Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia

seem to play a significant role.16 He is believed to have assumed the throne in
1248, and ruled with his nephew until 1254. At that point, his son Krtanagara, ˙
the patron of the Joko Dolok statue, reigned as regent, until assuming the
throne after his father’s death in 1268.
Much more is known about Krtanagara than his father. The two literary
˙
sources most often used in studies of ancient Javanese history, the Nāgarakrtāgama
and the Pararaton, each give widely divergent pictures of Krtana ˙ ˙
gara. The earlier text, the Nāgarakrtāgama,
praises the king for both his mili-
˙
tary and spiritual prowess, while in contrast the sixteenth-century Pararaton
describes a much less efficient ruler, who was often drunk on palm wine.17 As
H. Kern wrote, upon comparing these two literary portraits, “Either the poet
(Prapanca) or the chronicle (Pararaton) is not telling the truth.”18
Subsequent explorations of the religious practices of Krtanagara demon-
˙
strate that, above all, these conflicting portrayals of the ruler reflect each
author’s opinions about esoteric religious practices.19 During tantric rites,
forbidden acts, such as the drinking of alcoholic beverages, were intentionally
committed. As Benedict Anderson writes, “The systematic indulgence
of the sensual passions in their most extreme form was believed to exhaust
these passions, and therefore to allow a man’s power to be concentrated without
further hindrance.”20 Thus Krtanagara’s behavior could be interpreted as
˙
pious by the Buddhist author of the Nāgarakrtāgama,
and as deviant by the
˙
presumably Śaivite writer of the Pararaton.
Krtanagara is also famous for his expansionist policies, with overtures to-
˙
ward Sunda, Madura, Sumatra, and Bali.21 His initial conquests paved the
way for those of the later Majapahit dynasty. His military exploits coincided
with those of another Asian ruler, Khubilai Khan. The Mongols had begun
their invasions to the south with an attack on Nanchao in 1253. This was followed
by attacks against Vietnam, the Southern Sung, Burma, and Japan between
1257 and 1281. Most scholars date the first Mongol mission to Java to
1289. According to the Yuanshi, Khubilai Khan sent an emissary, Meng-qi,
to Krtanagara’s court, seeking tribute from the Javanese ruler. His face was
˙
disfigured before he and the other envoys were sent back.22 In retaliation, the
Mongols sent a fleet to attack Java, but by the time the armies had arrived,
Krtanagara had already been assassinated. Javanese accounts, in a striking
˙
contrast, do not mention Meng-qi, and describe the Mongol armies not as
enemies but as accomplices in the efforts to restore the throne to its rightful
heir after the death of Krtanagara.23 ˙
It has been suggested that Krtanagara undertook initiation in a Hevajra
˙
cult, in fear of the Mongol threat and as a response to Khubilai Khan’s own
30 | chapter two