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like Pan. This evidence comes from his association with the Lupercalia, the etymologies of the name Faunus, and the syncretization of Faunus with other divinities. That Faunus is the god worshipped in the Lupercalia is an assertion of Ovid and several modern scholars. 287 Since it was one of the earliest festivals of the Romans, the Lupercalia went through numerous changes throughout the Roman Republic and Empire, and even the ancient sources disagree on the details of the rituals. 288 The “final” form of the festival seems to involve two groups of youths, either naked or wearing the skins of sacrificed goats, who run a course around the city of Rome on February 15, all the while striking the women of the city to induce fertility. 289 It is interesting that Plutarch mentions that a dog is sacrificed in this ritual as well, suggesting a link between this festival and the underworld, since dogs are typically sacrificed to chthonic divinities. 290 The Lupercal itself was thought to be a cave that also served not only as the location in which Romulus and Remus were sheltered and suckled by the she-wolf but also as a gate to the underworld, reinforcing this notion of the involvement of a chthonic divinity. 291 A further indication that this ritual is associated with such a deity has been noted by W. Barr, who states that the structure of Horace Ode I.4 demonstrates a link between the festival of Faunus and the Parentalia, a festival related to the spirits of the dead that was celebrated shortly after the Lupercalia in the same month of February. 292 In fact, February seems to be a nexus for such religious rites related to the underworld, fertility, and purification. 293 Plutarch’s mention of the sacrifice of a dog is suggestive in relation to the costumes of the Luperci. What is interesting is that when Plutarch mentions the ritual of donning the skins of the sacrificial animals, he does not specify that it is only the goat skin that is worn. W. Mannhardt hypothesizes that the two collegia of youths who ran through the city may have worn the goat and dog skin, respectively; 294 perhaps this version of the festival occurred early in the 287 Wiseman 1995a, 2; see also Parker 1997, 98, n.10. 288 Wiseman 1995b, 82. Basing his conclusion on the disparity of the ancient testimony, North (2000, 50) uses the Lupercalia as an example of a ritual that could contain many different meanings; there is no one single way to define the character of the Lupercalia. 289 Wiseman 1995b, 80-1. 290 Plut. Rom. XXI.5. One such deity who received dogs as a sacrifice was the goddess Hekate; see Reitler 1949, 30. 291 Holleman 1974, 98. The emphasis on the Lupercal seems in line with the practices of early Etruscan and Roman religion which were focused on natural, geographical features. This is one more indication that the Lupercalia belongs to the earliest strata of Roman religion. 292 Barr 1962, 5-11. 293 Holleman (1974, 114-8) further notes that the story of Tacita Muta, the mother of the Lares, coincides with the Lupercalia and Parentalia in the Fasti. This is yet one more tale related to the dead. 294 Mannhardt 1884, 101. 61
history of the Lupercalia and the wearing of the goat skin may be a later development. 295 A.J. Holleman goes so far as to suggest a wolf-masquerade and that the Luperci may have worn masks in the form of wolves’ heads. 296 The Luperci do indeed bear some similarities to the Hirpi, and etymological evidence may be of some use here. In his entry on Faunus in Roman and European Mythologies, R. Schilling states that the epithet Lupercus, which is applied to Faunus in his connection to the Lupercalia by Justin, 297 surely means, “wolf-man,” and, as mentioned earlier, this is what the priests of this festival were called, the Luperci or wolf-men. 298 When one considers that there were priests and priestesses respectively named the Tauroi and Arktoi in Greece, who were copies of their gods, it seems safe to conclude that the wolf-men of Rome were meant to copy a wolf deity. 299 The epithet Lupercus also bears some analysis. It seems likely that the name Lupercus is the Latin equivalent of the Greek name Lykaios, which may in turn connect Faunus with Pan Lykaios 300 and the werewolf cults of Arcadia. 301 Augustine, following Varro, believes this to be the case as he states in City of God. 302 It is possible that we should view Lupercus as one aspect of the god Faunus in much the same way that Tinia Calusna, the chthonic Tinia, is one aspect of the celestial Tinia. 303 Thus perhaps we should interpret Faunus Lupercus as the more fearsome aspect of an otherwise generally benevolent deity. A second link to werewolf cults can again be found in the costuming of the Luperci. At some point in the history of the festival, the Luperci may have run their circuit around the city of Rome in the nude. As noted earlier, the shedding of clothes is a common component of werewolf stories, and there may be a connection between the nudity of lycanthropes and the ritual nudity of the Luperci. 304 These notions must, however, remain in the realm of speculation. 295 Fowler 1925, 317. 296 Holleman 1974, 31-3. 297 Justin Apol. XLIII.1.7. 298 Eliade (1972, 3) states, “The fact that a people takes its ethnic name from the name of an animal always has a religious meaning. More precisely, the fact cannot be understood except as the expression of an archaic religious concept.” Nevertheless, Schilling (1992, 126) tries to deny the lupine nature of Faunus and explain away the name of his priests. Schilling’s brief article on Faunus is full of contradictory statements. 299 Altheim 1938, 207. 300 Wiseman 1995b, 85; see also Ov. Met. 221-39. 301 Buxton 1994, 67. 302 August. De civ. D. 18,17. 303 Hostetter (1978, 263-4) demonstrates the dual nature of Tina as celestial and infernal in his discussion of a bronze handle from Spina. 304 Buxton 1994, 69. 62
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
Page 23 and 24: are more distinct mirrors by the na
Page 25 and 26: its prerogatives and its essence ar
Page 27 and 28: Given the importance of the cult of
Page 29 and 30: In general, theriomorphic and theri
Page 31 and 32: paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
Page 33 and 34: metaphor that could be used by man
Page 35 and 36: students of comparative religion in
Page 37 and 38: there is not a wealth of literary n
Page 39 and 40: Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
Page 41 and 42: CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
Page 43 and 44: Corinthian vase painting.) In this
Page 45 and 46: used as decorative support elements
Page 47 and 48: Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
Page 49 and 50: creature of the earth, and even his
Page 51 and 52: of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
Page 53 and 54: II.11). On this medallion, a person
Page 55 and 56: serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57 and 58: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 59 and 60: Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
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CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
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for the Romans, and it may be that
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When we speak of totemism we actual
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One curious example of an avian the
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votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
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hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
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of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
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labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
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image was also used as an indicator
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The imagery used to represent hybri
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god or goddess or the popularity of
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Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
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Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
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Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
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Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
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Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
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Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
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Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
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Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
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Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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