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would again suggest that we not think of these figures as only representing a “primitive substratum” of ancient religion due to the continued usage and invention of theriomorphic and therianthropic images. It is difficult to determine how much the Etruscans and Romans actually believed in the gods described in their myths and represented in their art, but it is likely that many people believed that these divinities were active in their life and the world around them. Last of all, I hope I have demonstrated that theriomorphic and therianthropic deities and demons require further attention in future scholarship, and that this dissertation might serve as a starting point for future research. There remain a number of issues which I believe would prove fruitful for the study of the figures I have dealt with in this dissertation as well as human-animal hybrids in general. Recently, the scholarly community has become interested in theories of shamanism and how these might be applied to the ancient world. For example, a recent exhibit at the Kelsey Museum in Ann Arbor, Michigan, focused on the role of the shaman in ancient Iran and Iraq. 645 It may prove profitable to apply some of these new theories to the archaeological and literary evidence of Greece, Rome, and Etruria. As of yet, there is still much work that needs to be done, however, in identifying the gods and goddesses represented by human-animal hybrids. I believe this is a necessary step that must precede an application of shamanistic theory. The debates as to the identity of figures such as the anguiped demon in the Tomb of Reliefs, the man-bull in the Tomb of the Bulls, or the “Swan Demon” and bird-man of Pyrgi remain unsettled. Figures such as the “Swan Demon” may remain unidentified until new artistic or literary evidence comes to light or further testimony from the ancients points scholars in the proper direction. In this dissertation, I took a broad look at theriomorphic and therianthropic deities over a vast geographic area as well as a large chronological span. It may prove fruitful to isolate one particular region or time period to determine if there is any variation in the way that theriomorphic and therianthropic deities are used or represented by the Etruscans or Romans. The individuality of the Etruscan and Latin city-states (as evidenced by variation in burial practice, writing, and other cultural features) makes this an attractive proposal. Of course, this would not be possible for each of the deities or demons presented here, but figures such as Juno Sospita and Achelous may be promising subjects of such a study due to the wealth of evidence for these figures. One might be able to isolate particular ways of fashioning the iconography of a 645 Root 2005. 131
god or goddess or the popularity of a particular narrative or scene by undertaking such an approach. A further possibility for the study of theriomorphic and therianthropic deities would be to examine the extent to which Egyptian deities appear in hybrid forms in Rome. As mentioned earlier in this dissertation, the Romans were familiar with the Egyptian pantheon, and, despite literary sources which have been taken to indicate disapproval, there is evidence for the appropriation of some Egyptian divinities. A study of the Egyptian material would serve to compliment the study of the native Italian evidence. Ultimately, the use of animal-hybrid imagery functioned as a way for the ancients to express their religious concerns. Just as with any other deity, a therianthropic or theriomorphic god, goddess, or demon could protect mortals from malevolent forces, ease their transition to or embody their concern with the afterlife, offer a cure for sickness and disease, foretell the future and serve as an intermediary between man and the gods. What is interesting about these deities and demons is the marked distinction which separates them from humanity by the visual cue of blending human and animal anatomy. By gathering the archaeological and literary evidence presented in this study, I hope that I have demonstrated that these divinities formed an important and influential part of ancient Etruscan and Roman religion. The corpus of material and texts gathered here is representative of one fascinating aspect of the culture of ancient Italy. By examining these deities and demons, who have until now only received marginal attention in mainstream scholarship, one is able to gain a broader perspective on the ability of the Etruscans and Romans to use metaphors to make sense of their world and thus to become closer to men and women who, like us, sought ways to define and understand the workings of the universe. 132
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
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y reference to his barking, 253 and
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Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
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the shape of a man, from that of a
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passage, 280 which would accord wit
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history of the Lupercalia and the w
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Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
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Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
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had been devastated at the time whe
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Ovid takes place at a water source
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figure has been identified as a wol
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suggestion is plausible, but due to
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narrative and alternative iconograp
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eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170: Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172: Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
Page 173 and 174: Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
Page 175 and 176: Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
Page 177 and 178: Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
Page 179 and 180: Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
Page 181 and 182: Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
Page 183 and 184: Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
Page 185 and 186: Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
Page 187 and 188: Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
Page 189 and 190: Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
Page 191 and 192: Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
Page 193 and 194: Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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