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I. Krauskopf interprets this figure as a demon of the morning dew, and points to the Near East as a possible source of the iconography of the antefix. 585 Given that the sanctuary at Pyrgi has strong connections to the east and provides “the most conclusive evidence for a direct Phoenician influence in Central Italy,” a Near Eastern parallel seems likely. 586 This is due to the aforementioned dedication of Temple B to the goddess Uni, here syncretized with Astarte. 587 I have already noted that several other theriomorphic and therianthropic deities find parallels in Eastern art, and this bird demon appears to be yet another. An Assyrian “griffin demon” from Kalhu (Fig. VI.6) resembles the bird-man from Pyrgi in several ways. 588 Both have a tie to liquids; the “griffin demon” holds a small bucket while the Pyrgi hybrid is shown amongst what may be stylized rain or dew drops. Both possess long archaic or archaizing locks of hair, and each has a crest and an open beak revealing the creatures’ tongues. These similarities are magnified by the fact that the antefix identified by Krauskopf as Usils the sun god (Fig. VI.5, Antefix A) corresponds to another Near Eastern iconographic type used to represent the sun god Shamash. 589 The only difficulty, which may not invalidate this connection, is that the Assyrian figure has the head of a bird of prey as opposed to that of a crane or domesticated animal such as a rooster. As mentioned earlier, it is difficult to determine the degree of naturalism intended by the artist who crafted this antefix, but given the connection between Uni and Astarte, Near Eastern influence may be present in both this shrine’s decoration and the syncretization of the mother goddesses. Another species of bird used to create a therianthropic figure is the swan. This type seems rare, but there are examples of the so-called “Swan Hero” 590 or “Swan Demon” 591 from both the Archaic and Hellenistic periods. This figure takes the form of a youth, often winged, who wears a cap that transitions into the neck and head of a swan. This figure is found in both a 585 Krauskopf 1997, 31. 586 Andersen 1992-3, 87 587 Serra Ridgway (1990, 521) states that the temple was dedicated to the eastern goddess Astarte, “who is only secondarily assimilated to the local queen-goddess Uni.” 588 This type of figure seems to find its roots in the Old Babylonian period with similar images in Mitannian art. The familiar form of this “demon” (a winged, human figure with the head of a bird of prey holding a bucket and pine cone) first appears on Middle Assyrian seals and was quite popular in Neo-Assyrian art, in particular in the 9 th C BCE. Griffin demons are rare after the 7 th C BCE but do continue to appear on Seleucid Period seals. Black and Green (1997, 101) note that this type of figure has been explained as a representation of the Seven Sages, and figurines were deposited in groups of seven in foundations of houses and palaces to protect the building. 589 Krauskopf 1997, 29. 590 Richardson (1983, 362-3). 591 Herbig 1965, 49. In keeping with my rationale outlined in Chapter One, I shall use the designation of “Swan Demon” for this figure from this point on. 119
votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorative context (Fig. VI.8). The identity of the “Swan Demon” remains uncertain, but several possibilities have been suggested. F. Gerke proposes that the “Swan Demon” is meant to be Apollo 593 but does so without offering any supporting evidence. One might assume that the youth of this “demon” and the connection to the swan, sometimes associated with Apollo, 594 forms the basis of this identification. 595 Other suggestions for identifying the “Swan Demon” include Cupid/Eros, a rain-bringing wind god, 596 a Lar, 597 Cygnus, 598 or Ganymede. 599 These possibilities possess varying degrees of merit. The swan was not only sacred to the god Apollo and but also associated with the Roman goddess of love and sexuality Venus (Etruscan Turan), and her son Amor or Cupid (Etruscan Turnu). 600 As is demonstrated in the LIMC entry for “Amor, Cupido” surviving images of Cupid and Amor are quite varied, and there do not seem to be standard attributes for these figures. 601 Amores are associated with a plethora of animals including the dolphin, swan, dove, and many more. Amores may carry any number of different implements and objects, including objects such as the pitcher and patera held by the Swan Demon in Fig. VI.8. Thus, while there is nothing that indicates an erotic context for this figure, this does not rule out the possibility that it is a representation of an Amor. However, there appear to be no examples in which Amor wears an animal-skin cap of any kind. The “Swan Demon” may not be Amor but still belong to the 592 Richardson (1983, 362-3) indicates that this bronze votive statuette is the only known representation of the “Swan Demon” from the archaic period; the “Swan Demon” was apparently more popular in the Hellenistic period during which it typically appears in a decorative context. 593 Gerke 1938, 231. 594 Ahl 1982, 374-85; Thompson 1895, 105. 595 Krappe (1942, 70) comes to the conclusion that the swan is critical to the identity of Apollo in the following statement, “… let us say that to the “Mouse Apollon” and to the Anatolian sun-god [whom he associates with Apollo Soranus] must now be added a third component of the classical Apollon, fully as important as the other two: the ‘Swan Apollon,” the god of the whooper swan…” As part of his argument, Krappe (1942, 362) suggests that Cygnus may be a heroic form of the god Apollo. He is not, however, entirely convinced of this possibility. Given the rarity of the iconographic type of the “Swan Demon” and that it is an Italian creation, it is not clear that the Etruscans would have conceived of Apollo in this way. 596 Bailey and Craddock 1978, 78. 597 Messerschmidt 1942, 14. Palmer (1974, 116) also records the possibility of the Lares being winged but does not mention an association with the swan. 598 Richardson (1983, 362) states, “The hero with the swan’s crest seems to be purely Etruscan; he has no connection with Cygnus.” I am not convinced that we must rule out Cygnus as a possibility, and perhaps what we instead have is an Etruscan adaptation of a Greek mythological figure. 599 Bailey and Craddock 1978, 78. 600 For the association of the swan with Turan see De Grummond (2006a, 85), with Venus see Ahl 1982, 374 n.1. For the identification of Turnu as the son of Turan see De Grummond 2006a, 94. 601 Blanc and Gury 1986, 952-1049. 120
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
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y reference to his barking, 253 and
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Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
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the shape of a man, from that of a
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passage, 280 which would accord wit
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history of the Lupercalia and the w
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Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
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Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131: One curious example of an avian the
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170: Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172: Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
Page 173 and 174: Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
Page 175 and 176: Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
Page 177 and 178: Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
Page 179 and 180: Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
Page 181 and 182: Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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