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the Pan Painter (Fig. IV.1). The fresco shows this god, known for his wild nature, in repose, and is surely influenced by the social and political climate of the day. Perhaps this change in the god’s demeanor is representative of a shift in the perception of Faunus from the wild forest god to the potentially more docile or comic deity known to the Augustan poets. The discrepancies between the iconography of Faunus in Fig. IV.2 and Pan in Fig. IV.3, as well as the image of Faunus in literature, highlight both the fact that art and text need not mirror one another and also the complex character of this god, who is not simply a Roman equivalent of the Greek Pan. One last fact that helps to distinguish between Pan and Faunus is that before the Imperial Period, there are few images of goat-man hybrids identified as Pan in Latium and Etruria, and all of these are found in a Dionysiac context. 400 The earliest example provided by Boardman in the LIMC entry for Pan is a bronze relief attachment dating to the fifth century BCE that depicts a squatting goat therianthrope playing a syrinx. 401 One may wonder then, if so few images of goat-man hybrids can securely be identified as Pan, a god whose nature is surely linked to the goat, how we might identify a goat therianthrope as Faunus, whose nature is in question. The multiplicity of Faunus bears mentioning as this is yet another factor that adds to the problematic nature of the god. As we shall see by the end of this study, a number of the theriomorphic and therianthropic deities can appear as pluralized or reduplicated creatures. In relation to Faunus, scholars have sought to determine which came first, the singular or plural forms. Fowler views Faunus as a deity who began as a “lower, multiple, daemonistic form” who became something “more uniform and more rigid.” 402 Wissowa, on the other hand, proposes that Faunus’ multiplicity was in fact the result of his identification with Pan, 403 which we have seen to be problematic. There is no sure way to determine which, either the singular or plural, aspect of Faunus came first or if this was even a concern to an ancient Etruscan or Roman. We may speculate that Faunus may have originally been an individual deity before the late Republic when authors such as Varro and Cicero refer to Fauni. 404 The use of a goat skin as a conspicuous component of a deity’s iconography was not limited to rustic, forest gods such as Pan and possibly Faunus. The great goddess Juno could 400 Boardman 1997, 939. 401 Boardman 1997, 939. 402 Fowler 1925, 260. 403 Wissowa 1454. 404 See Ch. 3 notes 310 and 316. It is also difficult to determine the impact the presence of Satyrs has had on the iconography of Faunus and the Fauni. Satyrs are plentiful in Greek, Roman, and Etruscan art but are not always depicted as goat-man hybrids and sometimes have horses’ tails as a component of their iconography. 83
appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a goatskin and armed with shield and spear. 405 Juno’s byname likely derives from either the Greek verb b , 406 which means to save or preserve, or the Sanskrit noun, sapati, a protector, but attempts to find this goddess’ origins in the light and the heavens have also led to a derivation from Latin sidus, or star, which would indicate that Juno Sospita was a celestial power. 407 A close connection to the moon has been posited for this goddess and for Juno in general. 408 Whatever the origin of the epithet Sospita, it is clear that this goddess was prominent throughout Latium and appears also in Etruria; Latin Juno becomes Etruscan Uni. 409 Of course, the greatest cult center of Juno Sospita was in Latium at Lanuvium. 410 It is tempting to suggest that Juno’s association with the goat may be tied to one of the earliest conceptions of the goddess, and some of the earliest images of Juno Sospita are found in Etruria. One example of an antefix bearing the image of Juno Sospita, of which there were many in both Latium and Etruria, comes from Antemnae (Fig. IV.4). The widespread use of the head of Juno Sospita as an antefix, in addition to her appearance in many different media of art, testifies to the pan-Italic quality of this goddess. Antefixes that make use of her visage appeared in Rome, Falerii Veteres, Fidenae, Satricum, and other cities of Latium 411 as well as Cerveteri in Etruria. 412 These antefixes conform closely to the image evoked by Cicero in De Natura Deorum 1.29.82 quoted below. Juno is here shown with both the horns and ears of the goat projecting from her head. There is no doubt that they also served as an apotropaic device due to 405 Sospita is the most common form of this epithet that appears in texts dealing with Roman religion, but this Juno could also be labeled Juno Sispes, Sispita, or Seispes. Gordon (1938, 24) notes that Sospita is the only form of this epithet appears in literature and epigraphic evidence except in Festus. This Juno is also sometimes referred to as Juno Sospita Mater Regina. An excellent discussion of the goddess Juno can also be found in Simon 1990, 94-106. 406 Douglas (1913, 68) and Shields (1926, 69) note a connection between Juno Sospita and Athena Soteria. More will be made of the connection between these two goddesses shortly. 407 Shields 1926, 67. While it may not seem etymologically sound to derive this particular aspect of Juno from sidus, Juno’s association with the sky is quite clear. Her relationship to Jupiter in Rome and her assimilation to Astarte at Pyrgi are only two pieces of much evidence for her role as queen of heaven. 408 Shields 1926, 72. 409 Jannot 2005, 157. De Grummond (2006a, 79) notes that the Italian name Juno may derive from an Indo- European root, iuni, meaning “young.” Simon (2006, 61) is in agreement that Uni is derived from Juno as well. 410 This does not necessarily imply that Juno Sospita was not conceived of in anthropomorphic form as proposed by Douglas (1913, 67-8), who adheres to the notion that Roman deities were not given human form until the Greeks or Etruscans influenced the Romans. Douglas (1913, 69) also suggests that this image type may have originated in Falerii. 411 Chiarucci 1983, 62. 412 Palmer 1974, 43. Andrén (1939-40, Pl. 9) provides one Etruscan example from the site of Caere. 84
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
Page 45 and 46: used as decorative support elements
Page 47 and 48: Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
Page 49 and 50: creature of the earth, and even his
Page 51 and 52: of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
Page 53 and 54: II.11). On this medallion, a person
Page 55 and 56: serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57 and 58: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 59 and 60: Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
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Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
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Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
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Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
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Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
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Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
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Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
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Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
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Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
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Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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