Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia

during several periods of construction. But Buddhists were not the only ones
concerned with the reconstruction of temples; literary evidence from East Java
tells us that kings were also involved in the renovation of Hindu temples.51
Whatever the reasons for the larger number of Hindu antiquities, it seems
unlikely that the masses were converted to either of these religions. To the
extent that they were at all influenced by Indic religions, it is probable that,
for the vast majority of Indonesians, Hinduism or Buddhism was deeply entwined
with older indigenous practices. Literary references to royal visits to
sacred geographical sites indicate that even the elite continued to worship
local cults.
The erection of a number of Buddhist monuments between the late eighth
and ninth centuries is evidence of a brief period of strong state support by
the Śailendra rulers. This explosion of architectural creativity finds its apogee
in the construction of the monument of Borobudur on the Kedu plain. The
complex structure and iconography of Borobudur has provided a wealth of
material for theories about the nature of Buddhist practice in Central Java.
Scholars have been able to identify some of the texts that are depicted on the
terraces, but larger questions about the overall program of the monument
remain subject to debate.52
After the mid-ninth century the construction of Buddhist temples in
Central Java comes to an end. Bronze images continue to be made in both
Central Java until the tenth century and in East Java until the early eleventh
century. Bronze hordes from sites such as Surocolo and Nganjuk have yielded
a spectacular array of deities, organized into complex man ˙ d ˙ alas (circles). The
manufacture of this type of bronze statuary ceases by the twelfth century, suggesting
changes in religious practices. Although many beautiful ritual items
associated with worship (containers, vajras [pronged implements symbolizing
permanency], bells, khakkara [finials], lamps) continued to be made, we find
few freestanding images of deities.
During the East Javanese period Buddhist stone structures were rarely built,
and both artistic and literary evidence suggest that the religion of the courts
was predominantly Hindu.53 An interesting development during the Singasari
and Majapahit dynasties is the production of numerous statues that seem to
hold both Śaivite and Vais ˙ n ˙ avite attributes.54 In contrast to those sculptures,
most of the Buddhist statues produced during this period do not deviate from
Indian iconographic conventions. These Buddhist statues, though small in
number, are spectacular in appearance, and as I will demonstrate in the chapters
to follow, often had political as well as religious significance.
22 | chapter one