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His back was marked with sky-blue spots And his scales burned with a sheen of gold, as a rainbow Casts a thousand different colors among the clouds by bending the sunlight. Aeneas was thunderstruck at the site. That serpent, with its long coils, At last amongst the bowls and the polished cups Ate the offerings, and harmlessly crawled Below the tomb again, and left behind the altars where he fed. That much more did Aeneas renew the rites he had begun for his father, Uncertain whether he thought the serpent was the spirit of that place or the attendant of his father. 207 In this example, Aeneas’ offerings consumed by the serpent before it returns to the tomb include two vials of milk, wine, and the blood of a sacrificial animal. 208 These offerings, made in the context of the cult of the dead, are analogous to the egg and pine cone shown in household shrines. The serpent is often shown entwined about an altar or receiving offerings of eggs and pine cones. Boyce makes much of the distinction in the types of offerings made to each type of genius, 209 and, while noting that the offering of an egg finds a parallel in the Greek cult of the dead, he states, “… by no stretch of the imagination can we connect the house altars with the cult of the dead.” 210 The pine cone was typically associated with gods such as Dionysos, Poseidon, and Aesculapius and was representative of “vitality and fertility,” 211 two traits that fit with the concept of the genius as a chthonic creature. 212 I propose that Boyce’s rejection of the association of the Genius Loci with the cult of the dead does not hold. Confusion among the various household gods is not limited to modern scholars. The Lares and Penates are sometimes thought to be the same by ancient authors in the Late Roman period, and these figures are both associated with the ancestors of a gens. 213 207 Verg. Aen. V.84-96. Latin Text taken from Ovid Metamorphoses Books IX-XV, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard <strong>University</strong> Press, 1994, p. 476, 478. (Translation by Author.) dixerat haec, adytis cum lubricus anguis ab imis / septem ingens gyros, septena volumina traxit, / amplexus placide tumulum lapsusque per aras, / caeruleae cui terga notae maculosus et auro / squamam incendebat fulgor, ceu nubibus arcus / mille iacit varios adverso sole colores. / obstipuit visu Aeneas. Ille agmine longo / tandem inter pateras et levia pocula serpens / libavitque dapes, rursusque innoxius imo / successit tumulo, et depasta altaria liquit. / hoc magis inceptos genitori instaurat honores, / incertus, geniumne loci famulumne parentis / esse putet… 208 Verg. Aen. V.77-8. 209 Boyce 1942, 20. 210 Boyce 1942, n. 41. 211 Edelstein and Edelstein 1945, 226. 212 Like the egg, the pine cone was also present in funerary art, and numerous examples of pine cone shaped stele exist. 213 For an opposing view to the interpretation of the Lares as ancestors see Palmer (1974, 115). My own feeling is that the diversity in epithets given to the Lares in addition to their association with powers of fertility and increase does not rule out the possibility of their association with a household’s ancestors. 45
Vergil’s statement that Aeneas was unsure whether the snake embodied the Genius Loci or his father’s attendant spirit indicates that the same confusion must have affected the Genius Loci and the Genius of an ancestor. It is also important to note that, Aeneas is performing rites for his dead father when the Genius Loci emerges from Anchises’ tomb; this indicates a clear connection to the cult of the dead. The constant grouping of Lares, Genius, and serpent is instructive, and it is difficult to say whether or not a Roman would have conceptualized these figures as entirely distinct entities. The generative powers of the Genius are closely tied to the grave and the ancestors, 214 and the serpent, as we have seen, is a symbol of both fertility and death. Even if we limit the serpent’s role to function as a guardian spirit of a particular place, 215 its consistent appearance in household shrines with or without other figures associated with the cult of the ancestors indicate that the Genius and Genius Loci share similar meaning and function. 216 The Lares, Penates, Genius, and Genius Loci are all part of the same cultic context, and the worship of one’s ancestors was of critical importance to the ancient Romans. 217 It was part of a family’s duties and the mos maiorum. 218 As Turcan notes, There was nothing more specifically Roman than domestic worship; it was what immediately distinguished Roman religion, for example on Delos, from the Greek environment, in the case of the colonists who lived on the island. 219 It is thus significant, that a key feature of Roman identity involves cult focused on a deity in serpent form. As one can see from this assortment of deities, the serpent’s symbolism is manifold. It is associated with both the healing and harmful forces of nature, fertility and procreative power, and life and death in a more general way. In Aesculapius, the embodiment of all these ideas, we also find an example of a Greek god imported to Italy whose myths and cult were adopted with little change by the people of Rome. Aesculapius also serves as an example of a therianthropic deity whose depictions in literature and art are not consistent with his worshippers’ conception in cult. 214 Altheim 1938, 169. 215 Wiseman (2004, 22) refers to the Genius as a “guardian angel” of the paterfamilias and the Lares as protectors of the home. Fowler (1969, 19) refers to the Genius as “permanent companion and protector throughout life.” 216 Boyce 1942, 13. It should also not seem odd that the Genius Loci, a chthonic spirit, received offerings associated with the cult of the dead. In fact, it is quite logical. 217 Fowler (1969, 23) notes that the deified ancestors were thought of collectively as the di parentes (in the case of a specific family) or the di Manes (for all of the dead). Groups of gods with indistinct identities are characteristic of the Roman conception of the ancestors in the afterlife. 218 It is the close association with Roman family values that made the Genius Augusti such a powerful part of Augustus’ propaganda. For Augustus as paterfamilias of the state, see Turcan 2000, 136. 219 Turcan 2000, 14. 46
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
Page 7 and 8: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 9 and 10: Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
Page 11 and 12: Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
Page 13 and 14: ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
Page 15 and 16: physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
Page 17 and 18: or for the death of someone else, w
Page 19 and 20: left with an incomplete appraisal o
Page 21 and 22: presentation of the Battle of Actiu
Page 23 and 24: are more distinct mirrors by the na
Page 25 and 26: its prerogatives and its essence ar
Page 27 and 28: Given the importance of the cult of
Page 29 and 30: In general, theriomorphic and theri
Page 31 and 32: paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
Page 33 and 34: metaphor that could be used by man
Page 35 and 36: students of comparative religion in
Page 37 and 38: there is not a wealth of literary n
Page 39 and 40: Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
Page 41 and 42: CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
Page 43 and 44: Corinthian vase painting.) In this
Page 45 and 46: used as decorative support elements
Page 47 and 48: Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
Page 49 and 50: creature of the earth, and even his
Page 51 and 52: of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
Page 53 and 54: II.11). On this medallion, a person
Page 55 and 56: serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
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probably derives from Sumerian mode
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A bull therianthrope identified as
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efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
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ecent discussion of the perception
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The rites of Bacchic cult practice
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was likely difficult even for the a
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Layed me out in the deep sand. That
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Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
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CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
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for the Romans, and it may be that
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When we speak of totemism we actual
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One curious example of an avian the
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votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
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hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
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of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
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labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
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image was also used as an indicator
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The imagery used to represent hybri
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god or goddess or the popularity of
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Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
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Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
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Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
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Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
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Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
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Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
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Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
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Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
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Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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