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literary works, but also each generation often requires up-to-date renderings,
especially of monsters, who change in conception over time. 90
We can apply the idea of “up-to-date renderings” to the corpus of the theriomorphic and
therianthropic deities and demons. Images and the conception of the divine were not static in
antiquity, and, as we shall see in this study, there was room for striking change. There may not
always be a canonical version of a narrative or image of a god.
A further problem to deal with is the afore-mentioned lack of Etruscan literature. Since
no preserved Etruscan texts offer a mythic narrative for us to follow, we must turn to the visual
sources as our only source for identifying the plot of a myth. This is not always possible with the
remains we possess. As de Grummond states in her recent text, Etruscan Myth, Sacred History
and Legend:
Still, much remains unknown; stories told in representations in art often assume
that the viewer already knows the story, and without a written narrative taking
place in time it is difficult to reconstruct the sequence of an action. 91
Etruscan divinities may be overlooked in general studies of religion and myth since they
seem to be perceived as minor figures compared to the greater, Olympian gods. The
reduplication of figures such as Charu and Pan is one reason for treating theriomorphic and
therianthropic deities and demons as possessing a lesser divine status. The abundance of human-
animal hybrids and other “monsters” that appear in classical myth may have also affected the
way that scholars view these figures. For example, Pan often seems to be treated as a glorified
satyr, and his importance as a rustic divinity is often forgotten. Perhaps, this was even the case
in antiquity since Pan accused the Athenians of ignoring him during the Persian War. 92 Another
factor to consider alongside the conception of their “divine status” is the amount of material that
preserves the memory of these gods and goddesses. When discussing different types of gods
worshipped by the Romans, Beard, North, and Price state that, “Some deities had no closely
defined personality and remained outside the traditions of myth and legend. Although, to us,
they may seem more ‘shadowy’ for that reason, they were not necessarily less important in
Roman times.” 93 Some theriomorphic and therianthropic deities fall in this category; in short
90 Small 2003, 29.
91 De Grummond 2006a, 11.
92 Hdt. 6.105.1.
93 Beard, North, Price 1998, 30.
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