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This means of prophecy 553 was one of the Romans’ oldest customs, and the position of augur held high status. 554 The notion that birds served as a connection between the gods and man can perhaps be seen in the Etruscan convention of placing wings on prophetic figures. The Chalchas mirror is one such example (Fig. VI.1). 555 Prophets cross boundaries between the worlds of gods and men by revealing the intentions of the gods or making predictions of the future. Thus, the presence of wings may be a metaphorical way of showing a prophet’s ability to open channels between the mortal and immortal realms. Wings indicate a super-human, perhaps even divine, nature, 556 and the sprouting of wings from the back of a prophet situates him/her amongst the ranks of divinities such as Lasas, Vanths, and other spirits who bear such a mark. To further demonstrate the possibility of associating wings with prophecy and fate, one might consider the figure of Athrpa, who also appears on an engraved Etruscan mirror (Fig. VI.2). Athrpa has been interpreted as the Etruscan equivalent of the Greek Atropos, the Fate who cuts the cord of life and determines that it is a mortal’s time to die. 557 Wings, serving as visual signifiers to indicate a figure who has transcended the normal boundaries of nature, 558 are appropriate on this mirror which demonstrates the fruition of divine will and the bearing out of future events through the fated deaths of Atunis and Meleacr. In addition to winged prophets who might interpret or pronounce omens, Italy also possessed at least one oracular shrine in which an actual bird, in this case a woodpecker, gave oracles. The woodpecker, often identified as the Picus martius, 559 was a highly auspicious bird 553 For a distinction between the terms prophecy and divination, see De Grummondb 2006, 27. 554 De Grummond (2006c, 41-2) notes both the evident importance of augury in Etruscan religion and the need for more research in this area. 555 This mirror serves as yet another example of how the Etruscans adopted and also modified Greek myth. Chalchas was the seer who assigned Agamemnon the task of sacrificing Iphigenia to the goddess Artemis in order that the winds might blow and allow the Greek fleet to sail against Troy. (For the prophecy of Chalchas see Hom. Il. 2.308-29, for the death of Iphigenia as a result of his oracles see Aesch. Ag. 156-9, 248-9, 1521-30.) In this instance, he uses a technique of divination that was prominent in Etruria and the Near East, hepatoscopy, and is also winged, possibly an indicator of divine nature. De Grummond (2006, 54-5) also notes that this is not how Chalchas is presented in the Iliad in which he consults the will of the gods by studying the actions of snakes and birds. The wings may also be an indicator that he is a mediator between the mortal and divine realms as birds may fly among the clouds as well as walk on the ground. A winged creature belongs to two different spheres. 556 De Grummond 2006a, 31. A further example of a winged divinity is discussed by de Grummond (2006a, 6), who notes the presence of a “Master of Birds” depicted as a winged male with bird perched on his outstretched wings. 557 De Grummond 2006a, 20; von Vacano 1960, 9-13. 558 Kerényi 1976, 81. 559 Plin. HN. X.40; Mackay (1975, 272) discusses the problem of identifying the exact species of woodpecker described by the literary sources. 113
for the Romans, and it may be that it held similar meaning for the Etruscans and other Italian tribes. Jannot and P.G. Goidanich theorize, due to the presences of woodpeckers, that the famous image of Vel Saties from the François Tomb in Vulci represents the taking of the auspices in relation to military action. 560 The importance of military conquest in the early history of Italy, and the association of the woodpecker with the god of war may be the reason that this bird was important amongst tribes such as the Aequi, Picentines, Umbrians, and Sabines. 561 Dionysius of Halicarnassus records the presence of a woodpecker oracle of the god Mars at the site of Tiora Matiene. Again, from Reate by the road toward the Listine district, is Batia, at a distance of thirty stades; then Tiora also called Matiene, at a distance of three hundred stades. They say that there was an exceedingly ancient oracle of Mars in this city, the character of which was similar to the oracle which legend says was once at Dodona; except that there, sitting on a sacred oak, a pigeon was said to prophesy, but among the Aborigines a bird sent from the heavens, which they call picus and the Greeks dryokolaptês, appearing on a wooden column, did the same. 562 Dionysius’s mention of the woodpecker oracle at Tiora Matiene reminds us of the close association of the woodpecker and god of war, and we must not forget that the woodpecker, along with the wolf, cared for the twin sons of Mars, Romulus and Remus after their abandonment on the banks of the Tiber River. The woodpecker was also associated with a hero/divinity. The mythological figure Picus played a role in both the religion and early history of the Romans. This Latin god had originally been a mortal son of Saturn. However, Picus attracted the attentions of the goddess Circe, 563 and, after spurning her affections, she turned him into a bird. 564 560 Goidanich 1935, 111-5. See also Jannot 2005, 27-8. 561 Jannot (2005, 27-8) notes the importance of the bird to these peoples, but the suggestion of its importance based on the prospect of military conquest is my own. 562 Dion. Hal. 1.14.5. Greek Text taken from Dionysos of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities Books I-II, Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 1, edited by G.P. Goold, Cambridge, MA: Harvard <strong>University</strong> Press, 1990, p. 46, 48. (Translation by Author.) / . ) ;w 4 4 & D( 3 C , ' W . x , ) A . 4 ," 7 ) A . ," 7 S & ' y @ '# C = & ? ' @ z ( 4 A ? D # W ) ( &@ ( Q R ( M 1 o " " , ( & K ) 9 &3 P C D ) .( - 6 ( & b ' K D C& 7 ) D( / B D ( X (7 { ) D 7 $% &&' ( ) &4 ' & 7 C , ( | &, M ( . . * # 563 Circe’s exact relation to Picus is not clear. Moorton (1988, 254) notes that in addition to Ovid’s account in which Picus is married to Canens, he was also married to Pomona (Servius Ad. Aen. 7.190) or possibly even Circe herself, a conclusion drawn from Picus’ association with horses at Aen. 7.189. In any case, Circe’s role in the mythical past 114
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
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y reference to his barking, 253 and
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Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
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the shape of a man, from that of a
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passage, 280 which would accord wit
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Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170: Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172: Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
Page 173 and 174: Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
Page 175 and 176: Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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