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the most learned people of all brought to us for the tending of our minds and bodies. He was not one who, by revealing his worship nor by declaring openly his business and teaching trained our minds in error but was a high priest of hidden and nocturnal rites. There were initiations, which were passed down to a few at first, then they began to be spread commonly through both men and women. The desires of wine and feasts were added to the ceremonies, so that the minds of many more might be lured to the rites. When wine, night, and the mingling of both men and women, and also tender youth with an older age, inflamed their minds and destroyed every bit of modesty, sexual perversions of all types first began to occur, since each one had the ready pleasure to which the nature of their lust was rather disposed. The was not only one form of vice, the indiscriminate sex of free-born women, but also false witnesses, counterfeit seals and wills and evidence from those offices emerged: from the same place there were poisonings and secret murders such that sometimes bodies were not always visible for burial. Many things were dared by deceit, more things dared by violence. Violence was hidden because no voice of public outcry was able to be heard through the shouting and the crashing of the drums and cymbals. The debacle of this evil spread form Etruria to Rome just as the contagion of a disease. 518 The exact reasons for the Roman Senate’s suppression of the Bacchic cult in Italy in the second century BCE are not known, but Wilburn suggests that the Senate may have sought to remove the orgiastic elements just described from the worship of Bacchus/Liber in order to preserve proper forms of state religion. 519 In a similar fashion, L. Bonfante notes that epigraphic and iconographic evidence concerning Fufluns indicates a “barbarian’s-eye view” of Dionysos. 520 It 518 Livy. 39.8-9.1. Latin Text taken from Livy in Fourteen Volumes, Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 12, edited by E.T. Sage, Cambridge, MA: Harvard <strong>University</strong> Press, 1936, pp. 241, 243. (Translation by Author.) Insequens annus Sp. Postumium Albinum et Q. Marcium Philippum consules ab exercitu bellorumque et provinciarum cura ad intestinae conjurationis vindictam avertit… Consulibus ambobus quaestio de clandestinis conjurationibus decreta est. Graecus ignobilis in Etruriam primum venit nulla cum arte earum, quas multas ad animorum corporumque cultum nobis eruditissima omnium gens invexit, sacrificulus et vates; nec is qui aperta religione, propalam et quaestum et disciplinam profitendo, animos errore imbueret, sed occultorum et nocturnorum antistes sacrorum. Initia erant, quae primo paucis tradita sunt, deinde uulgari coepta sunt per viros mulieresque. Additae uoluptates religioni vini et epularum, quo plurium animi illicerentur. cum vinum animos [incendissent], et nox et mixti feminis mares, aetatis tenerae majoribus, discrimen omne pudoris exstinxissent, corruptelae primum omnis generis fieri coeptae, cum ad id quisque, quo natura pronioris libidinis esset, paratam voluptatem haberet. Nec unum genus noxae, stupra promiscua ingenuorum feminarumque erant, sed falsi testes, falsa signa testamentaque et indicia ex eadem officina exibant: venena indidem intestinaeque caedes, ita ut ne corpora quidem interdum ad sepulturam exstarent. Multa dolo, pleraque per vim audebantur. occulebat vim quod prae ululatibus tympanorumque et cymbalorum strepitu nulla vox quiritantium inter stupra et caedes exaudiri poterat. Huius mali labes ex Etruria Romam veluti contagione morbi penetrauit. 519 Wilburn 2000, 55. For a further discussion of the Bacchic Conspiracy, see Nilsson 1975, 14-21. Livy suggests that the Bacchants participated in many kinds of base behavior, and the Senate may have believed this. 520 Bonfante 1993, 222. 105
was likely difficult even for the ancients to separate the identities of Dionysos, Liber, and Fufluns. This examination of the bull therianthrope has thus far focused on a hybrid composed of the body of a man and the head of a bull, but the mingling of human and bull form is not confined to one iconographic type. 521 Classical art preserves numerous examples of bulls with the head of a man, the most well-known Etruscan example of which appears in the Tomb of the Bulls (Fig. V.6). 522 The Tomb of the Bulls draws its name from the presence of a bull reclining and a charging bull with a man’s head in the upper register of decoration on the back wall of the tomb. Two erotic scenes are present in the same register of decoration as the bulls, but there is a great deal more painted decoration on the walls of this tomb, among which is a representation of Achilles’ murder of the Trojan prince Troilos. It is a fair question to ask whether or not the artist, or artists, who painted these frescoes meant for there to be a unified theme present in the decoration. Is the man-bull related to the scene of the death of Troilos? There is no indication that this is the case. Nevertheless, scholars, such as J. Oleson have argued that tomb is unified by references to Apollo, in the presence of an object he identifies as a sun, and Dionysos, in the form of ivy leaves. 523 If one accepts this proposal, then associating this bull with Dionysos might be attractive. However, as stated earlier, it seems more likely that this is meant to be an image of either Achelous or an unidentified river god. One last detail deserves further thought. There is a direct contrast between the more normal, reclining bull and the bull with a man’s head. One peacefully sits amongst the grass while the other, in an ithyphallic state, charges forward with his head lowered and horns poised to gore the amorous couple before him. The viewer is thus faced with a visual reminder of the unpredictable nature of the bull that could be both benign and peaceful but also stirred to violent action. Unfortunately, the identity of the man-bull in the Tomb of the Bulls, like the identities of the therianthropes on the terracotta plaque from the Regia and the red-figure vase by the Settecamini Painter, is not secure. He is depicted with his head down, moving forward as if charging a pair of men engaged in homosexual activity. The significance of this component of the scene is difficult to interpret and will likely continue to elude proper interpretation, but the 521 Gais (1978, 356) states that the man-headed bull derives from an Oriental prototype. This iconography may have reached Etruria through Greeks living in South Italy. 522 523 Oleson 1975, 195. 106
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
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P. Defosse proposes that the connec
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are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
Page 165 and 166: Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
Page 167 and 168: Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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