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opinion. This is a weak argument in support of a negative assessment of animal cult, but it does point out that personal opinion is one large factor that we must take into account when dealing with these literary sources. Again, the author’s viewpoint may or may not apply to the populace at large. Plutarch’s assessment of animal worship in his treatment of the cult of Isis and Osiris has been interpreted in two, quite opposite, ways. Based on their reading of Plutarch’s text, Smelik and Hemelrijk produce contradictory statements that support both a negative and positive view of animal worship. At one moment they state that, … Plutarch makes it clear that he cannot accept animal worship as such and that his interpretation of it is only an effort to present what was in fact unacceptable to himself and to his public, in such a way that it might be valued. 33 This opinion is no doubt based upon a passage in Plutarch in which he states the following: But not least are the Egyptians well used to this in reference to the animals they honor. The Greeks, on the other hand, speak correctly in relation to these matters and regard the dove as the sacred animal of Aphrodite, the serpent of Athena, the raven of Apollo, and the dog of Artemis. Thus Euripides says, “You shall be a dog, an image of bright Hekate.” The majority of Egyptians, though, worship the animals themselves and treat them as gods, thus not only have they confounded the sacred rites with laughter and mockery, but this is the least evil of their stupidity; a terrible belief is implanted which subverts the weak and guileless into impotent superstition, but the more cunning and rash fall into godless and savage reasoning. 34 But this is not the whole picture, as Smelik and Hemelrijk indicate in reference to the following passage. “Therefore, we should not honor these, but through them honor the Divine since they 33 Smelik and Hemelrijk 1984, 1961. The assumption that Plutarch is wholly against animal worship is based primarily on Plut. De Is. et Os. 71, at which point he refers to the practice as a “stark superstition.” This is not the complete picture, however, as can be seen from numerous other points in Plutarch’s text and the Greek examples of animal cult he provides. 34 Plut. De Is. et Os. 71. Greek Text taken from Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride, edited by J G Griffith, Cambridge: <strong>University</strong> of Wales Press, 1970, p. 228, 230. (Translation by Author.) ! " # $% &&' ( ) * ( & + ( , - . / 0 , '( 1 2 3 . 4 5( / ' 6 ( . / &&" ( . 5( / (7 8 ( % , (9 :;% 4 '( < & 0" 0 " * =:9 9 ," / - && ( 1 ( 8 ( >( &" ( ) ?& &@ ( - , (7 A && 5( A B & ' , ( C&4 ? C 9 /C 0 3 >( ) A D( A 4 ( ( < E , 3 , 7 D( ) ( ( ( A ( C , ' ( & (# 9
are more distinct mirrors by the nature of their birth also.” 35 Plutarch thus indicates that animal worship is acceptable when viewed as a metaphor for honoring the gods. In the latter instance, animal worship is not viewed in a negative light, and one can argue that Plutarch depicts it in a favorable fashion by supporting the opinion that the Egyptians had discovered secret knowledge unknown to Plutarch’s audience, and that, when interpreted as an allegory, animal worship was quite reasonable. 36 Scholars such as D.S. Richter read Plutarch’s text as wholly negative and see Plutarch’s treatment of Egyptian myth as a critique of the practice of animal worship. Richter 37 proposes that Plutarch’s account of the myth of Isis and Osiris and the cult that accompanied it is a Middle-Platonic quest to prove the primacy of Greek philosophy over Egyptian religion, and argues that the Greeks understood the concept of divinity better than the Egyptians. Before continuing with an analysis of the texts gathered by Smelik and Hemelrijk, we may pause, for there are two important points to make. The first of these is that the literary sources are not wholly negative, and are at worst ambivalent to the worship of animals. We cannot use them as firm proof that the Romans were as strongly opposed to animal worship as past scholarship has led us to believe. Secondly, it seems problematic to ascribe the beliefs of these authors to the population at large who would be practicing the religions in question. 38 Certainly, this is true of Plutarch, a member of the wealthy, elite, and educated class, who disavowed superstition. The Romans classified ritual practices in one of two ways: religio or superstitio, 39 and it is possible that the Roman upper-class would have thought of animal worship as a rustic practice categorized as superstitio. In fact, Egyptian gods and their images are prevalent in the practice of magic. 40 If we follow Richter and the notion that Plutarch seeks to justify Greco-Roman religious practice through Middle-Platonic philosophy, we can safely assume that he is not representative 35 Plut. De Is. et Os. 76. Greek Text taken from Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride, edited by J G Griffith, Cambridge: <strong>University</strong> of Wales Press, 1970, p.240. (Translation by Author.) …[ F G (7 A && " . D 8 ( C " C " 0 " # 36 Smelik and Hemelrijk 1984, 1968. 37 Richter 2001, 194, 209. 38 North (2000, 8) states, “The extant evidence generally reflects not the experience of the mass of individual Romans, but the religious activity that affects the state and its activities, above all the doings of magistrates and priests.” 39 Beard, North, Price 1998, 214-27. 40 Graf 1997, 5. 10
Page 1 and 2: THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
Page 3 and 4: This work is dedicated to my loving
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
Page 7 and 8: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 9 and 10: Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
Page 11 and 12: Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
Page 13 and 14: ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
Page 15 and 16: physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
Page 17 and 18: or for the death of someone else, w
Page 19 and 20: left with an incomplete appraisal o
Page 21: presentation of the Battle of Actiu
Page 25 and 26: its prerogatives and its essence ar
Page 27 and 28: Given the importance of the cult of
Page 29 and 30: In general, theriomorphic and theri
Page 31 and 32: paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
Page 33 and 34: metaphor that could be used by man
Page 35 and 36: students of comparative religion in
Page 37 and 38: there is not a wealth of literary n
Page 39 and 40: Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
Page 41 and 42: CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
Page 43 and 44: Corinthian vase painting.) In this
Page 45 and 46: used as decorative support elements
Page 47 and 48: Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
Page 49 and 50: creature of the earth, and even his
Page 51 and 52: of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
Page 53 and 54: II.11). On this medallion, a person
Page 55 and 56: serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57 and 58: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 59 and 60: Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74:
passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76:
history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78:
Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80:
Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82:
had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84:
Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86:
figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88:
suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90:
narrative and alternative iconograp
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eproduction of animals. 376 These a
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Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96:
anch, 397 objects that likely stres
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appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100:
Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
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SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
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that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
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the etymology of her name indicates
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of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110:
probably derives from Sumerian mode
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A bull therianthrope identified as
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efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
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ecent discussion of the perception
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The rites of Bacchic cult practice
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was likely difficult even for the a
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Layed me out in the deep sand. That
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Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
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CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
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for the Romans, and it may be that
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When we speak of totemism we actual
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One curious example of an avian the
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votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
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hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
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of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
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labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
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image was also used as an indicator
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The imagery used to represent hybri
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god or goddess or the popularity of
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Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150:
Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
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Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
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Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156:
Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158:
Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160:
Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162:
Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164:
Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166:
Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168:
Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172:
Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
Page 175 and 176:
Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
Page 177 and 178:
Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
Page 197 and 198:
Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
Page 205 and 206:
Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
Page 207 and 208:
Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
Page 209 and 210:
Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
Page 213 and 214:
Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
Page 217 and 218:
Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
Page 231 and 232:
_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
Page 233 and 234:
Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
Page 235 and 236:
_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
Page 237 and 238:
Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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