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epresentative of a Minoan precursor to Dionysos, the horned-god. 492 In addition to the possible links found in the mythic narrative, a few factors that may argue in favor of this possibility relate to the presence of a Cretan version of Dionysos. These are the common tie in mythical traditions involving the consumption of raw flesh, and the presence of Dionysos’ name amongst Linear B tablets. One suggestion of Bevan may explain the prominence of so many bull-headed items from Bronze Age Crete. Bevan states that “… it is also possible to interpret some episodes in the story of Theseus as allegorical versions of the defeat of this old religion.” 493 Perhaps we may speculate that the myth of the Minotaur is a reflection of priests participating in an animal masquerade linked to a sacrifice; after all, it was the Minotaur who devoured the seven youths and seven maidens sent to Crete by the Athenians. The relationship between Dionysos (especially a bull-formed Dionysos or Dionysos Tauromorphos), the Minotaur, and Crete bears further investigation. The relationship between the Greek Dionysos and his Italian counterparts Liber and Fufluns is neither simple nor straightforward. The god of the vine and fertility could be found in Italy under the Latin name Liber Pater and the Etruscan names Pacha 494 and Fufluns. The name Fufluns is possibly related to the Etruscan and Umbrian words for bud or sprout, 495 and he was likely a local vegetation god of the city Populonia, although the exact nature of the connection between Fufluns and Populonia is not entirely clear. 496 It is difficult to determine when the Italian and Greek identities of the god of the vine merged, but it is possible that Liber was not immediately subsumed by the identity of Dionysos. 497 Altheim demonstrates that Greek equivalents for this god’s Roman and Etruscan names further cloud the matter of this identity; the cult title /% & ( corresponds to Liber, B B& ( to Fufluns, and B4 ? ( to Pacha. 498 A 492 Evans (1988, 46, 57). Evan’s text has not met with favorable reviews. See Seaford 1989, 145 for a rather scathing appraisal of this work. 493 Bevan 1986, 85. 494 Jannot (2005, 160) suggests that Fufluns was a name drawn from mythic narrative and that Pacha was a distinct cult name. Cristofani and Martelli (1978, 130) note that the syncretism of Fufluns and Bacchus is attested in the fifth C BCE. 495 Bonfante 1993, 222; De Grummond 2006a, 113. 496 Bonfante 1993, 222. Altheim (1938, 151-3) notes that there is a connection between Dionysos and Hephaistos on Naxos and a connection between Fufluns and Sethlans at Populonia. Jannot (2005, 161) notes that the exact relationship between Fufluns and Populonia is not clear. 497 Bruhl 1953, 19. 498 Altheim 1938, 150-1. Cristofani and Martelli (1978, 127-8) also point to a similar formulation of Pa?a to B4 ? (, and indicate that Dionysos B ? D ( was a particular aspect of this god associated with Corinth and Sikyon. This would link Fufluns Pa? e to the orgiastic component of the cult of Bacchus. 101
ecent discussion of the perception of this god of the vine and fertility appears in a treatment of the well-known megalographic frieze in Room 5 of the Villa of the Mysteries. D. Wilburn notes the difficulty in choosing a name for the reclining god on the east wall of this room. This god might have been recognized as Dionysos, Liber, Fufluns, or perhaps Loufir depending on the chronology and culture of the viewer. 499 On the other hand, Etruscan mirrors dating to the 4 th C BCE indicate that Fufluns became associated with traditional tales of Dionysos, such as being born from the thigh of Zeus (Etruscan Tinia) and journeying to the underworld to rescue his mother Semele (Etruscan Semla). 500 In any case, Fufluns/Liber was likely one of the most prominent gods in Etruria and his presence was known in central Italy by the 7 th C BCE. 501 Altheim further notes there were country Liberalia/Dionysia in Italy in the 6 th C BCE. 502 Another indicator of Fufluns/Liber’s popularity is his presence among the Eleusinian gods, Demeter, Iacchos, and Persephone, who are found on Italian soil under the names Ceres, Liber, and Libera, the Aventine Triad, introduced to Rome in 496 BCE. 503 Iacchos remains a puzzling figure, who could have either originated as an incarnation of Bacchus or became syncretized with him over time; in any case, Bacchus was firmly associated with the Underworld in Italy. 504 The Locri plaques serve as visual evidence for this connection, 505 and Fufluns also appears on a portion of the Piacenza liver that suggests his nature as a chthonic deity. 506 One might expect to find evidence of Dionysos’ taurine nature in these associations due to his close connection to the earth, yet it does not appear here. 499 Wilburn 2000, 14-15; Wilburn 2000, 50-8. Loufir, mentioned here for the first time, was a Samnite god that may be the same as Latin Liber. 500 De Grummond 2006a, 116. 501 Bonfante 1993, 222; De Grummond 2006a, 113. 502 Altheim 1938, 159-60. Altheim (1938, 125) also sums up his position on the nature of Dionysos as follows: “All those details, in which hitherto his [Liber] special character as an Italian deity has been seen, are revealed on closer scrutiny as allusions to Dionysos.” 503 Bruhl (1953, 13,15) mentions the adoption of the cult of the Aventine Triad in 496 BC by the order of the Sibylline Books and states that the festival of the Liberalia was more ancient than the Cerealia indicating an indigenous cult dedicated to Liber. Nilsson (175, 12) further notes the popularity of the Eleusinian gods in Magna Graecia, and that representations of Orpheus and the underworld appear on Apulian vases from the beginning of the third century BCE and the plays of Plautus reference Bacchants and the Bacchanalia in the 2 nd C BCE. In conjunction with this other evidence, Nilsson cites an inscription (Nilsson 1975, Fig. 1) from Cumae, “forbidding those who have not been initiated to Bacchus to be buried in a certain place.” This inscription dates to the first half of the fifth C BCE. 504 Nilsson 1975, 118. 505 Nilsson 1975, 120. 506 De Grummond (2006a, 44) notes that Fufluns is present in houses 9 and 24 on the liver. House 9 is in a region of the liver associated with infernal gods. 102
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
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household divinities such as the Pe
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Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
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CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107 and 108: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 109 and 110: probably derives from Sumerian mode
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
Page 159 and 160: Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
Page 161 and 162: Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
Page 163 and 164: Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
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Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
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Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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