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would then be repeated six times around the vessel. 546 I again object to this interpretation, not only because the scene is repeated, in identical fashion six times, but also because there is little conflict between the man and bull. Brendel offers one last interpretation that may be closer to the mark; he sees neither a religious rite nor a myth but instead a series of “bull tamers” represented on the vessel. 547 As we can see from the literary and archaeological evidence presented here, bull imagery was quite prominent in ancient classical religion. The bull denoted an elemental power associated with both land and sea in addition to the underworld and could also be used as a symbol of strength and savagery. The fearsome nature of the bull hybrid is clear when we examine gods such as Dionysos and Achelous who could manifest themselves in bull form. Even though we cannot be certain that Liber and Fufluns partook of the bullish persona of Dionysos Tauromorphos, certain qualities of these Italian deities indicate many affinities with the liminal and transgressive nature of this aspect of Dionysos. In addition, the Minotaur known for his cruelty and the consumption of human flesh also appears in Italy and, at least in one example, seems to possess a function similar to the figure of Achelous commonly represented in architectural decoration. While the general meaning of the animal iconography of bull therianthropes is thus easily grasped, it is not always clear which god is being represented. As we have seen, scholars differ as to whether the horned god represented on antefixes, such as Fig. V.8, is Achelous or Dionysos. This ambiguity may be intentional and both figures would have shared the power to ward off evil spirits. One important point that we may take away from this is that from an early time, as shown by the Regia Plaque (Fig. V.5), therianthropic deities appeared in Roman and Etruscan art. The power of hybrid imagery was great and lasted for quite some time beyond these early phases as well. 546 Sprenger and Bartoloni 1983, 87. 547 Brendel 1995, 140. 111
CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds shared a mastery of the skies not possessed by humans or other animals; and it was not surprising that some birds, in their strength or beauty, should have been regarded as divine. 548 In so far as the power of flight may seem both magical and entrancing, birds have always inspired awe in ground dwellers. In many mythologies, the sky is held to be the dwelling place of the gods, and through flight birds seem able to communicate and mingle with divinities. Sky gods such as the Greek Zeus, Egyptian Ra, Norse Odin, Roman Jupiter, and many more reigned supreme over their respective pantheons. Given the importance of the sky in ancient cosmologies, it is not surprising that birds held a special place in Etruscan and Roman religion; one need only recall that the founding of the city of Rome included an augury contest between Romulus and Remus. 549 Agreeing to arbitrate their quarrel by [observing] birds of good omen, they took up positions by themselves. They say six vultures were seen by Remus, and double that number by Romulus. On the other hand, there are those who say that Remus truly saw his six, but Romulus lied about his twelve, but when Remus came to him, Romulus then saw twelve. 550 This is far from the only example of avian omens that appear in Roman history. One prodigy from Roman “mythical history” can be found in the story of Lucumo’s journey to Rome in which an eagle snatched and returned his cap while he was on the Janiculum hill. 551 Historians also record portents during the reign of Augustus, such as the episode of the galinas albas. 552 Thus, augury was important not only because birds could reveal the will of the gods, but also since the Romans believed that the practice of augury was used from the earliest days of their history. 548 Bevan 1986, 39. 549 Jannot (2005, 29) notes that the Romans may have borrowed their practice of augury from the Etruscans. 550 Plut. Vit. Rom. IX.5 Greek Text taken from Plutarch Lives: Theseus and Romulus, Lycurgus and Numa, Solon and Publicola, Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 1, edited by G.P. Goold, Cambridge, MA: Harvard <strong>University</strong> Press, 1998, p. 114. (Translation by Author.) " ) 3 * X , ( B B b " ?" ,(7 s M 1 vw K 7 & , ( ) 1 ;w" &K M 5 (# - ) . ) ;w A &' ( D 7 T ) . ; w" & 9 C& ( ) ;w 7 >( 1 ;w" &K M 5 ### 551 Liv. I.XXXIV.8-9. De Grummond (2006c, 42) briefly explores the implications and significance of this episode in relation to Etruscan prophets. 552 Plin. HN. 15.136-37. 112
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
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y reference to his barking, 253 and
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Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
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the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170: Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
Page 171 and 172: Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
Page 173 and 174: Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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