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Then Diana, stirred to pity by his [Hippolytus’] chastity, recalled him to life through Aesculapius the son of Apollo and Coronis, and he was born when his mother’s womb was cut open. The reason for this was that when Apollo had heard from the raven, her guardian, that she had committed adultery, he angrily struck Coronis down with his arrows, at the very moment she was about to give birth – moreover, he made the raven black instead of white – and, after cutting open her womb, he thus delivered Aesculapius, who became an expert in medicine. Afterwards, Jupiter did away with him because he had called Hippolytus back to life. 161 Aesculapius was born after his mother had been killed, and he was slain by Jupiter for returning another mortal from the dead. 162 His myths represent him as a liminal figure who straddles the boundary between life and death in a way that other mortals, and many gods, do not, 163 and Burkert refers to him as a deity who is at home neither on Mount Olympus nor in the underworld. 164 Thus, the serpent is the perfect symbol for a deity who can subvert the norms of nature due to its ability to slough off old skin and be rejuvenated, as if from illness, and possess restored youth, as if it was reborn. 165 If we examine Aesculapius’ parentage and life, we meet with a number of animal associations that compound his liminal nature. Coronis is linked to the crow, a bird sacred to Apollo, who is in turn connected to the dog/wolf in several of his guises, including Apollo Maleatas and Apollo Lykeos. Apollo, under the guise of Maleatas, was worshipped along with Aesculapius at Epidaurus, and dogs were sacred to both deities. 166 According to Isyllos’ version 161 Serv. ad. Aen. VII, 761. Latin Text taken from Asclepius: A Collection and Interpretation of the Testimonies, edited by EJ and L Edelstein, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945, p. 30-1. (Translation by Author.) Tunc Diana eius castitate commota revocavit eum in vitam per Aesculapium, filium Apollinis et Coronidis, qui natus erat exsecto matris ventre, ideo quod, cum Apollo audisset a corvo, eius custode, eam adulterium committere, iratus Coronidem maturo iam partu confixit sagittis – corvum vero nigrum fecit ex albo – et exsecto ventre Coronidis produxit ita Aesculapium, qui factus est medicinae peritus. Hunc postea Iuppiter propter revocatum Hippolytum interemit. 162 Aesculapius’ death at the hands of Jupiter is tantalizing in relation to the study of animal imagery. Just as Aesculapius is associated with the serpent, so Jupiter is associated with the eagle. The hostility between serpent and eagle is mentioned by a number of ancient authors in reference to the sacred serpents of Aesculapius. One example occurs in Nicander’s Theriaca, a medical text dedicated to poisons. Nicander states “From old the royal bird, the eagle, has been wrathful towards the serpent and with its beak engages it in hostile battle, when it sees the serpent crawling along the ground.” The enmity between Jupiter and Aesculapius seems to be mirrored in nature. 163 The tales of his life and death also link Aesculapius to the healing arts, for his birth is reminiscent of a Caesarian section, and he dies only after conquering death itself. 164 Burkert 1985, 214. Strab. XIV.1.39 records that Aesculapius was born in Trikka on the banks of the Lethaios River, which certainly calls to mind the geography of the underworld. 165 Edelstein and Edelstein 1945, 228. 166 Edelstein and Edelstein 1945, 227. Burkert 1985, 214. 37
of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nursed the young deity while he was guarded by a dog. 167 Aesculapius also possesses blood ties to the race of centaurs through Koronis, sister of Ixion, the father of this hybrid race, 168 in addition to being taught the art of medicine by Chiron. 169 The typical image of Aesculapius was that of a middle-aged, bearded man with a benevolent countenance (although he could take the form of a beardless youth as well) 170 who generally leans on a staff about which a serpent is entwined. Fig. II.8 is an example of one common representation of this tradition, the Anzio Type delineated by Holtzmann in his discussion of the iconography of Aesculapius. 171 Statues of Aesculapius typically depict the god wearing a chiton and sandals, articles of clothing which would not be worn by an Olympian deity. 172 Aesculapius is also on occasion accompanied by his daughter and female counterpart, Greek Hygeia or Roman Salus. 173 Fig. II.9 is one such statue in which Salus is cast as a young goddess standing alongside her father and feeding a sacred serpent; this closeness to her father and association with the serpent is typical of her cult images. Salus was the goddess most frequently connected with Aesculapius and seems to have personified the abstract idea of good health as opposed to the practice of medicine represented by her father. Both of these images point to the fact that even though the images of Aesculapius in human form are more common, they are nearly always accompanied by the serpent, whether it is beneath a seated Aesculapius, entwined about his staff, or just next to him. Images of Aesculapius are typically anthropomorphic with the serpent as an attribute or attendant, and this was one way in which epiphanies of this god were imaged. One of the earliest literary sources that treats the cult of Aesculapius, Aristophanes’ Plutus, records one, albeit fictional, example. Aristophanes mocks the keeping of sacred snakes by the cult of Aesculapius in the following passage in which Cario, the play’s protagonist, imitates a sacred snake. Cario:… Now when the old hag heard the sound I was making 167 Kerényi 1959, 28-9. Kerényi (1959, 32) also notes that the dog is a transitional animal associated with both life and death, light and dark. This will be further discussed in Chapter 4. 168 Kerényi 1959, 98-9. 169 Hom. Il. IV.218-9; Pind. Nem. II.54-6. 170 Schouten (1967, 25) and Burkert (1985, 214) note that Aesculapius often resembles Zeus but has a “gentler, kindlier expression” and that the serpent and staff are key attributes in distinguishing the iconography of the two deities. Kerényi (1959, Ill. 41) states that a young Aesculapius “was not rare in antiquity.” 171 Holtzmann 1984, 878. 172 Edelstein and Edelstein (1945, 217) suggest that this indicates an acknowledgment of his heroic past as none of the Greek gods who dwelled on Olympus would be depicted clothed. Nudity was traditional for the great gods. 173 Kerényi 1959, 56. Schouten (1967, 57) states that Salus is occasionally Aesculapius’ wife. For Epione as wife of Aesculapios, see Kerényi 1959, 56. 38
Page 1 and 2: THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
Page 3 and 4: This work is dedicated to my loving
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
Page 7 and 8: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 9 and 10: Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
Page 11 and 12: Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
Page 13 and 14: ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
Page 15 and 16: physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
Page 17 and 18: or for the death of someone else, w
Page 19 and 20: left with an incomplete appraisal o
Page 21 and 22: presentation of the Battle of Actiu
Page 23 and 24: are more distinct mirrors by the na
Page 25 and 26: its prerogatives and its essence ar
Page 27 and 28: Given the importance of the cult of
Page 29 and 30: In general, theriomorphic and theri
Page 31 and 32: paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
Page 33 and 34: metaphor that could be used by man
Page 35 and 36: students of comparative religion in
Page 37 and 38: there is not a wealth of literary n
Page 39 and 40: Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
Page 41 and 42: CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
Page 43 and 44: Corinthian vase painting.) In this
Page 45 and 46: used as decorative support elements
Page 47 and 48: Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
Page 49: creature of the earth, and even his
Page 53 and 54: II.11). On this medallion, a person
Page 55 and 56: serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57 and 58: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 59 and 60: Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102:
SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104:
that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106:
the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108:
of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110:
probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112:
A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114:
efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116:
ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118:
The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120:
was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122:
Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124:
Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126:
CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128:
for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130:
When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132:
One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134:
votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
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hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138:
of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
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labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
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image was also used as an indicator
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The imagery used to represent hybri
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god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148:
Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150:
Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152:
Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154:
Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156:
Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158:
Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160:
Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162:
Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164:
Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166:
Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168:
Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170:
Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172:
Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
Page 173 and 174:
Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
Page 195 and 196:
Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
Page 197 and 198:
Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
Page 199 and 200:
Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
Page 203 and 204:
Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
Page 205 and 206:
Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
Page 207 and 208:
Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
Page 209 and 210:
Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
Page 213 and 214:
Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
Page 217 and 218:
Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
Page 219 and 220:
_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
Page 235 and 236:
_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
Page 237 and 238:
Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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