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He fled, but he marveled that he ran faster Than he was accustomed: he saw wings on his body, And outraged at the sudden arrival of a new bird In his Latian woods, he struck the tough oak with his hard beak And angrily gave wounds to the long branches; His wings took the color of his reddish cloak; What had been a gold fibula and had pinned his cloak, Became feathers, and his neck was ringed with tawny gold, And not anything of his old self remained for Picus except his name. 565 Picus’ nature, like that of his son Faunus, is confusing in that Picus is at once part of the genealogy of early Latin kings, a figure transformed into a woodpecker by Circe, and a woodpecker god. 566 Scholars have generally thought that Picus was of special importance to the Picentes, a Sabine people who inhabited the region of Picenum. 567 According to our ancient sources, the Picentes had gained their name after following a woodpecker during the observance of a ver sacrum. 568 Much has been made of this ancient testimony, and Frazer has used it to create a theory of ancient Italian totemism. He outlines several key components of totemistic practice in his commentary on Ovid’s Fasti. These include a people taking the name of their totem animal, a prohibition against the slaying or injuring of the animal, and lastly the conferral of a past benefit by the animal to its people. 569 Unfortunately, the very concept of totemism is problematic, and scholars have not come to a consensus for a single definition of this term as can be seen in Lévi-Strauss’ assessment of totemic theories. 570 Lévi-Strauss astutely isolates the most basic concepts of totemism as follows: of Italy is significant, for according to Hesiod Theog. 1011-3, Circe and Odysseus were the parents of Latinus and Agrios, who were rulers of the Etruscans. 564 Frazer (1929, 10) proposes that the transformation of Picus was invented as a way for “civilized” Romans to rationalize the poorly-understood, “primitive” worship of a bird. This theory seems somewhat extreme. 565 Ov. Met. XIV.387-96. Latin Text taken from Ovid Metamorphoses Books IX-XV, Vol. 4, edited by G.P. Goold, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard <strong>University</strong> Press, 1994, p. 326, 328. (Translation by Author.) ille fugit, sed se solito velocius ipse / currere miratur: pennas in corpore vidit, / seque novam subito Latiis accedere silvis / indignatus avem duro fera robora rostro / figit et iratus longis dat vulnera ramis; / purpureum chlamydis pennae traxere colorem; / fibula quod fuerat vestemque momorderat aurum, / pluma fit, et fulvo cervix praecingitur auro, / nec quicquam antiquum Pico nisi nomina restat. 566 Rosivach (1980, 142) separates these figures and claims that they have nothing to do with one another. Ovid notes the divinity of Picus at Fast. 3.291. 567 Goidanich 1935, 118. Thompson (1895, 51-2) notes that a Greek tribe known as the Dryopes were likely associated with the woodpecker but, even so, the woodpecker was not an important bird of myth in ancient Greece. 568 Strabo 5.4.2, Valerius Flaccus 7.232 569 Frazer 1929, 11. 570 Lévi-Strauss 1962, 10-1. 115
When we speak of totemism we actually confuse two problems. The first problem is that posed by the frequent identification of human beings with plants or animals, and which has to do with very general views of the relations between man and nature, relations which concern art and magic as much as society and religion. The second problem is that of the designation of groups based on kinship, which may be done with the aid of animal or vegetable terms but also in many other ways. The term “totemism” covers only cases in which there is a coincidence of the two orders. 571 Lévi-Strauss thus indicates that totemism mediates between nature and culture, i.e. he views it through a structuralist lens. 572 He also suggests that totemism is one way in which man attempts to define “the organization of the universe” by analyzing nature’s affinity with man. 573 We may compare scholarly attempts to define and apply totemism to the seeking of a universal explanation of the significance of myth. In any case, Frazer’s application of his theory of totemism bears some examination in the case of Picus. In relation to Picus, Frazer’s categories seem sound given that the ancients certainly believed that the Picentes had derived their name from the god Picus. Similar instances of an Italic tribe naming themselves after an animal, such as the Hirpi and Hirpini, do exist. 574 On the other hand, O. Szemerényi goes to great length to prove that the derivation of the name “Picentes” from the god Picus is a linguistic impossibility and that the name merely denotes a group of people who lived in the territory of Picenum. 575 What then should we make of the ancient testimony? Should we simply dismiss the verbal link as a false folk etymology? I do not believe that we should sever the link between Picus and the Picentes simply because of linguistic rules. If the ancients believed that there was a connection between Picus and the Picentines, then a link had been established. Frazer’s last two points are clearer. It is not likely that a member of this Italic tribe would have killed a bird sacred to Mars, whose preeminence in Italy has already been mentioned, and the tale of the Picentes following a woodpecker, in the practice of a ver sacrum, to their new home certainly qualifies as the conferral of a past benefit. Thus, as far as Frazer’s definition is concerned, perhaps we should consider the Picentes as practitioners of totemism. We may not extend this idea to all of the theriomorphic and therianthropic deities covered in this 571 Lévi-Strauss 1962, 10-1 572 Lévi-Strauss 1962, 16. 573 Lévi-Strauss 1966, 37, 129. 574 See earlier discussion of the Hirpi in Chapter Three, p. 55-6. 575 Szemerényi 1971, 531-44; Salmon 1967, 169. 116
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
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y reference to his barking, 253 and
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Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
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the shape of a man, from that of a
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passage, 280 which would accord wit
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history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170: Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172: Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
Page 173 and 174: Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
Page 175 and 176: Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
Page 177 and 178: Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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