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Silvanus is sometimes shown accompanied by a dog and is also syncretized with the Celtic gods, Sucellus and Nodens, who were associated with death and canines. 318 An argument linking Sucellus to a Dis Pater mentioned in Caesar’s Gallic Wars as the national god of the Celts was made by Grenier. 319 A bronze statuette of Sucellus, ca. CE 14, represents this god as nude, except for a wolf-skin (Fig. III.9). Richardson notes that this statuette is a Gallo-Roman version of Silvanus and that he is a god of both forests and the underworld. 320 The presence of the wolf- skin, not the typical iconography for Sucellus and likely borrowed from Silvanus, argues for a closer association of the wolf with Silvanus. 321 Silvanus’ iconography is difficult to categorize due to its fluidity. P. Dorcey’s The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion is useful as a compilation of the archaeological and literary evidence for the cult of Silvanus, but this text does not always follow its own doctrines. Dorcey states that “Ancient deities were complex religious entities with many seemingly unrelated or contradictory sides, overlapping more often than not with those of other divinities.” 322 Yet when discussing the connections between the Latin Silvanus and the Etruscan Selvans, he rules out any relationship between the two; one reason he does this is that Selvans is often represented as a youth, and Silvanus is generally represented as aged. 323 Even so, he concedes that Silvanus is sometimes represented as a young man as well. 324 Dorcey notes that the relationship between Faunus and Silvanus seems to stretch back before the fourth century BCE when Pan is introduced to Italy, 325 but that Silvanus does not appear to be linked to Pan before the early second century BCE. 326 In general, the distinctions Dorcey creates to separate Pan, Silvanus, and Faunus from each other seem arbitrary and adverse to the rule that deities may possess diverse attributes and character. The author of the Origo Gentis Romanae mentions the name of one more god, Inuus, who is related to these other woodland deities. Livy also reports that Inuus was another name for 318 For Sucellus see Macmullen 2000, 91, Richardson 1977, 96, for Nodens see Green 1992, 199. Dorcey (1992, 58) states that the evidence for linking Silvanus and Sucellus is inconclusive. 319 Grenier 1955-6, 131-3; Caes. B. Gall. 6.18.1. 320 Richardson 1977, 96. 321 Waites (1920, 250) notes a confusion between the Lares and Silvanus after mentioning that the Lares sometimes wore the skins of dogs according to Plutarch. 322 Dorcey 1992, 14. 323 Dorcey 1992, 11-2. 324 Dorcey 1992, 16. 325 Dorcey 1992, 33. 326 Dorcey 1992, 42. 65
Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems to have a more sinister aspect. Inuus, who could also be multiplied to create Inui, was a god of nightmares who entered the dreams of sleeping women in order to rape them. 328 These nightmares have been associated with the feeling of strangulation, which returns us to the meaning of the root dhau- as “wolf” or “strangler.” The connection between Faunus as Inuus and a demon of nightmares also fits with the chthonic character of Faunus and his association with the Lupercalia. Holleman points out that the beginning and ending of the course of the Lupercalia at the Lupercal could be interpreted as the loosing from and returning to the underworld (the chthonic realm of the wolf) of the savage Luperci. 329 This evidence forms the basis for previous scholars’ attempts to link the gods Faunus and Silvanus to wolves, and it would be wise not to rule out the interpretation of Faunus and Silvanus as wolf-gods based only on their syncretic connections to the Greek god Pan. It must be remembered that for the Etruscans and Romans, the nature of the gods was not static, and there seems to have been a certain vagueness in their forms, nature, and attributes. 330 One may also turn to the Egyptian prototype of animal worship in order to find gods who are represented by more than one animal. The god Thoth, god of magic, knowledge, and countless other spheres of influence, was often represented with the head of an ibis or in the form of an ibis; however, this was not the sole animal associated with this god. He could also take the form of a baboon, and it was possible for the god to appear several times, in different form, on one object. 331 We must be careful not to forget that polyvalency is a common characteristic of pagan deities. I would like to add two further pieces to the list of evidence for sustaining the lupine nature of these gods. I believe that I have isolated a mythic narrative and an image that tell a tale of the god Faunus. In literature, the myth appears in Ovid’s Fasti 3.291-326, and in art, it appears on a series of Etruscan cinerary urns (Figs. III.10-12) featured in this study. These urns have been known for some time, and there are several other interpretations that must first be refuted before progressing to my own. These urns also demonstrate how one divinity may be represented in all three categories of theriomorphic and therianthropic iconography: wholly in the form of an animal, a human wearing an animal skin, and also a hybrid blending the anatomy 327 Livy 1.5.2 328 Holleman 1974, 95. August. De civ. D. 15.23, attributes this function of the god to Silvanus as well. 329 Holleman (1974, 98.) suggests that the Luperci were representatives of the dead ancestors of the Romans. 330 Pallottino 1975, 140. Faunus in particular possessed a vague nature. Besides a problem distinguishing between his lupine or caprid nature, Babcock (1961, 15) notes that, by the time of Augustus, Faunus was the king of the Latins, one of the race of Fauni, an oracular power, and also conflated with Pan. 331 Smelik and Hemelrijk 1984, 1861. 66
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
Page 27 and 28: Given the importance of the cult of
Page 29 and 30: In general, theriomorphic and theri
Page 31 and 32: paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
Page 33 and 34: metaphor that could be used by man
Page 35 and 36: students of comparative religion in
Page 37 and 38: there is not a wealth of literary n
Page 39 and 40: Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
Page 41 and 42: CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
Page 43 and 44: Corinthian vase painting.) In this
Page 45 and 46: used as decorative support elements
Page 47 and 48: Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
Page 49 and 50: creature of the earth, and even his
Page 51 and 52: of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
Page 53 and 54: II.11). On this medallion, a person
Page 55 and 56: serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57 and 58: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 59 and 60: Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
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When we speak of totemism we actual
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One curious example of an avian the
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votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
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hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
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of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
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labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
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image was also used as an indicator
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The imagery used to represent hybri
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god or goddess or the popularity of
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Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
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Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
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Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
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Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
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Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
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Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
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Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
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Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
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Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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