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CHAPTER 5: THE BULL No one book can fully explain the whys and whats of the Minotaur’s existence. Most of the time the Minotaur is able to forget that his history has been duly chronicled for anyone to see. It has been a long time since his life had any relevance outside his immediate circumstances, and as time passes fewer and fewer people seem to know or care who he is, so he feels cloaked in a tenuous veil of complicated anonymity. Granted, a creature half man and half bull doesn’t go unnoticed doing his laundry… 459 Deities in many cultures manifest themselves in the form of a bull. The bull’s imagery appears from “late Upper Paleolithic times to the end of antiquity.” 460 The Apis and Mnevis bulls of Egypt, the bull imagery in Crete, and the many transformations of gods into bulls in classical mythology all testify to the prominence of this animal. 461 Furthermore, in animal sacrifice, which formed the central core of ritual behavior in the ancient world, no animal could claim as high a status as the bull. 462 The domesticated bull was not only the victim of sacrifice but was also a hard-working laborer that fulfilled many roles on the farm and in the city, 463 and at the same time the wild bull was recognized as a symbol of strength and power and appeared in both mythic narratives and the arena as the antagonist of heroes and warriors. 464 One expression of this legacy appears in the animal iconography of the Italian socii who fought Rome in the Social War and used the bull as a symbol of Italia on their coins. 465 Another result of the awe man felt for the power of the bull was the creation of the man- bull hybrid, a fearsome creature that had a long and distinguished pedigree. The earliest appearance of the man-bull may go back as far as the fourth millennium B.C.E on cylinder seals from Northern Mesopotamia, and the Greeks’ use of the man-bull for the figure of the Minotaur 459 Sherrill 2000, 237. The premise of Sherrill’s novel deals with the trials and tribulations of being a bull-man in the modern day in the deep south. It offers a fictional perspective of the life of a therianthropic being. While not a scholarly text, it is worth reading as an example of how these figures still captivate our imagination. 460 Rice 1998, 5. 461 Rice 1998, 44-50. 462 Burkert (1985, 55) states this idea in relation to Greek religion, but it is equally applicable to Roman worship as well. 463 One other point to consider is that the slaughter of an ox denotes a certain degree of wealth and status since one can give up so valuable an animal. 464 Toynbee 1973, 148-52. 465 Altheim (1938, 66-8) links the name Italia to the Itali, the bull people. 95
probably derives from Sumerian models. 466 The bull remains a symbol of nobility, strength, and power for modern man, but, as mentioned earlier, we are more greatly removed from nature, and many of us reach maturity without ever seeing a bull first hand. This was not the case in antiquity, when men would have likely seen an ox pulling a cart or plow or possibly attended a bull sacrifice and afterwards participated in a communal feast. The potency of the bull manifests itself in two main types of hybrid that blend the features of bull and man. The first of these is the bull-man that possesses the body of a man and the head of a bull. This type is perhaps the most familiar to students of myth due to the depiction of Theseus’ adversary, the Minotaur, in this fashion. The myth of the Minotaur reached Italian shores but met with different degrees of interest in Etruscan and Roman art. While the Romans do not seem to have been particularly interested in the Minotaur, he was popular with the Etruscans from early on. 467 As one would imagine, though, the use of this myth in an Etruscan and Roman context demonstrates considerable variation from that of the Greeks. The most notable difference can be found on an Etruscan mirror that represents the death of the Minotaur at the hands of Hercle instead of These (Fig. V.1). 468 The identity of the Minotaur is confirmed by the presence of an inscription labeling the bull-man as Thevrumines and the addition of Ariatha and Mine, the Etruscan Ariadne and Minos. 469 It is not possible to dismiss this variant of the myth as Etruscan ignorance due to the representation of Hercle in combat with the Minotaur on an earlier vessel (Fig. V.2). 470 The substitution of Hercle for These on this piece not only calls the nature of Etruscan appropriation of Greek myth into question but also suggests other problems such as, who made the decision to make this replacement, artist or patron? Was there a specific reason that Hercle was substituted 466 Rice 1998, 264-5. 467 Woodford 1992, 580-1. The Romans appear to have adopted the image of the Minotaur for floor mosaics that depicted him at the center of a labyrinth, while the Etruscans created images that reflect various stages of the mythic narrative. Woodford goes on to suggest that the Minotaur may be a representation of death residing in an otherworldly labyrinth. Brommer (1981, 1-12) collects images of objects from a wide chronological span and different media to demonstrate the presence of Theseus and the Minotaur in Etruscan art. 468 From left to right, the figures present in this scene can be identified (according to inscriptions around the edge of the mirror) as Mine (Minos), Menerva, Vile (Iolaos), Ariatha (Ariadne), and Hercle, who reclines over the corpse of the Thevrumines (Minotaur). An unidentified youth reaching out towards a bird appears in the upper exergue of the mirror, and a marine scene fills the lower exergue. A tendril scroll runs around the border of the mirror, and a wavy line which may indicate the atmosphere appears within the border. 469 Here the Minotaur is labeled as such indicating his nature and heritage. He is not given his “proper” name, Asterios or Asterion. Rice (1998, 210) notes that this name probably means “the Starry One” and may hint at a celestial component of the Minotaur myth. Even so, the bull gods discussed in this chapter are more frequently connected with the earth and the natural world as opposed to the heavens. 470 De Grummond 2006a, 12, 186. 96
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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEG
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This work is dedicated to my loving
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v
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Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
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Fig. III.13. Etruscan Bronze Ash Ur
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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ABSTRACT This dissertation is an in
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physiognomy was discovered at Hohle
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or for the death of someone else, w
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left with an incomplete appraisal o
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presentation of the Battle of Actiu
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are more distinct mirrors by the na
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its prerogatives and its essence ar
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Given the importance of the cult of
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In general, theriomorphic and theri
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paradoxical, as the loss of a valua
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metaphor that could be used by man
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students of comparative religion in
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there is not a wealth of literary n
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Faunus and Silvanus are also associ
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CHAPTER 2: THE SERPENT The serpent
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Corinthian vase painting.) In this
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used as decorative support elements
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Phersipnai, but these heads are bad
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creature of the earth, and even his
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of Aesculapius’ birth, a goat nur
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II.11). On this medallion, a person
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serpent chooses both the time and p
Page 57 and 58: household divinities such as the Pe
Page 59 and 60: Vergil’s statement that Aeneas wa
Page 61 and 62: CHAPTER 3: THE WOLF AND CANINES Dow
Page 63 and 64: P. Defosse proposes that the connec
Page 65 and 66: are not alone on this vessel, and o
Page 67 and 68: y reference to his barking, 253 and
Page 69 and 70: Finally seizing the moment, Arruns
Page 71 and 72: the shape of a man, from that of a
Page 73 and 74: passage, 280 which would accord wit
Page 75 and 76: history of the Lupercalia and the w
Page 77 and 78: Period in Rome as can be seen in ar
Page 79 and 80: Pan or Faunus, 327 but Inuus seems
Page 81 and 82: had been devastated at the time whe
Page 83 and 84: Ovid takes place at a water source
Page 85 and 86: figure has been identified as a wol
Page 87 and 88: suggestion is plausible, but due to
Page 89 and 90: narrative and alternative iconograp
Page 91 and 92: eproduction of animals. 376 These a
Page 93 and 94: Mars in line nine. Similarly, Turca
Page 95 and 96: anch, 397 objects that likely stres
Page 97 and 98: appear as Juno Sospita, clad in a g
Page 99 and 100: Lanuvium, and indeed there is one l
Page 101 and 102: SISPITE and demonstrates the variat
Page 103 and 104: that it may be Greek. 433 Gordon st
Page 105 and 106: the etymology of her name indicates
Page 107: of Faunus in poetry and art, which
Page 111 and 112: A bull therianthrope identified as
Page 113 and 114: efers to the bull-headed man as Dio
Page 115 and 116: ecent discussion of the perception
Page 117 and 118: The rites of Bacchic cult practice
Page 119 and 120: was likely difficult even for the a
Page 121 and 122: Layed me out in the deep sand. That
Page 123 and 124: Perhaps we are meant to interpret t
Page 125 and 126: CHAPTER 6: AVIANS Gods and birds sh
Page 127 and 128: for the Romans, and it may be that
Page 129 and 130: When we speak of totemism we actual
Page 131 and 132: One curious example of an avian the
Page 133 and 134: votive 592 (Fig. VI.7) and decorati
Page 135 and 136: hyta. 611 On the other hand, the sw
Page 137 and 138: of a lost Apulian drinking cup form
Page 139 and 140: labeled, These, the Etruscan Theseu
Page 141 and 142: image was also used as an indicator
Page 143 and 144: The imagery used to represent hybri
Page 145 and 146: god or goddess or the popularity of
Page 147 and 148: Fig. I.2. Roman Fresco Depicting a
Page 149 and 150: Fig. II.2. Sculpture of the so-call
Page 151 and 152: Fig. II.4. Etruscan Black Figure Hy
Page 153 and 154: Fig. II.6. Detail of an Etruscan Fr
Page 155 and 156: Fig. II.8. Rear Wall of the Tomb of
Page 157 and 158: Fig. II.10. Roman Marble Statue of
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Fig. II.12. Detail of a Roman Marbl
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Fig. II.14. Drawing of a Roman Fres
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Fig. III.2. Reconstruction of an Et
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Fig. III.4. Detail of an Etruscan P
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Fig. III.6. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoc
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Fig. III.8. Etruscan Painted Terrac
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Fig. III.10. Line Drawing of an Etr
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Fig. III.12. Etruscan Terracotta Ci
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Fig. III.14. Pontic Plate by the Ti
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Fig. III.16. Etruscan Bronze Statue
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Fig. IV.2. Roman Bronze Statuette o
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Fig. IV.4. Latin Painted Terracotta
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Fig. IV.6. Etruscan Bronze Mirror C
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Fig. IV.8. Imperial Roman Bronze Co
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Fig. IV.10. Etruscan Bronze Statuet
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Fig. V.1. Etruscan Engraved Bronze
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Fig. V.3. Etruscan Red-Figure Plate
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Fig. V.5. Roman Terracotta Revetmen
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Fig. V.7. Etruscan Bronze Mirror De
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Fig. V.9. Etruscan Gold Pendant Rep
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Fig. V.11. Etruscan Bucchero Oinoch
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Fig. VI.2. Line Drawing of an Engra
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Fig. VI.4. Terracotta Antefix from
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Fig. VI.6. Monumental Stone Relief
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Fig. VI.8. Etruscan Bronze Statuett
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Fig. VI.10. Line Drawing of the Ton
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Fig. VI.12. Water Color Rendition o
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Serv. Ad. Aen. VII, 761. 37 Val. Ma
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Bare, C.P. 2001. “The Iconography
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Buxton, R. 1994. “The Wolf and We
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_____. 2000b. “Mirrors and Mantei
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Felton, D. 1999. Haunted Greece and
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Harrington, F.H. and C.S. Asa. 2003
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Kirk, G.S. 1970. Myth: Its Meaning
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Mannhardt, W. 1884. Mythologische F
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_____. 1975. The Etruscans. Transla
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_____. 1982. “A Mirror in the Duk
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Simon, E. 1973. “Die Tomba dei To
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_____. 2000. The Etruscans. Trans.
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Winter, N. 2006. “Gorgons, Minota
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