adés, Romagn. adèš, OFr., adès ‘immediately’, ‘always’, Cat.
26

adès ‘now’, OSp. adiesso ‘immediately’. Linked with these are certain
feminine formations, such as OIt. adessa ‘immediately’ and Dante’s
issa ‘now’, evidently of dialectal origin, like V.Breg. issa, Como,
Posch. isa, Bormio ésa, and probably coming from IPSA HORA (see
below); the same element is presumably to be seen in Surs. ussa, Eng.
uossa ‘now’, which have been referred to HOC IPSA. Similar forms are
OSien. in issa via, OUmbr. essavia, now savía, ‘immediately’. (Rum.
însă ‘but’ also seems to belong here, perhaps originally having the
sense ‘that is true (but)’.)
*IPSA MENTE ‘in the same way’: OFr. essement/ense-, Prov.
eissamen/epsa-/eussa-/ensa-/aissa-/issa-, Cat. eixament, OArag.
eissament/issa-.
Next I would like to take other combinations with some of the
elements we have looked at, beginning with HOC, which has also survived
in isolation.
HOC ‘this’: OFr. o, preserved in oui (< HOC ILLI) ‘yes’, Prov. oc/ò/òi
‘yes’, Cat. ho ‘it’, OSp. (Cid) o que ‘that which’.
PER/*POR HOC ‘for this’: It. (im)però ‘however’, old and dial. ‘for that
reason’ (now replaced by perciò), Surs. peron, Eng. però ‘however’,
OFr. por o/poruec ‘for that reason’. Prov. (em)però, ‘however’, ‘for that
27

eason’, Cat. (em)però ‘however’, OSp. (Cid) por o ‘for that reason’,
(em)però ‘however’, now empero ‘however’, pero ‘but’, Gal. pero/pro
‘but’, old empero ‘however’, OPtg. (em)pero ‘however’.
APUD HOC ‘by this’: Fr. avuec > avec ‘with’.
INTER HOC (+ -S), ‘meanwhile’ (the supposed interference of USQUE seems
unlikely): OIt. introcque ‘meanwhile’, introcque che ‘while’, OSien.
intro che, OLomb. (en)tro qe ‘until’, ‘as long as’, OSurs.
antroqua/antrocca, now entocca/entochen ‘until’, ‘as far as’, OEng.
(Müst.) introekk in/eintt ‘as far as’, OFr.
entre/entrues/entruesque/tresque a ‘until’, ‘up to’, OFr.-Prov. entro(b)
‘as far as’, entro (conj.) ‘until’, tro a/trosque a ‘as far as’, Prov.
(en)tro (a)/tro(s)que/trecia que/entroque/ -ca ‘as far as’, ‘until’, OCat
(en)tro (a)/estro (a/en)/(d-en)tro que ‘as far as’, ‘until’, OArag. tro(a)
que/ (Alex. P) enroa que ‘until’, (en)tro a ‘as far as’, now entro (a),
OGal. tra/tro en/trões ‘as far as’, tro/trões (que) ‘until’.
We also find HOC in certain Romance formations meaning ‘because’,
‘in order that’ or ‘although’, and I would like to take these next, together
with the cognate forms in other areas, and also the words for ‘why’, even
though they do not contain HOC.
PER (ECCE HOC) QUOD/QUID ‘because’, ‘although’: Rum. pentru că (< PER INTRO
QUOD) ‘because’, OIt. perocchè, perciocchè ‘because’, ‘in order that’, now
28

perchè ‘ditto’, also ‘for which reason’ (= perlo(c)chè) and (old) ‘although’,
OGen. per que, OLomb. per quel que, OFriul. in perzo chu ‘in order that’,
Surs. pertgei (che), LEng. perchai, UEng. perche ‘because’, OFr. por ce que
‘in order that’ > parce que ‘because’, pour que ‘in order that’, Prov. per so
(ço) que/car, per que ‘because’, ‘in order that’, ‘in case’, OGasc. per sso
que ‘in order that’, Cat. perquè, old per qe qar/per ço (zo) que/cor/con
‘because’, per ço (zo) que ‘in order that’, OArag. perque/per ço que
‘because’, porque ‘because’, ‘in order that’, ‘for which reason’, ‘although’
pero que (Berceo, Alex.) ‘although’, Sp., Gal., Ptg. porque ‘because’, old
porque ‘in order that’ (now para que), ‘for which reason’ (now por lo que, pelo
que), old pero que ‘although’, Sard. pro ca (old), (Cent., Log.) proite chi,
(Camp.) poita chi ‘because’ (cf. the words for ‘why’ below), ORag. perchì,
Vegl. perké/-kó ‘because’.
PER/PRO/*POR QUID ‘why?’: Rum. pentru ce (cf. pentru că above ; PER
QUID is also seen in cât pe ce ‘almost’), It. perchè, ONIt. perqué, NPied.
pәrquè, Neap. pәcché, Calab. pecchí, Sic. pirchí/picchí, Apul. percè,
SApul. purcè/puccè, OFriul. parce, Surs. per tgei, LEng. per chai,
UEng. per che, Fr. pourquoi, Prov. per què, Cat. per que, Sp. por qué,
Ptg. porquê, Sard. (OLog.) prokitteu/progitteu, now p(r)oiteu (< PRO
QUID DEU(S) ‘why ever?’).
I would like to continue by taking the reflexes of the simple forms of some
words we have already looked at in combination, IBI, INDE, UBI, UNDE, SIC,
29

which also appear in other combinations, and with them the word for ‘how’,
QUOMODO.
IBI ‘there’ (also crossed with HIC ‘here’): (Rum., see UBI), It. ivi,
(unacc.) vi, OMarch., ORom. be, OIt., Pied. i, OLomb., OVen. ie, Fr.
y, old i (Oaths), Prov. i/hi/ie, Bearn. be, Cat. i/hi/y, OArag.
ive/vi/i/ie, ay ‘there’, des i ‘then’, now i/bi (with haber), OSp.
i/hi/y/hy, por i, des i, now ahí ‘there by you’, Ast. ahina, OGal. dy
‘from there’, OGal., OPtg. (h)i/(h)y, des i ‘then’, now aí ‘there by
you’, Sard. ibi/ibe/iui/iue/bi/bie/vi/ive.
INDE ‘thence’, later ‘of that’: cf. Rum. îndemna ‘incite’ (< INDE
MINARE, as Fr. emmener), pretutindeni/-rea ‘everywhere’, It. poet.
indi, (unacc.) nde, ne, Calab. ndi, Friul. in/end, Surs. lit., Eng.
and/d’/n’, V.Breg. davent, Surs. daven/na-, Eng. davent (< DE AB
INDE) ‘forth’ (cf. dad hoz davent ‘from today on’), Fr. en, old ent
(Eul.), Prov. en(t)/ne, Cat. en/ne, old ende, OArag., OSp.
en(ne)/end(e)/en/ent, dend(e)/dent, desend(e)/desent ‘from there’,
‘after that’, por en(de) ‘for that reason’, OGal. end(e)/en, des ende
‘after that’, Gal. dende(s)/dendesde ‘from’, OPtg. end(e)/en ‘from
there’, porende ‘for that reason’, now porém ‘however’, Sard. (Log.)
inde, (Camp.) indi/inni, OLog. auinde (AB INDE), Log.
poskinde/dabos-, Camp. debošinde (DE (AB) POSTEA INDE). There is also
one belt where INDE AD has given words for ‘towards’, ‘as far as’, so
30

Prov. enta/enda, Gasc. enta/ena, Cat. dial. enda, Arag. enta/ta.
These are to be distinguished from similar Italian and
Rhaeto-Romance forms, which are to be referred to INTU(S) AD (see
below). Similar, but perhaps independently developed are Murc. inda
‘until’, Ast. (a)inda, Salam. entá/entadia/entavia ‘still’, and Gal., Ptg.
ainda, old inda ‘still’, ‘besides’; cf. also OPtg. indagora ‘just now’.
UBI ‘where’: Rum. (old and dial.) i(u)o/iu(ă) (< IBI UBI) ‘where’,
încotro (< IN CONTRA UBI) ‘which way’, Mac. Rum. iu(ă) ‘where’, It.
dove ‘where’ (originally d’ove ‘from where’), vulgar Tusc.
indove/(i)ndó, OIt. ove/o/u, OMarch. ovi, OCampan. obe, Campan.
addove/addó, Apul. addó, Lomb. dua, Tic. du, Ven. indove, Berg. ndo,
Pied. anuà, Istr. ula (UBI ILLAC), Tyr. iola/dola, Friul. ula/(in)dula (Bec
gives indulà), Surs. nua, LEng. ingio(a), UEng. inua (< IN (DE) UBI), Fr.
où, old u, Prov. o, OCat. o, Moz. ob, OArag. (Gl. Emil.) obe, o, Arag.
do, OSp. o/u/do, OLeon., Ast. u, OGal., OPtg. u, du ‘(from) where’,
‘when’, ‘while’, Sard,
ube/inube/uba/inuba/uve/ue/inue/ibue/ebue/ibua/abua/aua/ui/aui/in
ui.
UNDE ‘whence’: Rum. unde ‘where’, de unde ‘whence’, dial.
niciunde ‘nowhere’, It. onde/donde ‘whence’, ‘from/of which’, used
in some areas for ‘where’, as SCalab. undi, Sic. unni (dunni, dundi
‘whence’). NIt. (d)unde ‘where’ (dedunde, dandunda ‘whence’),
31

donde/dont ‘where’ (Posch. daindont ‘whence’), Pied. lunde
‘where’. Friul. dontri ‘whence’, Surs. (da)nunder ‘whence’ (and
lunder ‘from that’, as It. laonde ‘whence’, ‘thence’, ‘wherefore’ ?),
LEng. (d)ingionder, UEng. (d)inuonder ‘whence’ (

which’.
(AC, IN) SIC ‘so’ : Rum. şi ‘and’, ‘(so) also’, şi cu ‘along with’, It.
(OGen.) asi, OLomb. aisì (and cf. acsí, acšè above), sì. ..come, (lit.)
sì (grande), sicchè, siccome, siffatto, OPied., Lomb. insí, Lomb.,
NPied. inší, Friul. si, V.Gard. nši, Surs. aschi(a), schi, OSurs. scha (in
apodosis), Eng. uschè/-eja, schi (in apodosis), Fr. ainsi, old
aissi/eissi/issi/ansi/ensi/einsi, si (grand), old si cum, OFr.-Prov. aisi,
Prov. aissi(n-s)/enaissi/aixi/assi/eissi/ensins/an-, si (gran), si cum, Cat.
així, old aixis/axi/aissi/assi(s)/exi/en a(i)xi, sí, OArag. assi(n), Sp. así,
old sí, adsi/ansi/asin, Ast. assí/ansí/asina, Gal.
assí/así/ansí/asina/asiña, Ptg. assim, old as(s)i, si, Sard. si (now used
to introduce a wish), ORag. sì.
*ALI-SIC ‘so’: OIt. (modelled on Fr.) alsí, Fr. aussi, Occ. ausin.
*ALTERI/-RO-SIC ‘so’: It. altresì, old altressí, OUmbr. altresie, OLomb.
autresì, Rh. altresì. OFr. altresi (Oaths)/autressi/autersi, Prov.
a(l)tressi/autresi, Cat. a(l)tressi, OArag., OSp. otrossí, now otrosí,
Gal., OPtg. outrossi, Ptg. outrossim.
QUOMODO (AC, ET, -MENTE) ‘how’, ‘as’: Rum. cumu > cum ‘how’, ‘as’,
cum să ‘so that’, It. come, siccome, old como, vulgar Tusc., Sic., Cors.
comed, ONIt. comente, NIt. com/con/co/cmed/cmè, OBerg. xi cum,
OMarch. quomo, Calab. cuomu, SApul., SCalab., Sic. comu, SIt.
33

coma/comu a/com’a/cum’a, Friul. come/com/cum/con, OFriul. sichu,
ORh. sicu, Surs. co/sco/cu, Eng. cun/cu (cha)/co/sco/scu/ (old) scoa,
Fr. comme, comment, OFr. cume/com/con/cum/sicum, Prov. come/
coma/cuma/comen/co/con. /cum/si cum/cossi/consì, Cat. com/(old)
con/co/sí com/aixíco/enaxí/con, OArag. com, Sp. como, OSp. cuomo
cuemo cuamo, assi commo, OLeon. com, Gal. como/coma, Ptg. como,
OPtg. come/coma, Sard. co/co a/ca/co e/ke/comente/
sicommenti/(Camp.) comenti, ORag. com, Vegl. kojza ‘as’.
I have already had occasion to mention MAGIS and IAM MAGIS as
alternatives to NUMQUAM, so I would like to take these words next, as well
as the combination NON MAGIS QUAM, which came to mean ‘only’, and (DE
EX) AD HORAM/HODIE MAGIS ‘now’, ‘from now on’, which will be a natural
introduction to other adverbial phrases expressing time.
IAM ‘already’: Rum. deja, It. già, di già, Cors. diggià, ONIt. ça/za,
Emil., Lomb. zamò, Friul. za, Surs. gia, Eng. già, OUEng., giò, Fr.
déjà, OFr. ja, Prov. ja, deja, Cat., Arag. ja, Sp. ya, Ast., Gal. ja, Ptg.
já, Sard. (Cent.) ya, (Log.) ga, Camp. gai.
IAM MAGIS ‘ever’, (neg.) ‘never’: It. giammai, ONIt. çamai/zamai,
Friul. zamai, Fr. jamais, Prov. jamais, Cat. jamai/old yamai, OCat.
enjamai, james/yames, Sp. jamás, OSp. yamas, OLeon. iammais,
OGal. in maes, Gal., Ptg. jamais.
34

NON. . .MAGIS ‘no more’, ‘never’: Rum. nu mai ‘no more’, It. non
mai ‘never’, OFriul. no(n) mai/mai non ‘never’, Surs. mai, maina,
LEng. nu mai, UEng. nu mè, (old) nun mæ ‘never’, OFr. ne mais
‘never’, Prov. no ma(i)s, Cat. no mai ‘never’, Sp. no más, Gal. non
mais, Ptg. não mais ‘no more’, Sard. non mai ‘never’, Vegl. no(n)
muj/muj no(n) ‘never’.
NON MAGIS QUAM/*QUE ‘no more than’, ‘only’: Rum. numai, OIt.
non ma (che), now non. . . che, Cors. un ma che, OPad. nomè/lomè,
OLomb. nomá, Ven. nomé/nomá, Lomb., Tic. dumá, Istr.
dóma/nama, Rovigo domè, Pied. mak, NPied., OGen. ma, Friul.
nomé, Eng. numé, OFr. ne mais (que), now ne. . .que, Prov. no
ma(i)s (que), now no que, Cat. només, OCat. no mas, Sp. no más
que, Ptg. não mais que.
(DE EX) AD HORAM MAGIS ‘now’, ‘from now on’: It. or(a)mai,
OMarch. oromay, Rh. oramai, OFr. ormai ‘now’, desoremais, now
désormais ‘henceforth’, OCat. deshores mays (in imitation of Fr.).
(DE EX) HODIE MAGIS ‘from now on’: OUmbr. ogimai, OVen. oima,
OUEng. huzmê, OFr. (de) uimais/maishui, Prov. oimais/ueimais,
OCat. uymays, Sp. de hoy más, OGal., OPtg. (des) oje mais/desoi
mais.
35

As I indicated just now, (conjunctions) I would like to take next group
of adverbs are those denoting time, beginning with QUANDO ‘when’ and the
analogically formed *TANDO ‘then’. Here there is an important group
formed with the use of HORA, which developed the sense of ‘time’ (though
in Rumanian the usual sense is ‘(one) time’), as we have already seen in
*ANQUE AD HORAM, AD HORAM MAGIS. Basically this group resolves itself
into words for ‘now’ and ‘then’. In the first case we have two distinct types,
as Sp. ahora, Ptg. ora, and OSp., Ptg. agora; the latter clearly go back to
HAC HORA, but there is no trace of a C in any of the reflexes of the former,
and the combination usually posited is AD HORAM ‘at the appointed time’,
which is in fact used by St. Jerome in the sense of ‘at the moment’. The
words for ‘then’ are based on ILLA HORA or, occasionally, IPSA HORA, ISTA
HORA. There are also a few other isolated combinations. To complete the
group I would like to take the words that go back to SEMPER ‘always’ and
SUBINDE ‘straightaway’, ‘constantly’, which developed new forms
*SUBENTE and *SUBENTIUS in the sense of ‘often’, a development which
Rohlfs traces to the influence of FREQUENTIUS.
QUANDO ‘when’ (which also replaced CUM as a conj.): Rum. când,
It. quando, Umbr., Laz. quanno, SIt. quandu/quannu, NIt.
36

quant/quan, quando che, Friul. quant/quan(t) che, Tyr. can, Fr.
quand, Prov. quan/can, Cat. quan, old can, Moz. cand/cuand, Arag.
cuan, old quand(o)/quan(t), Sp. cuando, Gal. cando, Ptg. quando,
old quando/cando, Sard. (OLog.) quando, now cando, (Camp.)
candu, Vegl. kuond ke/kun ke.
*TANDO ‘then’ : ORum. tând…tând ‘now…now’, ORom.,
OMarch., OApul. intando, ORom. intanno, Neap. tanno, Calab.,
SApul. tandu, Calab., Sic. tannu, Laz. (a)ndanno, Sard. (Log.)
tando, (Camp.) tandu, intandus.
QUA HORA ‘when’: Tic.(in)cora, V.Tell. quora/cora, Surs. cu(ra),
Eng. cur(a) (che), Prov. quora/cor(a), coras que, cora…cora
‘now…now’, OCat. cora.
AD HORAM ‘now’: It. ora/or ‘now’, or ora ‘just now’, ‘in a
moment’, d’ora innazi ‘henceforth’, ONIt., Elba aora, NIt.
aúra/áura/a(v)óa ‘now’, Mil. a vora che ‘until’, Fr. or ‘now’
(sentence connector), dorénavant ‘henceforth’, old ore(s) ‘now’,
desor/desore(s) ‘from now’, desorenavant, Prov.
or/ora(s)/ar/ara(s)/er/era(s)/aor/aora(s)/aura,
dora-en-avant/d’or(as)enavan, Gasc. (Ariège) desaro
37

‘immediately’, Cat. ara, old are and Provençalizing or, OArag.
(Berceo, Alex.) oras…oras ‘now…now’, Sp. ahora, old ora, aora
‘now’, ora…ora ‘now…now’, por ahora ‘for now’, Gal. oora >
hora ‘now’, Ptg. ora ‘now’ (now used as sentence. connector.), por
ora ‘for now’, ora…ora ‘now…now’, d’ora em diante
‘henceforth’.
HAC HORA ‘now’: OArag., OSp., OLeon., OGal., Ptg. agora.
AD (IN) ILLA(S) HORA(S) ‘then’: Rum. adineoară/adineaori/(a)dineoarea
‘just now’, Mac.Rum. (a)deaneavră, It. allora, old alloramai, allore (cf.
allorchè ‘when’), lora, lor (lorchè), OLomb. enlora, inlora, illora,
OBerg. illora, now ilora/ilura/igliura, Surs. lu(ra)/allura, LEng.
(i)lura/illura, UEng. a(l)lur(a), old alhura, Fr. alors, lors, lorsque, old
alores/lor/lore(s)/ilor(e)s, Prov. laor/alara/alera, Cat. aleshores,
llavors, old les hores/a
l’ora/alhora/llavor/lavo(e)slavos/(a)llavores/-vors, OArag.
allora/alora/(a) la ora, cf. Sp. a la hora, Ptg. à hora ‘at the
moment’, ‘just in time’.
(AD/IN?) IPSA HORA ‘then’: OSp. essora ‘then’, Ast. a sa ora ‘now’,
OLog. issara/ins-, now issara(s), Camp., insaras, assóra(s) ‘then’.
ISTA HORA ‘now’: Gal. arastora (< AD HORAM ISTA HORA) ‘at the
moment’, OLog. avestara (< AB ISTA HORA ) ‘from now on’ (cf. MFr.
38

astheure < à cette heure ‘now’, so also Prov. astora).
SUB/SU(R)SU HORA ‘just now’ (Corominas suggests SU(R)SU, but I wonder
if SUB IPSA doesn’t fit better): OCat. susara/suara ‘just now’, OSp.
ass(o)ora, sus horas, a sos oras ‘suddenly’, then adeshora(s) (< a de so
hora), OGal. adesora, OPtg. adeshoras, now Sp. a deshora(s), Ptg. a
desoras ‘at an untimely hour’, by association with des- used to
express a negative sense. One more isolated formation is Surs.
trasora ‘all the time’, apparently from TRANS HORAM.
SEMPER ‘always’: It. sempre, OGen. semper, OVer. sempro, Neap.,
NCalab. sembә, Calab. sémpi, Pied, sémpi, Mil. semper/sempr’, Friul.
simpri, ORh. semper, Surs. semper, Eng. saimper, Fr., Prov.
sempre(s) ‘always’, ‘straightaway’, Prov. ancse(mpre)/de(s)se-/jasse-
‘always’, Cat., OUArag., OWLeon. sempre, Sp. siempre, Gal., Ptg.
sempre, Sard, sempre, Vegl. sjanpro.
SUBINDE, *-ENTE, *-ENTIUS ‘straightaway’, ‘constantly’: It. lit. sovente
‘often’, (adjectivalized) soventi volte ‘oftentimes’, OLomb. sovenz/-ço,
(adj.) sovençe fiadhe, OGen. sovençe fiade, Pied. su(v)énz/-ns, Surs.
savens, LEng. sovent, UEng. s(o)venz/su(v)enz, Fr. souvent, Prov.
soven(t)/soen(t)/soentre, Cat. sovint, old sovent/soven/sovin/suvin,
OUArag. sovent.
We come next to two groups of miscellaneous words denoting time. In
39

the first I take up (IN) HOC/*HOQUE ANNO ‘this year’, *ANTE ANNU(M) ‘last
year’, HAC NOCTE ‘last night’ and (IN) DE MANE or variants thereof ‘morning’,
‘tomorrow’, ‘the next day’. With these I link the classical HERI ‘yesterday’
by way of introducing HERI SERO/SERA ‘last night’; this compound
exemplifies the use of SERO/SERA in some areas to mean ‘evening’, so I
combine with this TARDE, which basically meant ‘late’ but in some areas
developed the meaning of ‘evening’ (Catalan uses neither but sticks to
VESPERE > vespre). I also include the classical CRAS ‘tomorrow’, to show
where it survived. HODIE ‘today’ has already been basically covered under
the phrases HODIE MAGIS, HINC HODIE, but I will add a few other examples.
(IN) HOC/*HOQUE ANNO ‘this year’: It. uguanno, Tusc. unguanno,
Calab., Sic. aguannu, OLomb. aguan, OBol. anguano, OLig.
oguano, (i)nguanu, Pied. awàn, Surs. uonn, LEng. ingon/-gan,
UEng. inguan, OFr. (enc)oan (*ANQUE- ?), Prov. o(g)an, ongan,
ugan, Cat. enguany, Sp. hogaño, Ast. i(n)guaño, uguaño, Gal.
hogano, OPtg. ogano, Sard. ocanno (old), okkannu.
*ANTE ANNU(M) ‘last year’: OFr., Prov. antan, Cat. antany/en-, Sp.
antaño, Gal., OPtg. antano, Sard. (Cent.) antiannu.
HAC NOCTE ‘last night’: OFr. anuit, Prov. anoch, anuech, Cat. anit,
Sp. anoche, Ast. anueite ‘yesterday’, WAst. ointe ‘yesterday’, Gal.
anoite ‘last night’, onte ‘yesterday’, Ptg. ogyte/oõte/oontem >
40

ontem (popular onte) ‘yesterday’ (ontem à noite ‘last night’).
(IN) DE MANE ‘(in the) morning’, ‘tomorrow’: Rum. mâ(i)ne
‘tomorrow’, demăneaţă > dimineaţă ‘morning’, It. domani
‘tomorrow’, l’indomani ‘the next day’, OTusc. dimani, Umb.
dimane, Neap. rimane, SCalab. domani, Sic. dumani, Ven. doman,
Lomb., Pied., Lig. duman, Emil. әdman, Laz., Campan., Abruzz.
addәmanә, Comel. dadman, Breg. dumen, Posch. duman, V.Tell.
domann, Friul. doman, Surs. demaun, endamaun, Eng. damaun, Fr.
demain, l’endemain > lendemain, Prov. dema(n), l’endema,
lendeman, Cat. demà, endemà, old deman, lendemà, sen(t)demà, Sp.
mañana ‘morning’, ‘tomorrow’, Gal. mañán, Ptg. manhã, amanhã,
Sard. (Cent., Log.) mandzanu, (Camp.) manğanu ‘morning’, (Sass.,
Gall.) arimani ‘yesterday’, Vegl. dizmun/desmun ‘morning’.
HERI ‘yesterday’: Rum. ieri, It. ieri, OSic. eri, Sic. ajèri, Neap.
ajierә, Apul. ajirә, Lomb., Pied., Emil. ier, Ven. gèri, Comel.
ndžeri, Friul. ir, Surs. ier, eir, Eng. her, Fr. hier, Prov. (h)er, (a)ier,
OGasc. ger, Cat. ahir, old ahi, hir, OArag. hier, Sp. ayer, OSp.
(Berc.) (h)eri, Andal. hier, Ast. ayeri, Gal. aer, OPtg. eire, eiri,
Sard, eri(s), deris.
HERI SERO /SERA ‘last night’: Rum. ieri seară (= aseară), It. ieri
sera, Tusc. iersera, OSien. ieisera, SCal. arzira, Sic.
41

arsira, Pied. ierseira, OVen. ersira, Posch. ersra, Friul. ersère,
Surs. ier sera, Eng. her saira, arsaira, Fr. hier soir, old ersoir,
Prov. arser/-sera, Sard. erisero, ariseru, cf. Vegl. sa(j)ra.
TARDE ‘late’: (Mac. Rum. (n)tardu ‘late’), It. tardi ‘late’, NIt. tardi,
tart, > (SIt. tardu, tardә), Friul. tart, Rh. tard, Fr. tard, old tort,
Prov., Cat. tard, tart, Sp., Ptg. tarde ‘late’, ‘afternoon’,
‘evening’, (Sard. tardu ‘late’), Vegl. tuort/tuord.
CRAS ‘tomorrow’: OIt. crai, NCalab., Luc., Campan., SApul. crai,
NApul. crei, OSp., OGal., OPtg. cras, Sard. eras, kraza.
HODIE ‘today’ (additional examples): standard It. oggi, Calab. oje,
Sic. oji, Friul. uei/uè, Surs. oz, Eng. hoz, old oaz, houz, huoz mod.
Cat. avui, Arag., Ast. huey, mod. Ptg. hoje, Sard. oe. Rumanian
has different formations: azi, astăzi, Mac. Rum. asîndzi.
The next group is even more miscellaneous in character. Here I begin
with INTERIM ‘meanwhile’, which is mostly found combined with DUM
‘while’ to give a phonetically more solid conjunction meaning ‘while’. For
‘meanwhile’ the combinations IN TANTO or INTER TANTU(M) (INFRA TANTU(M))
are used. Then there are various combinations with UNU/UNA used to mean
‘at the same time’, ‘together’, ‘always’, ‘in accord’. A noun *AGINA ‘haste’
has given an adverb for ‘in haste’ in some areas, and combinations with
42

PRESSA/*PRESSIA are used in the West in the same sense. The classical
SUBITO ‘suddenly’ has survived marginally, and in the West PRAESTO ‘at
hand’ and TOSTU ‘roasted’ and so ‘straight off the fire’ provided new words
for ‘quickly’, ‘soon’. Also SEQUENTER ‘following after’ has left reflexes in
a limited area, the last survivors of the adverbs in -TER, and IN CONTINENTI
‘immediately’, a phrase of literary introduction, became widely popular.
INTERIM ‘meanwhile’, DUM INTERIM ‘while’: It. mentre (che),
OAbruzz. mintri chi, OLomb. domentre che, OPav. domente che,
OGen. demente che, Campan. ammente che, Abruzz. (× INTRA)
ntramenti, tramendә, Neap. pәttramendә, Calab. ntramente (che),
attramente, also nterimme, ntarimma ‘meanwhile’, OFr. domentres,
(en)dementre(s), entre(de)mentre(s), dement que, Prov. domentre(s)
que, (de)mentre que, entramen, Cat. mentre, old mentre(s) que,
mentra que, mentrimentes, domentre que/de-, OArag. (de)mientre,
OCast. (do)mientre, (de)mientra, Sp. mientras ‘meanwhile’,
mientras que ‘while’, Ast. mientres, OLeon. (Alex. O) entramientre,
(do)mientre, OGal. mentre, enmentre(s), now mentres/-as, mentes,
namentres/-as, entrementres, mentramentes, OPtg. (de)mentre
‘while’, popular entremente(s)/-tra-, em mentre(s), em mentes
‘meanwhile’, Sard, mentras/-tres (< Sp., Cat.) ‘meanwhile’, Log. in
s’intéri/-re, Camp. in s’intéris ‘meanwhile’.
IN TANTO, INTER (INFRA) TANTU(M) ‘meanwhile’: It. intanto,
43

frattanto, (in) tanto che ‘while’ Calab. fra di tantu, Mil. intant,
OLomb. enfra tanto, Lomb. in tan che, Pied, ntant che, Lig. tantu
che ‘while’, OMarch. emfratantu che ‘until’, Friul. intant,
infratanto, Surs. denton, (da)ferton, LEng. intant, fratant, UEng.
intaunt, frataunt, OFr. en tant, entretant, Prov. en tan, entretan,
OCat. entant, now mentrestant, Sp. en tanto, entre tanto, Ast.
mentantu, Ptg. entanto, entretanto (entretanto que ‘while’), Sard.
intertantu qui ‘while’.
(TOTU) DE/AD/IN/SUB UNU/UNA ‘at the same time’ etc.: Rum.
totde(a)una ‘always’, Mac.Rum. totdiună ‘ditto’, de adun‘at the
same time’, OIt. ad una, in un/una, now in uno ‘together’, OLomb.,
OVen. adun, Calab. tuttuna ‘ditto’, Asti dene, Pied. düna, Breg.
edüna ‘straightaway’, It. una ‘in accord’, V.Gard. adum/aduna,
Surs. adina, Eng. adüna ‘always’ (in OEng. = ‘in accord’), OFr. a
une, Prov. az una ‘together’, Cat. tot d’una ‘straightaway’, ‘all at
once’, OSp. (Gl. Emil.) aduna, (Berceo, Alex.) a una ‘together’,
now also ‘with one accord’, en uno ‘together’, desso uno/desuno
‘together’, de consuno ‘in accord’, OGal. en huum, OPtg. en hũu,
de(s)su(u)m/desũu etc. ‘together’, ‘at the same time’, Ptg. à uma ‘in
accord’ (was there any influence from AD UNU at work in the
change from adu < ADHUC ‘still’ (as in OArag.) to Sp. aún, Gal.
aon, OPtg. aum ?), Sard., una cum/cun ‘together with’.
44

*AGINA ‘haste’: OIt. aggina, a(g)ina ‘haste’, OSp. a(h)ina, ayna,
agina ‘in haste’, Ast. aina, OGal. agĩa, now aigiña/ei-, OPtg. agĩa,
aginha, asinha, azinha ‘in haste’.
AD/DE/IN PRESSA/*PRESSIA ‘in haste’: SIt. in pressa, in/di prescia,
Neap. ambrèssә, de pressa, Surs., Eng. en prescha, OFr. a grant
presse, MFr. en presse, Occ. en preisso, Cat. de pressa, a gran
pressa, Sp. apriessa > aprisa, de prisa, Gal. de presa, Ptg. à(s)
pressa(s), depressa. Cf. OLog. ad presse, de presse, now
impresse/debresse, Camp. impress(is)/ap-.
SUBITO ‘suddenly’: Prov. sopte, OCat. sopte, now de sobte.
PRAESTO ‘at hand’: It. presto ‘quickly’, ‘soon’, Calab., Sic. priestu,
Friul. prest, Surs. prest, Eng. praist, OFr., Prov., Cat. prest, OArag.,
OSp. priesto, now presto, OPtg. presto.
TOSTU ‘roasted’, then ‘straight off the fire’: It. tosto ‘quickly’,
‘soon’, OMil. tost, OMarch. in un tostu, OIt. tantosto, V.Gard. tost.
Fr. tôt/tantôt, Prov.. tost, tantost/ Cat. tost, tantost, (old) ten-,
OArag. tantost (OSp., OGal., OPtg. tosto, toste, tost are borrowed ).
SEQUENTER ‘following after’: OLomb. soentre, Friul. seontri, Surs.
sianter, suenter, Eng. suainter ‘after’, OFr. soantre, so(v)entre,
OFr.-Prov. soentre, su-. sogentre. Prov. soentre, seguentre,
45

IN CONTINENTI ‘immediately’: It. incontinente, OIt.
incontanente/-ten-, Friul., OSurs. incontinent, Fr. incontinent, MFr.
encontenant etc., Prov. encontenen, incontinent, Cat., OArag.
encontinent, Sp., Ptg. incontinente, OSard. incontinente/-ti,
incuntanente, Ragus. incontinent. (This calls to mind a similar
formation corresponding to *MANU TENENTE: It. immantinente,
OIt. (im)mantenente/-ta-, Fr. maintenant, Prov. mantenen, OCat.
mantenent, (de) mantinent, OSp. (a) manteniente, OGal., OPtg. (a)
mantenente, mantẽente, mod. Gal. a mantenta.)
We come now to a final group of adverbs which defy classification. I
take first the classical INSIMUL ‘together’, which has tended to take the
forms *INSEMUL or *INSEMEL. Then we have TOTA VIA ‘the whole way’,
with various Romance significations, ‘all the time’, ‘always’, ‘all the same’,
‘still’, ‘nevertheless’, and PER TOTU(M) ‘everywhere’. I have then lumped
together a goup of words from various Romance languages which have no
certain etymon (Corominas suggests a pre-IE root), but seem to me to be
connected, and I have referred them to EA RE ‘for that matter’ (in the case
of the French forms DE EA RE is usually posited, to account for the initial
consonant, but it seems to me that they could have developed from EA > *JA,
in the same way as we have je from EGO). Classical FORSIT(AN), FORSAN
‘perhaps’ have only survived in Italian, Rhaeto-Romance and Sardinian ; in
southern France and northern Spain we find BENE LEVE ‘very easily’ used,
46

and this phrase was perhaps more widespread at one stage, cf. German
vielleicht (there are also other locutions such as those corresponding to
“maybe”, “sometimes”). BENE is also found in a limited area in
combination with TAN(TO) to give the meaning ‘also’, cf. Engl. “as well”.
Then we have AD SATIS, the augmented form of SATIS ‘enough’, preserved
in some areas. Another combination is NON…SI NON ‘nothing but’, ‘only’,
and I am also including here *NE GENTE, which gave a pronoun for
‘nothing’, as I previously included words for ‘no one’. Then we have QUASI
‘as if’, which was adopted as a semi-learned word for ‘almost’. Finally, as
we are after all dealing with adverbs, I include MENTE, which was used
everywhere in the formation of adverbs from adjectives. This was the
ablative of MENS ‘mind’, which could be used in classical Latin in
combination with an adjective to describe a person’s mood, thus PLACIDA
MENTE ‘with a quiet mind’, ‘calmly’, but then came to be simply a
formative suffix, so that we find solamente glossing singulariter ‘only’ in
the Gl. Reich.
INSIMUL/*INSEMUL/*INSEMEL ‘together’: It. insieme, OAret., OUmbr.
enseme, Lomb. insema, Emil., Lig. inseme, Pied. ansem, OGen.
insemel, OVen. ensembre, ensembramente, Istr. insembru, OMarch.
ensemmore, ORom. ensembori, Abruzz. nsembra, Neap. nzembra,
Apul. nsemmәrә/-lә, Calab. nsemula, ansembra, Sic. nsemmula,
OSic. insembra, insembramente, Surs. ensem(m)en, ensemblamen,
47

LEng. insembel, UEng. insembel/-mel, Fr. ensemble, OFr. ensems
(Pass.), Prov. ensemble, ensem(s), Cat. ensems, OCat. ensemps,
sems, OArag., OUArag. ens(s)emble, OSp. ensiemo (OSp.
ensembla, OGal., OPtg. ensembra are borrowed).
TOTA VIA ‘all the way’, ‘completely’: It. tuttavia (old) ‘all the time’,
(now) ‘all the same’, ‘nevertheless’, Surs. tuttavia, Eng. tuottavia,
OFr. tote(s) veie(s) (now re-formed ad by toutefois ‘nevertheless’),
Prov. totavia, OCat. totavia ‘all the time’, ‘nevertheless’, Sp.
todavia (old) ‘all the time’, (now) ‘nevertheless’, Ast. entavia (×
enta = aún), Ptg. todavia.
PER TOTU(M) ‘throughout’, ‘everywhere’: Rum. pretutindeni, peste
(< PER SUPER) tot, It. dappertutto, Friul. pardut, Surs. (da)pertut,
Eng. (d)apertuot, Fr. partout, Prov. pertot, Cat. per tot, (cf. Sp. en
todo y por todo ‘wholly’, Ptg. estar por titdo ‘agree completely’).
EA RE ‘for that matter’: Rum. iar(ă), iarăs ‘again’, ‘and’ (is dară
‘but’ connected ?), Surs. er(a), è, Eng. eir, (old) er ‘also’, ‘even’,
OFr. giere, gier(e)s ‘then’, regiere(s) ‘again’, Arbois jaré ‘also’,
Neuchâtel džire/-ro ‘also’, Prov. era/er(as)/ara ‘also’, Cat. er,
era(s) ‘also’, OGal., OPtg. ar, er ‘again’, ‘also’.
FORSIT(AN), FORSAN ‘perhaps’: It. forse, OLomb. fors(i), OGen. for,
Rom. forzi, Laz. forcia, Neap. fuorze, Calab. fuorsica, Abruzz.
48

forzaca, OUmbr. fors(i)a, OSic. forsi, Friul. forsi, fuars, Rh. forsa,
Sard. forsis.
BENE LEVE ‘very easily’, then ‘perhaps’: Prov. ben leu, beleu, OCat.,
Rouss. belleu, OArag. (Berceo, Alex.) bien lieve.
TANTO BENE ‘as well’, then ‘also’: OIt. tambene ‘as’, ‘that is’, Prov.
tanben/tam-, Gasc. taben, Cat. també, old tanbé, Sp. también, Gal.
tambén, Ptg. também, Log. tambene(s) (< Sp., Cat.).
AD SATIS ‘enough’: It. assai, Emil. asé, Pied., asé, Friul. assai, Fr.
assez, Prov. assatz, asaz, OCat. assats, assau, OArag. assatç, (OSp.,
OPtg.. Sard., assaz are borrowed).
NON…SI NON ‘nothing if not’, ‘only’: It. non...se non, NIt. non...se
no, Eng. nu...scha na, Fr. ne...sinon, (old) ne...se... non, Prov.
no...si/ se...no, Cat. no... sinò, OArag. non...sinon, Sp. no...sino, Ptg.
não...senão, (old) nom...senom.
*NE GENTE ‘not a soul’, then ‘nothing’: It. niente, OIt. neiente,
ne(e)nte, OSic. neente, nenti, ONIt. neente, nient(e), now NIt. ninte,
ñente, ñ(e)int, Calab., Sic. nènte, nènti, Campan., Abruzz., Luc.
niendә, OFr. nient, neient, now néant, Prov. nien(t), ne(i)en(t),
OCat. nient, (OSp. nient and OGal. niente are borrowed).
QUASI ‘as if’, then ‘almost’: It. quasi, WTusc. guasi, so guascotto
49

‘half-cooked’, Cal. càsica, OGen. quaxi, OLomb. quas, OUmbr.,
Rom. guasi, OPad. squase, Friul. quasi, squasi(t), OFr. gascru (<
QUASI CRUDU) ‘half raw’, Prov. cais, OCat. quaix, OArag. quasi, Sp.
casi, cuasi, Gal. case, caše, quase (que), Ptg. quase, Sard. gasi.
MENTE ‘with (a certain) mind’, then ‘-ly’: Rum. only in aimintre,
aiminterea, altminteri, almintelea, altmintrelea ‘otherwise’, It.
–mente, SIt. -menti, ONIt. -mentre (also altrimenti, as Rum.), Friul.
-ment(r)i, Surs. -mein, Eng. -maing, Fr. -ment, Prov. -men(s), Cat.
-ment, Sp. -mente, OSp. -mient(r)e, Gal., Ptg. -mente, Sard. (Cent.,
Log.) -mente, (Camp.) -menti.
My final section is devoted to combinations of a preposition with an
adverb or other part of speech to form a new adverb or preposition, or
combinations of two prepositions to form a new preposition. Here I will
first make some introductory remarks, and then I should like to make some
observations on an interesting phenomenon. Late Latin abounded in such
compounds of preposition and preposition or preposition and adverb of
place (many of the latter also acquiring a prepositional function) to express
such ideas as ‘from in front of’, ‘to the side of’, ‘from above’, ‘from
behind’. Thus we have, with AB: ab ante, ab intus, a contra, a foris/foras;
with AD: ad prope; with EX: e contra; with IN: in ante, in contra, in foras
50

(note also intus in, already in Cicero, and intus as a preposition, in Virgil);
with PRO: pro ad. (We find also some combinations of preposition and
noun, as in gyro, per gyrum (cf. Rum. în jur, împrejur, It. in giro, Sp. Latin
a giro ‘around’), and de latus (OFr. delez) and simply latus (Fr. lez, lès in
place names, Prov. latz ‘beside’).) Above all we have combinations with
DE: de ante, de circa, de contra, de deorsum, de ex, de foris/foras, de infra,
de insuper, de inter, de intra, de intro, de intus, de iuxta, de post, de postea,
de retro, de sub, de subter, de subtus (Fr. de sous), de super (already in
classical Latin; Fr. de sur), de supra, de sursum, de trans, de ultra, de
usque, to which we may add * de ab,* de ad and*de ab ante, *de in ante,
based on the evidence of the Romance forms. (We also find combinations
of adverb + DE, as foris/foras de, a construction which has enjoyed a wide
extension in Romance.)
All these constructions originally expressed motion to or from a
certain position, but they came simply to be the equivalents of the simple
adverb or preposition. This development is especially noteworthy in the
case of DE, which can be used in compounds expressing the place ‘where’
or even the place ‘whither’. Examples of the original use to mark the point
of departure are given by Bourciez (Élém. de Ling. Rom., §125), thus “de
subtus pedes” from Chiro, “si quis de foris venerit” from Jerome (Reg.
Pachom.), “via quae mittit de trans alveum” from the surveyors, and
“accessit de retro” from the Vetus Latina. He also gives “de intus curte”
51

from the Salic Law (§243d), without indicating whether this expresses
motion or state. Another example from Chiro presumably indicates the
point of departure: “sanguinis detractionem fieri oportet de cervice...vel
desub causa illius loci, ubi se humor morbi demonstraverit”. But Bourciez
says that the loss of the ablative sense goes back to the 2nd century in the
case of de post, as in an inscription “de post cuius morte”, and also quotes
the strictures of grammarians against such locutions as “de post illum
ambulant”, “de post forum” and the use of de intus and de foras as
equivalent to intus and foras. Other examples are “Vade de post me,
Satanas” from the Vetus Latina, and “Et post haec labes de post alumen”
from the 8th-century Compositiones; cf. also de postea ‘afterwards’ in the
Salic Law. A locative desub is found in the Examen Testium of 715: “ab
antiquo tempore oraculus fuit desub ecclesia Sancte Marie in Pacina”. In
the Peregrinatio Silviae we have de contra meaning ‘on the contrary’, and
“ubi autem missa facta fuerit de ante cruce”. In this last case we may see an
echo of the sense of the place of origin, and also in the next, from the Salic
Law: “si quis ingenuus (accusative case) de foris casa...furaverit”. The
purely locative function may have originated, it seems to me, in the
transferred use of DE from indicating the quarter of origin, as in Virgil’s
“Boreae de parte”, to indicating the quarter in which one thing is placed in
relation to another. Thus in early documents in Catalonia dealing with the
sale of land we find “de oriente...de occidente... de super...de subtus...” ‘to
52

the east’ etc., or “de parte orientis...de parte occidentis...de subtus...”, and
this “de parte” remains a popular term in later Romance documents, so OSp.
“de parte de suso”, “de la parte deyuso”, “de una part...de otra...”, “de todas
partes”, It. “da una parte...dall’altra parte...”, Fr. “d’une part...d’autre
part…”, and also “de ambas partes” in the Compositiones.
We come now to the “interesting development” that I foreshadowed
earlier. This is the use of DE to turn a prepositional phrase into a noun
qualifier, a construction the earliest attestations of which are only to be
found in what may be termed Latinized Romance. My old Latin teacher
used to tell us, whimsically, that you could not say “homo in luna” for ‘the
man in the moon’, but had to use a relative clause, “homo qui in luna est”.
Japanese employs a locution similar to the latter, but can also say the
equivalent of “the man of in the moon”, or, to be more down to earth, “the
way of to Rome” — “Roma e no michi” (using the possesive no) —
corresponding to the “via de ad Roma(m)” which emerged at the
Proto-Romance stage; similarly it can say “mae no kuruma” for ‘the front
wheels’, corresponding to the “rotas de davante” found in the Leges Alam.
(Bour., §243). (Another construction of the same sort found in early
Romance is “alia serna de super karrera” in a document from Spain dated
940.) This construction is particularly noticeable in Rumanian, where any
prepositional phrase can be linked to a noun by the use of de, as in casa din
pădure ‘the house in the wood’ (as if Latin *casa illa de in palude; contrast
53

casa este în padure ‘the house is in the wood’), iarba dintre copaci ‘the
grass between the trees’, câmpul dimprejurul satului ‘the fields (open
country) around the village’. Adverbs of place can be linked in the same
way (cf. rotas de davante, which I take to be roatable dinainte in
Rumanian), thus partea de sus/de asupra ‘the upper part’ (and partea de
asupra capetelor noastre ‘the part above our heads’), partea dinăuntru/din
afară ‘the inside/outside’, partea de jos/de desubt ‘the lower part’, uşa de
din dos ‘the back door’ (din =’from’) (din=’from). De asupra (deasupra)
capetelor noastre is also typical of many locutions consisting of a
preposition formed of de + adverb + article followed by a noun in the
genitive; thus we have dedesubtul pământului ‘beneath the earth’,
de-a-lungul râului ‘along the river’, dinaintea casei ‘in front of the house’.
In the other languages this construction with DE is generally limited
to linking an adverb to a noun in the style of rotas de davante. So It. le
ruote davanti (=di avanti) ‘the front wheels’, le zampe di dietro ‘the
hind legs’, il piano disopra ‘the floor above’, l’appartamento disotto
‘the flat below’, la parte di dentro ‘the inside’, la parte/ildi fuori di
unacasa’the outside of a hose’; also al disopra di, al disotto di, as Rum.
deasupra, dedesubtul. In Rhaeto-Romance we have, for example, Surs.
ils peis davon/davos ‘the forefeet/hind feet’, la vart dadora ‘the outside’,
la vart dadens ‘the inside’; corresponding to Surs. il carr davon/davos
‘the front/rear car’ we find Eng. il char davaunt/davous. In French we
54

find les roues de devant ‘the front wheels’, un siège d’avant ‘a front
seat’, les pattes de derrière ‘the hind legs’, son vêtement de dessus/de
dessous ‘his outer/under garments’; also les gens d’en haut
(d’au-dessus)/d’en bas (d’au-dessous)/d’à côté ‘the people
above/below/next door’, and (les gens d’) au-dessus/au-dessous/àcôté
de nous ‘above/below/next door to us’. Catalan has la part de dalt/de
baix/de davant/de darrera/de dins/de fora, ‘the
upper/lower/front/back/inner/outer part (side)’, la part de dintre d’una
capsa ‘the inside of a box’, and al davant de tots ‘in front of everybody’.
In Spanish we have already seen la parte de suso/deyuso; another old
document from Navarre has la plazta devant ‘the square in front’, and
the Alexandre has los delante ‘those in front’, while in modern Spanish
we have la parte de adentro/afuera ‘the inside/outside’. Portuguese has
do lado de fora ‘on the outside’, a de dentro/fora ‘the inside/outside’, a
parte de cima/ de baixo ‘the upper/lower part’, a porta detrás da casa
‘the back door of the house’. It is probably going too far to say that the
use of dans for en in French has its origin here, but I am tempted to see
a similar use of *DE AD in Italian phrases like una tazza da tè ‘a teacup’,
una macchina da scrivere ‘a typewriter’, compared with the French une
tasse à thé, une machine à écrire, especially as we find the same
construction in Rhaeto-Romance, Surs. ina scadiola da te, Eng. üna
tazza (cuppina) da tè, Surs., Eng. ina/üna maschina da scriver.
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I would now like to tabulate the Romance prepositional forms,
beginning with the combinations of preposition with adverb or
preposition with preposition, including the simple form in some cases:
DE SUPER, DE SUPRA ‘above’: Rum. despre ‘about’, înspre
‘towards’, asupra, deasupra, It. disopra, OMod. de sovra, Pied.
desore/desure, Friul. disore, parsore, (Surs. sur, Eng. sur(a)),
OFr. desour(e)/deseur/desor(e)/desur, OFr.-Prov., Prov. desobre,
Cat. de sobre, persobre de, Sp. de sobre, de sobra, Ptg. por
sobre, de sobra, Sard.,daue supra, (supra (de), subra).
(DE) SUBTU(S)/*SUBTA, (DE) SUB ‘below’: Rum. (de)sub(t), dedesubt,
It. (di)sotto, OMarch. sotta, Calab., (O)Sic. sutta, OMod. de sota,
OLomb. sot, OPied., OLig. sota, Friul. sot, parsot/per sot, Surs. sut,
Eng. suot, Fr. (de)sotz > (des)sous, Prov. (de)sotz, Cat. de
sota/(des)sota, desot, old (de)sots/-sotz, OArag. soç, sots (sots-),
sota, OSp. (de) soto, so (de so ‘from under’), sota, now soto-, sota-,
OGal., OPtg. soto, sota, (de) sob, now soto-, sota-, Sard. suttu.
(DE, IN) SU(R)SU(M) ‘above’: Rum. (de)sus, în susul, presus, It. (in)sù, su
(prep.), OIt. suso, ONIt. susa, Ven. su, Lomb. sü, SIt. suso/susu. Friul. in sù,
su(n), Surs. si(n), ensi, Eng. sü(n), insü, Fr. (des)sus, OFr. ensus, Prov. (de)
56

sus, dessus, ensus, OCat. (de)sus, en sus, OArag. dessus, desuso, asuso,
OSp., OGal., OPtg. (de)suso, asuso, OPtg. also soso, Sard. susu, Vegl. sojs
sul.
(DE, IN) DEO(R)SU(M)/*DEUSU ‘below’: Rum. jos, înjosul, în/din/jos de, prejos,
It. (in)giù, OIt. (in) giuso, gioso, ONIt. ço(s), zo(s), zoxo, Mil. giò, OGen. zù,
Laz. joso, SIt. jusu, Friul. jù, Surs. giu, engiu, Eng. giò, ingiò, OFr. jus,
OFr.-Prov. jous, Prov. (de)jos, (de)jus, enjos, OCat. (de)jós, (de)/jús, enjós,
enjúg, ajús, OArag. (de) yus(o), dius(o), ayuso, OSp. yoso, (de) yuso, ayuso,
OLeon de yuso, OGal., OPtg. (de)juso, a jouso Sard. (OSard., Cent.) yosso,
(Log.) gosso/dzosso, (Camp.) gossu.
ANTE(S), *ANTJ- ‘before’: ORum. între, adinte, It. anz, dianzi, OIt. anti,
ante, OLomb. ançi, anz, OApul. anci, V.Gard. danz, Friul. anzi(t), Surs.
onz, LEng. ant, UEng. aunt, aunz, OFr. anz (desanz), ainz, einz, a(i)nçois
(< *ANTJ-IDIUS), Fr.-Prov. a(i)nz, Prov. anz, ant(es), anceis (as a(i)nçois),
Cat. ans, old anz, ens, OArag. ante (de), ant, anzes (Gl. Sil), ances (Gl.
Emil.), Sp. antes (de), ante, OLeon. ante, OGal. ante, now antes, Ptg. ante,
antes(de), dante, dantes, Sard. ante(s), anti(s), anzis (Italian influence),
anta (= ante a) (de).
(DE) INANTE ‘before’: Mac.Rum. nănte, ninte, dininte, It. innanzi, din(n)anzi,
OIt. nanzi, Lomb. inanz, OEmil. innanci, inançe/-ço, OVen. enanço,
OUmbr., OMarch. nançi, Neap, nnanzi, SApul. annanzi, OIt. innanti,
57

inante, OUmbr. (e)nante, OTusc.. ORom., OAbruzz. nanti, Cal. nanti,
SApul. annanti, Neap. nnandә, Luc. nandi, Cors. nnant, OTusc. dinant.,
OMarch. denanti/-te, OVen. dananti, OEmil. denanci/-ço, dinanzi,
(O)Lomb. denanz, SPied. dnanz, Romagn. dnes, SLaz. denanzi, V.Gard.,
Friul. inant, denant, OFr. enanz, ODauph. (d)enant, Prov. enant, enan(z),
denan, entrenan, d(es)erenan, Cat. dinant, old (a)denant, enant/enans/an-,
inant(e). Arag. delant, old denant, denante (Gl. Sil.), enant, adelant, Sp.
delante, (en) adelante, de hoy/deaquí(en) adelante, old (d)enante(s),
popular enantes, (en)denantes, (a)denante(s), OLeon. adelantre, endelantre,
Ast. anantia, adiante, Salam. enantes, Gal. (en)diante, deante, endeantes,
didiante, indiante, denantes/di- (evidently from Spanish), Ptg. (em) diante,
de hoje/de agora/daqui/em diante, adiante(s), adeante, Sard. (abe) innanti,
innantis de, (daue) nanti, a dainanti, danantis, dananzi a, a denant de,
anant é, Ragus. nanti, Vegl. aninç.
(DE, IN) ABANTE ‘before’: ORum. ainte, now înainte(a)/din-,
nainte(a), de acum/azi înainte. (in) avanti, d’ora in avanti, davanti,
OSic. avante, OLomb. davanto/-ço, OVen. davançi/-ço, OPied.
devan/da-, Friul. avant, Surs. (en) avon(t), davon, LEng. (in) avant,
davant, UEng. (in) avaunt, d’avaunt (davaunt), Fr. (en) avant,
dorénavant, devant, Prov. avan(t), abans, (a/de)davan(t)/de-,
OGasc. dabant, endeant, Cat. (en) avant, avans/-ens/abans,
davant/de-, vant, endavant, old debans, evant, OArag. avant,
58

(a)devant, devan-, davant, OSp. avante, avan-, devant, OLeon.
devan-, OGal. abante, diabante, deban-, Ptg. avante, old avan,
davante.
(DE (EX), IN, AD) POST/POSTEA/*POSTJ- (Lomb. Latin POSTIUS) ‘after’:
ORum. dipu, dupu, apu, poi, păi, now după, apoi, înapoi(a)/din-, It.
poi, old po, ORom. post, OUmbr. puoi(e), OMarch. poe, OLomb.
pos, Tic. pos, Lig., Pied. pöi, Emil. pò, Romagn., Ven. pu, Campan.
pò, Calab. pue, SApul. puei, OIt. depoi/di-/do-, depo/di-. appo,
dap(p)oi, now dopo, SIt. doppu, Laz. dap(p)ó, Sic. appo(i), Ven.
despo, OPad. daspò, OEmil. dappò, OGen. dapue, ONeap. dapò,
Mil. depos, Crem. dapus, Abruzz. dapù, dapuó, Istr. despui, It.
poscia, OLomb. posta/possa, OUmbr. poscio, V.Gard. pö, de pò,
Friul. po, dopo, daspò, dispus, dispues, Surs. pia, epi, dapi(a), LEng.
poi, OUEng. (da)pöja, daspö(ja) (cf. upoeia ‘except’), OFr. post
(Eulal), Fr. puis, depuis, Prov. pois(t), pueis, pos, pus, depost,
depois/des-, poissas, Gasc. pux/puish, Cat. puix, old po(i)s, pu(i)s,
pux, depu(i)s, despuis, depuix, OArag. de puisca (Gl. Sil.), pues,
depues, depuis, despues, empues, en pos (Berc.), now dimpues, Sp.
pues, despues, old pos, poix, depo(i)s, depués, empos, empués, de
empuesta, OAst. pois, now (d)empués, Gal. Ptg. pois, depois,
despois, old pus, após/ apús, de(s)pos/-pús, empǒs, -pus, (Gal.)
dempois, despoixa(s), Sard. pos(t), pus(t), de pus, appus, ad pusti,
59

appusti(s), (a) pustis (de), Vegl. dapú,
(IN, DE, AD) RETRO ‘back’, later ‘behind’: Rum. îndărăt, d(e)a
îtndăratele/-ră-/-re-, It. retro, dietro, addietro, indietro, old rietro,
arretro, arrietro, diretro, indiretro, indirietro, Tusc. dr(i)eto,
addreto, ORom., OCampan., OApul. dereto, OUmbr. dirieto,
OEmil. dreo, OVen. dre(o), now (in)drio, OLomb. dreo, dred,
endre(d)o, OPied. dredo, OLig. endere(r), Lig., Pied. daré, Lomb.
dedré, OVen. are(r), Lomb. adré, Lig. indré, Neap, arretә, Calab.
arretu, arrieti, Sic. arrèri, darré, OFriul. dririo, Fr. arrière,
derrière, old rière, OFr.-Prov. arrier, Prov. (a, de, en) reire, darera,
OGasc. deirer, darrei, Cat. rera, arrera, (de)darrera, enrera,
endarrera, old derer, Benasque derre, OSp. (Berc., Alex.) a riedro,
arriedro, OLeon. (Alex. O) riedo, OGal. (a) redro, OPtg. (a) redro,
arredo, Ragus. indret.
(AD, DE) TRANS ‘across’, ‘on the other side of’: (Rum. stră-, ×EXTRA,
cf. It. stra-). It. tra(s)- ‘very’, Surs. tras, atras, entras ‘through’,
cheutras (< ECCU HAC TRANS) ‘through this’, ‘hereby’, LEng. tras,
quatras, UEng. três, cotrês, Fr. très ‘very’, old tres, detrès, atrès de
‘behind’, Prov. tras ‘beyond’, a tras, detras ‘behind’. Cat. detràs
‘behind’, old tras ‘behind’, atras ‘backwards’, trastot ‘wholly’, Sp.,
Gal., Ptg. tras (trás), atrás, detrás ‘behind’, Sard. atrás(su) ( Sp.).
60

(DE, DE AD, DEDE) INTUS ‘in’; also INTU(S) AD/ IN as prep., to be
distinguished from other forms from INDE AD above: OIt. (d)into,
vulgar Tusc. quinenti (< ECCU HIC INTUS), OBerg., OLomb., OVen.
int, OPied. nta, Ven., Lig. int’, nt’, Pied. әnt, ant (there are also NIt.
forms with unexplained nd), Umbr., Calab., Sic. nt’, Neap. indo,
Sal., Luc. inda, Apul. ind’ a lin these areas nd is the normal
development), Umbr., Sic. int’a, ta, Posch. daint, Tyr. te, V.Gard.
(in)t(e), Friul. int, ta (also mysterious vento, chento, lenti, ‘there’
may belong here, cf. eintt, Tusc. quinenti), ORh. (12 c.) intin, Surs.
enten, enta, (en)dadens, OEng.(Müst) Eng. aint in, LEng. dadatnt,
UEng. dadains, OFr. enz en (Eulal.), (en)enz, denz, dedenz, çaenz
(with ECCE HAC), laienz (with ILLAC), now dans, dedans (in de
dedans ‘from inside’ we have DE three times!), céans, léans, Prov.
in(t)z/ins, intz en, en(t)z, eninz/-ins, dinz/dins, dedins, çaienz/sains,
laienz/lainz/lains, Gasc. dens, deguens, Cat. dins (de), endins,
dedins, old ens, denz, ins, çains, lains, OArag. dins, OSard. intu,
(per) intus, Vegl. fenta ‘until’ (×FINE).
(DE) INTRO, INTRA ‘in’: Rum. întru, dentru > dintru ‘from’, ‘out of’,
printru ‘through’(replacing în, din, prin before vowels), pritntru >
pentru ‘for’ (Mold, pintru, Mac.Rum. t(r)u), înlauntru,
înauntru/din- ‘inside’ (< IN ILLAC INTRO), It. entro, dentro, per
entro ‘inside’, vulg. drento, quinentro, intra, tra ‘between’,
61

‘among’ (in the dialects intra, entra mean ‘in’), ONeap. intro,
d(r)into, now rindo, Calab. dintru, SApul., SCal., Sic. intra, ntra,
dintra, OUmbr. entra, OLomb. intro, entro, entre, now enter,
denter, OVen. intro, dentre, now drento, OPied. inter, now drinta,
OGen. enter, Lig. drentu, Friul. entri, dentri (di), parentro ‘inside’,
tra ‘between’, ‘among’, Prov. dintre, laintre, Cat. (en)dintre, per
dintre de, OArag. (Berc.) entro, Sp. dentro (de), Ast. (Luarca)
dientro, Gal. dentro, drento, Sard. (Log.) (a) intro (de), Camp. (a)
intru (de), aintra (= aintru a).
(DE) INTER ‘between’, ‘among’: Rum. între ‘between’, dintre
‘between’, ‘(from) among’, printre ‘among’, OLomb. entre, now
enter, OVen. dentre (in Italian INTER has become confused with
INTRO and INTRA, so (in)tra above, but cf. entrambi, intrambo(due)
etc. ‘both’ as Sp., Ptg. entrambos, which originated in a mistaken
division of dentrambos (‘between the two’), Surs. denter, LEng.
t(r)anter, UEng. traunter, Fr. entre, d’entre, Prov., Cat., Sp., Ptg.
entre, Ptg. dentre ‘from among’, Sard., inter, now also intra.
(DE) INFRA ‘below’: It. fra, lit. infra ‘between’, ‘among’, ‘within (a
time)’ (largely replacing tra), OMarch. emfra, OSic., OLomb. enfra,
62

Neap. nfra, Apul. (Bari) mbra, Friul. jenfri, fra, Rh. cf. (da)ferton,
frata(u)nt above, Prov. enfra, enfre, amfre, denfra, de(n)fre ‘below’,
‘among’, OCat. enfre/em- ‘below’, ‘between’, ‘among’, ‘within (a
time)’ Ragus. infra ‘within’.
(DE, AD) FORIS /-AS ‘outside’: Rum. în/din afară ‘outside’, afară de
‘outside’, ‘apart from’, ‘beyond’, fără ‘without’, It. (di) fuori, (in)
fuori di ‘out of’, ‘outside’, ‘beyond’, ‘apart from’, OIt. fuora, for(i),
OEmil. fori, OMarch., OApul., OCampan. fore, OLomb. fora, fò,
OBergam. de fora, Mil. föra, Calab. fora, fore, Lig. föa, Pied., Ven.,
Cors., Neap. fora, OIt. for ‘except’, ‘without’, fuorchè ‘except
(that)’, Friul. fur, difur, old four de ‘outside’, daùr ‘behind’, indaùr
‘backwards’, alinfurdi ‘except’, Surs. ora, ano(ra), (or)dado(ra),
Eng. our(a), dadour(a), Fr. dehors, hors de, for-, old (de)fors,
Fr.-Prov. fors, Prov. for(s), fora(s), defor(a)s, defora, for(s)-, Cat.
(a) fora, fora de, enfora ‘outside’, old for(s) ‘out of’, ‘except’,
fores, defora, defores, defor(e) de, fors-, OArag. defueras (Gl.
Emil.), Arag. (Sobrarbe)fora, Sp. fuera (de), de fuera (defuera),
afuera, old fueras ‘apart from’, OLeon. fueras, fora, defora, Gal.
fora, foras ‘apart from’, Ptg. (a, de) fora, fora de, afora ‘apart
from’, Sard. foras (de), OSard. force ‘except that’.
(AB, IN) EXTRA ‘outside’: Rum. stră-, It. stra-, ‘more than’ (partly
derived from TRANS), Neap. estra ‘outside’, Calab. ab avestra,
63

nnèstra ‘ditto’, OFr. estre, Prov. estra, OCat. estra(s), estres,
OArag. (Gl. Sil.) gestra.
(DE) EXTERIUS ‘outside’: OVen. dastier ‘apart from’, OFr. esters,
est(r)iers, ODauph. ester, Prov. estiers, esters, isters, Gasc. esteirs,
OCat. esters, estirs ‘without’, ‘apart from’, OSp. en estero (?),
OLog. esteris (< Gen.).
ULTRA ‘beyond’: It. oltre ‘beyond’, ‘besides’, OIt. oltra, ultra, Friul.
oltri, Surs., Eng. ultra, Fr. outre, Prov. oltra, o(u)tra, OCat. oltra,
now ultra, OArag. oltras, ultra, Sp., Ptg. ultra, Vegl. ultra.
(IN, EX) CONTRA ‘against’, ‘opposite to’: Rum. cătră > către
‘towards’, în/din contra ‘against’ (and cf. încotro above, under UBI),
It. contra > contr’a, contro, Mil. contra, Calab., Posch. cuntra, It.
incontra, incontro (a), ORom., OLomb. encontra, Neap., ncontra,
Pied. incontr, Friul. cuintri, incuintre, Surs. (en)cunter, Eng.
(in)cunter, Fr. contre, OFr. encontre, encuntres, OFr.-Prov.
encuntres, Prov. (en)contra, Cat. contra, OCat. encontra, OArag.
contra, cuentra, Sp. (en) contra, OSp. (es)cuentra, escontra, Gal.
(des)contra, Ptg. contra, old escontra, Sard. contra, contras (de).
(AD) PROPE ‘close to’: Rum. aproape, OIt. prope, OMarch.
aprope, OLomb. (a)pruovo, aprov(o), Lomb., Pied., Berg. apröf,
OVen. (d)aprovo, OEmil. aprovo, OGen. provo, Pied. apreu,
64

V.Gard. prò, kaprò (< ECCU HAC PROPE), Friul. da pruf, LEng. pro,
old proa, nanpro ‘soon’ (< IN HAC PROPE), OFr. (a)pruef, (en)
aprof, Prov. (a)prop, (a)prob (de), aprep, en aprop, Cat. prop (de),
aprop, old prob, OArag. prob de, apropb, prueb de, OSard.
(ap)prope (de), Log. (ap)probe a, approba, Camp. approbi.
(DE) IUXTA ‘next to’, ‘in accordance with’: It. giusta ‘in accordance
with’, OFr. (de)jouste, Prov. (de)josta, dejusta ‘next to’, Sard.
(Cent.) yusta, (Log., Camp.) gusta.
(AD, DE) CIRCA ‘around’: (It. lit. circa ‘about’), OVer. de cerca
‘round about’, Sp. cerca (de) ‘near’, ‘about’, acerca de ‘with’
regard to’, de cerca ‘closely’, en cerca ‘round about’, Gal. cerca (and
cerco < CIRCUM), Ptg. cêrca (de) ‘near’, ‘about’, acêrca de ‘with
regard to’, de cêrca ‘close by’.
(IN) DE USQUE (AD) ‘all the way (to)’: Fr. jusque, jusqu’à ‘as far as’, ‘up
to’, OFr. jusque(s), (en)dusque, (en)josque, enjusque, Prov. dusque,
dosca, enjusca, (en)josca, (Cat. Latin usque ad), OArag. usque (a), (Sp.
Latin usque ad), OSard. usce/-ke/-que a/usca. (In some areas *FINE AD
has taken over: It. fine/fin’/fino a (also de-/in-/per-), Friul. fin, Surs.
enfin, LEng. infin a, UEng. infina, perfin, OFr. fin a (< Prov.), Prov.
fin(s), Cat. fins (a), OSard. fina a, now finas and Camp. fintsa(s) <
Cat., and fusca, fisca, isca etc. (× usca), Vegl. fenta.)
65

DE EX (DE) ‘from (out of)’: Fr. dès, Prov. des, deis, OCat., OSp., OGal.
des, now desde, Ptg. dês, desde.
DE AB ‘from’, partly ×DE AD ‘to’: It. da ‘from’, ‘by’, ‘to/at the house
of’, ‘for’, Surs. da, de, prevocalic dad, ded ‘from’, ‘of’, ‘to (do)’
(both pronounced as [də, dəd], and artificially separated), Eng. da,
dad ‘ditto’ (and cf. dad üna vart ‘on one side’), Prov. da, daz, OCat.
da nitz ‘at night’, OArag. da Roma ‘from Rome’, OCast. da oriente
‘from the east’, Sard. daba/daua/daue/dae/dai ‘from’, ‘by’.
(IN, DE (AD)) VERSU ‘towards’: It. verso, inverse (di), OVen. enverso,
de verso, OMil. invers, Lomb. inves, a, Calab. mbersu, Friul.
viers/viars, Surs. viers, enviers, Eng. vers, inverŝ (Surs. tier, LEng.
tar, UEng. tiers ‘to’ have been referred to INDE VERSU or INTU VERSU),
Fr. vers, envers, devers, Prov. vers, ves, vas, enve(r)s/envas,
deve(r)s/devas/ devais/daves/davas/deus/daus/dous, Cat. vers, old
ves, envers/-vés, devers/-vés, OArag. deves.
SECUNDUM ‘according to’: It. secondo, ONIt. segundo, segond(o),
Friul. seont(ri), secont, Surs. secund, Eng. seguond, OFr. seon, Prov.
segon(s), Cat. segons, OArag. segon(t), segund, segunt(es), OSp.
segondo, segund/-gunt, now según, OAst. segundo, Gal.
(a)según/-undo, OPtg. segondo, segum, now segundo, Sard. (Cent.)
sikunde, (Log., Camp.) segundu.
66

Finally we come to a group of adverbs denoting position or direction,
formed by the combination of a preposition with a noun or adjective (some
of them also becoming prepositions), and then a handful of others. Here we
have IN/DE ALTO, AD ALTU(M) ‘above’, IN/DE BASSO, AD BASSU(M) ‘below’, AD
MONTE(M) ‘up the mountain’ and so ‘up’, AD VALLE(M) ‘down to the valley’
and so ‘down’, IN TORNO ‘around’ (replacing IN GYRO, cf. in giro in Pereg.
Silviae), IN/DE TRAVERSO, AD TRAVERSU(M) ‘across’, DE AVORSO for DE
AVERSO ‘from the back’, which has been more recently posited as the
etymon of the Rhaeto-Romance words for ‘behind’ rather than DE POST
(though I am bound to say that the existence of vart < PARTE, extracted
from davart ‘from the side of’, ‘on the part of’, and of dado(u)ra, Fr.
dehors, compared with forms with f elsewhere < FORIS, in both of which
cases intervocalic lenition has taken place, does argue for derivation from
DE POST), PER MEDIU(M), IN MEDIO ‘in the midst (of)’, ‘among’, AD PARTE(M),
DE (AB) PARTE ‘to the side’, ‘apart’, AD LATU(S)/LATERA ‘at the side (of)’, AD
DORSU(M), IN DORSO ‘at/on the back’, AD REVERSU(M), DE REVERSO ‘in
reverse’, ‘the wrong way round’, AD PRESSU(M), IN/DE PRESSO, PRESSE ‘close
by’. Then we have *DE-RE-CAPU(T) ‘from the beginning again’, ‘anew’, and
various combinations with LONGU with meanings such as ‘along’, ‘at a
distance’, then ‘alongside’, ‘near’, beside which I place (DE) LONGE ‘(from)
far away’ for comparison. Finally we have ABSENTIA ‘in the absence of’,
67

which in some areas has replaced SINE as the word for ‘without’, though
losing the AB- in the process, apparently by association with SINE. At the
same time, the areas which kept SINE tended to add an -s to it, and in
southern France we find forms with a further -a added to this, so that there
was evidently a merging of the two forms here. That *SINES alone cannot
account for all the Romance forms is shown by the vocalism in Vegliot,
which requires an open E. Many of the above combinations developed at a
late date, as is shown by their absence from Rumanian.
IN/ DE ALTO, AD ALTU(M) ‘above’: It. in alto ‘on high’, d’alto, dal’alto,
‘from above’, d’alto in basso ‘down’, Surs. ad ault ‘up’, dad ault,
Eng. dad ot ‘out loud’, Fr. en haut ‘on high’, de/du/d’en haut ‘from
above’, de/du/haut en bas ‘down’, Prov. en alt/aut, d’aut, d’aut en
bas, Cat. (de) dalt ‘above’, daltabaix ‘down’, ‘topsy-turvy’,OArag.
alto ‘above’. Sp. en alto ‘on high’, de (lo) alto ‘from above’, de alto
a bajo ‘from top to bottom’, Ptg. ao/ no alto ‘on high’, em alto
‘loudly’, de/do alto ‘from above’, de alto a baixo ‘from top to
bottom’.
IN/ DE BASSO, AD BASSU(M) ‘below’: It. in basso, abbasso ‘below’, a
basso! ‘down with’, da basso ‘downstairs’, Friul. abas, Surs., Eng.
a bass ‘down’, Surs. da bass ‘softly’, Fr. en bas ‘below’, à bas
‘down’, à bas! ‘down with’, de/du/d’en bas ‘from below’, Prov. en
bas, Occ. abas, debas, Cat. de baix ‘below’, a baix (vulgar embaix)
68

‘down’, Arag. debais, Sp. abajo ‘below’, ‘down’, ¡abajo! ‘down
with’, debajo ‘below’, Ptg. abaixo ‘below’, ‘down’, abaixo! ‘down
with’, debaixo ‘below’, embaixo ‘below’, ‘down’.
AD MONTE(M) ‘up the mountain’, then ‘up’: It dial. (Rom.) ammonte,
Surs., Eng. amunt, Fr. amont, Prov. a mon(t), Cat. amunt, damunt,
OCat. amon(t), damont, demont/-munt, OArag. damontditas
‘above-mentioned’.
AD VALLE(M) ‘down to the valley’, then ‘down’: Rum. la vale,
devale, It. dial. (Rom., Abruzz.) abballe, Surs., Eng. aval, Fr. aval,
Prov. a val, Cat. avall, davall, devall, OCat. daval, OArag.
devallantes ‘going down’.
IN TORNO ‘around’: It. (d)intorno (a), Friul. intor, Surs. (d)entuorn,
Eng. (d)intuorn/en-, OFr. entorn > entour, autour (de), alentour,
Prov. (d’)entorn, Cat. (d)entorn, a l’entorn, Sp. en torno a, en
contorno, old dentorno, Ptg. em torno de/a, em contorno.
IN/DE TRAVERSO, AD TRAVERSU(M) ‘across’: It. attraverso (a)
‘across’, di traverso ‘amiss’, Friul. traviars di, Surs. (a) traviers,
Eng. trav(i)ers ‘across’, Fr. à travers ‘across’, de travers ‘amiss’,
en travers ‘crosswise’, Prov. a/en travers/-vès, Cat. de/a(l) través
(de), Sp. (< Cat.) de través, al travès (de), OSp. de traviesso/-erso,
69

a travieso de, travieso, Ptg. de travès, atravès (de), ao través de,
OPtg. travesso, Sard. (OLog.) travessu, (OCamp.) treessu, (rustic
Camp.) (a) truessu.
DE AVORSO ‘from the back’: Friul. davous, Surs. davos, anavos,
LEng. davò, in avò, UEng. davous, inavous ‘behind’.
PER MEDIU(M), IN MEDIO ‘in the midst’, then ‘among’: Rum. în miez de,
It. in mezzo a ‘amid’, per mezzo di ‘by means of’, OIt. per me(i) ‘in the
middle of’, ‘in front of’, in me(i) (a) ‘in the middle of’, OPad. en mei
‘ditto’, ORavenn. a me, March. me ‘in’, March., Rom. ma ‘to’, V.Gard.
permez ‘towards’, Friul. parmis ‘beside’, Surs. (en)amiez, Eng. immez
‘in the middle of’, Surs. enpermiez ‘asunder’, Fr. parmi ‘among’, OFr.
en mi/emmi, Prov. per miei, en miei, Cat. enmig
de, al mig de, Sp. en medio de ‘in the middle of’, por medio de ‘by
means of’. Gal. en medio, no medio, por medio de, Ptg. em meio
a/de, no meio de ‘in the middle of’, por meio de ‘by means of’, Sard.
me in ‘in’.
AD PARTE(M), (AB)DE PARTE ‘to the side’, ‘apart’: Rum. aparte
‘apart’, departe ‘far’, It. a parte ‘apart’, da parte ‘aside’, da una
parte ‘ditto’, ‘on the one hand’, da parte a parte ‘right through’,
d’altra parte ‘on the other hand’, da/per parte mia ‘on/for my part’,
70

Surs. d’ina vart, da l’autra vart, da vart da ‘from the side of’, ‘on
the part of’, da mia vart, dapart ‘asunder’, Eng. dad üna vart,
davart da, Fr. à part (old apart) ‘apart’, ‘aside’, de part en part (à,
l’autre) d’une part, d’autre part, de/ pour ma part, Prov. d’una part,
d’autra part, a part, de part, Occ. a part, de part (de part en part, a
d’autra), Cat. de part (de part a part), d’altra part, Sp. a parte (old
a part) ‘aside’, aparte (de) ‘apart (from), de parte, de parte a parte,
a la otra parte, por mi parte, Ptg. a parte (old aparte) (de) ‘apart
(from)’, de parte ‘aside’, de parte a parte, da outra parte, de/por
minha parte, Sard. a pparte a ‘towards’.
AD LATU(S)/LATERA ‘at the side (of)’: Rum. alăturea, alături, It.
allato/al lato/a lato (a, di), OFr. delez/da-, lez > lès, Prov. delatz,
latz (de), OCat. a lats (llats) de, Sp. al lado (de), Ptg. ao lado (de),
lado a lado ‘side by side’. Vegl. a lič, a lai.
AD DORSU(M), IN DORSO ‘at/on the back’: Rum. în dos ‘at the back’,
în dosul casei ‘at the back of the house’, uşa de din dos ‘the back
door’, dea îndoaselea, de-andoasele ‘back to front’, ‘contrariwise’.
It. addosso, in dosso/indosso (of clothes) ‘on one’s back’, Friul.
aduès ‘on’, Surs. a dies, en dies, Eng. in döss ‘on one’s back’, Eng.
a(d)döss ‘on another person’s back’, Fr. au dos (de) ‘at the back
(of)’, à dos de ‘on the back of’, Occ. à dos, endos, OCat. a dors (cf.
terrandòs/ta- ‘a kind of mushroom’), OSp. al dorso de.
71

AD REVERSU(M), DE REVERSO ‘in reverse’, ‘the wrong way round’: It.
a/al rovescio ‘the wrong way round’, Fr. à/au/de revers ‘at the
back’, Prov. a revers, Occ. à/de revès, al rebès ‘ditto’, Cat. al revés,
Sp. al/del revds, Ptg. ao/de revés ‘the wrong way round’, ‘on the
contrary’ (cf. OSp. a aviessas, ad abiessas (Gl. Sil.), Ptg. as avessas
‘the wrong way round’, from AVERSU, also OPtg. às vessas).
AD PRESSU(M), IN/DE PRESSO, PRESSE ‘close by’: It. presso (a) ‘near’,
a un dipresso ‘approximately’, OIt. appresso (a), ORom.
appriesso/ad priesso (a) ‘near’, ‘after’, Rom., SIt. appresso, OAret.
apresso ‘after’, OLomb. apres(s)o, après ‘near’, ‘after’, Fr.
(au)près (de) ‘near’, à peu près ‘almost’, après ‘after’, d’après
‘according to’, OFr. emprès, Prov. près, (en)après, deprès, emprès,
O/après de Cat. pres ‘near’, (en)aprés, emprès Cat. de(s)prés (de)
‘after’, OArag. aprés, emprés ‘after’, OArag., OSp, aprés (de)
‘near’, ‘after’ (< Prov.), OPtg. (d)aprés ‘ditto’.
*DE-RE-CAPU(T) ‘from the beginning again’, ‘anew’: OIt. di recapo
(cf. It. da capo), OVen. de recavo > darecao, Monferr. derkó, Friul.
darcjà, Müst. darchiau, LEng. darcheu, UEng. darcho, OFr.
derechief, OWald. dereco, Prov. derecap, derescabs.
(DE) LONGO (AD), AD LONGU(M) ‘along’, ‘alongside’, also acquiring a
temporal sense ‘along with that’, AD LONGA(M) ‘at a distance’, ‘for a
72

long time’: Rum. lângă ‘alongside’, de-a-lungul (+ gen.) ‘along’, It.
lungo ‘along’, ‘alongside’, OIt. di lungo a/da, OVer. de longo,
OLaz. a longu ‘alongside’, It. di lungo, Ven. de longo, Emil. d’lunc,
Lomb. (Bormio) de lunc, Tic. de lonc, Breg. dalung(a)
‘straightaway’, Pied. (Ormea) dlunga ‘all along’, It. a lungo ‘at
(great) length’, OVer. da la longa, OAret. a da longa ‘from a
distance’, OAret. da lunga, Sic. a lunga ‘far away’ (I doubt
Monaci’s gloss of the former as ‘for a long time’), It. di gran lunga
‘by far’, alla lunga ‘in the long run’, V.Gard. dlongia ‘nearby’, a la
longia ‘in the long run’, dlonk ‘everywhere’, Tyr. dlonğa, Friul.
dongje ‘alongside’, ‘nearby’, di lunc ‘throughout’, Surs. alla liunga
‘in the long run’, LEng., Surm. dalunga, UEng. dalungia, dalum
‘straightaway’, Fr. le/au long (de) ‘along’, ‘alongside’, OFr.
lonc/lunc ‘by’, selonc/so- ‘along’, ‘near’ (> selon ‘according to’),
du long de, en lunge ‘near’, alonc, longes ‘for a long time’, Prov.
lonc (de), de lonc ‘near’, ‘along’, OCat. de llonc: ‘at full length’, a
la llonga ‘in the long run’, OArag. (Gl. Sil.) por luenga ‘lengthily’,
OSp. a la luenga ‘along’, ‘at full length’, en luengo ‘lengthwise’,
Ptg. ao longo de ‘along’, ‘alongside’, de longo ‘along’, OPtg. à
longa ‘far’, de/ao longo ‘far away’.
(DE) LONGE ‘(from) far away’: It. (da) lungi, OAret. (de) logne/
lunge, OGen. (de) lonzi, OLomb., OPied. da lunze/lonze, OVen. de
73

Addenda
lunçi, V.Gard. da lonč, Surs. (da) lunsch, Eng. (da)löntsch. Fr. (de)
loin, Prov. (de) lonh/ luenh/loing, Cat. (de) lluny, OArag. (Gl. Sil.)
luenge, OSp. (de) lueñe, Ast. luentše tšuentši, Maragatería luenxe,
Cabranes lloñe, Sanab. llonge, Gal., Ptg. (de) longe.
ABSENTIA (× SINE ?) ‘without’: It. senza (di), vulgar Tusc. insenza,
OTusc., OPied., OLomb., OSic. sanza, OLomb., OBol., OVen.
çença, OBol. sens, Tic. senze, OMil. asensa, Friul. cence, senze,
Surs. senza, Eng. sainza, (OFr. sen(z), sens, now sans), ODauph.
senso, Prov. sensa, sansa besides san(e)s etc., (Cat. sens(e) besides
old sen(e), senes, OArag. si(e)nse, besides s(i)en, sine(s)), Vegl.
sjanza de.
I have come across two more formations that are worthy of mention. The
first is a conjunction for ‘unless’, *AD MINUS QUAM,which is found in those
languages which maintained close cultural comtact; this was imitated in
Middle English as ‘on less than’, the ancestor of the present unless. The
forms in the various languages are: It. a meno che, Fr. à moins que, Prov. a
menhs que, Cat. a menys que, Sp., Ptg. a menos que. The other is a
conjugation meaning ‘for’ which developed out of the Latin QUARE ‘why?’,
The process of semantic change is the same as that seen in a sentence like
74

“You can’t be hungry already; why, you’ve only just had breakfast”, where
the “why” is used elliptically for “Why is that? Because…” Some of the
forms seem only to reflect QUA, but they appear to be connected: Rum. că,
OIt. ca, OFriul. che, Fr., Prov., Cat. car, OCat.quar/cor, OSp., OPtg. ca,
and cf. OSard. pro ca.
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