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appearance of a bull-headed man in the Tomb of the Bulls is far from the only example of this iconographic type in funerary art. Altheim states that this figure “appears in direct connexion with the demons of the Etruscan underworld.” 524 J.-R. Jannot also notes images of the horned god used as funerary masks in different media. 525 To my knowledge, no existing mythological narrative can be associated with the painted scene in the Tomb of the Bulls, but the iconographic type of a man-headed bull is commonly associated with river gods, in particular the god Achelous. The Achelous river held a special place in Greek myth as king of all rivers in Greece, the father of the Sirens, the most revered of the three thousand offspring of Okeanos and Tethys. 526 Whereas the other deities addressed in this dissertation all possess characteristics that relate them to the natural world, Achelous is an actual personification of a geographic feature and thus cannot be separated from the natural world in any way. The most widely known narrative containing this deity is the tale of his pursuit of Herakles’ wife Deianeira, of which the two most important literary versions appear in Sophocles’ Trachiniae and Ovid’s Metamorphoses. 527 Achelous appears in Greek, Etruscan, and Roman contexts and takes on numerous forms. River- gods could take on the shape of a youth with bull’s horns, a bull with a man’s head, a horned merman, or an older man bearing a horn of plenty. According to R.M. Gais, Achelous does not appear as a youth in Greek art, 528 but in Etruria on a bronze mirror depicting the conflict between Hercle and Achlae (the Etruscan form of the name Achelous), Achlae’s face is un-bearded (Fig. V.7). 529 This mirror depicts the conventional scene, of Herakles and Achelous’ combat over the maiden Deianeira, which Ovid records in Metamorphoses IX:1-88. 530 Achelous tells his tale to Theseus and describes taking on bull form to combat Herakles as follows: Thus, after he [Herakles] conquered my second form, only my third Shape of a savage bull remained. I fought back, my limbs Changed to a bull’s. From the left, he wrapped his arms Around my neck, and dragging me as I galloped off, My horns, bent down, pierced the hard ground, and he 524 Altheim 1938, 70. 525 Jannot 1974, 778-82. 526 Brewster 1997, 9. 527 Soph. Trach. 9ff; Ov. Met. IX.1ff. Luce (1923, 429) remarks that the shortest and most complete account of this myth, which appears in Apollodorus’ Library, also possesses the least literary value. 528 Gais 1978, 358. 529 Rix 1991, Vc S.23. De Grummond (2006a, 183) notes that this mirror also happens to bear the only inscribed image of Achelous in Etruscan art. 530 Jannot (1974, 767-9) cites numerous examples of this combat in Etruscan art. 107
Layed me out in the deep sand. That was not enough: While he held on tight to my tough Right horn, he broke it, and tore it away from my mangled forehead. The Naiads took it, and filling it with fruits and scented flowers, Made it sacred; Blessed Abundance is wealthy on account of my horn. 531 As a result of this battle, Herakles won the cornucopia, a horn of plenty that was identified with either the horn Herakles tore from Achelous’ head or a horn taken from Amalthea, the goat who nursed the infant Zeus. It could be that the conflict between Herakles and Achelous is meant to represent the dangers of river navigation and to demonstrate Herakles’ role as a bearer of civilization and association with water and fertility. 532 The fierce and powerful bull deity must be overcome or tamed in order for man to prosper; we may again be facing a myth representing the tension between nature and culture. In any case, the presence of a therianthrope on the mirror in Fig. V.7 bearing the name Achlae proves that the Etruscans were aware of his struggle with Hercle and may support the identification of other unidentified man- bulls as Achelous. The power of the bull and its prominent horns may also explain why Achelous’ head was used as an apotropaic device 533 on antefixes 534 (Fig. V.8) and amulets 535 (Fig. V.9) or perhaps even on furniture bosses 536 (Fig. V.10). The bull therianthrope, like other figures already discussed in this study, is often used as a charm to ward off evil. Like the figure of Juno Sospita addressed in Chapter Four, Achelous is commonly used on antefixes as architectural decoration. 531 Ov. Met. IX.80-8. Latin Text taken from Ovid Metamorphoses Books IX-XV, Vol. 4, edited by G.P. Goold, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA: Harvard <strong>University</strong> Press, 1994, p. 8. (Translation by Author.) sic quoque devicto restabat tertia tauri / forma trucis. tauro mutatus membra rebello. / induit ille toris a laeva parte lacertos, / admissumque trahens sequitur, depressaque dura / cornua figit humo, meque alta sternit harena. / nec satis hoc fuerat: rigidum fera dextera cornu / dum tenet, infregit, truncaque a fronte revellit. / naides hoc, pomis et odoro flore repletum, / sacrarunt; divesque meo Bona Copia cornu est. 532 Neilson 2006, 8-10. 533 Holloway 1986, 449. 534 Altheim (1938, 69) notes the ubiquity of such antefixes by stating, “We know from Etruscan art those very common representations of the ‘river-god’ or ‘Achelous.’ They show the mask of an elderly, bearded man, with wet dripping beard, and with the ears and horns of a bull. He appears on gear and ornament of various kinds, but above all on roof-terracottas of Etruscan or Etruscanizing style. They extend from Veii, Falerii and Satricum to Campania, and thus cover the whole of middle Italy.” See Isler 1981, 12-36 in LIMC for a demonstration of the popularity of Achelous. 535 The Etruscans were master jewelers, as is shown by this piece decorated with the filigree and granulation techniques. This amulet was likely a personal apotropaic device and may have possessed a “magical” function in addition to being a luxury object. Higgins (1961, 152) indicates that this object was meant to bring good luck to its wearer is confirmed by another necklace that possesses not only an Achelous head but also two different types of bullae, round and heart-shaped. 536 Buranelli (1992, 56) notes the problem of determining the exact function of the bronze bosses which may either be used to decorate furniture or are meant as tomb decoration. 108
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
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y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
Page 169 and 170: Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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