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study, for not enough evidence survives to support even these three basic ideas for each god or goddess. The use of animal iconography in the representation of a deity is not enough to label an animal a totem for a particular people or tribe; in the context of ancient Italy, the iconographic choice to represent a deity in full or hybrid animal form does not appear to be based on ethnicity. This forms the sum total of information concerning the appearance of Picus in worship and cult; our knowledge of this god is scanty at best. 576 He also does not often appear in mythic narrative beyond his initial metamorphosis from man to bird. We have already mentioned this god in connection to an episode in Ovid’s Fasti in which Numa captures Picus and Faunus in an attempt to learn how to expiate a thunderbolt. 577 In addition to a lack of mythic narrative, visual representations of this god are also quite rare. 578 One possible representation of Picus takes the form of a small, black gloss amphora (Fig. VI.3). 579 This vessel in the shape of a bird most closely resembles the green woodpecker (Picus viridis) due to its small, conical beak and protruding eyes, but also exhibits some human features. 580 Ears jut from the sides of the bird’s head, arms reach out from beneath the bird’s wings to wrap around the belly of the vessel, and legs are bent between the bottom of the wings and the base of the amphora. This piece may be intended to represent a stage of the metamorphosis of Picus from man into bird. If so, the artist has chosen a dramatic moment in the adventures of this man turned god. Picus is not the only theriomorphic or therianthropic bird divinity found in Etruscan and Roman myth, but he is the only one we can identify with any degree of certainty. Furthermore, bird-man hybrids are so poorly understood that it is not always clear from which species of bird the hybrids are formed. Three other examples of bird-man hybrids appear in Etruscan and Roman art, and the context in which these figures are found varies. Another problem that plagues our understanding of the following bird-men is that surviving examples of these hybrids are quite limited and thus there is little material on which to base conclusions. 576 Rosivach 1980, 145. Halliday (1922, 111) also notes that Picus belongs more to the realm of myth and folklore than cult. 577 Ov. Fast. 3.291-326. 578 There is no LIMC entry for the god Picus. 579 Capanna (2000,225) this piece, acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art from a private collection in Lugnano, may be meant to represent the climax in the story of Picus, the moment of his transformation from man to woodpecker. Given the unknown provenance of this piece, and its presence in a private collection, it is difficult to determine whether it is of Roman or Etruscan make. The Etruscans seem to have been interested in Circe’s handiwork, and scenes depicting the transformation of Odysseus’ men into animals appear on Etruscan cinerary urns as well as other objects. If we are able to identify this figure as the transformed Roman king Picus, then this is the only visual representation of the narrative of Picus of which I am aware. 580 Capanna 2000, 225. 117
One curious example of an avian therianthrope is the figure identified as a winged youth with what appears to be a rooster’s head, represented on an antefix that would have decorated the roof of a series of small rooms that may have housed sacred prostitutes, hierodoulai, near Temple B at Pyrgi (Fig. VI.4). 581 It is difficult to determine the exact identity of this figure, or even if it should be classified as deity or demon. The most common interpretation of this figure is that it is a representation of Phosphorus or Lucifer, the morning star, who is here represented as a man with a rooster’s head crowing to announce the rising sun. 582 A different interpretation is offered by M. Verzár who identifies this figure as a dancer wearing a bird mask instead of having the head of a rooster. She indicates that human hair runs down his chest from his head and ears poke through the sides of the mask and further proposes that the masked dancer is a participant in the ancient ritual of the crane dance, the geranos, a practice that finds its origins in Minoan Crete and the worship of a mother goddess assimilated to a Cypriote form of Aphrodite. 583 The other figures represented on the antefixes (Fig. VI.5) which decorated the rooms near Temple B also seem to be moving in a dance, or are associated with the celestial sphere, lending plausibility to Verzár’s interpretation. Of course, the major difference between these two interpretations is the species of bird combined with human form to create the bird-headed figure. To identify the bird component of this figure’s iconography as that of a crane, Verzár states that its beak could not belong to a rooster, for it is too long and is better suited to the crane. 584 On the other hand, the bird hybrid seems to possess a crest and wattle, which make this figure resemble a rooster. One must wonder to what degree the artist responsible for this antefix strived for naturalism, but this is a question that must remain unanswered. Thus, it will remain difficult to determine the exact identity of the bird-man by using such criteria. While it is not possible to rule out either O. von Vacano’s or Verzár’s interpretations, a third possibility exists. 581 Colonna 1970, 311-32, 402-4; Haynes 2000, 177; Serra Ridgway 1990, 523-4; Von Vacano 1980, 463-75. 582 Most scholars follow the interpretation offered by von Vacano (1980, 465-7). See Haynes 2000, 178; Serra Ridgway 1990, 523 for scholars in agreement with von Vacano. Two competing identifications of this figure follow. 583 While noting the erotic aspect of the geranos, Verzár (1980, 39) clearly lays out the connection between the dance of Ariadne and the Cypriote Aphrodite. It is possible that rooster-headed figure would not be out of context here since, as Mayo (1967, 6) points out, the cock is the “conventional symbol of erotic intentions,” typically for same sex relations. Erotic connotations are also appropriate due to the possible presence of sacred prostitutes in this sanctuary. 584 Verzár 1980, 42. 118
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
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y reference to his barking, 253 and
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Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
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the shape of a man, from that of a
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passage, 280 which would accord wit
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history of the Lupercalia and the w
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Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170: Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172: Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
Page 173 and 174: Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
Page 175 and 176: Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
Page 177 and 178: Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
Page 179 and 180: Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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