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and the Genius or Genius Loci. In the case of Aesculapius, we are presented with a god depicted in art most often as a man accompanied by a serpent, 98 but in literature he often takes the form of a sacred snake. The most notable example of an ophidian Aesculapius appears in his arrival in Rome, described by Ovid (Metamorphoses, XV) and Livy (Perioichai, XI). I have chosen Charu as an example of Etruscan death demons, who regularly possess ophidian characteristics. One demon, who appears in the Tomb of the Reliefs with what may be snakes’ tails for legs, has been interpreted in the past as Charu(n). The relationship between this figure and other anguipeds in Etruria will be examined. Charu(n) and other demons are sometimes shown with snake-skin patterns on their wings, and it may be that the blue-green color of the demons’ skin is meant to represent the effects of poisonous snake bites. 99 My last representative of the serpent, the Genius or Genius Loci, formed a key component of Roman domestic religion. The importance of snake symbolism to the private worship of the Romans is a point that deserves great emphasis. The wolf (Chapter Three) is represented by Aita, Apollo Soranus, Faunus, and Silvanus. Aita is depicted on a number of artifacts that show him with a common iconography. He is shown as a mature, regal, bearded male who wears a wolf-skin cap. Aita’s wolf-skin cap is linked to his chthonic nature as is indicated by connections to another infernal Etruscan deity, Calu. The word Calustla appears inscribed on a figurine that takes the shape of a wolf-hound. Apollo Soranus is a second god associated with the wearing of a wolf’s skin, but this time it is the priests of the god who wear the wolf pelt. The priests seem to do this in imitation of their god’s form as a key part of their worship. Again, the wolf indicates a chthonic nature, and Apollo Soranus is known from other evidence to be an underworld deity. Faunus, who in the past has mainly been associated with goats, also seems to have a lupine nature, and I believe that I have isolated a mythic narrative that may be compared to visual representations of an Etruscan wolf-god to prove this. Faunus’ lupine nature may also be tied to his syncretism with the Roman god Silvanus and the Celtic god Sucellus. These gods are part of a complex of mingled identities and religious syncretism. second possible exception is the god Anubis, who is discussed in Chapter Three, but he does not appear to have attained the same degree of acceptance as Aesculapius, and the jackal-headed deity served as a subsidiary god in the worship of Isis. 98 Aesculapius is also accompanied by the rooster and dog, although these animals do not have the same degree of significance in his cult. 99 Hostetler’s innovative theory can be found at Hostetler (2002, 11 December, http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/classtud /etruscans-now/papers/hostetler.htm). 25
Faunus and Silvanus are also associated with the goat (Chapter Four) beginning with their syncretic connections to the Greek goat god Pan. In this chapter, the relationship between Faunus, Silvanus, and Pan is further problematized since images of Faunus and Silvanus do not often take the form of a goat-man hybrid in art even though Faunus is portrayed as such in literature. Goat iconography continues with the goddess Juno, who was worshipped as Juno Sospita or Juno Caprotina. In the past, this aspect of Juno was separated from the womanly spheres of marriage and childbirth even though she was associated with an oracular shrine inhabited by a snake that tested the chastity of young maidens. I would argue that being a civic goddess and the protectress of a city does not rule out the possibility of being associated with marriage, childbirth, and fertility. The bull (Chapter Five), an exceedingly significant animal in ancient religion, is represented by the god Achelous. Achelous is a typical river god and therefore a shape changer. He is often depicted as having a fish’s tail and a bull’s horns, but this is not the only hybrid form he takes. He can also appear as a bull with a man’s head, and the man-bull present in the Tomb of the Bulls in Tarquinia may well represent Achelous or another river god like him. Numerous akroteria from Etruscan temples are also decorated with images of a man’s head that sprouts bull’s horns. The identification of these figures as Achelous is called into question by the Greek Dionysos’ association with bulls. Dionysos was much more than a god of wine and theater and was the god of coursing liquids and the raw, pulsing life present in the blood of men and animals. He is often referred to as the horned god in literature but, like Aesculapius, it is difficult to find secure theriomorphic or therianthropic representations of this god in art. It is also not clear if there was ever a “standard” iconographic type for Dionysos Tauromorphos; was he a bull-man or a man-bull? This problem is particularly evident in an Italian context in which Dionysos is often linked to the Etruscan god Fufluns and the Latin god Liber, who may or may not share in the taurine associations of their Greek counterpart. In the discussion of the uncertainty of identifying certain images of man-bull hybrids, the myth of the Minotaur and its use in Etruria is also discussed. The final chapter dedicated to an animal type focuses on birds (Chapter Six). Birds were an important part of both Etruscan and Roman religion as can be seen from the prominence of the practice of augury in these cultures. This chapter focuses on a number of problematic deities about whom we possess little secure information. The first of these is the god Picus, a figure 26
Page 1 and 2: THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
Page 3 and 4: This work is dedicated to my loving
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
Page 7 and 8: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 9 and 10: Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
Page 11 and 12: Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
Page 13 and 14: ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
Page 15 and 16: physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
Page 17 and 18: or for the death of someone else, w
Page 19 and 20: left with an incomplete appraisal o
Page 21 and 22: presentation of the Battle of Actiu
Page 23 and 24: are more distinct mirrors by the na
Page 25 and 26: its prerogatives and its essence ar
Page 27 and 28: Given the importance of the cult of
Page 29 and 30: In general, theriomorphic and theri
Page 31 and 32: paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
Page 33 and 34: metaphor that could be used by man
Page 35 and 36: students of comparative religion in
Page 37: there is not a wealth of literary n
Page 41 and 42: CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
Page 43 and 44: Corinthian vase painting.) In this
Page 45 and 46: used as decorative support elements
Page 47 and 48: Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
Page 49 and 50: creature of the earth, and even his
Page 51 and 52: of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
Page 53 and 54: II.11). On this medallion, a person
Page 55 and 56: serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57 and 58: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 59 and 60: Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90:
narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92:
eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94:
Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
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anch, 397 objects that likely stres
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appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100:
Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102:
SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104:
that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106:
the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108:
of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110:
probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112:
A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114:
efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
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ecent discussion of the perception
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The rites of Bacchic cult practice
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was likely difficult even for the a
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Layed me out in the deep sand. That
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Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126:
CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128:
for the Romans, and it may be that
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When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132:
One curious example of an avian the
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votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
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hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
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of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
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labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
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image was also used as an indicator
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The imagery used to represent hybri
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god or goddess or the popularity of
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Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
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Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152:
Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
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Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156:
Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158:
Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160:
Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162:
Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
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Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166:
Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168:
Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
Page 205 and 206:
Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
Page 209 and 210:
Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
Page 211 and 212:
Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
Page 213 and 214:
Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
Page 217 and 218:
Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
Page 237 and 238:
Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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