Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia

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figure i.5. Sumatra part of Indonesia is compounded by the fact that esoteric Buddhism and Hinduism can be difficult to differentiate, even in India. Rather than thinking of the religion of Java and Sumatra during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries as Hindu or Buddhist, some scholars posit that it would be better categorized as tantric. Tantric religious practice placed great emphasis on the use of rituals, meditation, and other tools in the quest for immediate salvation. In contrast to Java, the majority of ancient remains found in Sumatra are Buddhist. But far fewer Sumatran sculptures have been unearthed, and much less effort has been spent on the excavation of archaeological sites. All of the introduction | 7
major archaeological sites in Sumatra, including Muara Takus, Muara Jambi, Padang Lawas, and the Batang Hari region, remain in need of continued excavation and conservation.2 A more exhaustive study of the ancient remains of Sumatra can be written only after this archaeological work is undertaken. While the temples of Java have provided fodder for the study of Buddhism on that island, the meanings of Sumatran antiquities have been much more difficult to decipher. The writings of Chinese pilgrims and the inscriptions of local rulers suggest that Buddhism was already flourishing in the seventh century at Śrīvijaya (an eastern Sumatran thalassocracy), yet much of our knowledge about the specifics of religious practice from that time onward is murky and conjectural. Despite the long history of Buddhism on the island, most of the scholarship on the early history of Sumatra has focused on the question of the location of Śrīvijaya,3 rather than on the sociocultural or religious nature of the maritime supremacy. Other studies have associated Śrīvijaya with objects from all regions of Sumatra dating from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries, even though the connections between many of these works and the ancient kingdom are ambiguous. Neither the colonial nor the more recent Indonesian scholarship has concentrated specifically on the religious nature of temple complexes and of sculptural imagery. Nor have the connections between the art of Sumatra and the Buddhist art of Java been thoroughly explored. Unfortunately, no large corpus of Buddhist texts exists to help us understand the religious practices in Indonesia in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Our knowledge is gleaned mainly from one major tenth-century treatise,4 allusions to religion in literary works, inscriptions, and art. Previous research on the religious nature of sculpture of this period has emphasized the syncretism between Hinduism and Buddhism in Java and the connection between esoteric practices and indigenous beliefs in Sumatra. Some scholars theorize that tantric cults gained popularity in Sumatra because of the preexisting local beliefs of the Batak and Minangkabau peoples.5 Yet a close examination of the relevant Buddhist sculpture shows that in many cases these emphases are unwarranted or exaggerated. While Buddhism is the first factor that ties together the sculptures discussed in this study, a second focus is the political role of these images in ancient Indonesia and the many ways in which the spheres of religion and politics intersect. Some of these statues have long been associated with historical figures and have been described as portraits of rulers depicted as gods. Other images may have been used as palladia, established for purposes of legitimiza- 8 | introduction
Page 1 and 2: Violence Late Buddhist Sculpture fr
Page 4 and 5: Violence and Serenity Late Buddhist
Page 6: contents vii Acknowledgments ix A N
Page 9 and 10: sians helped me find my way during
Page 12: ulers of the singasari and majapahi
Page 15 and 16: figure i.1. Bhairava, mid-fourteent
Page 17 and 18: most important issues faced by hist
Page 19: figure i.4. Central and East Java r
Page 23 and 24: in Java were probably not the objec
Page 25 and 26: with the attributes of the Aks ˙ o
Page 28 and 29: Chapter One The Development of Budd
Page 30 and 31: curement of magic powers. Several o
Page 32 and 33: king with a bodhisattva, a practice
Page 34 and 35: originated from Anurādhapura in Sr
Page 36 and 37: Chapter Two Joko Dolok and the Poli
Page 38 and 39: figure 2.2. Joko Dolok, rear of fig
Page 40 and 41: figure 2.3. Meditating monk, mid-ni
Page 42 and 43: two realms, Janggala (later known a
Page 44 and 45: initiation into that cult.24 It is
Page 46 and 47: the eighth and tenth centuries, hav
Page 48 and 49: The divinities Wairocana and Locan
Page 50 and 51: which some scholars contend contain
Page 52 and 53: Whether the mantras got their power
Page 54 and 55: Aks ˙ obhya is an embodiment of th
Page 56 and 57: in the Nāgarakr ˙ tāgama, was pr
Page 58 and 59: other than chronological were used.
Page 60 and 61: figure 2.9. Seated male (Jayavarman
Page 62: epresents Kr ˙ tanagara, it would
Page 65 and 66: figure 3.1. Prajñāpāramitā (sam
Page 67 and 68: and two thicker plain bands. At the
Page 69 and 70: Diana Paul writes that certain deit
Page 71 and 72:
figure 3.2. Prajñāpāramitā, ca.
Page 73 and 74:
figure 3.5. Headless Prajñāpāram
Page 75 and 76:
figure 3.6. Prajñāpāramitā, hea
Page 77 and 78:
oots. On either side, one stem of t
Page 79 and 80:
figure 3.11. Prajñāpāramitā, ch
Page 81 and 82:
figure 3.12. Prajñāpāramitā, ha
Page 83 and 84:
saw her and was captivated.51 This
Page 85 and 86:
We do not know what is meant by the
Page 87 and 88:
elief in a transitional period afte
Page 89 and 90:
figure 3.14. Vis ˙ n ˙ u on Garud
Page 91 and 92:
figure 3.15. Standing female deity,
Page 93 and 94:
artist to depict an individual? Or
Page 95 and 96:
figure 3.16. Prajñāpāramitā, la
Page 98 and 99:
Chapter Four The Many Roles of the
Page 100 and 101:
are convincing. Other temples with
Page 102 and 103:
sculpture; images from the Majapahi
Page 104 and 105:
figure 4.4. Head of Amoghapāśa, C
Page 106 and 107:
with a short and stout body. He has
Page 108 and 109:
figure 4.8. Sudhanakumāra, ca. 126
Page 110 and 111:
figure 4.12. Hayagrīva, detail of
Page 112 and 113:
figure 4.15. Amoghapāśa, inscript
Page 114 and 115:
figure 4.17. Aks ˙ obhya, Ratnasam
Page 116 and 117:
figure 4.19. Narrative relief from
Page 118 and 119:
armed forms date no later than the
Page 120 and 121:
generally posed in a stiffer stance
Page 122 and 123:
figure 4.21. Amoghapāśa, second h
Page 124 and 125:
figure 4.22. Amoghapāśa, Pura Pus
Page 126 and 127:
scholars had posited that candi wer
Page 128 and 129:
Pigeaud, pratisthā, a word meaning
Page 130 and 131:
seems that the daughter does not se
Page 132 and 133:
figure 4.23. Amoghapāśa plaque, i
Page 134 and 135:
figure 4.24. Amoghapāśa (same as
Page 136 and 137:
the base of the stele. Amoghapāśa
Page 138 and 139:
figure 4.27. Saptaratna, proper rig
Page 140 and 141:
date through a series of complex as
Page 142 and 143:
Marie Thérèse de Mallmann also no
Page 144 and 145:
In mainland Southeast Asia, especia
Page 146 and 147:
Chapter Five A Charnel House of Ima
Page 148 and 149:
ituals of esoteric Buddhism and tha
Page 150 and 151:
the statue was made locally.13 The
Page 152 and 153:
Blood flowed down, smelling badly,
Page 154 and 155:
figure 5.5. Heruka, ca. eleventh ce
Page 156 and 157:
figure 5.6. Lokanātha and Tārā,
Page 158 and 159:
Batak language to argue that the ki
Page 160 and 161:
figure 5.8. (Above) Statuary at Pad
Page 162 and 163:
figure 5.10. Head of a dvārapāla,
Page 164 and 165:
figure 5.14. Relief of figure with
Page 166 and 167:
figure 5.18. (Above) Reliefs, Biaro
Page 168 and 169:
pose) and carrying a khat ˙ vān˙
Page 170 and 171:
While other evidence suggests that
Page 172 and 173:
conquest, but that violence was the
Page 174 and 175:
following uses: “To make the rain
Page 176 and 177:
dense (if rapidly vanishing) forest
Page 178 and 179:
Buddha (as lord teacher) and his di
Page 180 and 181:
Chapter Six The National Museum’s
Page 182 and 183:
of the statue, I will show the uniq
Page 184 and 185:
figure 6.3. Side view of figure 6.2
Page 186 and 187:
figure 6.6. (Left) Mahākāla, ca.
Page 188 and 189:
of the back slab is missing; presum
Page 190 and 191:
slightly splayed, and with one arm
Page 192 and 193:
figure 6.11. The door guardians Nan
Page 194 and 195:
figure 6.14. (Above) Gan ˙ eśa, c
Page 196 and 197:
figure 6.17. Gan ˙ eśa, fourteent
Page 198 and 199:
figure 6.18. Bhairava, ca. 1300, fr
Page 200 and 201:
figure 6.20. Pārvatī and retinue,
Page 202 and 203:
peacock, evidently representing Kā
Page 204 and 205:
dence for this supposition. A few e
Page 206 and 207:
figure 6.25. West Sumatra ing a twe
Page 208 and 209:
the base of the Amoghapāśa sculpt
Page 210 and 211:
ents and family from this world to
Page 212 and 213:
Sumatran cousin and displays a slig
Page 214 and 215:
The Sumatran bhairava has both a mu
Page 216 and 217:
The first part of the inscription g
Page 218 and 219:
spread throughout much of Sumatra,
Page 220 and 221:
figure 6.31. Minang dagger figure 6
Page 222:
Puluah Kota region. There are hundr
Page 225 and 226:
figure c.1. Ken Dedes, 1975, by Jim
Page 227 and 228:
ava from Sungai Langsat have no dou
Page 230 and 231:
Notes Abbreviations BEFEO Bulletin
Page 232 and 233:
ut also compiled the biographies of
Page 234 and 235:
of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta),
Page 236 and 237:
Mandala?” East and West 46.3-4 (1
Page 238 and 239:
26. Ibid. Chandra associates Mahāk
Page 240 and 241:
66. Ibid. 67. W. H. Rassers, “Śi
Page 242 and 243:
98. J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw,
Page 244 and 245:
pointing upward, led Rouffaer to co
Page 246 and 247:
67. Robert F. Hefner, Hindu Javanes
Page 248 and 249:
Candi (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1990);
Page 250 and 251:
use of lotus plants, the fillet and
Page 252 and 253:
92. Pigeaud, Java in the 14th Centu
Page 254 and 255:
135. Marie Therese de Mallmann, Int
Page 256 and 257:
22. Canto 125 of Santoso, Sutasoma,
Page 258 and 259:
simply that Śrīvijaya was an irri
Page 260 and 261:
For more criticism of Marco Polo, s
Page 262 and 263:
fourteenth centuries. C. M. Pleyte,
Page 264 and 265:
locally. Stanley J. O’Connor, “
Page 266 and 267:
awarman is mentioned in the Kubu Ra
Page 268 and 269:
Java. Java is never mentioned, and
Page 270:
out to carry off a head, for instan
Page 273 and 274:
Benda, Harry Jindrich, and John A.
Page 275 and 276:
1500.” In The Cambridge History o
Page 277 and 278:
travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 3
Page 279 and 280:
——— . “Het Sanskrit-inschri
Page 281 and 282:
——— . “Ganesha van de Berg
Page 283 and 284:
Oey, Eric M., ed. Sumatra: Island o
Page 285 and 286:
Lembah Sungai Batanghari.” In Sem
Page 287 and 288:
Tambiah, Stanley J. The Buddhist Co
Page 290 and 291:
Illustration Credits Any photograph
Page 292 and 293:
index Page numbers in bold indicate
Page 294 and 295:
also Heruka statue (Biaro Bahal II)
Page 296 and 297:
Dīpam˙ kara Buddha: footprints, 2
Page 298 and 299:
Klokke, Marijke, 45, 77-78 Korawasr
Page 300 and 301:
20, 105; of rulers to ancestor temp
Page 302:
Jago, 92-94, 94, 97; Mongol-Tibetan
Page 305:
Production Notes for Reichle | viol
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