cor'."'rrrE !&II!'! BENEX'ITS OF ENVTRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND ...
cor'."'rrrE !&II!'! BENEX'ITS OF ENVTRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND ...
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"u# #Hr" )<br />
<strong>cor'</strong>."<strong>'rrrE</strong> !&<strong>II</strong>!'!<br />
<strong>BENEX'ITS</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>ENVTRONMENTAL</strong>, <strong>HEALTH</strong>,<br />
<strong>AND</strong> SAF'ETY R,EGULATION<br />
PRTPANED <strong>II</strong>OR TEE<br />
COMItrITTEE ON GOYER,N<strong>II</strong>ENTAL AX'FAIRS<br />
UNITAD STATES SENATE<br />
BY T<strong>II</strong>X<br />
CENTER FOR POLICY AI,TERNATIVES AT THE<br />
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE <strong>OF</strong> TECHNOLOGY<br />
W<br />
MARCE 25, 1S80<br />
Pdnted lor the use of the ComDltt€e o! GovemDental Afal!!<br />
U.S. OOYERNMDNT PAIN<strong>II</strong>NG OTFICE<br />
l?-?!o O maEINGaON : 1980<br />
I'or srle by tlc gup€ ntendeDt of Documents, t].S. GoYerdnent PrlnUng Omce<br />
WasbtngtoD, D.C. 20i102
lIENEY lL .J-{CKSON, Washiiston<br />
<strong>II</strong>IOrIAS l'. iL',\(ll,l,TON, )Iissoirri<br />
I--\\rT0]- CH<strong>II</strong>-Ib:S, Uorid'r<br />
S,\lI NU\N. (icorBia<br />
JO<strong>II</strong>N {lLIi\N. Ollio<br />
.<strong>II</strong><strong>II</strong> SASSER. T€nDessec<br />
I),\V<strong>II</strong>) I'RYOR,'\rliatrtsas<br />
('-{RL LllvI\, lttchigen<br />
('()MMlla'lllr) ON (IOVEIi\MIiYI'AL .\l'!'AIRS<br />
-\BRA<strong>II</strong>A<strong>II</strong> RIBICOI'F, ConDecttcut, Chatrtnan<br />
CHi\RLES H. !'IJRCY, Illinois<br />
JACOR K..I-\r'I1s, \crv Yor\<br />
\\'ILLI-{<strong>II</strong> l'. IiO'I'<strong>II</strong>, Jn., Dtla{fe<br />
l'DD ST<strong>II</strong>vDNS, {l:rska<br />
CH-.\.RLl!S v.C. \I1THlAS. Jn, trIarvland<br />
J0<strong>II</strong>N C. D.\N!'ORTll, llissourl<br />
N<strong>II</strong>-LIA}{ S. C0<strong>II</strong>Ih-, Ileitre<br />
I)AYID DUriD\BDnGItB, \llnneEota<br />
Itrcn^lI|D -{. WE{:uAN, Chitl Couns.I tttt.I Etnfi Dit.ctor<br />
JaMEs DL (:ftAHAM, Cor{rel<br />
Coxsl^NcD B, It\'.!Ns. Iitotittl Srnt rtire.tot<br />
Itr,rzlBDI}I '\. l'ItE^sr, CtidJ C/€rti<br />
*
Center for Pol lcY Altern€tlves<br />
l'lassachusetts I nst i tltte of Technology<br />
Cambr i dqe, tlassachusetts 02139<br />
TH€<br />
EEXEF ITS <strong>OF</strong> ENV I RON<strong>II</strong>E <strong>II</strong>TAL ' <strong>HEALTH</strong><br />
A<strong>II</strong>D SAFETY REGULATIO<strong>II</strong><br />
(APPENDTCES)<br />
Nicholas A. Ashford<br />
Co-pri nci Pa I investigato.<br />
Christopher T. Hi | |<br />
co-pri nc ipal investigator<br />
Yil l iam tlendez, Jr.<br />
Proj ect r,lanager<br />
Roger K. Chisholn<br />
Ri chard Frenkel<br />
Georqe R. Heaton ' Jr.<br />
Y. Curt iss Priest<br />
lhe research underlying thls report vras carried oul under contract fr6n<br />
if'" Crrnfai." on covern.entat Affairs, United states senate' to the tenter<br />
for Policy AlLprnalive< aL Lhe taa5sachuserts Inslitute ol lecnnoroqY<br />
e.v ..i.;1"..-ir.Jinqi. concrusions. or recommerdar ions<br />
::"'":"9 !:*r'<br />
aretho5eoftheauthorsanddonotnecessaril)reflectthe<br />
il;.;;-i;. Poiicy Alternatives' the l'lassachusetts rnstitute of rechnoroev'<br />
or the Committee on Governrental Affairs.<br />
(<strong>II</strong>I)<br />
t<br />
t;
LETTER <strong>OF</strong> TRANSMITTAL<br />
U'S' Srxern'<br />
Counrrrrnn or GoYMNIT<strong>II</strong>NTAL i\rnr' rRst<br />
Il/aahingtttt. I t.(!.. 'll o r (,h 25. | 98t).<br />
The PnssnrLr or rlrn SENATT'<br />
A.8. Senate,<br />
Wash.inqtrm. D.C.<br />
I)u,rt ]ttr. Pnnsronr.rr: For the pa.t several vears, 1|tP Qorrrnittec on<br />
Gov""'rrr"ont"l Aflairs has been actively scartlllit,g tol rvavs-to tlake<br />
Fedcral requlltion tDolc clficient and effectirc. TtL thc lrst ( ongress'<br />
llr" ilo-uriit"" prrblislrctl tltc six volrrrncs oI it: '\tuJv nn F' d"n!<br />
\V-<br />
"latitytt'. *Itich ^l.ls contlrtcte
s<br />
CONTEN T S<br />
?!gr<br />
Executivc summarY----------<br />
1<br />
1. Introdu(tioD<br />
5<br />
zl ili" tt,,t,t.. i,r the bellefits of elvironrueDt ]. health, nrrd safety regulatiorr<br />
U<br />
2.1 .\ d$ssilictltirJn of the llcrelits of rcgnlotion---<br />
tt<br />
2.2 .\ fralrre$-olli for Delslrring the l)enefits of reguhtiotr------ --<br />
3. Issues;r lsses-sirrg tltc l)eDcfits oI rcguhtioD<br />
11<br />
3.1 -ii.i l,in)ited brse of scielltili(: :rnd teclDiclrl liloivledge-----_------ l1<br />
itrar,itiiy to trreclirt ihe nte tr d (lilection of tecbnological<br />
innovatioD<br />
3,3 AnrlJtic:rl lssn lssnllrl)tior)s rl)tior)s concetniDg concerrlDg tht' tlrt' effecliYeness errecli {)f regu-<br />
I ti.Ds --<br />
3.4 Irradeqtate ecol)Dr))ic r))odcls rrld techniques------------------<br />
:1.5 l\rn,l1.trrs Nith \rlhrrrliorl ln(rcednr'('s<br />
of benrfi ts o!ti,nlrtiorr---<br />
nrl(l (l(r'isioD r1IakiDg-----<br />
4. 'Ihe bel('fits of selected regtllator] prograDrs-----<br />
4.1 JntroductioD<br />
4.2 Benefits of rrir lnllutid\ contlol regulations-<br />
4.3 Ilelrefits of rutonrotive 'qafety regulations--<br />
4.4 Iicrlcfits oI collsllnler product,sAfet]' regulotlons--------------<br />
-1.5 Ircrl'fils ('l 13<br />
14<br />
19<br />
20<br />
20<br />
20<br />
foo(l. (h s xrrd cosxrfli(' IeFrrl^tions-<br />
27<br />
4.6 ReDrfits ot fooal saletr :rrrd qu{lit}' reguhtioDs------'-<br />
29<br />
4.7 Bonr'lits of (xcllpatidrNl saletl :tllal health regulations--- ----<br />
4.6 In'reliis of \vater pollutiort control regulationg-<br />
34<br />
-l.l) li('uolitsofothero vironlllontrrl, hexltb. rlr)rl s{rfety ,r'eg[lati on s 36<br />
5. Cot|clusiorrr l r,,I r'r1,nrIrpnd|lliot<br />
3E<br />
;.1<br />
't'hc<br />
l)r'rl()hts of selected legulatory progt:lrDs--<br />
38<br />
'5.2 SuDrrDuy of sourc beneflts oi regulatioD--<br />
38<br />
5.3 The state {)f lho-.rrt<br />
40<br />
5.4 ReconDrclrdations<br />
43<br />
.lclill() rr k,(lgr'rxcD t-!<br />
43<br />
Tto authors- -----<br />
M<br />
Litera lure ciled--- --- -----<br />
4?t<br />
.\ppeDdiccs:<br />
.\. The l,iletaturc Survey-----. - -<br />
R. Riblingraphy 59<br />
C. Suh.ienl Tnrlcx<br />
{vrr)
BENEFITS <strong>OF</strong> ENVIRONMENTAL' <strong>HEALTH</strong>' <strong>AND</strong><br />
SAFETY REGUI,ATION<br />
Exrcurrl'r Suuuar'Y<br />
Substantial bonefits have beel rcalizcd from federal environmental,<br />
health and safety regulations. 'lhese benelits which are summarized rn<br />
this leport. ir, iud," dilcct ecorr()mic guitrs. imptouements in public<br />
bealth and in thc strtrdard of living, and enhrtrced envrronrnellt&l<br />
dua.litv. lvo htvc nol nltempted to atirile uL u total vllu('of tlll thesa<br />
lienefiis, in doll.rr or in othe-r terms. Ilowever, it is clear that they-ars<br />
sizable when compared with ihe costs that havs been attributed to<br />
these regulatory piograms in other studies.<br />
The r:"urnose of thJ utsent research was to compile end ch&racterize<br />
existiri piivatc arrd prrblic sector studies on the benefits of "n'ironmentaih.r<br />
lth. u rrtl sr ict y regu lat iott,s. .\ , omputcrized bibliograph,v"of<br />
over 350 documents was constructed and abstracts were prepaled for<br />
about one-half of these studies. Regulatury ana)yses and other documents<br />
were obtained from six fcdctrl regulatorv tgencies (Cottsumer<br />
Product Safety Cornmission, Environmental Pri'teclion Agency. Food<br />
and Drus .{d r irin istration. Food Sa fetv r rrd Qualitv Service, }*rrt ional<br />
Hichwrv Trrftic Safetv Adrnin istra r,ion. and the Oicupational Safety<br />
and-Heilth Arlministirtion ). Brsed on this documentation, tlle r€port€d<br />
benefiis o[ regulations irr seven mitior regul&tory lre&s a,re<br />
iummarized. and an "assessment<br />
is madc of the lttte-of-the-art of<br />
estimatins benefits. It should be not€d thot no efiort has been made<br />
to critica y evalua,te the particular methodologies used ia fhe lar.ious<br />
stuorcs.<br />
The philosophical, analdical. and empirical limitations on benefits<br />
studies need t; be kept fiimly in mind wlrt'n thc,.e estimtrtes are dis'<br />
cussed. Nevertheless. it is clea; that thc public benefits are substantial.<br />
Enuironme n tal pol I ution<br />
The benefits of regulating air pollution from major soureas has<br />
been estimatcd to raiigc froir $.-' to $58 billion per yerr. lith automotive<br />
pollrrtion contlols alonc rvorth $2.5 to $10 billion per year'<br />
Estinrates of water Dollution control benefits include reduced incidencs<br />
of n'aler-horne diseise n il.lr monetary benefits of $0.1 to $l billion per<br />
year, recreational use benefits estimated at up to $9.4 billion per<br />
ie[r. "wnte.rwavs. and substantia] increases in DroDt:rtv v{rlies ncrr once-Dolluted.<br />
These nollution-rclated benefiis do not inclutlc the benefits<br />
of piograms diiecteil lt long-term ot lurgc sclle prohlems such as<br />
chroni; he;lth h&zrrcls (such rs-carcinogens) in wrtci srrpplics, stratospheric<br />
ozone depletion, or long-range sulfate transport irnd acid rain.<br />
Worlcplace safety and health<br />
The total anmral cost of industrial accidents has been estimatetl at<br />
nearlv $15 billion. Fet{eral and state occupational safetv and health<br />
regulations have helperl to rcduce accidental iniuries and deaths. For<br />
erample, OS<strong>II</strong>A safety and health inspection activitics arc estimated<br />
(1)<br />
!
2<br />
to have prevented between {0,000 and 60,000 lost workday accidents<br />
and.up to 350 ileaths- in boih 1974.nnd 197b. Regulations limiting<br />
worker exposure to asbestos may rrltinrate)r' resrrlt"in a rerluction oT<br />
630.to 2500 dealhs pcr year-from lurlg,"rnier rnd asbesiosis. Signiti.<br />
cant additional benefits will occur in the fornr of reduced incidence<br />
of cancer and other discase dne to OSHA regllation of such htzar.ds<br />
as vinyl chloride, cotton clust, lead, and noise.<br />
-<br />
Atdomobile and con*umcr sofety<br />
It has been estimated that the motor vehicle occurrant rrrotection<br />
standards promulgated lretrvcen 1966 antl 19i0 saved o'ver 2i.000 liyes<br />
n.an.8 Jear periorl, 1966 lo.1t?4. This rras o,luiYalent to I lb to B0%<br />
r€ducDton In dcalhs anil :orio j in.jurios ns colnparod wilh older clrs.<br />
The seat bcft requirenrenL lrrs lctl io a 2oVo rpeiuctjon in derth and a<br />
34lo rcdlction in rui.'rnol'ile acciderrt injrrrics. despite rolatir.oll- low<br />
uso rat€s. Substantial benefits lrrve also been estimited for consuner<br />
product safety regulations tlesigned to contlol specific haz.rrds. For<br />
exampler child-resistant drug parkaging rules pre^verrtcd an cstimatccl<br />
34,000 injuries due to accirlcntril ,lrug inlgestioniretrvccn 19?B ancl 1g?6.<br />
Crib safety starxlard_s_ have r_educcd irib--rclated injuries to infants by<br />
44/o sirroe 19i-1. Fullr- irrrplcmented, fabric flaminabilitv standarcLs<br />
could have reduccd by aboui 20af thr- frcquencies oI deathj and senous<br />
burns expcrien,.ed br"clrildren in 1g75.<br />
Footl and tlrug nlety ard, quality<br />
Tho bcnefits of fcdcr:rl inspnclion of meats. norrltrv and nroeesscd<br />
food rre manifest in tlro olcr.rull quality and puiitv of .\mnrica'. feed<br />
supply. They halc become rJeepiy irr-grlincd in'ihe qrralir.r'-(,onirol<br />
efrorts of tlre fo-od prucessing nnd-disiiibur iorr industry -inc"e regulation<br />
began in 1800. Recent strrdies of the benefits of clianges in iood<br />
-.af ett' an d q uali ty reguh tion s_ have {ound, f or example, c*onsiderablo<br />
D€nents rn the torm oI reduco(l consumer exposure to potentially car_<br />
cinogcnic.food preservatir-cs-and jn the form;f both m;rc efficierit utilrza.tion<br />
of mcat carcas.es lnd cosi savings lo meat procFssors,<br />
^ Tho benetil s of food. dnrg and cosrr re.t ic regulations hrr.e been quantifiql<br />
in onll' a few instances. Clearly, large bienefits have resulteci from<br />
FD.\ regulatiols. I,-or cxumple, the banning of nitrofurans arrtl diethvlstilbestrol<br />
as aninrul fr'e.d additives ln? the banning of other<br />
earr.inogcnic srrbslances ts ingr.edienls in food are expecred io rnsrrlt, in<br />
decreasnd risk of ca nr-e r lronr cxposure I o these comporrn ds. Tlre FD A's<br />
ban on flrroroc:rrbon propollanti in certain types o'f aerosol cans will<br />
contribute to a lowet incidencc of skin cancer aid to less en.r,ironmcntal<br />
damago than xould otherwjsc result fro_rn dcpletion of the ozone layer.<br />
Tt hm been estimltprl tlr at the bcnofits o{ t ho dr.ug offi,"1cy reqrr iren ronrs<br />
under the 1962 Kcfauyer-Ilarris .{mendments iar,-e bern a'reduction<br />
of $100 to $300 million per yerr in consumer purchases o{ insfiective<br />
dmm.<br />
C on cl,usion q nd rec omnlenda ti ons<br />
Er'-en thorrgh elTorts have lrr.en devoted to nssessing the beneffts of<br />
onvrronmcnl al. lteall h and sa felv requlations. lhere reitain maior ana_<br />
lytical, empirical. and philosopliirai prolrlems n.iilr such stu,lie"s. Some<br />
ol tne analytrcal and empi cal issues can bo resolved through addi_
3<br />
tional research and applications in such areas &s toxicology, epidemiology,<br />
onvironmentaf inodeling and risk &sscssment. Hoievei, tliere<br />
will rcurain scriorr-. sholtcorrrings in the availabilitv of ernpilicul clrrta<br />
ou man.y hcalth rntl ccologicai'cffects, as well as inarlequncies in the<br />
norlt:ls uscd to inllrrprtt tlrt'rlltl. Ftrlthetmorc, thc pltilosophicLtl and<br />
ethi,'ul issues r''Lisrd bv l.,lrcirg c
BENEFITS <strong>OF</strong> ENV<strong>II</strong>TON-NIENTAI. HEALT<strong>II</strong>, <strong>AND</strong><br />
SAI'E'IY ITI]GULATION<br />
1. Ixtnoovcrrox<br />
In the lest decede, the na.tion has exPanded its commitment to improvjng<br />
t}o quality bf tlre environrrrenl antl thc health and salcty of<br />
its ciiizens. Congreis Iras int'relscd suppoll ful rlxisting cllolls lrnd has<br />
cfeat{d tl{.w tgencles t0 dev{'lop lnd i}dlnlllISIer. rcgulirtofy lrl'ogr&ms<br />
to attuirr llr(.'c important goals. It is lrattlculrlrlJ pl)ropl'latc l}t. thrs<br />
limc of glowirrq lnten.slln regulatotv rcfolttt lo exatrtinc what is<br />
known aFout llrJ benefits of ll,osi recotri tegulatoty efforls. trloreovcr,<br />
it is only against an- undersl.unding of t lrc-txrretiG o-[ rcg.ulation thaL<br />
recenl aiteritpts lu docurrront ils costs trrtr bc lr,'.rningfully assessed'<br />
(lYeidenbaum ' and Del,'ila, 1978; Arthur Andemen & Co., 19?9).'<br />
The bcncfits of regulation have not bccn ertensively examirred until<br />
recentlv Ior several reas-ons. -t'jrst. wlren most of tlre nerv regulations<br />
werc uiurrted. {,ltere was broad agl'cttrLnl on tLc striousnels of the<br />
prol,luls, arrtl it was l:rrgely assurictl I )rat the benolits to society of a<br />
tle,rn, r' crrvironrnenl, hr;ltirier workplule end s&Ier products rrould<br />
be woll rvorth the cbsts of colrpliutcc. Sccond, those rvho stitld to<br />
benefit thc most from health a.nd safetv requlirtions havc not had the<br />
resoulccs to study thcir benefits in dttiil, ind irr ruost cuses, have not<br />
bccn orgrnized 5r rrrotivated to press for such u:st's.rlents. Third,<br />
thcre .r.re inherent corrceptual and methodological difiiculties in assessing<br />
thc bencfits of regulation-it is gcnerull-!' mucll nors dillicult to<br />
cstirrrltc the benefits tharr the cosls of ( olr t) lia rc( .<br />
'-fhe pur'losc of the present research by thc <strong>II</strong>IT Center for Policy<br />
Alterrrit i vi* (M<strong>II</strong>-Ci'A) wus to cotttl,tl,' arrtl characterize existing<br />
Drivatc a)rd public scctor: studies on thc benefits of environtnental,<br />
i.oalth, arLd srfety regulations.'lo deal witlt thc rnany didercnt issucs<br />
treat{i in a-rrulyJs oiregulatory benefits' <strong>II</strong> t'I' ( 'l "\'.applorr lrcr i this<br />
rcsearclr ustttg [l, multl-dlsclpl lna ry l4am wlul t \ln nise lll ('(ollollllcst<br />
biology, biocFeuristry, gt'nefics, chemistry, chemicll etrgineerirtg, and<br />
law.<br />
The MIT-CPA research team constructed a, computerized bibliocraphy<br />
o[ oyer i]50 documenls utt llte benetils of regulatiorr alld prtiarid<br />
obst.uct" of about one-lralf oI these stu.lies. Itegulatory arralyses<br />
and other docutncnts rserc obluined fronr .ix fedetal legulatoly ugcncies<br />
(Consunter Product Safetv Comtrrissiotr, Flnvironmenttrl Protcction<br />
i\sency, Foorl and Drug AdministraLion, Ir'ood Srrfcly rrrd Qualitv<br />
Seivicti, ' Nrtional H igliv.!.y 'I'rulfic Safely lLltttilrist,r'rtion, and<br />
ttie Occupai ional Safcty und llealth.\,lministr:rlion). In addi(ion'<br />
several cofnputeriz,:tl biblirrr{r1r phic data bascs nnd the Journal oJ Ecolomic<br />
Liteiature werc s.aichcd for relcvant articles. r\ppendiccs to<br />
rcitatlorE *tth authora' traEeB anal dates refer to tbe Ust ot "Llteratute Clted" at<br />
tt€ erd o! thls repolt.<br />
(6)
this report contain details of the literature searched, the bibliography,<br />
ano a subrect lndex.<br />
l3a:cd iargell on thc litprature abstracts. the estirnatecl benefits of<br />
rogulrlroll ln Sct'on i||tirorlfl t regulator\ alcts tl'cre sunrmlrizcd and<br />
djs,"u-setl. I|hile a consitlcrable portiori oI lhi- repor.t is dcrored to<br />
plrilosophi,-rl. coltcel'lrtrl. rnalvtrcal and practi,aI issuej ll,tlt limit<br />
thc putcntral ultlrty c'l l,onefit tnallses in generlJ. llre resorrrr.ps availablc<br />
u-ete lrsrflictort to ltttsttpt a critical revierv of each studv. I{owever.<br />
it n'as possible to drntv sorrrc conclusions r.eglrcling tLe itate-ofthe-art<br />
of benelits assessment and to offnr scme recomriendations for<br />
nolicv. -<br />
Thc remaindel of tlis report consists of four maior sections. Section<br />
2 is a gerreral discu,s.iol ot the nanv forms taken bv the benefits of<br />
enyirorinroltal. health and safetv regulations ald lrriw thosc benefits<br />
might bc measured. Section 3 disculses some of the theoretical and<br />
placticll tlifliculties eorumonl_y encountered in attempts to assess the<br />
beneiits of rr.guhtion. Section 4 surmtar.izes the res.ulG of somc o{ the<br />
rno|c unportant studies of the hurrcfit: ol sclected r.eguhterry progranr..<br />
Scction .:r.presetrls corr,"lrrsiorr. l|lLl I e(omI lendtt io]|. regirdrng<br />
tuturp Llrtecttons fbt. regulltor\ polic_\'.<br />
2. Tna Narunn ot' rgn Bnnnnrs or Euluolqurxru,r,, Iloer,ra, ero<br />
SErnry Rrcur,.a.nor{<br />
2.1 A CLASSIFICAfiON OI'1IEtr BENTT'ITS <strong>OF</strong> R.EGULATION<br />
The benefits of environmental, healti ancl safety " resulfltion can bs<br />
considered to fall in four broad classes ;<br />
The reduced costs of injury, of disease and of a,esthetic and<br />
othcr dumage lo natrlnrl les.,rir,.es and ecosvstems:<br />
The improrcd productivity of workers, if consirmers, and oI<br />
natur.al<br />
-s-r'stenrs<br />
srrch rs_forests. agricultural land, nnd rvetlands I<br />
The development and adopiioir of new. more Droductir.e in:<br />
du.llirl I'ro"nssos and rnorc eileclir,, nr.otlucts:<br />
. Improlements in society, such as tfie formaiion o{ new institutrons.rn<br />
rndLrst-t r. €toretrLment, and labor unions. or changes in the<br />
orstn btltron oi lncome.<br />
-. An exr mple shol-s how these bencfits arise. The costs of oceupational<br />
rltscl.e irrnlrrrl'. not onll thc costs of rneCical care. bllt also otlier costs<br />
associrte,l wir h pain rnd sufrering. the dis";;fort ;;d dii*oiion "".poliorrr'nrl<br />
l,.r frrrrih lrrd fliends. ilre rtor.li,.r's losl rtrges, and'th" "mplover's<br />
losi of the services of an experienced u".i orfiulii"" *o"t "..<br />
ncgulation that rcduces the incidcnic of *o"t -."ta't"a air"o"_." ."duces<br />
each-of tbese costs. and these cost reductions n." u -u1o, part. of the<br />
regrrlatorr program's benefi ts.<br />
-. In additibn io the benefits thlt flow from the reducerl costs of iniurv.<br />
diseaso c,nrl. damage.-tlre- indrrstrial resl,onsc-i. *""iif"." *n ,i,itir',<br />
rrenltcn v lncl]ldes 'lo\.elnl)monl of a ncw Droccss or orodrtr"t tlt:rt not<br />
only.mcets the legal stanrl:rrrl but also is rnore efficidnt or of higher<br />
orrrr,i' fl,rn tic nnF tt 1or,l11qe5. h othel cases. adontion of n ljitter<br />
ter"hnolo,.v is nceelcrafed br. I new regnlation. fn either case. the deve'opment.and<br />
use of nervr improved technolog, is n further regulatorv<br />
benelit,<br />
;
7<br />
Furthernora, regulation often causes chenges in social institutions<br />
with benefits oritsile the regulatetl erea. For;xample. new progrems<br />
established under the Occupational Safetv tnd Health Act to assess<br />
sorkplace ltazards ltave provided errlv sarninss of potentilrl hazards<br />
to the general populatidn, as in thc case of vinll chloride. Another<br />
kind of-institutiorial chanse with substantial benefits is a modification<br />
of the \yxv industr-y approaches rclated hazards. Industry is encourlged<br />
bv one rogulrtoiy'acli,)n to atoid futtrr,' sanclions'by using or<br />
tiioducine less hazardius products rnd Dmcesses ir generll. Tn other<br />
irolds t lre"r'c is r "lr'r,'r'rgin-g cft.ct'' on t h-e nrrtrrre of indrrstrial production<br />
(-.\slilortl. 1979).<br />
There are ihporlant limitations in placing values on regulatory<br />
bcnefits. Not all;f the sisnificant benefiis of r"egulrtion can be monetized<br />
(that is, expressed ii dollarsl, irnd somp "annot evcn be quantified<br />
satisfactorilv. For example, (bere is no appropriric wr.r' to put a<br />
dollar lalue on tiro "osls of tlic pain rnd s,rlTnr:ing *ndrrre,l il,r'oufhout<br />
a life time bv a child who is a-victim oI a sleepwear fire. nor can we<br />
begin to coniprehend in numerical terms the c^osts enduied bv other<br />
people who krow, see, or even think about such a victim. Thus, no<br />
anaiysl can satisftrctorilv ouantify or monctize a7l the benefits of a<br />
rtguiation prohibiting -flammnble fabrics in children's sleepwear.<br />
Clca.rh.'it iinot enoryh to total up only the reduced costs of medicsl<br />
treatment.<br />
Thl costs and bcnefits of regulation usually fall on difierent parties'<br />
l\{ore,over, the benefits of regilation to one part o{ society can o{ten<br />
exceed iLs costs to another. For examplo, an air pollution rcgulation<br />
might require a factory to cease cmittins a haZardous m€til dust.<br />
Tvpicallr-. fhe costs of resnlatorv control borne by the factorv and<br />
srjhseqrrenllv bv iis customcr.. rnd owners mighi rinqe from tins of<br />
thousnnds to hirndred.- of thousanrls of dollars. <strong>II</strong>owevcr. depending<br />
on the nature of tJre dust. the population density. and the type of surrounding<br />
devclopment. tho henefrt-. of reducing-di-"chargc oiihat ilust<br />
could be enormdus-equilalent to millions ol dollars. Avoidins the<br />
costs of cleaning up the surrorrnding region after dama,ge ha-. occirrred<br />
coultl far exceed the costs to the firm of oroner initial control. Put another<br />
wav. "An ounce of nrevention is *orth a nound of crrre,"<br />
This cise is dramaticallv illustrated bv the sitiration at Love Canal<br />
in Niasara Fall-.. Ncrv Yoik. in rrhich hu"ndrcds of homes and families<br />
were contaminrted bv chcmical rva,st€s cscaning from an abandoneil<br />
landfill. Cmt,s of relocatins families and ofcoiistruction rcquir.ed to<br />
control the remainins wasie rlroadv exceerl $9o million (Glaubinger,<br />
et al.. 1979). anrl larvsuits have hecn filed totallins over $2.65 biliion<br />
for pronr.rl v rlanrrges. rliseasc and birth defccls iraceable to the wasles<br />
(Rrbr.ri. tg7g), Yet proper manirgemcnt of lhe wastes. rcsponsr\e to<br />
regulution or not. would have cosi onl-v r fraction of this lmount.<br />
2.2 A IBA}IEWORE I't]R MDASURING THD BNNDtr-TTS <strong>OF</strong> REGUI-{TION<br />
. Generallv. environmcntal. health and safety regulations are desirned<br />
to ctimpel a chanqo in the nature or pal t crn of commercial, instittriional.<br />
or personal ar"tivih. Regllalion rrright. for examnle. be intended<br />
lo cirrse a rcdu,'tion in an indrrslrial efluent. an'increased<br />
attention to the production ard sale of safe products, 6r the removol<br />
.{
6<br />
of a toxic substance from ths workplace. These chlrrges, in turn, ore<br />
intended by society to reduce the iisU ot n".i -i"<br />
ii."pt" "" t" *.<br />
envrronment. rnd thus to improve the quality of their iives and their<br />
standard. of liling. Thrrs. ideally tne fdnentJ ot ree;iailo;;;fiouta Ue<br />
Te9surt-d by .rmprovcme_nls -in ihe quality of life or in the standard of<br />
tlvrn& but, thls connot be done in practice and compromise measures<br />
must be used.<br />
Tho choiee.of wha-t.quantity to measure in practice ott€n depends<br />
on<br />
5 ^AT!<br />
the ayarlabrlrty of appropriate duta or on the abili(y of<br />
englreers and flnalJSls to make prediriions ;n complos circumsta-nces<br />
as rt does on ihe closeness of lhe quantilv being incrsured to what<br />
should idoall.y be.mersurrd. For cxainple, "upp;#;;;;;;; -.nr_<br />
ur€ ol e\l rmtte the bcnefits of a reguJation riquiring elimination of<br />
asDcstos ! rorn automo(ilc brake pads. In ihis caic, it $orrld bc difrcult<br />
to mcasure the dollar value of a reduced incidenic of urb"sios_lint"d<br />
otsease or eve.n to esiimate the redrrction in lhe nrrmber of cases of<br />
rung can.er. or asbestosis irac€able to asbestos rrsed in brake pads.,<br />
..<br />
Therefore, the best a.vailable ^"o"ur" oi tlie b"""ntu,] tfri, ""g,rlu_<br />
rronrnay be tne reduclinn.of rkh oI harm mclsured b-y the reduced<br />
nulD.oor ot asbpsLos brake lrnrngs in use. The fact I.hat tliis measurc of<br />
th6 benehts rs not monetizable and the fact that it is far removed from<br />
tho rrlfimato benefit of ilrprored heal r do "oi *"a["r. ti.u *se fo"<br />
l:q:-!r!r_'<br />
jhl.,y.e of asbestos. It only means that benefit_cost analysis<br />
oase(r on moneirzed health care cost sa,vings is of ^no help in mak-ing '<br />
decisions uboul whether and bow to regula% u.* of u.t "iil"r'<br />
. Tigot". t illustratcs an abstr-act mode[of how-iu-riiivitiiiti^ t".n..<br />
lnoustnal plodu-clron, auto driving, home paint stlit,ping) lead'to<br />
soc,ral costs.<br />
.perfomlng an odioity often creai_es tbe jieseiie of haz_<br />
ards. rheso hazards letd to etposure if people or natiral sJ.stems are<br />
i,i, jl."^^.lllgydiags. Exposuro leads io iome o-"""t "t ,ii',,*gi<br />
(.drselso,. t<br />
llyry, reduced-environmental quality). Tlris damage rs rsso_<br />
cra.f,ec wlln both monetrzeble and non-moncnt izable coste. which can<br />
follow directly or indirectly frorn the damage.<br />
As an l usf,ratlon ot the cost calogories irl t]re model, the dollar costs<br />
of psychiairic care.foS-Lhe disturbe? "p"u.u oi un n;"iiou .iu-.t ui.tiro<br />
LrB tna,trcat nwnetazable cosls th&t, follow from an i.ndirect "t"l^<br />
(the<br />
othcr -a cosb<br />
psychiatric disturbance) which i_n t."" i"I"*s<br />
direct<br />
otner.cost ( the deat-h of r-spouse) as .well as from a direct nnrntizable<br />
cost (lost wages of thc deceased soouse)-<br />
Regulation may be.designed to intcrr/ene at various points in the<br />
mooel ot cosLs shown rn ! r!'ure I, and- it may cause beneficial cha nges<br />
il:l :_1"^!<br />
l.g!. rhe demriir rs, dependin g ;i. i h;;"r "G;-aih.,"gu_<br />
ra[ory sy$em desrgn and on tho responses of the regulated pafl ies. fhe<br />
rogulotory ben€tits may be.manilest as clranges in patterns of human<br />
ur t,re.l)r.esenr"e oI<br />
1l!lllll:_5,I"1,_"."rronsr<br />
or exposurc to a hazard, as<br />
roqucf,rons tn the mcldence ol dem&ge, or as reductions in the vanous<br />
categories of cosh<br />
. t Tbe .dltrcultt.E tnclude tbe .omptcr rcla onshtps amorg asbesrol use, lts Fres€Dce h<br />
llf X$"*?*:f"ff1_"""1::"","J"",",ifl*ui"""';_".",1Iu-nan<br />
ixposu re- r o ii : i ri. i.i,g'iitiiiy. per.roa<br />
substarc;s sucb ;i cr;;";;ft -ilr;:il0 ,i,"'"'.X?iH"r""ii"':'J#,lf,fr1,18-,'."1""""','"".t'J;fflfi<br />
lor tlertlog such dlserre,
I'io neti zab le Co sts<br />
iqo net i zab I e Costs<br />
A Human Act i vi ty<br />
P rese nc e of a Hazard<br />
Exposure to a Hdz ard<br />
lncidence of Danage<br />
ll i rect Costs of oamaga<br />
Indirect Costs of Damage<br />
0ther Costs<br />
0 ther Co sts<br />
FrouBE l.-Ifow coste follow from hulrl&n activities tliat introdua€ h{sard8 lnto<br />
the hrrDlr]l l1rlrd r]atrrrtl enlironruents<br />
57-7900-80-2
10<br />
In measuring the benefits of a regul*tion, one o{ten has availablc<br />
data on chan'gei at difierent.le.vels ofthe model in Figure 1. It nay be<br />
nec€ssary to report bene.fits in tenns of, for.e.xanple, ieduced exposure<br />
to a hazard, rnther than in tcrrrrs of reducerl dollar cost^_s. It ls also<br />
important nbt to engage in doubie , e,unting; {or.rxarr11,lr., onr shoulcl<br />
not count, as benefits both a reductiorL irt eipa*tt, rnrl r redrrction in<br />
dama,ge. Simlkrrl.y_, thc hcalth costs of air I'ollutiorr mry dcl1.es5 plopertl<br />
lalups irr l,olluted tret:, lltd rvlrln rl'g1tlr,t ion i. ir,'pris'd,lbrrble<br />
counting nul ro*ult if botlt innelsc,l I'r'oDetiv lalues and rc'll,.erl<br />
hr.rllhcarecoslsarcireriedas benefils-'<br />
Regulation can also cause changcs in human activity th&t havo beneffts<br />
or"er and aboye those that leid to the redrrctions in r:osts of darnage.<br />
The-sc include u,.e of better ttcJrnologies for. pertulming the lctir'itv<br />
I re.
l1<br />
Reduced. irrcidence of damage-{ontin ue.rl<br />
Dcath ;<br />
\-cg.t rt itrrr damrgp r<br />
I'arm anirnal loss;<br />
Fish r nrl rviLdiifc loss;<br />
F:, oj\.stPrn ,liversitY los.I<br />
'Ioosoil<br />
loss:<br />
Litter.<br />
Ileduced direct costs of dsrnage:<br />
l\l on, tizrt,h. :<br />
Healllr cal e costs;<br />
Lost rvages I<br />
\\'ork.rs' \'o r rl)cllsaLion ;<br />
Plocluct liabilit-y al'ards ;<br />
Rc,lrr, cLl rrgr r, 'r lt rt ra I and forest output: -.<br />
Ptol', r1.r' , iatrrrgl J ua t o rr"r'idents-and nollution i<br />
Lost outdoot reirt'ttion oppottrtnities.<br />
Non-rrtonctizable :<br />
I'aiu lnd srrlTcrirrg;<br />
I rrrprir."l l,lr.v.iological frtnctioning:<br />
Aesthetic lo-rs.<br />
Reduced irrrlireot uosts of dalnrge:<br />
Monetizable :<br />
Loss of industrial output due to imprired worker productiyity:<br />
EiJenditrues bv friends lnd relatives of diseased and intured<br />
ncrsons;<br />
Cosl . r, f r'lolrr ing rtp danrngcd a reas'<br />
Non rnonetizable :<br />
P.r,.lr i, , o.t. [ol fri"rrrls.r:clalirc:.(o-workers:<br />
,\i-ricly for llroje not 'lilYcrll affr'cte'l but exposed to slnular<br />
hnzards.<br />
3, IssuEs lx Assrsswc rrtn BnNnnns or RDGULATToN<br />
Numerous methotlological and concepttral diflicrrlties. are-f.aced when<br />
r";;iT;;;G ia, ""tnss i'"d o'aluate the rliftercnt kinds of benefits of<br />
in"it"""iltiu,f. li",,Xh ,,,,,1 s;tfelr tegrtlrtri-ott. Tlre.e. 'lifficullies rrlise<br />
ironi (1) tho lirnitcd basc of sciintifie rrnd tecltnicrl knol4eclgc' (2)<br />
n". i"nt itii" r'r prc,lict thc ratc and tlircction of technological innovatli",<br />
ial tl,., nssur,,ptions thrtt. must be trtrde irbout the clTectivenoss of<br />
:l t-"tir1iti"". ili inudoqo"t" econornic modcls and techniques, and<br />
i5) ?uttd",""nt,,l Ir',t,l, nr. r'ith trrlurlion Ilocedttres rrnrl 'lt' ision-<br />
-"tii'g. Ni,nt"."ud tosc,tr, ltnrs ltrvc r(iorrrl-'lcd I.ritrrc io glil's nith<br />
thcsc issues. Ilorvever'. rtlan-v of f hl. llnrth t-lrrr I r-ll-ttlr'lllf lcs relrraln unresolved,<br />
atrcl some of ihe jssuos lln lvrt l csolrrrl 'lo hy tnllt sis}ut must<br />
bc left to individual judgmcnts of citizcns rnrl rlecrslon-mlk('rs'<br />
3.1 IJI]<strong>II</strong>TI.]D B.\SD <strong>OF</strong> SCMNTIFIC <strong>AND</strong> TECHNICAI' KNOWLEDGE<br />
Sotiotts ntohletns oflen exist regar''ling tlrc availrrl'ilii v of lhe scierrlific<br />
anrl'technical informrtion or explanatory theorJ nec€ssary to<br />
*.,u"r." n" t" n""clict the cfiects of e\posltre to hlz:rrds. i'e , to perform<br />
'a<br />
j
T2<br />
a risk assessment. In this regard, no fewer than six issues need to be<br />
corsidered.<br />
C atwe - and - e f ect is harrl. to dertum,strate<br />
The rclrtionship between exposure to a heaith or safety hazard and<br />
the harm that it iauses is oftc; difiicult to establish. This mav be thc<br />
case beclrrse of 11) I tilre lag (latencv) betwct'n the initial e"-xposure<br />
lnd the appearance of hann. ( I ) the exist€nce o{ confourrding oiintor-<br />
-vening causal factors. or (13) irrrpcrfcct data. lThore the relationship<br />
between cxposule and harn is hird to establish. ii is equlllv difficrrit<br />
to projecl how n regllati,,n nrighl rrfrr'r'r the dcgrco of harrn,<br />
For exatnple. it t, roli murrr t-aars after thev li'ere cxposed to asbestos<br />
for nsbestof worl
13<br />
D o s e -respo'n"se urne r tabrlieS<br />
Estimating beneffts from requlation is complicated bv nroblems in<br />
Ir'lat ing the exposrlo io :r lraznrd to its lrnrltir efl""r..Ofien. reliable<br />
dose_ r'esponse data are tvailable onlv fnr r.elatir.elv high exposure<br />
lc,r'els. Extrapolntion of thesc drtrr often suggest that iignifictrnt-health<br />
cfT,.cts rrill oc'.ru rt ilro lorrer.rloses iypi,.al of occupiiional or ent.irtirrrentll<br />
cxposur.c. but contr.or elsy eii.ts o.r.cl tlre lrroper mode of<br />
e\tI al)ola,tion, Theoretical nrodels hitr-o lreerr proDoierl io sirnport variort.<br />
er(rapolation l)rocc,lrlrer. brrt tlrpr.e i. no s"iontiticallv srire *.av to<br />
do so. Frrrtlrorrrrorr'. nstirnrting the responsc to the level of exposure<br />
rtsrtally encountelctl is nade quite rrncei'rain by thc fact that the statisticll<br />
crlor. in the lesporrst girrl's ts the
t4<br />
- -Regulatiorr mav hring about both product and proeess innovation.<br />
.ttlosl producL innoratjon re'ulis from forces orrfsidp tlte firm. such<br />
as nelv market detrand or changcs irr thc reguhtorl.climatc. piocess<br />
irrtrorliion. wh:nh is rr.rnll.r.morjlrtpd br'tlre nr,,.rl {o letlirre cosls<br />
crn l,i. stimlrlrfc,l bl r.esulrtiou ns u.'ell as bv nrarket factors. A new<br />
procpsi nrlll sprctrl tlrrougL,rtt an inclustry or to other inclu.rtrie-s, ltror:tolng<br />
rrnllents to mtnl, Dxtttes.<br />
Thr. nocd io r.om p l-r- rr ir lr neu- r.egrr lr t ions- espo,.ia llv rhose n.it lr strin_<br />
gent rcqlriromcnls. ctn p|o,lrrcc a_flrrr.rY of innor.utit-e triir ii.r, rrnd<br />
eycn clrange the pfltteln or.r'ol. of innovntion in an industrv. Government<br />
regnlation that specities performance rcquirenrents foi llorlucts<br />
mav assist prrduct innil'ation -liv reclucinq the risk of markcf failure.<br />
Rcgllation rnay also acccleratr. thc pacc ol thc innovativc activitv that<br />
might e\'enirraily hl|e,r, r'rrIrptl :rr+ rvar. Prt,c< c: .trrIrqr empnlr 1||ny<br />
Ilr'n r'\crr.,l ilro.,'Dor'csbar.r Ior.col|rpli:rn,r'. lJ{lI r,rr|,l|trlc.:ti rltt'ds<br />
requiring renovtrl of lead from grr..olinc r."sult*d irr innovation not<br />
only in gn-solinc but nlso in the catalv:t emplotc,l h1,the r.efiner.res. As<br />
a result, refineries became more pioductive (Asliford rnd Ileaton,<br />
19?9).<br />
Rosearclr and development aimed trt compliance \ryith health or<br />
safety regulations can jncr.asc orerall productivitv because thc productiou<br />
si'.trrrr lx.r'omes nrore tightlv crrclosed, redicilg emissions. or<br />
because the instruments used t6 control it aie improiied {h'crstiue<br />
antl Kinnld, 1979). ,\lso. rnaking changcs itr I plu, r.lss to non)plv \\,ith<br />
regrtluiion oftcrr loquir.,.s s'rspension of irr irr,lrriirial operati('n: Iiur irg<br />
such downtinrc. firrirs.rrn irlie rdvrrrl:rgr' of rhe np,;,oiirrniiv ro irr-taii<br />
nes tcchnol"gt totall.t rrrrlelated to tlre clrlngcs mido to a,ihiet.e corrrpliarrce<br />
-<br />
(Rorrrlr'r et rl.. 19?6).<br />
Adclitional benellts inay be cxpectecl as societv gains e:rrericnce rn<br />
handlirg regulnted situaiions. lirchirres and coirsurrrer pr'oth.rts rvill<br />
be deiigrrctl l.ith srfetv of th, rrscr.in rrrind from the stari. poteni:irllv<br />
h:rzardorrs eomporrnd-: will lr. les- fr.cqrronrll considere,l for ,rse in<br />
products. <strong>II</strong>enltL ull safcty rrillbc cnhancid by such nnticipatory<br />
&crlons.<br />
r.3 ,IN.iIYTICAL r'o\l-f RN lN(t THE EFI'liCTTlTliESS <strong>OF</strong><br />
fn estinrating regulatorv berrefits, ndditional problems arise frorr:<br />
&ttempts to rnodel the effectiveness of regrrlation. The benefits attrib.<br />
utablc to a rcgulation depend on the morkl rrseLl to cstinratc lhcm anrl<br />
olr thc lissurnptions nrarlc rrbout l)irarncter-s of the moilel. In addition.<br />
assumptions rnadc about q'hat n'ould hlve happorerl irr thc absence o1<br />
the regrrlrtion unrlcl studv carr lnake r legulation look better or.rr-orse<br />
in letirrs of lrollr cosi> eipcnded rntl lrin''fiti leceiled. Tlris.-ecriorr<br />
examines some of the more inportr,nt analytic:rl assumptions ancl their<br />
rmprlcaI,lons.<br />
8 el ecti on. o f tI e baseline f or com.para tiue an alysis<br />
One of thc central consiclcrations in estilrating beneffts is to project<br />
wliat might happen ilr the absence of the rcgulation in question. The<br />
choice o{ a. baselinc for conrpalison can havc a profound efiect on the
l5<br />
sizs of the ostimated benofits and costs. Among tho baseline assurnp'<br />
tions that can be nrade are:<br />
No acti,on._qT-lte no-action assumptintr projccts past conditions<br />
of little or no control into the futulL'. Ihc benefits of the legula'<br />
tion are comparetl rsith rr hvpothetir:al sttte of the !'orld in rvlrich<br />
nothing is d6ne to rLtl,lrcss-tlre prob)elrr :rt hrnd. (Of cours€' if u<br />
hazaltf is rccolmized, it is difficult to inruginc thnL nothing will<br />
bo dono about it.)<br />
No action rwu.-This assutrrtrtion presumes thtlt regulation will<br />
be imposed at sonrr I imc in t lr,'- futrrrc' That is, if a sei jous I'azr rd<br />
exisls: thc nolitical trrocps- rrill evcrr(urrlly be a, tivrrtcd, ,rnd' a<br />
resulaliur ivill be iml,ose,l. T)rrt., tlre l-,crtcfits:rn,Lcosis of r llropo'sc.l<br />
re{ulation are comt)ared with the benefits and costs of I<br />
iimilar riculrtiorr irnt,osed rt a latcr Jate.<br />
Cul lcctiT e-bat,t,r i,ittll "orutr'ol.-lhis assrunption takes accourrt<br />
of tlrc .tact ihut- rrotliits trray Largtrjtr jol l]reir o\vn prot€ction<br />
fron a hazard under thc ternis of :r contract' Ihis upploach mtry<br />
providc qreater or lessel l,enefits and greater or lessel costs for inilustrl<br />
th-an the contttrtpllted rcgulation.<br />
' T'oit liabilitu.-1.ind6r this ba-seline assumption, if the hazard<br />
undel consider:r,tion is not l-'rought undcr rcgullLory control' individual<br />
parties rvho are injured by it ma1 s, ek comPeusation<br />
through thc courts,<br />
llaTket rc iectic.'t'.-'tYithout resort to any regulatory action,<br />
ciiizcrrs uruyichiovo solnc rtbalenrent of a Ircilllr or sufety lrazard,<br />
'l'lre)<br />
with rtterriant costs and IJenltil*. crn, for , rrrtrrp[o, silnp)y<br />
relusc lo bu! unsafe l,toducli or to wotk in drlng('toul places. Ot<br />
coulsc. lhe f-ailure of lrrarlici lorces lo idcntify arrtl rejcct hazar.ls<br />
is a nrajor rcrrcn for establisl'irrg r,'gullliorr' Thus, thi.s upl)r'orch<br />
mav not lre as efiective as dilect regulltion.<br />
Freqriently. '.ruthors of benetil ,/cosb ;tudits of regulation do not<br />
nrrke lhcir baselirte rssunrptiorr explir"it. ltr otlter initulr','s, they nroke<br />
tl:e "no nction" assumptioir and negiect tlrc strong pos.'iLjlity that ore<br />
or more of ihe otlrer condilions mi-ght b'' morc realistic. For example'<br />
'misht Droduct liability srrits regrr.littg utisu fc ot itreffettivc pharmaceulicals<br />
l,at" c"ruietl chlngct itr lho trltull: of Jrug researclt and marketinu"in<br />
the last twcnty t turs, ,'r'err if i hc 1062 utnerrdments had nol been<br />
nra"dc to lhe Food, D-nig an,l ( usntel ic .\ct. Some regulatory progranrs<br />
Irave been irr place foiso lorrg and lro so much l,:lll oI indusrtill<br />
Dractice, thttt -no reasonable aisuruption can be nitdc lbout the situ!ilon<br />
under :r nol-rtgulatt'tl basclinc. I'-ol erumplc, it is difficult to<br />
irnasine what thc 1o;(l tlistribution s1'stenr rrrighl be like irL the abs€nc;<br />
of the 90-ycar oltl -\Ieat and l'oLiltry Inspcctiou Program in the<br />
Food Safety and Quality Service.<br />
l'rojcct io'n of comt)li'ttk'P behrtui'or<br />
In resulrlor'\' analrsis it is often assumed that there will be 100 perccnt<br />
coiiplianc-c with a. regulation. In practice, the extent of compliunce<br />
may be much less thai cornplcte, ilepending on iho n-ature of the<br />
hazard. ihe cost of conrpliance, rhe ease oI enforcemctrt, ihe avai]able<br />
agency resources, anrl tlrc degree- of_cooperalion b1 t lre regulated.o.arties.<br />
,lll of the"c f ,'tols rtc drlhculL lo proJccl ' rnd lcud to consrderable<br />
uncertainties in benefits in rnany circumstances.
l6<br />
t\co1te ol octi,on ond outcornes r:on"siclered<br />
ll.rny studics of the belclits o{ regulation examinc a limited geoglrrphic<br />
regior, a palticulal segrr.ui of thc popuhtion or r lirriited<br />
]reriod of time. flncertainties irr lh, c.tinrLtrs^of b,:ncfits ar.e corlpou.ndecl<br />
rrhen results of srrclr studies are extrlDoleted to all afiected<br />
pouple or lo t lrc rra I ion a.. rr rs lrole.<br />
Somei inres not all tlrc r:fiocts of rr rtguhtut.r Drogtilnr lrr considtred<br />
in r:stirnating benelits. I'or. .xlmple. rrnrir.s'cs of the b"nelits of<br />
cornplialcc l'ilh the nntional alrbjcnf nil ql:rJity :tatrdlrds usuall-1.<br />
ignore thc interaction-q arnong thc critcria liollrrtint-.. Thus. contloi,<br />
Jilg errrissions of sul{ut oxicles rnnv simrrltancouslv lcclur:c ernissiorrs<br />
of particulates rvith additionrl hcalth hencfits. Sirnihrt-, procluct<br />
r.ufcty ,stanclards can lcad to tcl,litional bencfits fol l.orkcr.s ind thc<br />
gencrll cnvironrlcrt if thel- lclr'l to rsc of lcss-lr lza rdorrs lrr.otlucts.<br />
Prospectiae or retrospectia e unalysis<br />
Benelils identified and estimated in analyses done before a regulation<br />
takes efrect often difier greatly from those observed wh-en a<br />
r-e-gllation is in piace. Inevitably, difierent kinds of information and<br />
different type"s of models are used in the two cases. The relative nlerits<br />
of altcrnatir.rr plogrNms canlrot bc reliably asscs,scd if some art evalullc'l<br />
I,ro.lx', ii\ i ll un,l orlrprs t.errospect ir.clr'. For. cxrrnrpl,., ii is crrr.<br />
rently - fasfiionable to extol the r-irtrics of incentires ,rfpro:rches as<br />
rlternativcs to rtconln.lt('l-l1l{l-c(}rtrol" regulrtion. Ilowevar, this comparison<br />
i. ttstt;tlh ttrlrlr.in tltF ill,:plre of prtrli'.rl oxpcrierrc, rritlt<br />
incentir-es, r hilr. fhere is a lons histolv on rvhich to uroiect the success<br />
trnd ploblerns of stantlards. Tliese conparisons musiihei'efore be made<br />
\.rith great care,<br />
Appr opr i o te b enr:hm,orhs f or e.r: olua t ing bercfits<br />
l4conomic eflicicncy and cost-elTectir.eness are onlv two of the possible<br />
critoria for eva)uating regulations. The leeisiatile mandai-o js<br />
yet another stan(larr'l by rrhich tlrc I,errefits of regilrtion must be cvalrrtted.<br />
Ccrtain lrcnefits of a rcgnlrfion lr.rt lJe cletrlr expncted bv<br />
the Congrcss and society, anil a.'regrrlation whir.lr cloes iot rchieve thi<br />
expected levcl of benefits must be, consialorotl against, the lcgislalive<br />
benchmark as well as ngainst more na"r'owij. focused e"conomic<br />
crllelta.<br />
3.4 INAnEQ<strong>II</strong>AIE IOO<strong>II</strong>OMIO MODpLg <strong>AND</strong> TEC<strong>II</strong>NIQIES<br />
The tools of economic decision making Dror,ide the basic framowork<br />
for estimating thc bene6ts rnd thc cosis'of regulrtion nn.l for cornparing<br />
them. fn tho cnvironmenirl. hoalth rnd safeLl treNS. lrow{.ver,<br />
thcre art'scriou,s und {undamtrrtrl lirnitations on thc lt'nlicll'ilitv of<br />
economic tools. These 'limit-q have to do with the demands of the -economic<br />
approach for tttaching price," to all goods. ser.i,iccs and amcnrtics,<br />
lnrl for roppxl-it o the l:alue-" of costs antl bcncfits that accrue at<br />
dilTerent times to the srme or difrerent per:ons and groups.<br />
Probl ema i.n ntta.chin q prices to non-Inbed outcome*<br />
Frequeltlv. the economic costs of enyironmenial damage or of the<br />
consequences of hcalth and safetr. hazards for dlmaee or for life itself<br />
rrre infelled from inrlircct evirlcnce srrr.h a. markpt prir"es on lelrtcd
t7<br />
goods nnd services, Fol e\rnlple. there are tro prices on scenic vistas, so<br />
the benefits of controlling air pollution that olrscurps a vierr have to be<br />
obtained inrlirectlr. 'l-et one of the relsons fot establishing rcgulation<br />
is to colroct tlrt' failrrrr. of the marketplui c lo sct apptoprintc prrces on<br />
health or envilonnrental oualitv.<br />
A serious concern in thi asseisment of such beneffts is that ottachins<br />
monetarv outcomes to events involving harm to people and the enl<br />
vironmeirt nnavoidably reflects the va.lue choice-q oi thie persons doing<br />
the analvsis ralher than those of citizens or policvmakcrs.<br />
Henltir-relatcd hazards involvc r largel component of intangible<br />
costs than other situations. This nives lise to the necd to account for<br />
such costs as pain and sulfering, elnotinnal sfrcss, and the loss associated<br />
l-ith [rcrcrvenrcnt. In a?diti,,rr.,.tirrr:rfing tlre vl]rtl of environmenta'l<br />
amenit.ies (such as the prcscn ation o{ wildlife) poses a<br />
yarietv of difficult conceptaral and ernfiricnl pr,oblcns. Traditional<br />
vahation analy-"es tvpically neglect or understate the beneffts of<br />
regnlation in these flreas.<br />
Tu-o t,', lrni,rrros lr,'r l hcpn rr"ed bv analvsts tn in fer from othcr evidencr.<br />
thc h.nofit. oI rvoidirrq rlamace costs: (1) "rvillingtrc,ss to pay."<br />
ru nrl (:.t; "rL.vcale,l lrlefrrclces." Rolh techniqucs represrnt tdvanc€s<br />
in rescarch nretlrlrlr-but both haye rveaknesses iqhich icquire qualificationi<br />
irr iheir rr.r',<br />
ttWil/.inqrtess<br />
161 paq\' 1npty'1od,.-One wav to estimate the yaltte of a<br />
benefit wlicn that beriefit has no mrlket irrieo is to rsk peoplc s'hat<br />
thev think thc bencfit is lorth. Often this takes the form of nsking<br />
peonle dirL.ctlr'lrorl rnrrch monev ther-arc silliu,. lo nav to lyoi,[ a<br />
iiskof inirrll ol nnrilnnrrenrrt damrilo. .\ltelnuiii', lr'.'peoplc mn.t he<br />
rr.ke,l lo,ihoo.. flom a sct of lrrr,.,r:rre.. i.n.. ro irrliclre cbsis bv v.ri.ing<br />
fot'ol lgainst variotrs options. Fol nrrrncrons Iensons thc ansrqers to<br />
sttch qucstions ale not tirr-strlolthv, thorrgh tlrt'v mav be better than<br />
rrothing. PcopJe mav gilc anslcrc jrrst io gct i:id of tlro questioner.<br />
Furthernrolc. it is rrnlikclv that thc rcsponse rvill rclrresent much<br />
thought. ln'l l)col,l, lr:rro ,llfli"rrltr. reslr'ldilg to lrrnotlrotical r.onccnlj<br />
llr:lt irr', lnr.l for tlrenr io risrrllizi'. For er'tr'rplo. if I river has<br />
Ilecn rliltr for I l"rLg tilre. ;'"oplq don't knou't'hat ii w
18<br />
trecessory that the real esLate rnrrket be in equilibrium, not in a state<br />
of transition. It must be assumed. furthermole. that all citizens have<br />
cood information on the qualiiv 6f the air in their own a,nd all other<br />
icishborhoods. It is also neceslarv to assume that all relevant variablis<br />
other than air qualitv have b6en understood by the residents nnd<br />
r"onirolled lor b-v tho-anrl-isls. One must rssume ihirt p('ople {ully unrterstand<br />
the haim lLaL rii pollution can do, and thirt ihei &re willing<br />
and able to move and to pay more to obtain betttr air quality.<br />
( Whether DeoDle pav to ai-oid polluted nir depends not o'nlv 6n<br />
rvhct her th& will nir vi but on n het^her thev can affdrd to pav, Thii fact<br />
means that. .ilean aii ivould be found to 6c rnore v&Iuadle'to the rich<br />
than the poor'-a result that is not entirely satisfactory.) With all<br />
these qualifications. it. is not surprising that the revcaled preference<br />
results are controYersral-<br />
Another widely-discussed exa.mplo of the revealed preferences approach<br />
is to use data from the labor rnarket on the extra pay, or risk<br />
premiurn, that workerc appear to demand to work in haza.rdous environmsnts.<br />
By making some hcroic assurnptions, one can cr-en extrapolate<br />
-tronidata on"reages vcrsus dcgree irf nazard to estimaCe the<br />
wages a worker would demand to face a 100tb chance of death, and<br />
then one could call this amount the ('yalue" of a human life (Thaler<br />
and Rosen, 1973). However, there are four major objectiols to this<br />
approach to lrrersrrringt the benefits of rloiding risk of harm, or of<br />
death. First, it has been lound that individurls sreatlv underprotect<br />
themselves in low probabilily, high loss situ:rtiois (Kunreuther and<br />
Slovic, 1978). Thus, it is fallacious to extrapolatc data from low<br />
to high proba.biJity circumsLances. Second, woikcrs in hazardous indusLries<br />
mako decisions to arcept particular wases and face those<br />
hazards be{ore they cxperience- ha-rnr, rather tlian alter they are<br />
injurcd or diseased and the costs of damage become apparent to them.<br />
As in other ar€as of sk assurnption. neoDle value r.isi
l9<br />
place .higher values ou firtrrlc bcnefits than rr ould be suggcsteLl by discounting<br />
them to prcsenL valuc. In practice. the use of anv narticular<br />
discounl rate for-futrrre L,cnefits oi regulation is rlwavi i noint of<br />
disagreement, especially since the futrire l,encfits lrrtl -cundnt costg<br />
oftcn fall on dillerent parties rvhose interests may or may not be wellarticulated.<br />
.Accounting lm lang-ter.tn benef,ts,-Tlrre benefits derived from<br />
dilect regulation of a lialticular hazard rre onlv a part of the benefits<br />
I hat can ['e dcrived fr.,m thu regulatorv process.' Intiirect, ol let:eraged,<br />
benofits arcrue from t h. rer.t' pfus"nce of 'r lrr rr icu lrr reqrrlll ion rvfi ich<br />
induces industly tn contr'oj lrnreguluG,l lrrrzar.ds in inticir,u(ion of<br />
regulation, to innovate. and to find nirls to meet Lhe prrblic's'need for<br />
a cleaner. healthier cnvironment whilt, rnaintlining inLlrrstrial caprrcitV.'l'lro<br />
lu|lg-tolrrr, 1','siri\'r.sideeffcr't-:rccrrrnt,itrrririg,r r',,qr r llt ion rieed<br />
to be included in a cor,,1')'.1a .lssessmcnl of rJre I,i,npfirs ,rf a regulalory<br />
st rrtegy. Anerampl" of I,.r.craging is tlre fr.r tlrrr clrerrrical ,"oirpanies<br />
atp now louiinel-v condrrcling sho-rl,tet'tr lc-t< or nA\tr chcmicals for<br />
possiblc carcinogenic.rct ir itv. even tltouglr s1rc, ific regrrlaton reqrriremenLs<br />
under lh'. Toxir Srrh:trrrrcss Control .ict lrave nol be,,n r,r.omrrlgated.<br />
Theso long-t,'r.m lmnefits are substantill, though diffrcult to<br />
gug..nti.fy Their ,.xclusion ornits from estimatps of bendfrts what may<br />
be lhc largest.or)tribrriion of regulation.<br />
3,5 PROBLEMS WITE VAIJUATION PROOEDORES <strong>AND</strong> DFiISION MAKINO<br />
The oakte of life<br />
.. -A.major r.ea'on to qugstion the validity of analvtic attempts to valuo<br />
ltte rs-tlrlri<br />
'I<br />
lhc\. do not consider hrrman li[e excopt. in econornir inrrns,<br />
h:r L tar ls I o { ,,nsider l}r" r'alue placcd on h umun li fe b1 ou l r,,ligious<br />
bllicls lrrrl ,'rltrrlrrl lrclirrrg,.. \'rrirurtiorr:rtletll,is tltlt frirrrs,,rr .oir,-idstrrrons<br />
Sucll as logses rn carllrngs dlr(r to p-r€nrtturc clcrth fail to cnptum<br />
the fundamental sensc of tEe r.rrlue oi lif" fo.. sa1.. someone rvlio<br />
is re,"r.iling ucJfan. irs.istlnc,. rrnd is not earnirrg an iircomo. A value<br />
Inusl br. rl.lt'"hpd lo lrrrmln lif,, thrt reflecl, lros r.'good" culture<br />
values li{e in ordor that it ancl its pe.ople survir-e. genelatTon to generat<br />
ion, attd surh th:rt its rn'lfarc is optinrized. Irntil iocietv bcttc,r'uuclerstands<br />
this \ tlur, cunent rrna.lytic valuations of lifc must always be<br />
lnrdr.,lr..rtr) and ca,nlot he dirtctl,v comparcd rvith the monetary costs<br />
or l".rlfiis of rr regulaiion.<br />
Fi.gation on the qutntitati,ue and monetaty factors<br />
"-Decision-m,ak.rs considering the level of _regrrlation that. is socially<br />
desrnr[e \trttr Ii'spe.ct to u prrticular hazfl,rd r1,s 1,onf...1ed rvith cstima,tc.i<br />
ol coits ot n'gulalor1 r'ornplilncc thal un. l,l.osenled nrosth in<br />
lllollolrlr'\'tcr'l r:ltr(l cstlDlllll.: Of lDrrr.hrs llrtl llr.,prcsentod in both<br />
monetarn and rronmonctltl tcr.ms. _{ sctious prcrblern arises for ricci_<br />
srrr-maker-s \1'hen gi\-pn srrch choices. The clecision_.rlaking process<br />
n\l krs ' )n lho o,rrrl)ar.isoD of thc monol.a.r1, ter.lrs andJ{ils to srifliiiently<br />
nonmonetirry<br />
lt]-"iMTf<br />
te rms in the decision. There is a strong<br />
rend"nc.y 1or I (le{ lsron-maker and for other. I}trties.riiiquing lh;<br />
Pr(r,'ss io comp&r| oDll iho monclrrr.y lerms itparl. fr.orrr'the rrorr_<br />
monetfl<strong>II</strong> tprms, rnrt to intlod[c€ the nonmoncttry tcrns AS a rrrar_<br />
ginal adjusting factor, if at all ( Tl.erskv and Kalr",i-urr, i,gtt) . fVh""
20<br />
tho nonmonetary terms are insignificant therc is little harrn ; towever.<br />
when nonmonetary t€tms shorl ld Play a largc role ln tne declslol)'<br />
u""h'o*ing that ilecisioi on the qrrantii:rt ite term- is a major drngn '<br />
Th" ptobfn- of fixai,ion on tn.,n' tr r.r' tornrs can be reduced-bv choosing<br />
rlguluto* dccision-makprs rslro rro more capable of resisling tlris<br />
teidency and bl more opcnlr exlmining-llrc crlliqucc. of. ollrers lol'<br />
fixation. Nevertheless, evpn those wllo prolpbs -to 0e mollr-{}ted ny nonrno""tuay<br />
values nntl' concens exhihif a-tendenr-r' .to<br />
emphasize.the<br />
qualtitatiTe. Thus. the very process of lrnal}"srs i'a1I drstolt thc dccrsronmakrng<br />
process.<br />
.4. Trrr, BnNnrrrs or Srlncten Rl.cur-{ToRr Pnocanlts<br />
4.1 INTRODTCTION<br />
This section summarizes the results of selected recent studies of thc<br />
benefits of cnYironmcnttl. health anrl safetv regulation-s' It inclurles<br />
not onlv slrtdips ol the henofits of cxi.ting regrtlaiorv progr:lrrtj' brlt<br />
fl,lso stri.lies of the potenlirl henefil" of legttlating in relrtlc'l areas'<br />
Quantitatir.e estimat^e,q of hcnefits lle enrl-thlsized rvhcrr tlrey rre available.<br />
and qualitative statcrllents of L'enehts rl|c uli lu'le't lrnen neces-<br />
*n.ii ffl" t'"""nt" of the ..elccted rcgrtlrtory lrrlrgrrrtrc rtre strmmnrized<br />
i" i"t ui"r to""r fol night proglrttnnrrtic lrer.s llrrt( , or'r'cspond rorlglrll'<br />
if ifr"- iuti"al"tinns of Ficlerul regulatorv rrgctrcies ol theit srr'brlivislons.<br />
ihl stuilies describcd in this suction relresent onll' rr. sample of<br />
the benefits of environmental. hoalth and safety re€iulations trItny<br />
oih"".f,,,1i.. of tcgrrlriion. lpppll ill ihc l]lerrttttro. rrrd nol rll rngrtl^iinr't"<br />
1t"t" becn itrrdie,l. Fuithermore. the studics examittctl here do<br />
,rJlii"l"a" all of thc strrclies catlied oLrt b1 ol tor tlrc r rrious rcgrrlain,l,l<br />
ro"n"i".. Tlr'' lenrulrllotr io srtrrt rtl'-all of thc hetrcfils oI regttlriiorr<br />
cli:russeLl Lele sh,,ul,1 I'e at'oider'I, sincc t'lonblc cottntittg rnaT<br />
oc.c.ui: the benefit neasttres rre nol comP:t I lhle atnonq strrdics. tnd<br />
thc set of |vq1cfif-s i,c not completc. -{ nnnlhel of the stndres lravc tssisncd<br />
rnonctary yahles to hrlmrtn life. to pain antl:-uffnrin'' or to<br />
ch-ronic impairment of heRlth. Tlre-'e lalurtions rrre suLrie-ct to thc iirrriiations<br />
,'lisiu,.setl in Section 3. arrd are tcnortcd here without endorsemcnt<br />
ot critiquc.<br />
4.2 B!NI]tr'ITS OI' AIR POLLUTION CONTROIJ RDGULATTONS<br />
Resulations uuder the Clenn Air Act of 1970 ?rre alnong the most<br />
thorfirshlv researched of all environmental control eiTorts' Sq'erll<br />
mrinr ltrt.lips of thp nalionrti,lo I'pncfit' of :rir';'ollrrtion cnnitol reguiuti'on<br />
u"u sutnnarizccl in Tahlc 2, along with- stutlies of lir quality<br />
L"""ntr tn" to"ot arcas and fol substanccs not covered bv the 1070 '\ct'<br />
fr.ing r'lrlr lrorn ihn tg6o's. T.rte atrd Scsl
2l<br />
for S2.5 to $? billion in benefits nationwide. The U.S. Sena,te Comrnittee<br />
or Public Il'orks (1974) estinated automobile exblust control<br />
bcnefils to bc $2.5 to 910 hillion annually rrsing 1974 |ri.es. Ilermnn<br />
(19??) concludeil fronr l reading of 23 st,rdies that thc rrtorhidity reduction<br />
alone rs a |esult of cleaner a.ir x'as $1 to $10 billion per year',<br />
Crocker and colleagues (1979) provided estimates in 19?8 prices which<br />
inclinats annunl beiefit" of $5 io $58 bi'llion lrom rcduceil morbidity<br />
nationrvide as a result of cleaner air. Kneese (1978) cited thc same<br />
results and also showed that benefits of $26 to $63 per montlr per household<br />
mav be expected lrom a30/o reductiotl irr pollutrrrrts in a heavily<br />
Dolluted atct. Httlison cstimatcd that bv the trventieth anniversarv<br />
of thc tltTO -rtrt. tutornobile cxhaust cntission rcgulations rT'ill resrrlt in<br />
81c/c Jess ctrlbon ttrortoxides, 680l less plxrto-chernictl oxirlants' and<br />
48f less nitrogen oxides being found in the air (llarrison. 19?5).<br />
TABt-€ 2.-S0Mt Bt|r€FtrS Ot AtR PotLUTlOn RtGUtATl0lls<br />
Cl6.n Air tut (Hr.rlson tnd Rubifl- ll|t.08 b |101-61 p.t hoBehold in Boston-, Ravetlsd pt.ferrncas lpproeh. 1970<br />
f'ld I978a)<br />
Pnces<br />
rgb-i}t'jiia-"iiltr orlinaocc tl'vin. 15..5 mrllron d€crs e in hellth erp.idi- oniy ddd.rs. |n s0, consid.rtd: l97l<br />
1977r '<br />
lures: tlo.l million dereass In damage prices.<br />
to materrrl obi*tsi 138 million in('ease<br />
in DroDelY taluos, Ph'l.delphit SMSA<br />
Clsrn Ar r Act (Smith, 1976) ... ll5-t?0 b,lhon pff y..r nilio'rlllttom lll l9?3 Pric$<br />
sor,k.s contr0 €rt; lt.>I/ bltxon Del<br />
te.r ral'onrllv lron aulomobile3 'l0ne<br />
Cl.rn 'i;;;; Air Act (U.S. Sanlto Commir $?:rflo Dillion psr tear nalionallY lrom I97{ pdc.ti p4lu!-ntt .$r.d<br />
P,bli; t$ri'. 1974). automobrls coritroli; saurs on dnect wetoc0 fio.' 0r'so" prrtlcultt.t<br />
medhsl6sts ol t0.t t] billior Der Y6.r'<br />
3tvin! 15,000 livos per vear' evin. ls<br />
million d.vs ol lllnsss Per Year.<br />
Policv analvsir-lar on sulohur $3.6 billion b;nelits r€sull rrom tax ol ?0i Ptotp.ctivo sititnat .<br />
.fiiissions trom co.l (S.ilottmdn per pound ot sulphur emissrons.<br />
crii'inli eiiisrirdrl tg77l -.-- 5 porcont redu(hon in t6.llh tnd malsnll Pollutlnts con3id.r.d v'r! c0'. 0"<br />
dlmaie lor lotel elinintlion ol urbtn air sor' nvdQltrbons Drrucurtra3i<br />
DolrutionclussdbY.utomobir€s.<br />
iiff:"r"J,,::""€rt6Dorrtroror<br />
Clsrn An Ad(Moll, at!1., 1977), 166 parsoFyears ot lile-e4schncv in'<br />
ase trom .tdium removed bY scrubcl..n<br />
Ak act (H.'m.n, lert) --- tl"i[' ilo.'ll'iTf '?Ji*on h€rrth cqt3 tttliot-drlccltt rtn.t.t! pollu].trb<br />
n.rrcna'y<br />
iii1iT":,"H:i:1ft,i:?;r<br />
gri,:&<br />
:i"1 l";"'1i'i:i'1"i'1",:,J:1 :i i<br />
Pollulrnis<br />
Clcln Air A.l---.utonobil. smi3- Rtduc.d mortalilY ol 12 to 16 p.r v€at and 8o;ton .re, onlv Marn purpose<br />
- ol<br />
io s ii"iiiio" inl nttinteto, i;iids.d prop;dv value oi ls2 lo IgG paper to thlw di3lributidn Nnd<br />
f978b). D.r vsrrlor households *rth income less lev'l0l Denetns<br />
thrti t3,000 per yetr. neducsd moti.lilv<br />
clc.n ai' Act (c'oct6r,<br />
0l ll7 lo 126 per vear a'!d Increasod<br />
oroDertt value 0l ll58 t'o S2l3 ps' vatt<br />
tor houaeholdt r ith ir.om.5 r, ertot |nD<br />
reduced mortaritv. arrlourcos arr polurio! re7E p'ic's'<br />
l28't|toI58.lb||||onl|on|edUcedmoFfl.|ion.l|ssu|t'<br />
[triitv.' -<br />
stmples 60u perc€nt nductio'<br />
s<br />
!r!r.. "^1, luYl;tofuifl'lfii' ,rom<br />
ct.rn Air acr (*n..!6, le78). - _ _. t26 ro t63 pe, monrh p.r ho{36h0rd...._ ^',t<br />
Jll5lf;"r,,illil;l'l"r&if,iil:<br />
Author alrc cites Crocrer, et al.<br />
Clo.n -;;;;iatb)1.**:- Air Act (S€ne., Asch -'- & - Br.n- ' f.duction of dstlh3 bv 2,0i2 p.r torr. lisw.l.rsev onlv l0-r: .particulale!<br />
iitiiiit li"si 'i*a i0.r to r2.r birrron "Jll,""*lj:T-,, tttji,,J<br />
per ve'r'<br />
# ,il<br />
ch:n Air Act (tnvironment l stud' &0 lo t70 p6l bn of ilo' t.movid tuom considsG 'll sources 0l 0t'<br />
i$ 8o!rd, 1978), air.<br />
Clea; Air Ait (H!iri!on. 19?1) ' - 8l D€ksrt llductlon -i;o' in CO in litr 68 D.F PfiY5ical mea5u?5 us'd 1970 h!!'.<br />
.fii;;;;<br />
in air: a8 De'i;it ieeo !e'm'nar vs'r' Didributiotr<br />
redu(tion in N0. in tir. oilmit (orsrd€red<br />
:<br />
:_:
22<br />
Studies have been made of the benefits of pollution stnndards for<br />
local areas and for other than the criteria pollutants. For example,<br />
Illot and Fritrurcni (1976) founrl that lrrng, nasopbaranx atrd skin<br />
ctnccrs trc elcvaterl trmong rnale rcsiclents of at:as rlith conr:cntlations<br />
of plper, clrcmical. pel11'lculr, pclrnllrerrrical lrrd trrn.p,'t{atiou inclustriis.<br />
;\ ri-raior bcirclit oI regriluting Lhese industr:ies t'ou1d be a reduction<br />
il the exucctt:rl occurrence of cancers,<br />
llarrison trnd Rubirrfell (1e7841 studicd the Boston uea and found<br />
benefits of $47 to $101-r per. hou.schold pel year as a, result of cleaner'<br />
air. Ihe sanre truthols found thut, plol,trty lalrre benefits langed front<br />
$52 to $213 per rear lrtl leduc.d rr,rrlalirr bencfits llnged flom $2 to<br />
$26 p.r' ) ' uipcrl lruusrlroltl dcpentling on t'hc incotttr, oi t-he household.<br />
Thc clistribrrtion o{ tlre benefits tt:nd,r 1o favor the p
t3<br />
cotlifvins the nntttrc of auto accidents rrnd the lesultant inlnrics' fatalities.<br />
f,nd co6ts. Thns, it is generlllv rhle to project the hencffts of<br />
pr'.'1',,-r.,1 rrriotrt,riilr' .lfeil i,'q'rlrrti;rr. nitlr i,'rn, dogtco of r-ortff-<br />
61c11ic. 1;t'srunittc tlrlrt tlrc cficctillrr(':q {)f the prollosctl nlcasllres can<br />
br. cstirirrl c,l. Tlret c flt r'. d illi.rrlr ios irr , rt itrrrrl inl l lrr ' liloct hcncfit" of<br />
slrl'civ r','grtlt1i,,rr lri.o plin"il'llll florrr ( l) rtnccllliltiios in ihe estinlttcj<br />
of rroglirlrr cfT,, fivnncis lathcl than ftont rtncertainties in the<br />
assessrncnts of the cxisting clcgrees of hnzrttd oI loss. ltttl (2) f|om<br />
thc wav in l'hich \H'l'S-t lrlrtcs loss of lifc anr'l Dain anrl srrl{cring<br />
Thclos.,,f lift'. irirtlios tntl othct costs rsscx'itrtetl rvith nrotor r-chiclc<br />
nccirlorls in tlro I-.S. aro crrolnlous. Ior'1975. DO'f cstimated the<br />
lnnnrl lossos 1r-- srrir'lr'of motolr.clriclc uccidctrt.s to lx olcr $3? bil-<br />
11976).<br />
lion (\<strong>II</strong>TS,\.<br />
'l'hesc<br />
rost,q inclrtlo $13.,1 billion fol fatalities.<br />
(f'lrc societrl losses tcsttltittg from t fatulitv llelc ttkcn to bc $287,000.<br />
brsed ol ir, contlovclsial aralvsis thnt rrscd rra,rc losses ts t rnaior component.<br />
Tho lirnitrtion. of this anplo:r"h t'olr- cliscussed in Socfion 3.)<br />
,\nother strrdr'. bast'rl on intq ritin's rlith tlllfic :tccidelrt lictims. conclrrrle'd<br />
thlt conlcntional n,"citlcnt sevcriir- rllolslul's tend to trndero.lir<br />
rlo rhn.ncill rrrr,l p.r'clro1,'qicrrl inrPacts of setiolrs lIafllc 8cr"irlents<br />
(Callar.ar' & l)r'rrckcr'. 1979).<br />
Several strrdics irarc cramincrl tlrc ln'ncfits of passenger cftr safetv<br />
stnndrrds lrasecl or actrral
tu4<br />
highest for young drivers and whites, and in newer, smaller cars.<br />
( Stutl,s and Reinlurt, 1978) lnjury costs were found to bo reduced by<br />
24/o rusing lap belts only and by 38/o using lap-shoulder bclt, combrnations<br />
(Reinfurt, Si-lva and Seila, lgi6;. Itobcrrson ( 1977) found a<br />
20/o reduction in automobile occupant deaths due to seat bell requirements,<br />
whereas Peltzman (1975b) found no benelits from the same<br />
requrrement.<br />
In a study based heavily on the work by Reinfurt, the General<br />
Accounting Office found that all the occupant protection strndards<br />
promulgatid between 1966 and 19i0 saved-a totil of 28,280 lives between<br />
1966 and l9?1. (Comp(rollcr General. 1976) GAO also noted<br />
a reduction of. 15 to Zb/o in deaths and serious iiriuries in 1966-68<br />
cars as compared with earlier models, ard s" 9b to 30c/o reduction in<br />
1969-70 cars. No further improvement was noted for 19?1-19?8 carc.<br />
Stutts and Reinfurt ( 1978) fbund that the 55-mph spccd limit reduced<br />
injury to belted drivers by 28/o and to unbel(ea drivers by tlolo.<br />
A major ar.pa of currenl legrrlrtor.l. action b-y NH1'S-\ is the pro.<br />
mulga0lon of an amendment ro Federal ]Iotor Yelricle Safetv Stindrurd<br />
208. This ar:rcndmcnL requires passive proiecrion for fionl sear,<br />
occup€nts o-t passenge| crrs [o be iirstal]ed-on a gradutr.ted basis in<br />
model J-ears 1982-f984. DOT has published an extensiye economic impact<br />
assessment of this standard and alternatives to it (NHTSA,<br />
1977). Ihe benefits of alternatile approaches to occuprnt brotection<br />
reporlcd in t he DO1' .tudy tlr'pend nol only on t lreir eflecr ivciress uhen<br />
0ctllirlly uscd bui also on th.'ir oxpected frequcrrcv of use.<br />
DOT found that the combination iap/shoulder 6c1t is the most efiecfilg.apnroach<br />
in reducirg minor to severo injuries, rrrd that the.lap<br />
belt/air cushion combinrtion is most efiecti\.e at reducing moro sonogs<br />
nnd fatal jnjuries. At_DOT's gxpeqled use rrtes, thc ai"r cushion/lap<br />
belt combina,tion would saye 9000 liyes and eliririnate or reduce thi<br />
severity of 65,000 accidenk annually. Passive belts woukl save ?000<br />
lives and 78,000 injurics. Annual net irsurance premium savilgs would<br />
be $16 to $30 per car. \o estimates of the uncenainty in ihes-e figures<br />
were given, and no attempt was made by DOT to monetize dea i a.nrl<br />
rnlury s&vrngs.<br />
DOT has also examined the benefits of FMVSS O1B which would<br />
requiro ihat child res( rtint devices meet a more stringent perforrnance<br />
standard Lhar would rrise thcir prices 1NHTS.{, 1979). The beneftk<br />
of the sxtra protection from more efieitive restiaints'was estimated<br />
to be a reduction of 7 fatrlitics and 989 injuries per year. No dollar<br />
valuation was attemnted.<br />
_ With the exception of the work of Peltzman. the studies reviewed<br />
find^that sea.t bglts. if used. can reduce injury and death significantlyby<br />
30 tn 57/o. I'urthermore. tho rclual risebf seat belts blv aulo or.cupants.in<br />
combination wiih the _other standards adopied t[rough t9?l<br />
have been found to reduce dealhs and serious injur'res overall by 1b to<br />
30Vo.<br />
4.4 BENTTTIA <strong>OF</strong> CONS<strong>II</strong><strong>II</strong>ER PRODI'CT SAFNTY RXGUI,ATIONS<br />
. Approximately 20 million .{merinans are in irrred eneh vear in the<br />
home as a result of ar"r"idenis inr.olving unsale consumei products.<br />
Theso accidents result in about<br />
P0,!!g lt"Slhr a"a tfO,OOO perinanently<br />
disabling injuries (Dardis, ot a1., 1978). tr'ew, if any'reliJbiu .tuti"ti"s<br />
'i
25<br />
indicate the extent of the rnore subtle health risks associnted with<br />
"o"ir-,lc. p"oau"ts, but the recent discoveries of asbestos. vinvl chlo-<br />
.ide ,rnd oither ca,rcinogens, -quch as TRIS. in consumct prodrtcts suggest<br />
tlrll ihese hcrlth -risks lrc tr ilr('it of itlcrcasittg conceln'<br />
-<br />
Cotrsttmer nrodtt, i srfeil regltlnliolr is not a rccenl rlcreloPlrrcnt'<br />
For examplc.'food safeiv siandirds hlve n long his.lorJ. itttd,Con-gr-ess<br />
lias often 'adtin'ssed<br />
pariicnlar problems tvith spccific lrus related' for<br />
"ian'rrl", to rtfriqeiatc,r sr[r'ti. lead-l,rsnd priirrt. irrr(l packagirrg oI<br />
poisons, lrr ll7J. ltolrelot,lt trtorc coor,liltllcil l|.glll:rl')l t' ellort was<br />
inaugulrterl l'1 the passrrge of llte ('ottstttrrct lrfo'lrr"L Salety. -\ct<br />
(l'rri,li,. l,,rrr g.>1,?r.'t.; t'S('....jn51-*1. ltitir. shiclr estal,liJrerl the<br />
bo"",ii"".r: pr-ocluct Sa{et1, (lommissiol (( PSC) -l'ith<br />
rurtlrolitv to<br />
administcr earlier produci safety hrvs lrnd to regulate a u'itle variety<br />
of additional hazalds.<br />
Since ihe pnssuqe oI the CPSA. cost-benefit analyses of consrrmer<br />
oroduct safciy reiulalions hrle proliferatcd. irr paii l'ecause of the<br />
iequirements irr tiie Act thrl ihe'CPSC rrndertakc Iariotts analvses<br />
beiore rule Dromulsation. including t determination of the (rnecd"<br />
f,,r' rcgrr)aliin trd"its impacl on "rriilitv. r'ost an,I rvr-ilrrl'il'tty''<br />
of consumer nroducts. Trr rrd,lltion. rll rttlt's tnttsl bc "reasonabl-v necessary<br />
lo elirninalc or tedrtce Nrr rrrtlers'trll,lo lisk of injurv"'<br />
liable 4 sutnmtrtizcs several anxl-l'ses that attcmpt to quantify tho<br />
benefits of sorne CPSC tegulation.s. For example'-there- lrrte been<br />
studies of childrerr's aspirii packagirtg (Clark anrl lValton. 1978)'<br />
other child-proof contaiirors lHowci. iili*). rnd crib.srfety (CPSC'<br />
19?9). Acc.iltiirs to llr(so slrt'li('s, t'egttlation of ,lrildren's aspirin<br />
paclingi rrg has leduccrt tLc inciclence of nicidenttl ingestion by children<br />
Lv tt,io 5f perccnt sin( (' 1970. Regulation of crib design has reduced<br />
ciib inlurieiby 447a and. deaths by 33/o srnce 7974.<br />
Flfo dolscloc (w6t€tnrn, 3t d.,<br />
1978).<br />
TABTT 1.---SOIt!t STNIFITS OT C()NSUMTR PIODUCT SATETY REGULA<strong>II</strong>O<strong>II</strong>S<br />
Thc nre ut€ in households wilh d€tedor3 Aulhot! drd not evatuat0 lif._rtving<br />
sar onlv about l0 D€(enl ot lhe rale ol b.nelik 0t rre d€tecr0r! svsn<br />
ih;';withNl det€ilors. The cost berel'1 thoush thit i! therr primary b€n.fil.<br />
ratio based oi property damale alone<br />
tlon. td.vi3ion r6cclY.r, (Engsl, t'tdiiiiiii-ptareo omttrs and In uriet are Dala dr$reD.ncier and emphalit or<br />
1976).<br />
caujedbv lie.trl'malesol.umbersvary cost'benentmetn ooroSy maxscal'<br />
tiom 157 derlhs and 968 inr.rre5 (rndur .ulalron ol Denelrtr v6ry 3p€c0htn<br />
dala) ocer a l0.tear Deriod ro Gov_ lrve<br />
E;nm€ni esihare3 of 12 ooo lo 14.000<br />
inruIos, lt wa! not (lear trom lho nudv<br />
to sh.t ertont rerul.t,on holld reduc.<br />
ihc!e @3t3.<br />
Poi$n Dr!vadtion oetlsinr(tlorar, c.'iiii'd,i-iii''.,alp5 ror r€nulated and Autlu i. (.16lll mt lo .ttr ibut. toltl<br />
1978r clarr and Walbn, l97E). no;;eiul,iad ;ubn,n.er. toand lhat tor .txl to r.gulrtl.n.<br />
nonreiulated !ub5tai.€5 Inruriet had in_<br />
creased 20 Dekent betaeen 1973 and<br />
1976: whereas iniuries Jom reg!laled<br />
suhia.ces decreased .hout X. E lamates<br />
that aboul 34,000 iniori.3 w.rc<br />
eliminrted.<br />
Cdb tllsty standard (consudr n"iiiiliii'iiil '' **.'it' ""'.ombined with 8a3!d on d.ltfi dltr.lrom 197|-76'<br />
Producl Satetv conmisrion, l9/9). i'- iiiiiiii'iiiiiiiil,,ie;t"i irrs rn use somc problomr with d'ta ruco8'<br />
since 1971 iniuries hive been reduced<br />
hv 44 osrcent and dearhs bv ll Derc€nt<br />
trtric nammability dandad (&t- rgii ,iiri-i,iiiiiiri it ii;";8 ro 34 ch,rd Quesrrnabl€<br />
dk, Aaron3on and lin, l97E).<br />
nerh0dolosv or bsn.[t!.<br />
burn death5 odu'red and noro ihan valualr0n €!pe(Dllv In rnc.ca3€ or<br />
7 nno h.cnilatized burn riiurt65. The (trldren wh01e ruIUre earnrnss ar€<br />
liiii iiiifriieiin"iiiji,i ii ;i tt'";; tpecLrati'e dnd lirerv to be di!woufd<br />
h.ve been Dr€venl€d bv lhe (ounted r0 r n nrmar sum wtro'<br />
iii"?rriinit i"iiutatia ii" oottar'rrne- .trreorB!ronor pain and 3unering<br />
r,lr 6t lh€ dandrrd Ddred or med'cal l.ade lo und.rellrmale ol 0enetflt'<br />
cosb and fltute earnint!<br />
s7-7900-80-3
26<br />
TAB<strong>II</strong> l,-Soilt BENEF|IS <strong>OF</strong> COtrlSUtttER PROOUCT SAFETY REGULATTONs_Continued<br />
Po*cor larnmowerr (Brock€t! et at., A$umed standdrd *outd prevert 50 per_ Lack of supportinr daia tor<br />
cenr<br />
asrufto-<br />
ot rnlLne!- vatued oearh dt !t3u.000 tmn3<br />
and p€rm?n€nr<br />
weakens anatysis,<br />
pdlrdt<br />
ai doss iir-<br />
rr tur, ar lLb,iluu. srsrence 0n d0llar valuation ot tilo<br />
rouno untdr'oraote cost,b€1ent rario even and heallh but0missionof<br />
though adnihed<br />
Dain and<br />
ignorance 01 accidenl suferint.osls.<br />
pronte.<br />
Ule ol NHISA dala.<br />
which includes Inransrbte taciorr<br />
r0sults in benefils 5 ttmes as tarlo<br />
Ciild<br />
,_prclectrm<br />
and--toy rrr.ty tstrmare3<br />
(nurns<br />
tiat 34,500 Injune,<br />
_ and rasorabte cosl-benefit r.tio.<br />
occurred<br />
0rd,<br />
in<br />
€t.r,,1978),<br />
rxr€nsq€ dat 0n injury<br />
19/6.<br />
bu i<br />
conctuded<br />
t dr!<br />
thai orodud d8i!; cussron of regulatory desirn.<br />
$andards trom lhe food and 0ru! Adminisrrarion<br />
woutd hetp to Drevenamost<br />
o. al or inlunes.<br />
Several studies havs been made of-prcposed prod.uct, sa,feby<br />
ards.<br />
sta[d_<br />
W&t€rqlan, et aL (lg7gj round LhaL rhe rncldencc oI fircs rc_<br />
&uthorrtrss<br />
ryIT,9<br />
by households equipped lvith lire detectors was<br />
:!:t:f }vry .us mgn &s rose not so equrpped. \Vithout considerirg str,v-<br />
PgF,rn rnlury .rnd death, fire detectorfi,ero found. to jiave a fav;rable<br />
ucnorrL.[o-cost ialro based on rc$u.ce{ propgrly dalnrrge alone. lhrdis,<br />
et. el. (1978) projected that fabric flamriabiiitv stanltlard.s oould eliuullate<br />
abollr, olc-fifth of child lrunr dcrtllrs trrdilrjurie$ (& 5avings<br />
8<br />
of<br />
to:J4deaths.and ?000 injuries_arurnurlyj. O"gJ 1rl,%) ,i"" """Uf"<br />
p. rg19l1e. qrajor discrepaircies between Lwo sourccs of data for I'V_<br />
X:, *1",*d- rn;unes- an_d was therefore unablc to determine<br />
r<br />
whether<br />
v<br />
.set<br />
sltety- sta,ndards t-ould be cost-beneficial. It is dillicuh<br />
tract<br />
rc er_<br />
straightforward estimates of benefits trom tlrat si"af a""<br />
complox<br />
to tt e<br />
analytic method used.<br />
- AJ-96t all of these studies are v_ery narrow in scope, focussing on<br />
one rnstance of single-product regulation- It is therof6rd 0.e." hini"""tt<br />
t^:'ff,3: -,1+:l<br />
1.b"yl c!" magnitide .f rh" ;;;;;;;;;ii,,i;;{"ry<br />
,ry:.tlli],: th,..,sludres lrrro tristorically deali rvirlr .-rlct1 Lrrardi,<br />
lE9,",nC for the.most p&ri tlre issues of corsumer health<br />
rxtt<br />
lrrzards.<br />
I| al)pedrs [o ho kno]'n a Lrouf crinsrrmer ]rehavio| either bcforc or<br />
1ffe1 r,e.gulationr and thus it-is d.ifrcult to evaiuate if* *"*"q,,""*, "t<br />
regutanon. _Ejven wherc levels of injury can be established fiom existlng<br />
dara. many commentators have simply translaied t.he arcident rc_<br />
ductiorrs attribu-table to regulation in6 "dollar [""Jei'ilo"""r.<br />
anaryse,s<br />
s*h<br />
typrcally use lost wages as the sole measures ofthe cost<br />
lnlIry<br />
of<br />
oI rlcath, and rgrrore more intangible accident costs<br />
pain<br />
such as<br />
anrl sufrering. Tb; aliscount rate applied i_n manv studi"s effec_<br />
jll"'{.T.o"T* the vatue of. children,s injuries to a minimal srrm. In all,<br />
tno studres show an unsonhisticated notion of the beneffts to be gained<br />
j:j.::f^"." and henlthiei cplrs]lmer p*ao.ir. u"J qeIcS<strong>II</strong> iil"y t",ia'ro ,n_<br />
mlle Ptotr J lrr'..r' holefi tS that I re r rrr l.r.zed.<br />
.Luther measures- oJ aceident-costs provitle an interesting contrast<br />
f,ne<br />
to<br />
me-csures used in lhe studies reviersed herp. For example.<br />
area<br />
in the<br />
of consumer product safety,.more tla" in a"1, oih* ;"di;-tr"f<br />
eontext, individuals also look tL tt e p.ivJ" l"enl'"l;".- ii-n.orriA"<br />
nlonet&ry compensation for economiCharm, lost waqes, rrr"dicll<br />
pcnses,<br />
ex_<br />
rndpain and.i-ufiering. Tort compendaiio" -"? tfrr..'fr" j"rt"a<br />
upnn as.perha_ps the r(fullest"-valuation o-f accident coJts- Tort awards<br />
ror dcath andilor perma,nent disabilitv often reach into the several
27<br />
millions of dollars. Even an average for o.ll types of products liability<br />
erflards typically fall in the $20.,.000 to $J00,000 range (Research<br />
Group, t9?6). While it is certailly true that tolt uctions are bas€d o<strong>II</strong><br />
an, urrepresentative samplc of colsurner product-related injuries, the<br />
r-aluation oI litc and health that has ariscn out of tort actions uloi'ides<br />
an important coDtrasting nreasurc of accident cosls flom thft in ths<br />
sxistins cost-benefi t studies.<br />
Anoiher theme thot runs through the legislative history and case<br />
law of the CPSA, as wel.l as court decisjon in product liability actiorut<br />
isacotr(r.nr Ior r.quity or luiln*"s,'l'lro l:r,t tlrat,L,L.lu11. Iegul tiolr,the<br />
costs o-t unsafe products werc "externalized" to consurn6rs has been<br />
seen as both a market ('imperfecti.on" and "unreasonable" (ASG v.<br />
CPSC. 1979 ). 'fort liabilitv also rcsts on the tleternrination of an unreasonablc<br />
risk, usilg as its sta.ndard of care the prevailing social<br />
attitudes toward risk. Thus, the protcction of certain individuals or<br />
groups from health or srfet-y rishs is seen as contributirrg to {airn,'ss,<br />
ind ihis outcome is an adhitional societol and r:crsorr]al benelit of<br />
resulation. -!,xisting<br />
nrrlyses of ccrlrin consurrcl t)rodrLi srlfct] standardst<br />
s hils don6 ivit.h ion:idolable ana l.yt icr l s.pliist icat ion, te;d to systematiclrllv<br />
underestirnatc the benetils of suih reculation. especi;]ly as<br />
coupaied with court awrrds for sir,ilrl irijuiies. Neuertirclessi the<br />
bendtts of particuler standards in ternrs of iniulies prevent€d, lives<br />
saved. and ^property darlacc avoided are subitantiai. Ir'or cxample,<br />
file saftty sian-dar'.ls havc"bccn forurd to rcrlnce death, injury, ind<br />
plop{.riv damrgo by 90 to 90jb. rvlrilc safr' l,rckaging larvs have reducctf<br />
28<br />
growth stimulant u,-ere both intended to rcduce cancer incidence (F.DA<br />
1976a. 1976h, 1977a). The ban on fluorocarbon propel)ants in ioods.<br />
drttgs rurd cosnroiir"s rrls irrlonrlod to reduce skiri cahcel<br />
'ncll<br />
incidencc. ls<br />
rs to rerlrrro er rr ironmcn tl I d:rmage bv slos.ing tho rrle of llmosphcric<br />
ozono deplction (FDA, t9??b).<br />
IAELE 5.-SOME 8TI{EFITS <strong>OF</strong> FOOD, DRUG A<strong>II</strong>O COSITETIC REGUI-ATIO<strong>II</strong>S<br />
8!r!of saccharin at r tood rddiliv€ Bimination ot tio ri3k or Hadd.r canc.r_. - Thei€ stud,e3 performcd bv tho FoA<br />
^ (ru^, rr//4. consider tho cost inoactbt varioui<br />
compounds rn urrnrnationorth€cancer risl r$uttinrtrom 0ro0osed rssuhttona. Benefrti rre<br />
animrl feeds (FoA, t976b). ing€srion of animat ritsues condinin! - ioi'q uatiiieii oe€ uie or thei,un-<br />
.<br />
nilroluran rpsrdues.<br />
lnoin marnitude of the canrer<br />
Ean 0r drethylsllb€slrol a3 animal Etimination o, (.ncer ,rsk reruttirr t,om ri3k. and b-ecr$e of the FDA 3<br />
sroi/ih io'none (FDA, 1976a). Ir_SElion_ 0r animat tisiues conlainins - tesi;t.red mrndare ro rar rood aA,<br />
DES residues<br />
diiieer which are rhown to be<br />
Bm.or ponicirrinner,.cycrine con- Rev€6e the ingeanng Incid€nce or bac- t#'ill$Ttii ha,m or Inc,ea3rn!<br />
11nrn8- pr€m|le! In anim3r reed reriat drug resistan.? ot 3uch bacl€ria ar bacierirl reli3tance lo antibictira<br />
(ruA, re/u). larmonerta to antibitrlics. Estimaled is nor auantitied. The satnone a<br />
yearly benerrt trom reducrng satmonetta incrdenio benett ,$ume3 that<br />
Incidence or gl.l ni ion annua v. A tur. inlo€cli.nr and educa(on $illcon.<br />
rher bcnefr is a reduction in the rato al trct satnon€fla poi3onins in the<br />
*h'cn new drug reiistrnt pathogen3 are absene oftreateA fe€ds.<br />
E n on thomcrrhon pr0psttanb in lho continued use or chtoroflouro€rbon A more recent itudv hai shown th.t<br />
lptay can3 (FDA, 1976b). pmp€llrnts coutd b€ exp€.rea to re,tuie irri irone riiii ir oolereu rnore<br />
the ,mount ot 3tr.tospheric done. tris 0uicth than 0reriouitv thourht.<br />
woutd r€su[ in rn increas€ in uttravrotet thu, rheje t,ri,e! unde.jrato -ine<br />
radirtion (UV) !tlhe sudace. A 7-Dercenr 0otentiat beiefib- Beneft! .r€<br />
decre.$ i n ozon. coutd be €rpected iiom atated in tsrm3 ot trertmeit cosrs<br />
cortinued flouroclrhon u5e. Ih,5 rcutd onti: it ii ouit€ tik.tv that iidividresult<br />
in 31,000 ca3$ ot nonmelanoma uati woutd b€ *i ini ro oav more<br />
3kin cance. D€r year and 8.400 ca3e5 or rhrn trearmenr cosriro aio,d skin<br />
m€tanoma skin c.nce6 (ot which 2.600 can.e. Ihts hen€ffts dre undeF<br />
woutd be fatat within 5 yea6). Aniuat srated tor thii .saion stju.<br />
costs ot treatnent *outd be $20 mi ion<br />
(1976 do au). The ban on flourocaruon!<br />
as spray pro!€l?nts woutd Droduce ontv<br />
a ima fftction ot th$e totat bensntr.<br />
however.<br />
nsquidng p.tisnt lrD€nns ior gre. In consonir sr:rveys, consumers havo in- Ouantitative henet,b are not catcu.<br />
.crrflron dru8 product! (tDA. qnrted thev desn. such Inro,mrrion. tared b€(ause rhe eft€cr ot Darienl<br />
re/v). rhur, one benefit i! the Drovrnon ot hbetinr on druc use and inkuss<br />
desired inlormation. Studies hrve ri- are unaert in. However, the tarse<br />
dic?ted that writtan intomation cai in- saze 0r heatrh-retated cdst! (whj;h<br />
provecomlliEnc.lith resimelfo.ccrtain .G eiunerated in the srudr) indrug<br />
lrertnents. Prtient trbetins coutd dicare lhal F!en !ma imiiove,<br />
thur incr€are the eflectiEnesr etfectiEiest oi rrsar- treat- mente menis In in d'ug drug effciency dr denent<br />
and Dr€vent pr€venr lhe ne€d lor tor refilh refith 0r mr!* rcaser ii in abuse witt wil ie\utr i*utr in<br />
addilidnal lrertment Drut-dru8 and benpr.t5 jn erce(s o! the r.ther<br />
rood-drue interrclion3 @utd ats0 be re- hrninal tabetinqcosls. Thc Dubtic's<br />
duced. lt k eltimat d that drur reactrons<br />
.richr<br />
ro t(ndw ' consilires ,<br />
r!162.n"'dNeFnaii,s,,ro,",', u"',l"il,l',T,'"",*Y3,"llXli'"i'ilil',.';,,,",<br />
n Ine rood, Drus.nd cosnetica In.fectiue druss have beei catcutarsd. about I he m athodotosy and a3sutnpecl<br />
reqlirins proot ol efrc?cy for Tjese rdnge trom lt00 milion annua y tio;; ;mptoyEd in "J,i.,nc<br />
,res<br />
Ew- orqs_ enures (P€tEman. (Petkmrn, 1973) to 9300 mi ion.nnua i rirur$. Thase cat(Ltariona mu3t<br />
r!/r, le/5a, Jondrcw, 1972, (londrow. l9/2)El t970 and 1966 pricoj, b; Irrrdod a! open to quesrion.<br />
llcQuire, €l at., 1975). ierDectirety. (se€ -Mccuir!, s or creaseJ creaser in abuse will r*ult in<br />
and Ind benenls in excess ot lhe rather<br />
re- hinimallabelingcosb,I<br />
hinimal labelinscosb.<br />
'tight<br />
Thc Dublic's<br />
to know" co<br />
furlher, intansiblo, b€nl<br />
r ot There has been consid€B<br />
lsd. abour themathodolosy a<br />
ally tion3 €mployEd in derj<br />
alb rigur$. Th€se cal(ulal<br />
bc rararr,.d .! ode. k<br />
19i5.)<br />
":,i,",n'"I'i!?l,,iTii,liTif;0.0,,.<br />
. In a sludy of a ban on penicillin and tetracvcline in :rnimal feerl<br />
(not covereal by the Del:rney clruse).1 relrtiveli small berrntir of g l.l<br />
million per vea r was csl imai ed hascd on ar.oid inc I he .os(s o f I r.ct I ins<br />
antibio[ir.- resisi an t 'almonella, poisoning. -A. frr larger'. blL rrorr ,lrrrnli<br />
fiable benefil was cxpe,.led tn resrrlt froir slowins ihe . rtrrpnl r r+Rd ol<br />
an increasing degrce of antihiotic r.esistance in bicteria attribrrtable to<br />
an imal fccdirrg prar"lir"cs (FDA.l978).<br />
fn tLe drrrg aiena, l'oth tangible arir'l intangible benefits wert, attributnrl<br />
to a _proposa I to r.r.quirn patient information labe.lling for prescrrptron<br />
drrrgs (FI)A, 1g?9). The tangible benefits were a r:eduction,
w<br />
to an unknown deqree, of tbe annual costs of ailverse drug reactions of<br />
$156 to $520 million. The less tangible bcneffts include'an il)rprovernent<br />
in the uublic's rccess to the infortnation to which it is ent.itled.<br />
The I(efauver-FIarris Amendments to the t'ood, Dnrg nntl ('osrrtctics<br />
rlct rtdoptecl in 1069, r'cquile that r)ew drugs be shorvn to be both safe<br />
and efteitive in their adi'ertised uses. Thc irumber of nerv clrugs finding<br />
iheir rvay to rnallit:t fcll aftcr the prssngc of these t rr( n,llutnts &rrd<br />
soirc rutlrors luu'c attributetl tlris decnlsc almost entilcl] to the inr:reased<br />
testing lequirernents. The tienefits of the 't{Iicricy testingt'<br />
requirements ilepend on the extent to rvhich consumers wcre lluving<br />
inefiectual or oi'erly expensive ('new' drtrgs prior to the regulation'<br />
Peltzmrn (197:,, 19i5r)-rn(t .Iondrol' (19?2);ttempted to aiiess this<br />
issle lrnd found a grois bencfit of $100 to $300 mil]ior p.r Ytar for<br />
rttrrg consumers.'flie technicll problems atrcl rtnclltirittties. lrolet'et,<br />
are large and substantjal criticisin hns Lecn lcr t Ied at the nrethotlology<br />
of cach ntternpt lrr. for exanlrle, McGrrir" { t 11. ( 19i5 ) . ,A.sh forcl ct al.<br />
( 19i7). and I I ill. t irccnbcr'11, \ewl,urgol Ir,I lYlrit rrlier (1075).<br />
'l'ho<br />
bonefiis of rcgrrlrttioir bv Ftt.\ of foo,l ltlctv.,lrug slfolv rnrl<br />
efre,ctivenc-
30<br />
what al rrnregrrlated state of rllairs rnight be like. As a rcsult. it is<br />
ersicr for FSQS to assess the imprcts of changes in its programs, thnn<br />
to assess the bcnefits of its programs in their entiretv.<br />
FSQS has begun to publish econornic irnpact assessments of proposed<br />
lctions, inclrrding scttirrg nerv strnclrrds. The FSQS reports<br />
are bricf, gencrall.y 10 pagcs or so in lcngth. Fol sonte acfions to set<br />
sta.nd&rds that woulcl facilitatc tlades. quantitrtive cstimates of bcneffts<br />
hnve bren ma.dc bv I.'SQS. I{orvcr,er', l:oneffts of :r fi'tv r e,latetl<br />
actions are generallv stated brieffy ancl onl1.- in qrtrlitatit'e terrns.<br />
Tnble 6 summarizes typical hcnefits statemcrlts frotn thcse leports,<br />
TABI' 6._SOMf BE<strong>II</strong>ET<strong>II</strong>S <strong>OF</strong> fOOD SAFTTY <strong>AND</strong> QUATITY RTGULA<strong>II</strong>ONS<br />
PreD6rat,on and lahelin!ol Droc.*ed m€at oroducb<br />
sithout nrtr are and/oiniti, te. Ako Drohibrh nilrat€<br />
and/or nitrite in bab!, junior, and toddler $ett<br />
products<br />
(FSQS, 1979a).<br />
". . . lholld incr.*s the 6vaihbilitt ,nd clBomplion ot nitEte<br />
nitrite lr.e 0rocersed msol Droducb and cor4oondindv r€dule<br />
conesmltion ol lhe lradilr$nall! cured neni trodtrrte. A reduL<br />
tion in the inseslion ot nitrale, nitrite 0r Ditlo3amiret ovor line<br />
misht result in a lower incidence ot tiose typ€sothum.i caocer<br />
.aused by lhese chenical compounds. In economic lerh!, a<br />
lotier Inc,dpnce would provide 'everal benel s. increased 0ulpLt<br />
and waAe! ard imaller €,ppnd,lor€5 for med,ral cai.. (ll) i5 not<br />
expeted to result in any increase in incidence ol f@d poiionins<br />
tom Clostridium botulinum toxin typer A and B,thme Drirnarily<br />
a!3ocialed wiih red<br />
''meaG."<br />
. . will benelit consun6B 0l bacon I'y r€ducing th€ir etposurc<br />
to can(e,-caunnS nrlro3.nines. <strong>II</strong>is rill \ar'e the crecl of reduc-<br />
'ir the riil of cance' and thus, is .rg' i .anl In p'otertrrg lh€<br />
herlth and ralely 0t the D0pulation.<br />
qr llF same I'nF, I'ir reSularion<br />
l^/all a$ure thrt the consumer wrll not be exoosed to the<br />
p0slb'lrty ol botulism port0ni"g, qh l +ould rn .trel( be 3<br />
!io.ifi.anl h.rlth ha2rrd<br />
"..:willpomol6<br />
efiicient utilnation 0t the totalcarca33. Indudrial<br />
eltr(iency and produclivily *ill be rnharr"d 'nd, lhe supplyof<br />
hich rrotein b?eland o0rr. D,oducls {illin rea'Pin both doflettdsid<br />
vorld marketi- Tha lairtv. qholeloneness. nuirtional<br />
iitssrity and prcper lab€lins of ' Limile addillon ol sodiun or Dolaisit]|n nitrit. to<br />
bacin and reouires .ddition ol sodium sscorble<br />
or erythortate with nitrit€. Pruhibils addition ot<br />
nittate to tacon. timits nitrosamine t0 l0 Drrls<br />
per billion in tst year and to 5 pads per billion<br />
theroafter (FSQS, 1978a).<br />
Permits use ot mechanically deboned rneatbyestrb.<br />
lishing Celinilions, permilled uies, and labeling<br />
requkemenrr (FsQs, 1978b).<br />
M*hanically Prccessed (spF<br />
cie!) Product" willbe assur€dj aid, proce$o.s'will he allowed to<br />
res!me prodlctjon.'-<br />
P€nnits lhe use .r in-plant s|reeninr methods on<br />
''...<br />
will erDedile lheanah!ir ol neealive sd veilrancesanoler and<br />
dii(y atlh cr'qs*r 3urDecledofcontahiua ti- redrce conconitanl @ns Dl labaralory a^al'les. Swib teslinr<br />
liolk reiduer in excers or preslbed toleiance wrllldenliry neS.liue !u,!eilldlLp enr0lei at lhe poinlor slaushlsl<br />
lev€ls (fsos. 1979b).<br />
rnd .llow hbor.lort eflo'ls to be d,reded to the andl{3is ot anli<br />
bioth residue tevela In p0siriq. ranples. The S IOP pi!8rrn k,l_<br />
incrc.se the scoDe of the surveillrnce Dha5. whrch should rn.<br />
crerse producers' consciousness ot lhelmporlanceotfollowing<br />
.lorrge in!lruclion on therdpeutrc d'Lg lrbd! IeslinS c03ls lol<br />
neCtliE su,veilrrnce !amples will be e''u("d 1on approxinat€ly<br />
190 per carcass lo ll3 Der ca,cass,lr.'ebrallosins mor€ tinancial<br />
relo rces to be dnect€d lo dpleclion rrd an.lyset of poiitire<br />
Two of the actions are designed to reduce the population exposr.ue<br />
to rritlatcs and nitrites in :rrnrrt ltroducts rnd ther.ebv to reduce the risk<br />
of lturnrn clncrr attrihutable to thcsc chemiclls an,l their derivatives<br />
(TSQS, fg?Sa nud 1979a,). It was not. possiblc to estirnntc quantitatively<br />
thc cxlrcctt'il lcduction il clncer o^ccuruence rlnc to tircse actions.<br />
Horvever, since both lctions lre designed to encorrrage, usc of sub-stitute<br />
approachcs to mcrl 1rresen'alion tirrl arc tltorrgl,i lo lrose less risk.<br />
ihtly were ir rdged by t hc a genov io bl I orth rrir ilc.<br />
fh" rction desigirerl to-frrciiittte sale of mechanicallv cleboned metrt<br />
would allow for mole efrcient. use of alailahlc moat suirply lrntl v-ould<br />
allow. certajn prr:rducers to resume productjorr (FSQS.-1l7fh). No<br />
quantitative benefits estimates wcre tttcDrpte.l, The tr:tion io perrnit<br />
in-plant scrconing of, clair-y. cattle c-a_rcassis suspected of tontrrining<br />
unacceptnblc le.vcls of antibiotic rcsiducs rvas dciermined to ilrprove
3l<br />
Drducer compliancs with dosage guirlelines for antibiotic u.se and tn<br />
i;i,;;i;-p;;d;-; operations bv-ali-owing resources to h.' shifted from<br />
suivcillarice io test irig of susperl carcrstr'i ( F-SQS. I 07tlb ).' Sincn the re<br />
is considerab e scientific unc€r1&inty regrrctrng tht - r'rsli to.human<br />
it""iifr r"a Lo animal productivity oi antibioticId'litions lo-tlrr']tr''rt<br />
l'.i"irG. it ** r"i posiiul" to estiinalo tho rluanlilativc I'enefit. 'rf lhis<br />
aciibn".'Thev are, hb*,'r.r. PotlntiallJ vorv greri.-rtrc||rrItng 1tto5p11ation<br />
of the 'elTcctivene-ss<br />
o{ lntibiotics in freotlng lrtnrriln (tr'€ase'<br />
tm- iiOS-i"rrd irt,, fnel an' clrrtged wilh etrsrtrirrg thaL the<br />
ttlio"'" ioi.t suppiv '"main sife nn.l l''inlthy Doilg :o lrrs I'ecome<br />
;;;;';"; imno\ionr in view of rho ,:orrrp)ixi(y &rrrl scoP,' of lhe<br />
i'ioanr" a itt Jtii,t ion-oriented footl inrlrrstry. The tnajor bon-efiL of the<br />
f""a-r"+iv pi:"gtuttti of botlr agtncies is that consttm"t'nnd.prcdtrccr<br />
""tda"n"""iti i}? g,'neral food iuppl. ls tnrinJrirod. I conrliliorr ilrrt<br />
.,i'oJ,i--rr"-t-lii."r t:,,t ';;"'tti1 in tlii ,il,s,'l.t of r igo.ous regul'rtion of<br />
tho products and practices of the industries involved.<br />
4.? BENEFITS <strong>OF</strong> OCCUPAT{ONAL SAtrTTY <strong>AND</strong> <strong>II</strong>EALTI{ RI]G<strong>II</strong>I-\'TIONS<br />
One of the most controversial arr,a's in a.ss ssing the benefits of<br />
""cttl;i.t has been the study of the effeci of ocertpaliona.l safcty and<br />
health rrceulations on the rate"s of injnty itnd drseos(' Incl'ltnd) ln<br />
iioiiiins ;"r',,l"lions. I\[rrclr of ilris conir,ir'.'rsy rrose rs a losttlt of I<br />
stutlv it'it,o efiect o[ OStIA inspcctions :rnd onforcotnonl olr tlle<br />
nrtir'rtl lrLto of occrtltatiotrtll iniru ic'. n hit'lr found no detect:rblc cflcct<br />
"t O.Snq. regrlation on inittr:v rntes (Z,eckhausc.r' and Nichols. 19??) '<br />
A ntrmber of studies of the cffc
32<br />
in Califorrria. Furthermore. if the California experience was tvpical<br />
of the entire U.S., hetwern 40.000 and 60$00 lost-rnorhdavs ac.citlents<br />
per year vere prcvcntcd by OSH.{ inspeclions jn - 1974 and 1975.<br />
Grecn antl liraitzman (i.o?91 1.nto recentll' cxtlapolated thc lcsults<br />
of the studies by Smith and bv lfendoloff in an rttempt to measnre the<br />
social costs of the injnlics and dealhs nrevented b1' CISHA. They con'<br />
cluded tlurt C)S<strong>II</strong>A inspcctions nrobablv prn cnt :rbout 350 deaths per<br />
yetr in thc Il.S., and th:rt thc iocial cdst,s of the accident's prevented<br />
by OSH,L rlc on the order of .${.6 billion pcr.r.errr'. This latter esti'<br />
mate. )rowever. depenrls rather hcar'llv on thc nsi'of upper.bound esti.<br />
mntes for both the number of iniuries Drer-eniod and the cstimated cosl<br />
of lost-workday accidents, rnd the rrs; of mid-nrrgc cstimrtcs wonld<br />
girt a lower vahre.<br />
Two strrdies inc'hrdcd in Table 7 measulc tlre notcnfial benefits fl.r'ail'<br />
able from prcvcntion o{ occuprtion'rl rr,'cidcnts. The first of these<br />
stndies (ERON Rcsearch Systenrs. l9?9) cstimates tho tottl costs of<br />
nll iniuries and rlctrth resrltinq from irrdnstlirl uccident: in 19?5 to be<br />
$14.7 billion. Thc slcond strrr'lv (l'MC. 1976) rrsed a sinrilar rretlrodologv<br />
to estimate thNt thc total sr-cial
3{}<br />
Droiected that the vinvl chloride standard would prevent 2000 deaths<br />
i.o,h.on""" over ihe'period 1976-2000 (Ashfortl, Zolt cr al'. l9?9).<br />
The Research Triarrslc Instirrrtt (19?9) cstimrted thtt the cotton dust<br />
standard would rcdiice the incidence of byssinosis ("brown lung') in<br />
textilc irrdustry workors by 174C.ases injtilllv lnd bY 21.?6+ cases<br />
eventuallv.<br />
The firial rraper reviorved in Table 8, ivhich clealt l'ith oxposure to<br />
toxic substaicei (Bridbord et, 41., 1978), estitrrated the reduction in<br />
cancer rates that coultl be achieled bv the control of worker cxl)osule<br />
io "h.r"i""t "ur"irrugott.. ;fhe authors (scientists from NCI, Nil'lHS.<br />
md NIOS<strong>II</strong>) cstirnrterl that rbout 22 to 38% of all cancer now occtrr'<br />
rinE il the iinited Statcs is us-socirtcd with occupational chemical<br />
exp;surcs. This Lighly contto'-crsial lesttlt ltas been challenged on the<br />
grounds thtt scrious'errors were na(lc in the estimation procedute.<br />
dausing thc ostim:rtes to 5g 1111c115otrrl,lr- Irigh. ITorvever, lhc {act that<br />
the estinrate clocs not in
34<br />
{.4 BENXFTTA <strong>OF</strong> WATER POIN<strong>II</strong>TION @NTROL RDOUIATIONS<br />
In tho early 1930's, eost-benefit analysis was doveloped and then regurred<br />
for evaluflting the desirability.of public projeits involving the<br />
qevelopment of waler rcsources. It might be expectcd, llroreforleihcI<br />
t largo number of studies relating to i.he benefits of acl ions in i lrc I.etat€d<br />
areas of wa,ter pollution coritrol would be available in the litera_<br />
ture,_Ilowover, prioi to major studies of watcr qualiiy in ilie Ohio<br />
and Uelaware Riler Lrusirr ir It60 rntl I966, r,es poct i r.oi 1.. ferl of thc<br />
numorous studies addrossi_ng the issue oi water pollution"eonrrol bene_<br />
lits used mefl rodologiei r lrat con forrned ro I lre [,aiic pr.inc inles of nr icrooconomic<br />
analysis. or that could bo used for the puiposc 6f seneulizatron.and<br />
^comparison. It.is only quite recently ihai the teihnique of<br />
cost-benefit anuly"is Irn. t,ecn applicd to \r.alci pollution ,.ontrol onalysis<br />
in a consistent, fashiorr. .\n cicellnnt rer.ierr"and clilique of studies<br />
of water pollution control benefits pcrformed prior to 1g73^can be found<br />
in Tihansky (19?4).<br />
. After the passage of the Federal lVater pojlution Control Act<br />
Amendments of 1972, the g€neral thrust of wat€r pollution control<br />
evrllr tion l.lirltged frorn an emphlris ol loduccd hunicinlj rrcatment<br />
costs and the suitabilitv of water {or asricrrltural and lndustrial<br />
use to concern with the benefits of water pollution control that more<br />
directly afect largcr segments of ihe go'neral population. The first<br />
study summarized in Table 10, for esnmple. deasures the efrecl of<br />
rvater quality variables on property values near lakes. rirers and harbors<br />
(Dornbusch and Barrager, ig?B). Basect on an'analvsis of the<br />
market value -of _single-family r€sidences in four ar.eas of ihe U.S., it<br />
rva^s coneluded that the r.alrre of rcaterfront properLv near nolluted<br />
rvalerwavs was depressed I to 25/o.ompar",l to vilues in'sinrilar<br />
areas. but_ on unpolluted lsatcrways. ltVhen these difrercnces rsere extrapolated<br />
to the entire U.S. jt wai estimated that wat€r nollution cost<br />
,tll.o*T"T^gl property on polluted waterways between 90.6 and gB.2<br />
tl]rron tn lYJit DrlCes<br />
Mrlntonrnce of rvrlsr quallly in<br />
rl!er!, l.le!, on roistal shoralino<br />
(Dornbusch aid garrr€r, 1973).<br />
Wrltr llllullon control lr n 16l<br />
(fisrlhslL st rl., 1978). -<br />
rantonlnc. of wrler duatity in th.<br />
Souih Platt. Rtv€r bilin in ftlo.<br />
rdo (Walin, et al., 1978),<br />
TABLE IO.-SOI.<strong>II</strong>E 8EI{EFITS <strong>OF</strong> WATTR POLLUNOTT RMULATIONS<br />
Tne henefit! r.uld h? nuch hlft.r in<br />
curent dolk.!. Erlrapolatlon of $a<br />
3ludv tesulis tton a lew irmDle<br />
areai to the ertire unitsd statrs<br />
depends hsavily on 5s!umDtions<br />
frade about weisttinr !choi;r. tor<br />
various hiods of benefti. dirmunl<br />
rate.<br />
Prlnarily a cithal revi* ol benslttt<br />
estimation- Dlfi.tent .rlinit ! ol<br />
Denelits are trom difiocnt dodi6r.
Railllttlon<br />
.tD<br />
TABLE 10.-S0tlE BEllttlTS 0f WATER FOLLUI|oll ntcul'ATl0l{S-tontinud<br />
8en.ft of r.ducinr emkion ol a3- ficd|jction o{ ..lim.t d 9l to 195 ctncer<br />
beslos.c0ntainini mine lailin$ death3 annually lnone local ieridenls,<br />
into L.ke Sup*ior (Peletson, thal would b€ produced by arbeslos er-<br />
1977). polure. The "lolal benenl lroni complere<br />
ce!3.lron ol lailin8i duFprni inl0<br />
La^c SUDB'or w€re Lakulated lo be 16.3<br />
,rj,lror ps year (1975 dolhrs).<br />
t3iimrt€s ol fo33 ol lile d.pend<br />
heavily on accrBcy of assumplion3<br />
about the level ol asbeslos .x-<br />
posure experienc€d by residents,<br />
nature 0l dose-responte rela1r0n.<br />
shiD Ior Droduction ol cancer by<br />
.stiestc. Eilimates ol tdtal cod ol<br />
dumping include heauh cosis, loit<br />
ol lost lishins, recreational opportunili€s,<br />
water tr€atment co'ts,<br />
C6t ot Torr.y Canyon oil roill (8u.- Direcl corh ol !hi9 .nd c.r& lcr.rtam.tod Cost! today wo0ld be nuch, mrch<br />
ow!. Rowl.y, ov'en 1971 !,0). lo be 6.5 n'illion Doundi, €nvnonm€ntal hisher- The Totrey Canyon wai t<br />
coslr *tif,.l€d al I 4illion paundt relr,ivelr s0rll rhip .onprrcd to<br />
3(errlng.<br />
n'odern suDPrlinl€s. A u!3ful<br />
analy3is ol a larRe fldde oil 3Dill,<br />
Eficcts ol pollulanl5 in dtinting DirLDsser 'mpr0!.d pLblr( hedllh lrom re- Modlv oual,lat,ce drs(ussion. fieduc.<br />
$ater on human heallh (National durFd biolornalco'ldm,nal'on ol drinl. tio'i in brcrorial contamination<br />
Rersarch CounLil, )9//).<br />
in8 saler, Dor.rble healll cor sequ€ncas modly due to municipal aaier<br />
of orsanrc ch€mical pollutanb,<br />
treatm€nt. Some Dotentially danserou3<br />
chemicals ar€ podlc€d tY<br />
trealment sy3t€mr desiSned ro<br />
.ontr0l nicrobial contaminaiion.<br />
Dvaluation of rvater pollution control benelits has moved recently<br />
towarl the rrrcasurenrcrrt of willirrl.rrcss-to-p1y for the ler:reationnl<br />
rrst: of rrnpollutcrl stlctlrs. r'ivers, atr-d hkcs. -\ iC?+ strrrti stttrrtrtnrized<br />
by Ilclsh,rft ct rl. (11)?s) extltrpolrtul frortt t'wo strrdics of limited<br />
g6ographical regioni to istiuat'e that tlrc total nrtionll berrc{it of<br />
s'trtcr' pollrrtion t.ontrrrl ploglarls rlcliving frrrnr irrcreased lcclelttioutl<br />
nctivitv is $9.4 billion per' .r'car'. ,\notlrt'i. Irorc tochrrictllv solihisticatetl,<br />
strrdv of this kinrl (\Yal-.h et al.. l1)78), is llso ittclrrdetl ir 'l'tble<br />
et al.. l1)78), is llso ittclrrdetl ir 'l'tble<br />
catetl, strrdv of this li<br />
10. 1l). L-sing ri bidding- l,-i,lding'garrrl rlrlrnique {rue tl)lt :ItlfrrDterl :Itlfrrpt('.l to allevittc sortre<br />
o1 thc tlrc prrrblems 1,r:,,l,lems inirl'trirrirrg in irlrtrining rr, irccrrt r'unrtc irtr. l rr iIlingnoss-to-pay i I litrgnt ss-to-pu)' irfollnntion<br />
infoltnntion<br />
tlic investisators sttllit'rl thc attitu(lcs o{ r't'siLlrnts of the Soutlr Platte<br />
Ilasin in (oolonrlo torv:rll prrsclviug thc avaihbility of unpolluted<br />
watcr fol lccleatiorral rrse. Thcr, found tllat the 87/o oI thc lespondcnts<br />
rvho statcd thll tJroy n'grrlllly rrrarlc ttsc of thc rv:rtel resorrtces<br />
for recreational l)ullx)ses rvcrc rvilling to_plv $79.28 pcr'.velt,r' per<br />
housclnld to plcsoLvc locnl n'ater rlrlliir'. liven thc 19!i of thc restdents<br />
u-ho n-tnlr,il tlllt tlrct rlirl not p]au to ritx]ir rr-.r,oI tho local lr'ltcr'<br />
rcsoulcc for tccrcntiorurl pnlposcs statcd tlrtt they rvould pav an aleragc<br />
of lii41.1-ri Ix'r'r'crr lxrr houst'holil to prtscllc thc option to do so il<br />
tirc frLtulc foi tlrrirrrselvc-., thcir rlosccrtiirrts. uttrl otlu'r's, I,lxtrnpolating<br />
to all of thc houscholds in the basin. tLi-^ irrrplied that fhe total<br />
beicfit receivetl bv resirlents of tht: basin tlue to the mailttentrnce of<br />
wrter resources in a conilition usablc for recreationtl furposcs rv:rs $61<br />
million oer vear.<br />
Onc iirrcitigrrtol cstirttrttt.d tltc lotal rlarnngc flotrt tlatcr'pollrtfiotr<br />
(the potcltiui lrcrtt'fits frt:rrr rcdttcitrg nll pollrrtlnts to ''thl'sholcl"<br />
Iovels) to Lrc bctrvecl $il.l-r tnd $18.7 billion nnrrrrnllv (scc Hclstrlft ct<br />
ul., l07x). ()f llris! rrl)l,roxi|lrrlcl-\'sfi.3 [,illi,,rr t$J.i to $ll.(i) rrrrs in<br />
the fctrrri of incrcase^d recrcatiolal o1rJrottnrritics, about $1.i', billion<br />
($0,6 to $i!,.t ) s'as tcllterl to "lcsthcti' rrn'l ,'cologicrrl" intprolcntents,<br />
about $0.6 billion ({i0.::t to $1.0) tooli thc form of lecluctions of l aterbournc<br />
iliseaso urcl tborrt {ii.? billion ($1.1 to !i9.3) canrc fnrtn inclcasecl<br />
Prorlrtc'tir.e captcity as t rcsttlt of availalrilitl' of rnore clean<br />
rvater fol intlustrial use,
36<br />
Three studies in Table 10 estimate the cost of faililg to preyent or<br />
deal adequately with particular water pollution incidlentsl The ffrst<br />
(Peterson, 1977) attempts to estimato ths costs of all of the conlequexres<br />
or t|c durrp rg oi asbestos-contairring .rrriue ta.rlirrgs ilto<br />
Lake Sul,elior. It i. ostirrnrpd rlrut sur"h drrrrrpiirs js r""por'"i"bl" for<br />
between 91 and 195 cancer deaths per year among"local residents and<br />
tlat the total social cost of allot'ing the dumpinl to occur was about<br />
$6.i nrillion !,er .\'oal as of l9ij. 1'$o strrrlrr.. eslunarL. ljjo ,.osts oI thc<br />
?omey Canyon o1,l spill ofr tte llritish coast in 1967 (Burrows, Rowley,<br />
(hver ljr;+a. 1';i{b1. l\'lire the costs of a sinilirr accident todri.l:<br />
would be much greater, these papers describe in deta,il the likely con:<br />
sequences of a moderate-size offshore oil spill and provide a useful<br />
slalljirg.lnrirrl f,)r rLal\"ses of p|ogTallr. dcsrgned to rroid or prevent<br />
sucn rnct(lents<br />
A number of studies have attempted to measure the ellects of rva,ter<br />
pollution conlrol on public health. Several studies reporlefl in Hersha{t<br />
et al. (19?8) have estimated the benelits from Iqater pollution<br />
control, in tcrms of reduced outbreaks of disease, to be betiveen $120<br />
million and $1 billion per ve&r. In addition. the last entrv in Table 10<br />
sunrrnrlizes r useftrl a rid ,',inr prehensi r.e sturiv of this irnpbrtant policy<br />
area (National Research Coirncit, 19?7). I}is primarily qunliiativi<br />
r'liscussion deals n'ith both the llrhrctioti ir' ,li""r,-n [,rou{]Lf ltrout by<br />
improved water quaiity (mostly due to impror-ed munilipal water<br />
trertment) and the possible arh-clse ellects on hurrrtn hcaltl of the<br />
presence of chcmical pollutants in tL inking rvatcr. One itnportanr pornt,<br />
made irr the studv is that the presence of many potentiallv harhful<br />
organic chemi.ald in drinkins iater mav be duL: in nart to'the interact-ion<br />
of rqlter trcotnrents. r'ahich are intended to ieduce biological<br />
poilution, with the chemical,s that ocrcur in municipal wnter suppli6s as<br />
a result of environmental chemical Dollution.<br />
fn summary, relatively fev sludies have been mnde of the benefits<br />
of water pollrrtion control legulations, and most of thcse htve been<br />
narrowly focused, Nevertheless, this fragmentary evidence suggests<br />
that sucl benefits are in thc rrurge of bill"ions of dollars, includl'ng n<br />
considcrable inprovernent in human health.<br />
4.S BENiET'ITS <strong>OF</strong> OT<strong>II</strong>ER ENVIRONMEN'TAI,. <strong>II</strong>E.{I]T<strong>II</strong> A}ID SAFETT<br />
REGUI,ATfONA<br />
Several other regulations are treated in this section. Of necessitv,<br />
only a few are cons-idered. Some of thc studies included here do not fft,<br />
into nn\ of the cateEorie5 of previolrs sections. ryhile others arc so<br />
broadly conceived thit ihey transcend many o"[ t]ose catcgories.<br />
Land rtse<br />
Thn use of land is often regulateali zoaing regulations and controls<br />
on relrl ostate rlevelopment are most familiar. Cropland rr.e regrrlalions<br />
can prodrrcc substaritial belefits. as is shorrn in frtblc 11. Tlie yrroper<br />
use of cropland can reduce sediment loads in streams bv over onefifth;<br />
however. feasible leyels range {rom 5 to 10 percent is shown bv<br />
lVado arrd T{ert'lv (1977. 1978).Ixrs-cof ]rnd ifself can l:o lrrevented and<br />
the benefit is the tonsoil retained. Proprr tillage pra"tices mrntlated<br />
for the l\{ississippi Delta could save one inch of topsoil every 16 to 28<br />
;<br />
'<br />
j<br />
:<br />
I
37<br />
'i'ciroleurrr<br />
veors (Parvin. 1976) Timmons has equated soil loss to the export of<br />
us a nrli6n.rl prublem to be suitabll rr.gulatetl ('finrmons,<br />
re79).<br />
IABLI lt,--so E 8[NEFlTs oF oTlltR lltvltolll{Et{TAt lltAtrH, AllD sArtw REGuLATlotls<br />
soil @dervatiod nea3urer (ffid€ I<br />
Hardy, 1977, 1976).<br />
Soil coniervatioi msrsur$ (P.ryin,<br />
1976).<br />
Sno|v' rt liurbb betsft! ot 5.) to 9.3 pet- tlrliotal nodel, 3imulation. Colt in'<br />
c.nt rrdudlon in itr.an walsr lrdiment ctcas.s of 01 to 2 9 pGrcsnt<br />
loadr: correrpondins decr.ate In topsoil t6quited. Peguhtion r€latsd t0<br />
t63.<br />
uno u3e.<br />
Si.rnr6lo l0lon30l roitDer vear or I inch Ba3.d or Mkli3ipPi 3oik and<br />
ot top$l euery 16 to 28 yerl!. Pti(licer. Iilla8. praclic€3 r08u'<br />
Ailpod noi!s (Mi$kot3[i I S.D.r, Curont beneiiti ot noils conttol at Toronlo Inm€diah nicro€conomic sl{ect.<br />
1978).<br />
Aioon were estimated at i50 million in<br />
l9ll, P.oiecbd to 1980, tendftb rore<br />
ll35 million.<br />
PCB 3tandard-EPA (Nttionll no- Roiluiiion in iiooDhitic dilord€c ,--,--- ll.llth 3roct3 3lblls tid lons-t rn.<br />
s.anh Coun il, 1979).<br />
flonnuorinated halomethanes (tU- Rcdtiction Dl cancor trom chlorolotm .nd onlv dnvitonn.ntal erpolur. con.<br />
tional Research Council, 1979). carhontetrachhrideoroo3ur€, sid6ted- occuPalional erposura<br />
lik.h to b€ v€ry harardoLs.<br />
lluclear wa3ts disposal (8ro0lshir. Savins l3l,lIl liv$ liom pr.venr,ns Edia- s.me numb.rold€sth3erpect€dlron<br />
A Schulr., l9//).<br />
tion accident atdumD of nuclear w8le. ou€r cause3, rt corl 13 u3e0 ro<br />
8'nerale e'edric'tY'<br />
Other land use resulation deals directlv with living conditions.<br />
Regulation of airport"noise or regulation ofioca{ion of lrorrsing would<br />
oro'duce [,encfils ;f S130 million-in the area rround thc Toronto airnolt<br />
(.1\tiesli()wski and Saper. lC?8). Since neitlrer tlte airport nor the<br />
icsiildntial rrers arc reaililv moved, thc land use problem usually<br />
translates into the regulation of airplane noise.<br />
Generaf, ernironm.ent<br />
Somc efiects on ecosystems arc both subtle and all-pervasive. Soil<br />
erosion is fairlv simpl"e compared with the more coniplicated problems<br />
ass.'ciatcd with tiiccay ofihe ozone layer ('!l'estman-, 1977). Regulation<br />
of fluorocarbons ca-n be exoectcd to'producc benefits in the fo-rm<br />
of f"ncr skin cancers. especiallv'non-melanomt tvpes. A reducfion of<br />
.kirr cirrrcers lr-y 9.1o0 lrr'15.0t)(ilr.r,r crrtr bo tr1'enind for oach I perccnt<br />
level of ozone presewed (Council on Enyironmental Qualityt<br />
1975). Carbon tetrachloride has been susponlctl of re,lur'ing stratosn\elic<br />
ozorrc. rrnd Loth , irrbon tctlrchlolidc aud qhloroform are also<br />
chrcinogens. tlro regulation of whir"h should help reduce cancers (Environmintal<br />
Sturlie-s Board, l9?9). Bonefits of-regulaiion of speeiffc<br />
conuxrrrrr,ls such as nolvchlorinated binhenvls arc rclatiyelv uncertsirr'irr<br />
tolrns of lhe' number of lives saved. rnd estimatinq thi maqnit<br />
udp of i hc benefits is d ifficx 11 sin". little is known about ihe transiort<br />
of thc compounds in the environment, (N&tional Research Council,<br />
1079). The efiects o{ numerous other chemicals in the environnent<br />
may bo srtch thtt onlv t rride-rrnging traile oll an.lysis rrill adequatel.y<br />
capture the scope and magnitude of the benefits (Ashford,<br />
Zolt ct al.. 1979).<br />
Eadiatitm<br />
It is ccrtain that the benefits of resulation of radiation sources are<br />
snbstantial, but titile has been done to studv them. Since the l-'eneffts<br />
of plesent regulation will be realized far in the furrrrc. calculation<br />
of the benefits is dfficult. One study estima,ted a benefit of 131,111
38<br />
lives saved b.y regulation of nuclear waste disposai. Ifowever. with<br />
d iscounting over t-he lengthy period, the monetail, value of gB4 billion<br />
rilrilrrrled fo fhc bpncfits seemed small (Brookslrire and Schrrlze.<br />
10iit.-Furtlrer.-one rnah'sis has suggestcd ilut ihe pore,ntial gcnetic<br />
harm. flom rrucJear power planrs mal be Jes" llnn ihar {rorn tradilronirl<br />
(oll_hlc'I phnts. ({ir.rlr|. 1st7ti.;, at,',,n tirolc, r.ese{r'c]r in this<br />
alea 1S necoed.<br />
5. Coxcr,usroxs eNn RrcoultnlrparroNs<br />
5.T T<strong>II</strong>E BDNDF<strong>II</strong>T'S Or. SELXCTED RDGULATORY PROCRA<strong>II</strong>S<br />
This examination of existing sttr.lics |as identified a large amount<br />
of evidence that substantial benelits have been realized fr.o]n federal<br />
cnvironmental. ltealth and slfety regulatiols. Ihe benefits of these<br />
regulations, which are summarizecl in- this leport, include direct econonric<br />
grins, improvements in public liealthlnd'in the standard of<br />
llvlug. rnd onhlnced erryjronrnerrrrl qrnllt.r'. \\'e, lrarc rrot altempted<br />
to arrive ai a total valuc of all tl,cse Lrcne_fiti, in dollar r)r otler terms.<br />
flou *re r, it is clen tlut tlrty ulo sizable.rvhen compar.ecl.with the costs<br />
lllrlt lrxyc I'ectr rrtttilrrrtctl to tlrcse lcgulatorJ progl rDs iD otht,r.studies.,<br />
No asscssrnclt of, t.he impact oI regulilti-on'ou the oclolomy or.<br />
on thc soctety ts u rvholc can be ldequnte or. appropriate unleis it<br />
accounts firl rlrc berrctits as well as I hc iosts-<br />
I)r'err thorrgh eflrlts lraye been devoted to assessing the benefits of<br />
entrrlrr n te'nrl l. lrclltlr and sr fr.il lcgu lu I ions. r lrere rcinl irr ma iol urra_<br />
Iy"lr''rl. empilicul, ud plrilosoplricc f pr.oblerns rvirlr "rrclr srudici. Sc,me<br />
{)1 ttre anal)ttc l lnrl clrpit.icaJ issues r,arr Lr. r.esolr.eLl rlr|ough tldi_<br />
Llonet lesealclr arrd cpplications in .uch irIea. as toxicolocv. dpiLlcmi_<br />
oto€J'. enur.onm(,ntrl rnudeling and l.isk assessmenr. Hoivwei, there<br />
lvlrI rorn rn senous shorlcomings jl flr{, alrrilability of cmpirica] dnta<br />
on l||trr! Ir(.rt t arld t'r'ologicul cfl'cct5, as tvell as inrcleqtLicies in the<br />
rnodels uscd to rntorpror the data, F urthelmore. tlre plril6sophir-rl and.<br />
:,1,,i:1'- ]:.llT rrrsed.bJ<br />
.ptacing cconomic values ori suclr ihtangibles<br />
rs umall. tllc. chronlc.drsetsc. i|ljury, and pain rn,l srrllering w fcon_<br />
rrnuo lu mlt.lhe abttrlJ-ol rnlll-sts to per{orm lrcnefils stu-dics xith_<br />
:::"llou?,lut ly,mrulrrng value. jud,gments that Are morc properly<br />
p.errormed bJ' pubhcry accountable decision_makers or by thi. sdciety<br />
at large.<br />
,. Tlre-nexr<br />
.part of this section summarizes<br />
qrsco|ered<br />
some of thc maior benetits<br />
ln the studre€ we reviewed in each regula tory'area.<br />
soqrtenll;-.<br />
Sub_<br />
summaIy commct)is.ur'c, maoc t.cgtr(tn)g r lre staLc-of_lhe-<br />
art of-beuelits estimation, trinrlly, somc recdnrneniiations arc oficred<br />
regarding Ure.role of benefit-coit and related ;"cd;i J,ruty.,. _<br />
regu<br />
lal orJ tlecision-makins.<br />
5,2 eunnrrARy oi' *o*" *u*r"rru or. REGLrrrAr.roN<br />
",J11: i*fig. higllighis some oJ-tbe more dramatic<br />
n^\s,relLewed<br />
resulalorv bene_<br />
rn- SecLion J. Details, qualifications,<br />
add<br />
"na-"ornrn8nt.<br />
rt ronir I benetits<br />
"o<br />
can be fourd r hero. ,The<br />
benefft.<br />
lrr_vo,.not<br />
oi-*, "ll p.rg*_"<br />
beer cxamirred. in detail, in the literature.<br />
benehts<br />
and oilj l.elccted<br />
are summarized here for the programs i hal have beei assessed,
39<br />
Air poltutbn control<br />
trfan.y stirdies lave been made of the beneffts of reducing air pollution<br />
flnnr hrrth stntionrry and mobile (antomotivc) sources. Tvpical<br />
estinrtes of mobilc source control bcnefits arc $2.5 to $10 billion per<br />
ycrr. Benefits of rcdrrcing SQ" lnd parlicrrlalos. mninlr- flnnr .rrtibnary<br />
sorlrcqs) lravo been estinratcd to inciu'lo r 7 perccni r','rlrrcriorr in<br />
total discasc morfality. The total nationrvide benefits of the control<br />
of nir pollution from-mtjor sourc€s havo been estimatcd by difrerent<br />
aulhors io range from $li to $20 billion io $5 to si58 I,illiori per year,<br />
Other esiimatc-: of lalgc benefits havc boen made lor "po,"ifii haiarilorrs<br />
pollrrtanls or for limiled gcographi, regions. For exnmnl.', the<br />
bcrr..fils of reduction of SO, rii pollrriion in Philadelphia alonn have<br />
lrt'rr cstirrtted nt $120 rlillion. $'lril, r,', grtnd totri lr:rs l,r.,.n cstinral.r:rl,<br />
the benefits of air pollution rc{:rrlltion totrl nnlr.billions of<br />
dollals and substantial reductions in carly dcath and disease annually,<br />
Aut amotio e s af et.t 1 re qulolion<br />
Motor vehiclc accidcnts in the U.S. were estimat€d by the Department<br />
of, Transp_ortation.to cost oyer gB? billion in 197f (inclucling a<br />
cost of 513.,1 billion attlibuteil to the molc than 45.000 dcaths in tEat<br />
year). Thesr costs do not include tJre costs of pain arrrl snfiering for<br />
vjclims or lhc anguislr osperienced by their frienrls rnrl frrnilies.<br />
It has hcn cstimated fhat the ociupant protcction standalds promulgatcd<br />
bctrvcen 1966 and 1970 savcd ovcr-28,000 lives betwcen i966<br />
rnil 1974. Tlris rcas eqrrivalent to a 15 to 30 pcrccnt rcduction in deaths<br />
rnd sel i, 'rr. irjrrrics as com pared rrii lr oldorj r'.r rs. The seat belf r.eqrr irement<br />
hls ied to a 20 pcrceirt rechrctiorr itr cleath nnri t 84 l)lrcelrt leduction<br />
in automobile accident injrrlies. despitc rclativeiy low use<br />
rates-<br />
Con"sumnr product saf etu regulatinm<br />
_ Ar-,"idents involving rrnsafe consumer products lt'e responsible for<br />
nborrl. il0-.00{ I doalhs :rrrrl 111.rr00 permrrncnlly .li.:rlrlirrg inirrrres per.<br />
yenr in thc Ilnitcd Statcs. Substrnlial lu.nefitjhrr.r. l","ri estiruutr:cl ior<br />
consu mer-plodrr,.t<br />
irfg!i] regulations dcsigncrl to contlol specific<br />
h&zrlds. lr'or oxanrplo, it.hasleen estimatttl llrrrr t:hikl_rcsistanf dmg<br />
prckrgrng, Iules p_ror-cntcd 84.000 injurit.s due to accidental dru!<br />
lngestron betrvecn 197,3 and 1976. Crib safetv stuJar.ds lrrve reduced<br />
erilr-relaled irrjrrr.ios to infanls by J4? sinr"c lgZ4. F,,lii. i.t,t.n,"ntea,<br />
lrt',f, fJarnrnxl);liil slen,llr,ls clulrl lravc n.drrcc,l br. rl,orii Zn% the<br />
-frcqrrencics of deriths and scrious brrrns cxperiericcil t,v "tliidr"n in<br />
1971-r.<br />
Footl, rlnug otul cosmetic rugalatimr<br />
..Jle_ lx.rrofits of foorl. rl rr rg rrrrd cosm-ctic regnlations have been quan-<br />
Dned rn oJrlJ :r fclr- insti r,,es. Clcarly,large benefits have resrrlted ?rom<br />
FD.\ rnsrrlrtiorrs. Fol oxanrplr,, tlic h:rining of nit.ni,ii.,,i,r-,,n,f ai_<br />
cthylstilbt'stlol ts:rnimal fetd'ldditives ",ia tn" t n""ing oi, other<br />
clrcinogonic srrbstrnces us ingredicnts in food nrc "l
40<br />
the ozone layer. It has been estimated that the benefits of the alrug<br />
cfficac.y requi_rements tnder the 1g62 Kefaui,er-Ilar'ris AmendmenG<br />
ln.tude a rcductron of $100 to $800 million per year in consumer<br />
purchases of inefiective dmgs.<br />
lToorl safety and qtnli.ta reqr+latzotr<br />
'lVhile<br />
the Food Srfeil'and. Quality Sen.iee was established by<br />
exccrl rt.p aItlroriLJ in 1977, lhe fedr.tal qorerrrmnnt iDjpp,.iion ;f<br />
meats. L,oultr'l' anrl processed food began in1800. lhc beDefiis oI these<br />
rrrtrvitiFs xro rjr;lnifest in thc orelall iluality anrl plritv oJ -\rrrelicars<br />
lood-supply and ure d"cplr ingrrincd in ilic,luatirl corrtrol eflorts of<br />
thc food processing rnd dislrihrriion indusrrr.'l lrri- rhel arc ,liffiL.ult<br />
fo g.grl;ze toda\'..Reccnt studias thrtqnuntiil rlre h,,n,.fiis of nhrrrges<br />
ln l5(J:i regulirttons- irave found. Ior er;rmpJo. corr,irler.rrble Lcnr.tii,: in<br />
llre lorl ol n.dllceil co||sllntel i'xpo$||re to polcnlirrllv r,tl...i ogenic<br />
foocl preservatives and in the lorm of botli mtire.:ffi.,ient rrtilizatiEn of<br />
meat carczrsses and cost sat'ings to meat processors.<br />
O ccupatictrutl nf cty atul hzo)th regulation<br />
The total cost of industrial accidents in 19?5 has becn estimateil ot.<br />
$14.7_biliion. Several studies have found that ted".al anif siote o""r,pationrl<br />
safetl and herltli regulrtions hrrve helpcd to rcduce accidcnial<br />
ur;unes and deaths. In both 1974 anrl 19?5. OSH.\- safetv nnd healtlr<br />
irrspoction actir-itios pler-nnted betrvcen 40,000 and 60,000 )6si-n-orkday<br />
flccrderts and uD to 310 deaths.<br />
-_ Rg,crlations limiting ^rrorkor clpo_surg to asbestos may ultinrately<br />
res ll In ir lpdu( lion of 630 lo 2.i00 rlplths per yelr fronill|ng ftrncer<br />
and rsLo.lo"i-.. Sigrrificant ad,lirionrrl b*ncfiG rvill .,""u" in rhe-f,,,.m of<br />
re(llc{ d lnct,ll'ltcr. of clncer a nrl.nl I rer diser.e rluo rn OSHA regrr ll t ion<br />
of srrclr hrrzr rd- as vinl l clrlori,lc. ,"oi ron d ust. le,rrl. ;",.l ;;iri<br />
W ater p ollu,tiott, requl ati,om<br />
^ Watcr ;'ollution control regulation has been shorr.rr to produce benefits<br />
rn lerms ot impror..d" l,rrblic lrlalth. incr,.rs,,J I,roperil values, and<br />
cxpa.nded nppor{unities fot rcr-roaIionrrIuseol $.rter lp.otir.ce5. gqy.rrl<br />
studles hitye esttm{rted thlt r.educccl incidence oi rr.aterborn disease<br />
due to rva-ter. pgllution rrgrrlatiou has rtsultecl in-be""di. ,;oi""a "t fr.-<br />
I wcr.n g1:15 mrllion<br />
-and<br />
Sl I'illion l,or -\.ear,. Srldies of thc public.s<br />
\vllnngress to pct'for rocrontional rr.e of waler rosourccs in ser.erll<br />
rpgrons of lhe counl rr. har.e sugge.ted that thc pfl.se|valion of rrltcl<br />
qualrl\ lor rncrettt(\|lal u"es mat-be rvor.ilr a. nrirch sS9.J billiorr pol.<br />
vear nationrvide. Studies have ilso found that the valirc ni<br />
on rrnl'ollrrlcd<br />
1xnp"i.t"-<br />
\riicr\r!!s rnlr be as nrrrrlr rs 2.iA higl,.,.il,r'n-"il,,irj-<br />
'*"<br />
llent propertv located orr yi;ibh, pollnted lr"t";;;o;.<br />
6.3 THD STA<strong>II</strong>E-<strong>OF</strong>-T<strong>II</strong>E-ANT <strong>OF</strong> BENRF<strong>II</strong>1I DST<strong>II</strong>fATION<br />
. . Estimating the benefits of environmental.- health and safetv<br />
tionsis<br />
regula_<br />
a neri; art form that is still i" n p;iriai;; ,;i;f ;fi;;i;-""r.<br />
Despite the fact that *"". i"nestigaiiniii - f.,"r:. io"l,i;foa ""a<br />
flllclrl,ted to Ineuslr^ thp henefiis ,'f .lrenifin regllalorv pr.ogl.rrrns. ii<br />
rnu,qt bc recalled that estimating the bcnetits oi ""g,.i,itiirr-ir..,rr, ".*treme_I1'<br />
cornplox analr-1ical iask {or whlch rpnrinriain j,,,, ,,^d<br />
models are ofion rrnar-ailable. F'rrth"rmore. ihor'i i,." '"".1o,,.ii.r.,t"-"
4l<br />
associated rtith nttachins values to such inturrgibles ts iniury, chronic<br />
disease. death, aud pain dnd sufiering. This stction summrrrizcs the discussion<br />
of these issules frorn Sections 2 and 3.<br />
Estinrating the benefits of regulation generally rnvolves three kinds<br />
of uotivitv. First. thc dcg|ee of lrtrm r{ltich :r substlrnco. lgcnt or<br />
activitv cimscs to'indivicltiul olqani-sms or spet'ie's nttt-.t lrt'mcasured.<br />
Tlris rrirl inlolve lnboratorv strrdies or clinical sturlies ou strtall selected<br />
pollrl - xtlon5,<br />
iecon.[. tlrc deglee of exposrlc likcll to.l'e exl)i'ricnced bv the popltlatton<br />
l&tron or ecologtcal ecologrcal S_tslcm slstem irl irt ll,sli tr:li rlust l||ll:l De be eitlnratcdr estr.nlatcd, an(t tlrc lll{_llKcly lrxety<br />
eficct of tlut exposule trrrrsr bc yrredicted or tuctrsured. Such risk<br />
lsscssment actir-ities mlv iuvollr.errgirrtcrJug stndies, s,vstems r,nalvtic<br />
te,:lrrriques.<br />
techlioues. rnidemiolosical cpidemiologicll idemiological strrr-lies. strrdies. or or_thc tlt. thc rtereiornrettt rteveiopntent o{ mathenramat}retrramrt}retrralicl<br />
I rrro,lol. l'or ur',.dict'ingexDosrrle rtrd rcil,on:e.<br />
'l'lrc 'lhe<br />
final tin.rl task, ,,'iirrruti"ng<br />
t'stirrrating the llre p, econornic unotrric lrrl ancl so, social iul bcnefits b('nefilr o{ of u a regu regulatolv<br />
latoly l
42<br />
validity or of the efiect of alternative judgments on the -- benelit -"'-' esti_<br />
mates. Suclr judgmonts are madc.in at lea'st fi-ve ar"uri<br />
,(.t). Urerumpltot.is on mo et[zqble b, ttefts._Often, benehts<br />
wlrrcll r.lrin_ol bc r.lgorously qutntified or puC in monetarv terms<br />
or omirl<br />
l:"_l:_-"iqh":,J"d<br />
ed f rorn anu lyses. Such .,intarigi<br />
bles,<br />
1: qiTJ-Tg .,ll "' r rrg. psl.r.JrotogicaJ drmlge produced by hizards,<br />
or aes[net tc deg.r dallon at.e often umiltcd.frorn rrrll]:ses or are<br />
le::.Tr::i o|-r{1!nelly., I rre non_moner izalrle costs of -illness,<br />
in_<br />
lurJ,<br />
enq dearh may be large conpared with the monetizible<br />
rosses such as lost rncome or.medical costs,<br />
,flus,<br />
focusing only on<br />
monetr?able benclits may glerrtly undervllo. tt "-G"o'nL ot a<br />
regu.l0,tlon.<br />
(n) Assigning arlu$ 1e injury or deat,h._A major problem in<br />
-_,,-nt,)l* O,"nt|'its rs whet,her.and how ro assign a r:alui to.injury<br />
or .toss o^f.llfe. -Oftcn, rn tle studies that werd reviewed. the Lsti_<br />
mates ol benehts depend hear ily on rJre usrignmenL o{ mo clary<br />
vatues 10 these outconles even tlrough tlrere is no colrsensus on<br />
horv.to do so, or on rlherlrer doing so l"=", "" opp-["int". *-"<br />
.(iii1 T-/w r$e of irulireu pt oced.ur$ to detennine ecorwniz<br />
eat ues.*l,rocul\rres such:ri u-ill ingness_t o-pay or. revea)ed pref_<br />
elerrces requ.i r.e Jreroic assur r Lpl ion.-about lrdw-$.el I mui k"G roort<br />
or_ho-\v,rreLt peopte undersrard ihe risks they face. It is by no<br />
means c.teal. Lirat flre r.pprorclLes ar.e \'llid, esfecially in the case<br />
or long-term health ha,zards-<br />
(iv | I'reatmc nt ol bene/its occutring ot d)f erent tines._Oftnn<br />
i::tiil";."1,1:T,{lii.i}'fr if"','r'J,ilt jll#.Tl';:"H jii,,"T, ff;<br />
the values.of thcie quantities are rhen aG""rnila """.'ii-u -<br />
pre{ls9ly fhe bamc manner cs monetarJ cosls or benefiis. fn tlrds<br />
$ruauon..the magnrtudos of benefits lnd costs depend heavilv<br />
on tno dlscounl, Iate clrosen. Ful.tl re r.trror.e. goo,l iLealtlr and "a<br />
clean environment ar.e becorning more hiElil]:;alu;cl* o"i.'"rl rr_u<br />
l-e.lative lo oilrer guuds. Discourrii|'g such b%n;fit; i; ;ni"*n, ,,*"<br />
rn Lne same way o||e dNcounls costs obscrrres the incieasinrr rela_<br />
tive- yalue of thi benefits. Further, ai""" *ooiuty t u. .oH"'.?"porrsibilirJ<br />
lor rts irreversible r'mpacts on f"t"* g""."."t1""s. binefits<br />
f,nal oc,cur rar rn te iutul.c must bc calcfully considered and<br />
included.<br />
, (r) fdA posl u tp--ln -marly studies it is impticir lv assumed<br />
rnur socrerJ \\.outd puy thc same irnount 10 reduce thi risk<br />
llKerJ<br />
of a<br />
e\-cnr, or to$-se\cnly rat ii u.ould pay io rcdunc the risk<br />
:^f *Lql,l,j: y 91911<br />
of hilh ser"rirr. rro""i..r, soci"r.;: "pp"u""<br />
ro De wlltrn!. to oav comna rflt tve ly mor.e t o ar oid fhe mo-re si,iious,<br />
although tess ti)*eiy, evinr. In f;:,i,ll,"ld;j;,;,i" r,'llr"o"Ji"" "r<br />
::,tll lg*n"il" require tlrrt special effolrs b-e made to avoid espe_<br />
clallv gTaye hflrm.<br />
(vi) Di*tri.bution_ ol costs,.and. bgpefrts arytng indiai.d.uals,<br />
q:!!?t- _.[Iany<br />
!!d,t;r,r.<br />
srudies<br />
"wf,,<br />
avoid ciiscussing<br />
wno c"j". "rU<br />
toses, rI jurvone, wlrcn a rrguJrtion is put in-place io control<br />
a lrazrrd. Yct. sbcieiv is concer.ned .\rtth<br />
\.lro.paJs and who gains,<br />
and failure to examine this aspect of .eguli,tion suU_"ini" un
43<br />
impodant policy consideration. Socieiy uses decision rules other<br />
thrn economic efliriencv to judge the worth of regulatory pmgrrnls:<br />
equllv &n4 lrlrnoss tre also lnlpnrlllll.<br />
Tl-re .lecisioris tirat arral.r'sts rnake in copirft u ith these problems can<br />
drastictllv aflect the estimatcs of lrcnefits. On'lv rarelv do investigators<br />
dis{lrss more thrn a fel'of thc.r.rrcial lssrrmptions thel Llvc made,<br />
not do they oftsn examine the eilcct of altcr.native assumptions on thd<br />
magnitudc of the esti.nrrtetl benelit:.. Thc lesult is thrt benefirs estruratcs<br />
in the literaturc srrrveycd arc oftcl pr.csentul as if the sourees<br />
of uncertaintv in thern irlc iechnical rneriulement problems, rvhen,<br />
in flct. thel' rleperd lrerr il-r- ()11 nltny spccific tncl oftcn contror-crsiai<br />
i'alue judgmenti. -\nll.y-v.s of tlris t.lire i'an mrke it more. rather than<br />
less- difficult, fol decision -nr alters to'6valuatc the s'orth of regrrlatory<br />
policies.<br />
5.4 RECOMME}ID.\TIONS<br />
The curlent primitive stat€-of-the-art of the assessment of benefits<br />
of cuyilollre,ntu i. bcnlth and safetr- regrrl:rtion srrggest.; thlt it rvoulrl<br />
not bc udr.isablo to trlopt l. stlilf , r,si-lrlrrr.fit 1r1,1'roa,lL f'rr I.'crlcr.al<br />
rr'grLlltior. ('eltrrirrl-1 ,.r'rlr'-r lr 1r1,r'op liltr. effolt shorild be rnadc to more<br />
frrllr i,l"nrif1 rlrn 1iro.je, re,l ,.nn-n.1,,er,,.e. ,,f I'r'o1,o.,.r1 r.egulllor.\. tction.<br />
llrrt the findings of this rr'1r,,r.t stl,,ngll irltgest thaf 1'h,"irg too<br />
g|t'at il tr'liance on srrr'h rlnulr.-*"- \'onlrl n,,[ lr' irr t]re l,rrl,ii, itrtc|est.<br />
llrhcn it is desirable to conduct or r.e4uir.e dctriled inrlr.scs of the<br />
benetits of speritic rcgulrtorr 1,r.ogram..l,lrticipltion of lird communrcrlion<br />
betrrcrrr dr.i isj,rr-rrrlifr.s! tlrc public, and cxpcrts in all the relci'tr.tit<br />
fliscipliles<br />
slrorrlrl^bc tncorrr':rgoLl. flcrelsed mul ti-disciplinary<br />
participulion irr lho pelfor.rrrrrrr,.,' of Lent.fit rrrrrrlrsc. rtould hell' g'19dttce<br />
molo rerlistic nnd-completl I'c:rr'fir osr irrr;rtcs. lrrd would lrelp insure<br />
that'impoltant technical lnrl r.alur. issucs ar.e- adrlressed and^that<br />
impoltrnt sour(:{'li of uncertlinty ar.c consirlcled.<br />
. Ittentlon needs to be gilen to svstetnatic :rnrl rliscriplined elTotts at<br />
improving the state,of-tho nrt. of'r.isl< assessnent trncl benefits estirnation<br />
tccJrniques. Srrclt rvolk sLoultl be cauicd out in close nssociation<br />
lritlt on-g'cring re,grrlttor y cflortr- to helD insure thorough cxamination<br />
of thesr. issuos *-ithin thc limitations of models. -datr rnd<br />
metliods and in full recognition of the role of value judgments in<br />
social dccision-making.<br />
I t. m rrsl. ll. l ccog'n izc.l t lrri . in somc cases. dct I ilerl qltanti I lt ive benefil<br />
strr,li"s crr.rr mrrli,. irnj,orrlrrr c.ntr.ihrrlions io impr.ovcd ,lo"isionmI|krng.<br />
$lrlll- |ouglr. less st sfcnlltrc and dotailcd assessntcnts rnav<br />
suflicc in otlters. Fufthermote. the timc alrl elTor.t u,quired to nerfolm<br />
clul'orrLte I'cguhtor.r' analvse.s must be u t:ighcrl tJ-ruinst t'hc use of the<br />
srnre 1rrrhli,. r','sonr.cfs l ithout dcltv to protcct health &nd safetv and<br />
to prcsenrt' onlilonrrrcntal qurliiv thr,orrgJt vigorous rcgrriatoly<br />
programs.<br />
.{OI{NOWLTDGDMENTS<br />
The authors wish to acknorvledge the assistance of thc fcderal agcncv<br />
stafr members who holp,'d io acriuire lgen.v-pcr.forn,od or .t on.or"i<br />
s(ndies for th i. proioct. Tlrcsn inclrrdn:<br />
| 'et.r4??t{.t 'TT'arren /'t'otltri ,ltftt\ ('onn is.gion. ,Il dith M. Pitcher and<br />
Prunella-<br />
:<br />
I<br />
"'<br />
'.
44<br />
_,Enaironm.en,tal Protecf.ion Agency,_Fldwin H. Clark, Deborah<br />
Ta1'lor. and ,lames R. I{ihbs.<br />
Drug Administrntion._-E en lViliams rnd<br />
,Vffr":^r*<br />
Rar<br />
n*;:,l<br />
8"f*, and Quo.tity Betwice.-Iohn }lcCutcheon and l{ax<br />
,,_""xiirn:li;,tr*#;rg:#,f *;;;Ti::l;::;;!trf "I;f;;<br />
_-l!e a-l1o l'ish to thnnk our rcscarch assistant-s. Francine l.lancini.<br />
gli.-,i.r"l "i',.TiYb"YH.::ft 9,,*1"".1'.:1i9,.1,1,?,T<br />
$lilHt lix"Jf .'?i<br />
able assistance.<br />
THD ATT<strong>II</strong>ORS<br />
Nicholas A. Ashford is associatc professor.of technology and policy<br />
ii1,3?l':?lf.:l'ff$.',{,ll;<br />
r-<br />
f".lsi<br />
F;li.! Ar!;;;"iil,"" "'t'lrrt.<br />
crrrrennv,."",.", o'. "rioiii-J; ;iirtl \*lili:i llt"]si;,i;;1l.7f ?;,ll$<br />
!:fJi'#ii,.,ffi1,"lli'fii ni,T,tii;,ti til,#.1:* :f"i*"'"1*.:,m;<br />
rlegrce. both.from thc ft'nivcrsitv rr+ Cfri".,,S", irir;";'ir"<br />
glnduate<br />
"il. "*"ir.a<br />
ilaining in cconorrrics.<br />
__Roger K._Chiiholm is profcssor of economic_q at }lemphis State<br />
liii:1il]'ll.."TiiT'iii llll i',:,','.'lf ,T::lu"i*ir;:"i,*l'fi'"*iTi<br />
ing. llefhods," .'f ntrrolgauizlrior"t fj""t"loii lfnffi,;;';;i",,r,",",<br />
;l;',1: il.:'lil,ll";'f ii"'illi',';,ll:'','m'n'<br />
r eTs )' Dr" cil'rotin'' ""-<br />
#iri'..ox #ujlf i;lii;tr "1j&!?ill is,s Fre h.,,is a<br />
+_rJer 1,ili;"f . ii;",."*;iii;:;;i iT'iljl'l;ill.ll ;,.:lI,l"1h".',.*: ?,m<br />
ll-'J,1"';,f;;:l,ll'il,::,i:,,::."::, 'l:i,.ili;l:;1<br />
-''' i"i,,i1r,l;,:"1li;l.lln;<br />
lrrrlelorof.scinnne,lcgrc..<br />
"<br />
in l,i"l,,r.-r {ion, F ii,ri,1,i;"iL'\."<br />
,"5: T,'1i;;ft i":l';;,1":iTfi,l:,H'Jilf,li"lJ1l; l#.::t iLJ,T<br />
iinirirl-t il *Hi ll ll; jlf;li:i;i*"'fi ii"1,q'i'i "r;i;;;<br />
.li].li.llll.S. ;I.qo.snrcli. and. rr lr rr;r g,,d ,, si ,r,J r l,.a,jile r',, i hc I<br />
i iir H'll#'Tl il*ll,lrtjil tln,<br />
" r. 1'n' 1 " " i r"gi i; i' i i,; ; ;;';l'i i";<br />
l rr..ersirvanrt i.a-.,n1,, ""rir,'"1lll,liil,l,:,lli!;l;.-r'ne<br />
fronr Bosfon<br />
3i i:ffi ;; Ilii.t li;"i : ;,: :m;,my:ii:l':iy,lf, ::H;<br />
lf n;il"f ; j'i' Ti,,H'iil;:,,t.,<br />
p"r i"i i.';"--i ;:i;u',r" i il". nr" "<br />
r,", i.r .r. i-",.r,,,";;;<br />
'(ii.;i,.li:".'frii-.."ilf,<br />
f,,,r::;;1,,,3ff:;ii"""T<br />
i'ilJ;" 11;',,3ia:,T[,:1fr"lili;] ;i*ii l:li: Jii*i:i',-',.J;;11ia<br />
ii!; !ili:iiii q,;:t"r,,iirli;l _"::,:ll,' Xm iil<br />
+l*r;ru<br />
i:Wf ll,t;l;:l;,1?,\tilljfl;],- " ,t?,,.i"''""'i,,ir'i",i"ir "n'gin"",'r;!
45<br />
William tr'Iendez is a research associate at the MIT Center for Policv<br />
Alternatives. <strong>II</strong>e is ths co-author of !(Mobilizins Resources for the Coritrol<br />
of Occupational CancerJ for the O<strong>II</strong>ice of TecltnoJogv Assessment<br />
and of "Caie Study and Teaching llatelials: Ilcg-uiation \rinyl<br />
Chloride in the Worhplacc') fol the Dukt. Rand GL;rdrratc Institute.<br />
Dr, Mendez holds a doctorate in biochetrristry from the University of<br />
Chicago and is currentll' a. candidate fol th,'mrrster of publir: policy<br />
degree -\\'. at the llan'ald llniversity Kennedv School of Government.<br />
Curtiss ]lriest is ir rcsctrclr associatc lt the I.<strong>II</strong>T Center for<br />
Policv Alterlatir,es. He is the mrthor of "Railroad Safctv Economics:<br />
A Griideb"ok for tlre -fnalvsis o{ Regrrlations" for the Fedenrl Railroad<br />
-ldnr in ist lrr tiorr, rrrtl co-u rrthor of "Xvaluating Chenrical Regulations<br />
: 'I'radc-OiI Analv,sis und Ilrpact Assessruont fol Environmental<br />
Decision-tr'Itliing" for'the Counciion Envir'orurerrtal Qualitv rnd the<br />
Envirorrrnerlal Protection ,lsencv. Dr. Pricst holds a doitoratc in<br />
management science rvith an empliasis on econornics from Renlsalaer<br />
Poh'tcchnic Instiirrfp.<br />
l
is:i:di;i"i:.r;tq.<br />
46<br />
L ITERATURE<br />
CITED<br />
Arthur An^dersen & Co., Cosr of 0o vsM!llB9gqlql!9!!!!!ry, for the<br />
Business Roundtdb le, NeF-Yorffiew ,ur (, ,1drcn ryl q.<br />
Ashf ord, Ni chclas.A.,_.,'T}|e Usef ulness of Cost-Benef it Andlysis,, i n<br />
Representat i ves ! July 30, 1979,<br />
. No. 70-1216<br />
';.!:'ilH:'",<br />
Ashford, N.<br />
_A., 5. Butler, and ivl, Zolt, ,,Co|rnent<br />
on Druq Requlation and<br />
_lnnovation in the Paannaceutlcal Industry,,, poper preseited'to Htll Revrew<br />
Panel on New Drug Regulatjon, February<br />
'l977-<br />
Ashford, N, A., 0. Hdttis et al., "Fcoro4ric<br />
and Sociat ImDact of<br />
UccupaLrond I ilo tse R.qLldtion, " U. S. EnvironmenLdl p"oteci jon Aqency<br />
office of Noise Abatement and Control, 1976.<br />
Ashford, N.-A..and G, R. Heaton, "The Efiects of Health and Environfiental<br />
:areIy,,Kegu rat ]0n_on Techno l og ical Change i n the Chemical lndustry,,, in<br />
i.rl; il,li;"ii'1,W,<br />
Hdshineton'<br />
Ashford, N. A., 6. R. rleaLol. J-. , dnd l,t. C. priesl, .,tnvironmeFLal<br />
flealth Health dnd Safety SdferJ Requldti"n<br />
Regulaijcn dlo ancileLhnolooicirl<br />
Iogica1 lnn1vdrion.,<br />
Innovation," in :n C C. T. I Ni]I<br />
and J. l'1. Utterback, Eos., Technologjcal I inno!ation Inno!ation fqr for a Dynami;<br />
Dvnami.<br />
Economy, Nerv York: Pergamoi-?i-s s,<br />
49hford,.N, A-, E. t4. Zolt, D. Hattis, J. I. Katz, G. R. Heaton. and<br />
tJ, C. Priest, "tvalLdLiag<br />
Chemrcdl Regulations: irade-ort n"ifi,sii anO<br />
tmpact Assessr,ent I./ Ll.iyonmellrl Lecision-l4akinq,,, J,:, Counail on<br />
En vi ronmental Qual ity, 1979.<br />
Blot, hl, J.and J. F. Fraumeni, Jr., ',Geographical patterns of Lunq<br />
cancer : Industri at Correl ation s - " g9{gq!41glgl!g!@i!!!y, Vo t.<br />
103, No. 6, pp, 539-550. 1976. '<br />
Bo01, Allen and Hani tto . lnc., Study<br />
Ia\pect ion 5y!Ler, U.S, Depa-treiT-T of the gedera I fleat<br />
Eoucher, l,]. et al., Federil Incentjyes for Innovatlon, Denver Research<br />
lnstituLe, Un ivers i rt;aje-Oen vrt, -Toloiado;-dnG;t-gi<br />
6.<br />
Bridbord, K. et al., ,,Estjmates<br />
of the Fractions of Cancer in the Unlted<br />
States RelaLed to occutatio4el Fdctors," U.S. Department of Health,<br />
Edu.aLion and Helfare, l9/8.<br />
BroLle,L et al,, 'An [conomic Analysjs of the Consuners Lnion proooseo<br />
sarely J!andard t0r poleer Lawn IitoFers," Standford Research lnstjtilte<br />
19 75.<br />
:<br />
.1<br />
.i
47<br />
Brookshire, D. S, and }{. P. Schulze, "An Economic Analysis of the Risks<br />
of Lonq-Term Nucledr hdste Storaoe.'' Re\earch Paoer l6l. U.S.<br />
lnviro;nentdl Protect'on Aqency,'197 | ,<br />
Brown. li1. H.. "Love Canal and the Poisoninq of Arerica." Atlantic, Vol,<br />
244, N0.6, pp. 33-47, Decerb'r 1979.<br />
8urrows, P., C. Ro|'ley, and D, Owen,<br />
"The Economics of Accidental-0il<br />
Pollrition by Tankers in Coastal llaters," Journal of Public Econonics'<br />
Vo l, 3, pp. 251-268, 1974a.<br />
, "Torrey Canyon: A Case Study in Accidental<br />
Pollution," Journal of Pol I itical Econony,<br />
EcononyVo1.<br />
2l' No. 3, pp. 237-258,<br />
llovelrber ,rlovearber 19,1461--<br />
Callanay, D. and C. Drucker, National HiOnay Traffic Safety<br />
Admin j strat ion, oepartment of Transportation,<br />
"Socidl Consequences of<br />
Acci dents. " 1979.<br />
Clark, A. dnd H. lla?ton, "The Effects of Safety Packagirq 04 Children'5<br />
Asp irin lngest rons. " Consumet Product Saiety c-onwi ss ion,- 1978.<br />
Comptroller General of the Unjied States, Effectiveness, Benefits and<br />
!ost' or re!erat ialety srg'roa@<br />
uccupantsr benerd I Accounl ln9 urr rcet Ju ry rvlo.<br />
Consumer Product snfety Comnission, 0ffice of Strategic Planning'<br />
"Importance<br />
of Crib Safety Actjvities on Injuries dnd 0eaths Associated<br />
wi th Crjbs,<br />
" 1979.<br />
Council on Environmental Quality, Federal Task Force on Inadvertent<br />
l,lodification '19<br />
of the 5trdtosphere, Fluorocarbons and the fnvironrnent'<br />
75.<br />
Crocker, J,0., t, Schulze, 5. 8en-David and A. Y. Kneese,<br />
rrHethodl<br />
0evelophent for Assessinq Air pollution Control," }ldshinqton' u'L.:<br />
0ffice of Research and Developnent, lJ.S. Environmental Protection Agency'<br />
February 1979,<br />
Dardis, R., S. Aaronson and Y-tl. Lln, "Cost Benefit Andlysis of<br />
Flamnability Standards,' Anericdn. Joilrnal of Agricultural Econonics, vol'<br />
60, N0.4, ftovember ]978.-<br />
0ornbusch, D, f4, and S. l'1. Barrager, 8e!!llits of Hater Pollution |:ontrol<br />
on oroperiy \'alLes, u,S. Lnvironipnta@<br />
Re seaiirr oiro TevElopnenr, kashingLon. D.(.-,lJlt.<br />
Ebon Research systems, A I'lodel of Inplicit cost Functions Relevant to<br />
Istimatinq the Cosl to an Econory of 0ccupationa] lnjL.ies and Illnesses,<br />
lnpdct, l979.<br />
Engel, J. H., "Cost-Benefit (and Economic lmpact) Analysis of a Proposed<br />
|landatory Consuner Product Safery Stdrdard for dore Television<br />
Receivers,rr Underwri ters Laboratories, Inc., 1976'<br />
J<br />
:<br />
:<br />
'
48<br />
Environmental Studies Board, r'Nitrates: An Environmental Assessment,"<br />
Na ti ond I Research Council. 1978.<br />
Fl'lC Corporation, Accident Cost lndicator l4odel to Estjrnate Costs to<br />
Indu stry and soci@ground<br />
Food and Drug Adninistration, DepdrtnrFnt of i,edlth, Fducation and<br />
Uelfdre, "ln{ lation i$pdcl StdLe'rent of Proposed RLlefiaking:<br />
0iethyl st i lbestro I, " 1976a.<br />
, "Infldtion Impact Statenent of proposed<br />
mTenaFTnj-fi roTura n-Tf- N I iRo) { orpoLnd;, 1976b.<br />
, "lnflation lnpdct Statenpnt oF Proposed<br />
ItTefiIlnd--$cchefin-and its Salts il ioods. Drugs, Arimal Feeds,<br />
Animal Dru9s, Cosmetics, and as a Food AddiLi,ve, Prohibition of Use,<br />
, "Cert ai n Fluorocarbons (Cnlorofluorocarbons)<br />
$Too6;-Tdi Tdtritl,r e;-Drug , Animal Food, Aninal Dnrg, Cosmetic and<br />
Med ical Oevi ce Products_as Propel l ants i n Se lf -Pre ssLrri zed Containers;<br />
Prohibition on Use," 197 7b.<br />
, "Conbined €conoftic Impact Assessment of Series<br />
of Proposal s Regnrdi ng Penic i I I i n/Telracycl ine- Containi ng Premixes,"<br />
19 78.<br />
, "Reguldtory Andlysis: Patient Labeling<br />
Requireinents for Prescription Druq Drod r.ls," 1979,<br />
Food Safety and Quality Service, U.S. Department of<br />
i trates. Nitrites and A or lso<br />
,run-i:--E; rd.<br />
-<br />
Aqri cu I ture. lmoact<br />
ascorbates) in Bacon,<br />
, Final lmpdct Statement: Nitrate and NrtriLes-<br />
, Fi nal Impdct SLatenent: Residue<br />
pro<br />
TalT-n-P rem ia-i-fSfTF ); ffi<br />
General Services Adninistration, u.S- Goler ient l.1anual, p. 119, tlay 1978.<br />
6laubirger, R. S., P. 14. Kohn and R. Remirez, "Love Canal Aftemath:<br />
Learning from a Tragedy," Cheoicdl Engineering, pp.86-92,0ctober 22,<br />
Grabowski, H. c. and J- [.1. VernDn, The Impact of Requ]ation on lndustrial<br />
Innovdtjon, report prepared for the@<br />
nfirr-nqIbn, D.C. , 1979.
4 9 '<br />
Grahn, 0.,<br />
and K.<br />
197 6.<br />
"Cost-Benefjt as tleighed on Genetic Scales,' ln R. A. K.rdi'<br />
Z. l'1or9an, Energy and the Environment: Cost-Benefit Analysis,<br />
Green, M. and N. Vlnitzman, Business llar on the [aq: An Analysis of the<br />
Benef i t s of Federdl Fealth@<br />
@<br />
Harrison. Jr.. 0,. LJho Pays for Clean Air?' Canbridgel Bnlllng€.<br />
Publ ishi;o co: - 1975.--<br />
Harri son, Jr., D. and0.<br />
L. Rubinfeld,'Hedonic<br />
Denand for Clean Air," Journa I of Envi ronrent a I<br />
Vo 1. 5, pp. 8l-102, 19<br />
nerln an r Stexar t 1,1., TheHealth<br />
Costs of Air Pollution--A Surve<br />
StudiesPub<br />
I r shed l9;F /.trnerr can LUng ss0c I at ron, i<br />
Hershaft, A. (ed,), A. l'1. Freenan <strong>II</strong>I, T. P. Crocker, and J. B. Stevens,<br />
Critical Revier'r of Estiratjng Senefits of Air and flater Pollution<br />
Protection Aqency, June l9lu.<br />
Distribution of Benefits from Im0rovements in<br />
of Environmental €conomics aid lldnagement,<br />
Hill, C. T., E. Greenberg, 0. J. Ne'rburger and G. R, ||hitaker, nA State<br />
of the Art Revien of the Effects of Requlation on Technoloqical<br />
Innovation in the Cheilical and Al lied ProilucLs indLrstries,<br />
" report to<br />
the National Science Foundation, Uashington University, St' Louis' M0'<br />
1975-<br />
Hor{er, 0., rAn Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Child-Resistant<br />
packaging,rr Consuner Product Safety comission' 1978.<br />
lriin, T. R., 'A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Sulfur 0ioxide Abatement<br />
Reoulations in PhilddelDhia," Etrsi;ess tconorics' Vol' i2, No' 4'<br />
ppl1z-zo, 1977.<br />
Iverstjne, J. C. and J. L, Kjnard, "The lfi,pact of Environirental<br />
Protectio; Requlations on Research and Developnent in the lndustr'jal<br />
Chemical Induatry," in C. T. Hill, Federal Re,rulation and Chemical<br />
Innovnlion, i'iashington, D'C.: lvneriia-n -6he'n-i?iT.Toc<br />
r-e-Ty ' -T9I9:_-<br />
Jondrow, J, 1"1.,<br />
"A<br />
l.leasure of the 14onetary Eenefits and Costs to<br />
Consumers of the Requlat'ion of Prescription Druq tffectiveness"'<br />
Unpublished Pb,D, Dissertation, UniversitJ of i,,lisconsin, August<br />
,t972.<br />
Kneese. A. v.. "Benefit Analysis and Today's Regulatory Problems'" Public<br />
I n Lereit Economics Foundation. 1978,<br />
Kunreuther, H, and P. Slovic, "Economics, Psychology and Pfotectlve<br />
Eeh av i or, ' Amer i c dn Economic RevieN Papers ahd Proceedings, May 1978.<br />
r<br />
a
(utta. -R . fi. ,<br />
ie cnno togy, S.<br />
50<br />
Lave. L, B. andE, P. Seskin, Air Pollution and Human Health, Saltirnore:<br />
Jo hn' s Hopkins University pre s{-If<strong>II</strong><br />
I'lccuire, T. et al., ,,An Evaluation of Consuner protection Legislation:<br />
the 1962 Amendments: A Cofinent,,, Journat of politicai Econo;y, Vot. 83,<br />
N0. J, pp.655-661, l9/ 5.<br />
Mendeloff, J., Reguldting Safety: An Econornic and potitical Analysis of<br />
occupat iondl Sa<br />
l'4ieskowski, P. and A. 1,1. Saper, ,,An<br />
Es t imateof<br />
the lffects of Airport<br />
Noise on Property Values,,' Journalof<br />
LlrbanEconomi<br />
c s, Vol.5, pp.425-<br />
440, 19/8.<br />
l',1oll, K., S. Buam, E. Copener, F. 0orsch, R. lirjght, G. Jones, 0. Starret<br />
and C, Starry, "Haza|dou5<br />
Wdstes: A Risk-Benefit Framework Apiljed to<br />
La0mrum and Asbestos,, l,tdshington, 0,C,, U.S. Invironmental protectron<br />
Agency 0ffice of Research and Developrent, 1977.<br />
National Hjghway Traffic Safety Ad inistration, 0epartment of<br />
Transportatjon, "Economic<br />
Impact Assessrient--A'iendnent to FIlVS lio. 208,<br />
(0ccupant Crash Protecton)--part I I, tsenefits,,' Ju ly 1977.<br />
Netional Highway Traffic Safety Adfiinistration. "Final Reaulatorv<br />
Evaluatlon: Chlld Restratnt Standard (F VSS 2t3)',, liovemb;r 1979.<br />
Iational Highuay Traffic Safety Administration. 0eDdrtrnent of<br />
Transportation, 1975 Societal Costs of l'lotor Vehicle Accjdenis, DOt-HS<br />
80Zll9, Dec"rterffi<br />
l{atjonal Research Council, Avisor} Center on Joricoloqy, Drinkinq warer<br />
and Heal Lh, U,S. Nat iona I Acaden/ of Sc iences, 1977.<br />
National Research Council, potych lorinated I jphenyls, Natjonal Research<br />
Counci I, 197 9.<br />
Nelson, J. P,, "Residential Choice, Hedonic prices and the Denand for<br />
Urban Air Qualjty," Journal of Urban Econonics, Vot. 5, pp, 357-369, 1978.<br />
Parvin, D. H., Jr,, ',Farm l"tanageinent Irnplications of<br />
Agricultural Pollution Related to Cotton Production Reduci ng<br />
in Mi ss i ss ippi; "<br />
, Vo t. 58, N0.5, pp.978-983,<br />
Peltzman, S,, "An tvalutjon of Conswer Frotection Leqislation: The 1962<br />
orug Anendments," Journal of Poljtical Economy, Vol, 81, tio. 5, pp.<br />
1049-1091, 1973b.<br />
-<br />
,','An l-vdtuation of Consuner prol,ection<br />
Legislation:' A Reply," Journdl of Political [conoay. Vol, 83, llo. 3, pp.<br />
663-667 , 1975a.<br />
,,<br />
:
51<br />
. xThe Effects of Aulrnobile Safety - Requiation.'Journal '<br />
of<br />
Pb-TTFiEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEETT-C<br />
onoiy, Vol. 83, pp, 6t7-725, l975tr.<br />
Peterson, J. !1. , "Estimatjng<br />
an<br />
Case,<br />
"<br />
Effluent Charge: The Reserve t4ining<br />
Land Econonics, Vol, 53, No, 3, pp, 328-341, August 1977.<br />
Reinfurt, D. |ll., C. Z. Silva, and A. F. Seila, A Statistical Analysls of<br />
Seat Seli !ffectiveness in 1973-1975 ttooel Cais-lnvol veo-l r, t,,wawlv-<br />
Lrd\hest Vo'.! I, llnrvPrsllJ ol l\0rth Larollnd, Rep0rL lo tle U.J<br />
lEp-dif mEifTl-TFa n sp o rt at i on, l976,<br />
Resedrch GrouD. Product Liabilitv Leodl Studv. Vol. <strong>II</strong>I. ror the<br />
rnreragency ias< roTce 0n ProoLc! Lrabr trty, u.), uepdrt fpnt ot Lofinerce,<br />
kdshingtoo, )976. 'ee a)so lnsr.aarce Services Office, lloduct liabjlity<br />
Clo\ed-Cldin survFy, ua5hrngron, D.(-, 197/.<br />
Re5eJrch friangle Irstitute, "lnflationary tmpact Stdtement: Cotton<br />
Dust," U. S. Departfient of Labor, oSHA, 1979.<br />
Robertson, L. S,, "A Critical Analysis of Peltzman's<br />
'The Effects of<br />
Automobile Safety Regulaton,<br />
''<br />
,lournal of Economic Issues, Vol. ll, flo,<br />
3, pp.:87-600, Sep tenbe" 1977.-<br />
Schlottflan, A., and L. Abrams, "Sulfur Emissions Taxes and Coal<br />
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Seneca, J, J., P. Asch and (. Erenndn, "&ortality nnd Air Pollution in<br />
New Jersey," Neli Jersey Economjc Policy Council, t979.<br />
Settle, R., "Benefits and Costs of the Federal Asbestos Standard," U.S.<br />
Department of Labor, 1975.<br />
Snal l, K. A., "Estlmating<br />
the Air Pollution Costs of Transport l]lodes,rl<br />
Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, vol. ll, pp. 109-'132, l'4ay 1977.<br />
Smith, R. S., "The Impact of oSHA Inspections on Hanufactufing Injury<br />
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Spri ng l9/9..<br />
Sm ith, V. K., Thefc<br />
onomic<br />
Stutts, J. C. and D. UJ. Reinfurt,.lmpact of Recent Chanqes in the Higlyll<br />
Safety Invironrelt: A Projpct ov;r !-lit;l;l v;iiiat-T-li6iTE-C;roTin a,<br />
ffiatio1,<br />
lo/ i.<br />
Thaler, R. and S. Rosen,<br />
"The Value of Saving a Life: €vidence Fron<br />
the Labor l'1arket," paper presented at the NBER Conference on lncome<br />
and l,lealth, Household Production and Consumption, Inshington, 0.C,,<br />
No'?embe. 30, l9 73.<br />
Tihansky,0., "A<br />
in Cos t-Uenefi t<br />
l{a slt rig to n,<br />
Survey<br />
i<br />
:
Tjfinons, J, F.,<br />
November<br />
l9 79.<br />
52<br />
Tillery, ll., 'Snfety and Health Provisions Before and After 0SlA," U.5,<br />
Departnent of Labor, BLredu of Labor StaListics. 1975.<br />
"soil<br />
Losses Like Exports,r' The lowa Stater, p. 7,<br />
Tversky, A. and 0. Xahneman, "Judgments<br />
Under Uncertajnty: Heuristics and<br />
B i ases, Science, Vol. lB5, pp. 1124-l l3l, 1]974.<br />
u.S. Scna-p CorriLLee on Public llorks, Air QualiLy and ALtorobile<br />
E nission Corrrols, l,Jashington, D.C., U.3.-Go wFiiie r, r PiinFino-oFfice,<br />
Tfr4 .-_-<br />
Utterback, J, 11., ,'Creating<br />
a Clinate for l4ore Innovative Responses to<br />
Requlation," paper presenLed at the 32nd l!dLiondt Conference bn the<br />
Advancenent<br />
'le<br />
of Research, Denver Research Institute, Unjversity of oenver,<br />
/ 8.<br />
l,1ade, J.E. and E. O. Heady,<br />
,,Controlling Nonpoint Sedjment Sources |^Jith<br />
Cropland fianagefient: A National Economic Assessflent,', Anerican Journal<br />
of Agrjcultqlql Economics Assessment," Vol. 59, ltO. t, p[lT3:2?JS7.-<br />
, "fieasuremeni<br />
-rfa of Sedjnrent Contro l Impacts on<br />
FgJ.iI?TIf'rre-:. GFTp saur. )s or'-odych Yol. 14, No. 1, pp. l-8, 1978.<br />
l,lalsh, R,6- et al,,0ptjor Values, Preservntion Values and Recreational<br />
Eene' I I s of lr orovec-tri=pffi<br />
Rivcr 8rqi1, L:1o"..0, LJ.(. flvirorlertdl ?, ol-ititn Tq -;.talli-rce of<br />
Reieadi anTneve Eement, Hashington, 0,C., 1973,<br />
llateman, T. E., K. R. Mniszewski and D, J, Spadoni, "Cost/Benefit<br />
Analysis of Fire 0e+"ectors," report by the <strong>II</strong>T Research instjtute for the<br />
Naiional Science FcunCation and the llational Fire Prevention and Control<br />
l\dnrinistration. SeDtember 1978,<br />
l{eidenbdun, l,l. L. and R,oeFina, The Cost of Federal Req'Jlatjon of<br />
EconomicActivities,Reprintlto,SE,Ane-;lcan-Enferpr$e*Tnsf iiuie,<br />
iiishi4rloroloronl-dif itaay1978.<br />
Hejss, 1,1-, "Lung<br />
Cancer Mortalily and urban Air pollutjon,,' American<br />
Journal of Public Health, Vol.6B, No.8, pp.773-775, August-T9f<br />
Hestman, l,l. t., "How<br />
14uch are I'lature's Services l,iorth?,', Science, Vol.<br />
197, pp. 960-964, September 2, 1977,<br />
Yu, E, S. H., "Aesthetic 0anage and Househol{j Behavior,,' Journal of<br />
Environnental llanagement, Vol. 7, pp.261-?6a, 1978.<br />
Zeckhauser, R. anC A. Nichols, ,,Government<br />
Comes to the Horkplace: An<br />
Assessnent of 0SHA," U,S, Congress, Senate Conmitteeon<br />
Goyernnent<br />
0perat i ons, l9 77.<br />
'1
APPENOIX A: THE LITERATURE SURVEY<br />
a- l Ovcrview of the Li ter.ture txanln.d<br />
This aDDendix di3cusses the ljterature survey Pcrforn€d for this pro-<br />
ject and the construction of a computerized bibliograPhv of that literature'<br />
The objective of the survey was to conPile, acquire' and review as much of<br />
the current literature as Possible on the benefits of environniental, health<br />
and safety regul at ion.<br />
s.g!9:g-!99!:Ea!:<br />
o.'<br />
The orimarv sources for i|anv of th. docur€nts contalned ln the bibli_<br />
ography are the federal r€gulatorv agencies.* In addltion' Congression6l<br />
documents containing inforn tion ot the benetiti of requlstioD, including<br />
bolh corittee reports and rePorts Produced bv the Conqressional Research<br />
servlce were used. A third major source of material cofrpiled here is the<br />
open literature. Docunents in the scie.tific' 'nedical' public health, en_<br />
gineering. and some econo.ic journals $/€re located bv coaputer searches ol<br />
the data bases at the Nation.! Librarv of I't'edicine, the congressional In-<br />
fornation service, and elsewhere. In addition, manual searches of the last<br />
five years' issues of the Journal of Economic Literature also produced manv<br />
relevart titles. Finally, the retiai.der of the literature reviesed in this<br />
(eoort is nade up of docu€nts alread'/ ot' hand .l the Center for PolicY<br />
Alternatives and those obtained after brlcf s€arch€s of thc catalogues of<br />
the MIT I ibrari e5.<br />
Of the 356 docum€nts in the file, 229 src classlfled as "articles," 45<br />
as "books." and 82 as "corporate or governEnt." About one_third of all of<br />
the documents in the bibliography were wrltten by emploYees of, or contractors<br />
to, the federal qovernment SorE of their contributions are characterized<br />
or "articlest' either becalse thev were publ ished as articles in<br />
*A--Tist oiE6
1,1<br />
govern'n€nt journals te.g., the fionthly Labor Review) or because th€y \,{ere<br />
najor reports that were pubtished in book forn (e.g., the National Researcn<br />
Council report on ft uorocErbons).<br />
The nunber of do€uments In the bibtiography pubtished o, contracted b,<br />
the various branches of the federat sovernment and the regutatory agencies<br />
is summarized in Table A.t. This distribution of doclments does not indicate<br />
the .elative degree of concern uithin the agencies for the study of<br />
benefits, but reftects the fact that there was not sufficient tifre to locaie<br />
and obt6in many docloents that woLjld have bees retevant to this survey.<br />
TABLE A.I<br />
ITU<strong>II</strong>BERS <strong>OF</strong> DOCUT{E}<strong>II</strong>S IN THE BIBLIOGMPHY 8Y AGENCY <strong>OF</strong> GOVERNI1ENT<br />
AGENCY<br />
Congress ional Docunents ('ot inctudirs<br />
cRs, cao, cBo)<br />
Consumer Product Safety Commission<br />
Department of fransport6tion (mostty NHTSA)<br />
Envi ronmental Protection Agency<br />
Food and Drug Administration<br />
Department of Labor (rp6t1y osHA)<br />
Nat ion6l Science Foundat ion<br />
National Academy of Sciences, National<br />
Rescarch counci I<br />
Depa rtnent of Energy, ERDA<br />
Counci I on Environhental Quatity<br />
Department of the Intertor<br />
(Eureau of iies)<br />
Departrent of Health, Education and<br />
NUI1BER 0F DoCU,,1ENTS<br />
IN B I8L IOCRAPHY<br />
l4<br />
3O<br />
20<br />
27<br />
9<br />
7<br />
5<br />
3<br />
2<br />
I<br />
I<br />
i<br />
..q
Ll teralure Searci StrateoY<br />
DO<br />
ln deciding lrhich docurents to obtain for the bibliograPhy' . number of<br />
basic aqiding principles were generally fol loNed. The highest priority<br />
was given to documents that develoPed quantitative €stimates of the bene-<br />
fits ot specific regulatory initiatives. The next highest Prioritv !a5 given<br />
to tDo kinds of documents: doc!rents that included quantitative estimat€s<br />
of the pg!9Elgl behefits of resulation (estimates of the health costs of<br />
aJr pollotior, for ssntPte) and docunEnts that made imPortant theoretical<br />
or nethodoloqical contrtbutions to the state of the art in be'efits estil'a_<br />
tions. Finally, sorle effort was iEde to include documents which contained<br />
purelv qualitative descriptions of the kinds of benefits of regulation which<br />
are not conrnon ly mentioned as such or v/hich are lnherentlv dlfficult to<br />
Decisions w€re also made to exclude certain kinds of literature from the<br />
bibl ioqraphy. Generally, fe{ epidemiological studies of the effect of<br />
specific subslances on huoans ,ere included. (sumaries a.d reviews of<br />
epidemioloqicai literature, and studies of inPortant seneral envire.')ental<br />
pollutants are included, hov/ever' ) In addition, few documents which<br />
attemDted to elucidate dose-response relalionshiPs or damage funciions for<br />
the effects of speciflc pollutants on specific plant or animal species<br />
other than humans were included. There is conside.able literalure In these<br />
field5, however, h+lich could be comPiled and evaluaced in the future'<br />
Nature of the Bibl ioqraphv on the Eenetits of Requlation<br />
The bibliograPhv on the benefits of federal environment'l' 3af'tY' and<br />
health resutation is me6nt to be both a codpendium of ioportant studiet of<br />
the benefits of resulation, as well as a stid!l!s to further research in<br />
the area. lt thus contains not only ProsPec!lve and ret.ospective a'alyses<br />
of qovernment requlatory programs in many policy are35' but also manv<br />
articles and references on the theoretical asPects of benefits estimation_<br />
A nLrmber of importint policY areas and technical issues are addressed in<br />
this bibl iograPhY<br />
:i
56<br />
Table A.2 suniarlzes the number of artictes in the bibliography retated<br />
to various areas of regulatory policy. Son|e arricles deat with nDre th.n<br />
one ;rea, so the totai number of articles in.the table exceeds the number<br />
of articles (156) in th€ bibliography. tt c.n be seen th6t the targest<br />
hunber of articles is devoted to air pollution, with wat€r poll!tion, oc-<br />
cupational safety and health, and toxic substances (in senerat), consumer<br />
prodoct sdfety and transportation al I sel l-represented.<br />
TABLE A,2<br />
NUI{BER <strong>OF</strong> DOCUI1ENTS tN BIBLIOERAP<strong>II</strong>Y RELATfD IO SEIECTEO POLICY AREAS<br />
occupational Safety ,Dd Heat th<br />
Toxic SubstaDces<br />
Consumer Product Safety<br />
Energy<br />
Noise<br />
Drugs<br />
Note: Catesories are not nutua|y exctusive, For exahpte, a docgri€ot coutd<br />
t3<br />
48<br />
\2<br />
35<br />
30<br />
20<br />
examine air po ution produced by different energy use patte.ns or<br />
t ransportat ion svsterjs.<br />
t9<br />
llr<br />
l0<br />
t0<br />
]<br />
:
As can be 5€.n ln Tablc l.r, cBt-beneflt aaary5ts tl,s a Prd',ln.nt<br />
place atron9 th€ nethodologies us€d in the literEture. Sources dealing with<br />
closely-related sets of technlques for ev6luating policiet involving un_<br />
certainty about fut!re events such as risk-benefit analysis, also.pp€ar<br />
often ib the bibliography. A general pol icy_analytic approsch i5 taken In<br />
6l of the documents. Fifty docunents were clas5ifled asrrtheoretic6l'r,<br />
Eaning that their prihary focus uas on discusstng the techoical, economic<br />
or ethical aspects of benefit assessment nethodolosies rather than on the<br />
actual performance of benefit ass€ssnent. There are 6 nunber of pEpers<br />
under this heading which address the difficult issues (dlscussed ih Section<br />
3) of the val!ation of health benefits and approaches to assessing and<br />
evaluating the equity and red;stributiooal aspects of safety and he.lth<br />
regulation, lt can also be seen that l7 docunents either conduct risk<br />
assessment o. .n"tyt.s of risk assessment ne!hodologies. The approach taken<br />
to risk assessment in 25 docurents ;s through the use or performance of<br />
human ep idef,iologi ca I studies.<br />
TABL€ A.l<br />
I{UI,IBER <strong>OF</strong> DOCUNE TS <strong>II</strong>t BIETIOGRAPHY EHPLOY IiIG S€LECTED ITETHODOLOG IE5,<br />
ADOR:SS IN G SPECIFICTECI<br />
N ICAL iSSUES<br />
Cost-Benefi t Ana lys is (theoretical<br />
dimens ions and case studles)<br />
Risk-8enef it Ana lys t s<br />
General Pol icy Analytic Tech.lques<br />
Theoretical Aspects of Senefits AssessflI€nt<br />
- Val!ation l ssues<br />
- Equity and In.ome Distributlon<br />
Ep i demiology<br />
l.1ul ti pl e Re gresslon, Econoo.trlc Techn iquca<br />
llote: Categories are not mutuallv exclusive. For.xample, a docurEnt could<br />
ol<br />
I t0<br />
disclss the theoretical aspects of costjbenefit analvsi5'<br />
5?-?900-t0-5<br />
5O<br />
t7<br />
40<br />
:1<br />
:i<br />
i<br />
*<br />
,t<br />
l
58<br />
4,2 Descriptlon of the glbttography and Reference Atd3<br />
Appendix I contains a bibliography of 3j5 entries, I tsted €lphabett-<br />
cally by author, and Appendix C conrains 5 subject iodex. Each citat,on<br />
is uniquely identified by a I2 digit reference number. The reference<br />
identifier begins with the Ietter I (benefjts) and was cohstructed by ustng<br />
the first I letters of the author's last name, first initial, tast 2 digits<br />
of the year or publication, and the ftrst 4 letlers of the first 4 signiftcant<br />
vrords in the title. App€ndix B ls therefore.lso organized atphabeti-<br />
cal ly by i dent i fier.<br />
it -{<br />
n<br />
j<br />
.:<br />
1<br />
il<br />
)^.<br />
t<br />
*i<br />
,d<br />
il<br />
l<br />
:l<br />
1<br />
,*<br />
ri<br />
{<br />
j<br />
4<br />
'3<br />
.i<br />
I<br />
1<br />
,l
APPENDIX B: BIBLtOGRAPHY<br />
59<br />
!rlRlrTt Eo!P .lb!tt5!rt, 1. ttt.!.<br />
,cF!rllne, D.l. D.<br />
"th. EroroEic. o! lnvitou..t.I ?....!v.ti.!: CoEE.Et"<br />
A!ericsn E.orooic i.vi.e, rol.54, !o.6, Dec.!b.!, l9)4' P.<br />
1025-10?9<br />
BIC(E! 73osll A.k€r!.tr, A.uc. l.<br />
Ac k€ !!a!, sutr! loaa<br />
It.ode!.on, Dt l. lL<br />
"The tr.ce!t.iE Se.rch for tnvi!odr.nt.1 Policy: lhe Co.t.<br />
.nd Benefit6 of Controlliua ?oll,utioa Aloog th. D.1ts!!.<br />
Bive!"<br />
Phil,d€tphia, P4. u.iver6i!y of r€a!rytvlnl. ltr l.vi.t.<br />
vol. l2l, ro,6, Jube, 1973, P. 1225_1308<br />
llcS*rCEaER9 Cheaical 8od EnEitreerins €e3<br />
f,!. f,nwironr..t.1 Reg!1.tioa con. loo Pt!?: I D.b!t. o! lh.<br />
Co.tr ve! 3u5 th. Ben€fit5<br />
cheoi.al lnd rnsinee!ing nce., t979<br />
arcloJ76lal1{v ac ton, Jan P.<br />
"xe.3urin8<br />
!be Nodet.rt v!lu..f Ltf.t.Yin! lroti.r.'<br />
vrasbio8Lon, Dc: rhe R..d corpor.rion, 1976<br />
!AtlDtl,JT5SEaA Andreei r lLH, Ch!ist.trson, C,I.<br />
"sode<br />
Econdnic Fa.to!s lff..ting<br />
!i!uEino!6 coal )t!Des: A corrent"<br />
S.f.ct in UDd.tarouna<br />
South.r! Ec oDoE ic Jourtral, 1975<br />
lrP6.A+Qsscl2<br />
rir P6ttution CoDrrol as3oci.tion Qu.b.c ChApr.t<br />
Clc.ner Air: Costs-Bene!itr--SrtPoaiu! of the Ai! lolrution<br />
contro I As.oci6!iori<br />
Air torlutio! con!rol ,{s3ociati.n QuEb.c chqpte!, l9r2<br />
Aocr ican ret!o l.uE Institut€<br />
P.o.€€dins! ot the )g)J 0il siill<br />
Aehrviou!, Cotrtiol, cleatup)<br />
A6er i c.n Pe!!oleuo rrsliture, H.!ch,<br />
lAsS!!r79ECRr<br />
Zolt I E. X.<br />
(.rr. J. r. 8..!on, c.l.<br />
€v,li.ti.s Ch.di..l xegolrtiont:<br />
Irplct asserslent for Euvi!onE.nt.l<br />
Plielt, ra. c!!ti..<br />
tt.de-otl an.lytit<br />
D.ci.ioD- aLi!8<br />
.nd<br />
HIT Cent€r fo! Poli.t AIt.rnstive., 1979<br />
IASBLA' 6EAlE<br />
!'AILE'4IAIA<br />
!BAILET 6IAN'<br />
A.hley, Bolt Rudo.n, Bi.hlrd l.<br />
l,Ihippl e, chi!tophe!<br />
Ene!ay and Lh. !.viro.o.bt: A Ri6i a.n.fit 4PPto.ct<br />
Ietr Yo!k, IY: Pe!ttron ?!.r., l9?6<br />
B.iiey, xliz.rl.th E,<br />
" I!trov.t ion !n'l R.gulatiotr"<br />
Jo!!nal of ?ubtic iconooic., vor.3, !974, !. 285-2t5<br />
lailey, !Ii!rb+th E.<br />
"Ilnovatiot tad Reaul.tio!: l lcPlt"<br />
ConfG!!qc. ( P!.v!nt ion,<br />
t97 7<br />
t j<br />
-! I<br />
-:'<br />
:<br />
j<br />
it<br />
:<br />
.]<br />
4<br />
l
IEAILET6IAI'<br />
!aALloT TArtD<br />
traiAH?6r0Ec<br />
ltAR!a73|l t<br />
t!AislTTAOEt<br />
lrtsHttEEsAU<br />
!tLAllt?83sTo<br />
!!0Ltli77!aco<br />
D!Ottx77C!tF<br />
!BOTDtI6EAOE}<br />
ltREIU77BCAl<br />
60<br />
Jour..1 ot lub1tc A.o'o!i.!, vol.5, t976, p. 393-!t4<br />
Brldt.tii, o. !.<br />
"An App!o..h to th. D.relBis.clon ol th€ E.onoDic<br />
tffe.tiveo.r. of Irv..tu.nr i! pu!1ic f,.!tthtr<br />
$.r.koo, vo1. 12, so.5, Spring, t977r !. 84-95<br />
l6r.E, Uichrel S.<br />
"l.gulations<br />
of Environoetrt!t Car.inoAen.. th, Co.r-tei.fir<br />
An.ly.is ay !€ Irrrrfut to you! ne!tthr!<br />
CaobridSe, uA: Technology Revies, JutI/AuAu.r, t975, p.<br />
40-42<br />
Darlidg, A!tbu! !,<br />
"Me.suring E.nefit! Cen.rared by Ur!m ral.! p..k."<br />
LaDd EcoDoEic., voL 49, I973, p,22-34<br />
!.!seil, A.v, Jok.iEovic, v. Sil.dr. !.A.<br />
''4tr Ass€ssDerr .f XTCn Accidenr Cons.queic..!,'-<br />
Nlclea! Saf€rt, vo1. 18, oo. 6, Noveobe!, I9f1, p. f6l-773<br />
si.hopr Richa!d C.<br />
rrEndad8e!ed speci.. .od lrc.r!.iDtt: th. Econ.ric! of t S!!c<br />
ADe!ican Joulr.1 of Aari.ultut.t E.o!o!ic!, vol. 60, tro. I,<br />
Felrua!r, 197€, t. l0-18<br />
!1ar.y, Bich.rd !.<br />
"Settins<br />
S.rsse ?re.t..n! I,..r Cb.ra. d.!..: . Co!r/!.a.!ir<br />
x€n,g.oent Accou!tiog, Deceob.r, l9?a, p, l97g<br />
Bureeu of N.rional AfIair. rnvironienral R.po!!e!<br />
&CBA S€en Fo!.ing Che!ic!t tndust!y Ioto- no!. rffi.i.!t<br />
Hr..6eren t !!actice!<br />
trashihEroo, DC: !ure.u ot n.rion,t A!frii. Environoert.I<br />
R.porce!, AuEust 31, t9?9, F. lO77-78<br />
Bolle, Xa!y J.!e<br />
Benefit. and Co3t. of the O.cup.!ion.l Sr!ctt .nd E€.tth<br />
Act: A R€vier of rhe Avlila6t€ LiEe!atqr.<br />
T!rbinacon, DC: US Libra!t of conEr.!ir Cone!.6sional<br />
Re sexrch Se!! ic e r 1977<br />
Bolle, l{.!y J.n.<br />
cost-Benefit studi., for OSBA Sr.rAard.: Ir..<br />
l,os lDg.l,es, Crt: US Li!..ry<br />
Re r earcn Servi.e, 1977<br />
oa colalc.!, corA.... i o!.1<br />
3ond, it,B, Blckurlr.!, J,t. perti!, D,E.<br />
-an occ!patioo.I Fe,lrh ProErrr--cosrs vs !en€fjrr"<br />
A.chiv.s of EDvi!oodeDt.1 fiealrh, t968<br />
Breuer, x, Itervey<br />
"lealth Cos!6 and B€nefitr of EconoEic policy.l<br />
cr6bridg€, MA: InLe(narional Journ.l of Sc.t!h g.rvic..,<br />
I<br />
t<br />
1<br />
.rq {
a<br />
l!BocT?5EAOT<br />
ltaooDT tEtor<br />
!!a00J78tlvl<br />
!!t0TR?650T1<br />
!BBUCLT 5Af,BA<br />
tauaepT 7 Er'tE<br />
!!utRrT4loAo<br />
lt0atPT4tctc<br />
ol<br />
!!oct.tt, t. Dor lrom. tl.lcoh c. Riret, Lrtrt li'<br />
sh.r!cr. D!!i.l D. lroodt.rd. llioE G.<br />
Itln t.on.!ic a[.lttit ot rh. con6uber! unio. !!oro.ed s.f.ty<br />
St.!d.!d loE Por.! Lrvn ltoee!3<br />
I,Ii6hiDsro!, DCr 5ttn!ord l....rch Ib.titu!.' 1975<br />
a!oot€h i!€, !!vid S,<br />
Schul ze, Diltiro D.<br />
"^n E.o;ori. rntl y!.it ot !h. litl. of LoEt l.r. rtcl..!<br />
lrniver!ity ol x.r lt.ri,co, 1977<br />
"T!yior to vrlu..lif."<br />
.rouinal ot iublic !coDo.ic., vol,9' l9tl, ?.91-l0O<br />
lrosn, f,al pb J.<br />
"A<br />
Studt o! th€ hP..r o! th. 9et1.nd. E..eoant ?roat.r .r<br />
Ag!ic!ltural l,.n d 9.1u..<br />
!!od Ecooo!ic!, vol.52, ro.4, Noredb€r, I976, P. 509_517<br />
Bru.*oen, L.oar!d Rubino, Robert A.<br />
"A.b!6!o.: BaLion,r€ B.hird ! ?ropos.d Air Q!!lity St.ndrrd'l<br />
Jourr.l of th€ Ai! ?ollutioD Coni!o1 A3.ociatio!' vo1. 25'<br />
.o. 12, DeceEler, 1975' P, 1207_l2ll<br />
luraer,, liil l i oD<br />
DiaErn!rdinis, loui.<br />
Spei.er, Ptatrk r.<br />
ItExpo.u! e ro AutoEo! iI.<br />
l!ch ives of Ervironneot.l<br />
325-329<br />
lrh.!rt tll ! ln Envi!on!.nrrl<br />
E..tth, vot.25, Jn!.' 1973, P.<br />
Bnrrors . Pdul Rouley, Ch.!1.! 0v.r ' David<br />
"The rc;nooic. Of A.(ideit,l oil Pollution Bv Tank.r. in<br />
Corsta), r{are!3'!<br />
Jo!r\al ot !ubtic Eco!otj,c., vo1.3, 19r4, !. 251_268<br />
ru!!oes, ?a!l lorl.y, Cha!1.. orEtr' Drvid<br />
''Tortey caryon: A cr!e study in Accid.ot.l loltution"<br />
Jouln.l of Political EconoDy, vol. 21, Do. 3, Iov€!b.a'<br />
!974, p.237-25a<br />
C!!!be1l, Rit. Rica!do<br />
"r!osr€ctive,<br />
Cort-a.n.fit An!lyti. of ! ll.t Drsl<br />
"Tasi;ent": Duod..r l ulc.r"<br />
-D.c.!b!r'<br />
xoove! Inrtiruti.., sttnfo!d U.ive!!itt'<br />
1977<br />
lclRLiTTGRtA csrlson, RDg.r s. !.2!.2r f.A:<br />
I'cro'th led!ction in t!.rica6 svcrEore (rrant..sr<br />
occide.t!1is) csused bv ?b-Cd lnteraction"<br />
!nvi!ondental !ot!ution, vol, 12, 197t, ,.243'2Jt<br />
lcllELJT4cotA chel iqs, Jabes B.<br />
"the Control o! 1ndus.!i.l Accideut.: Econotic Tb.ott ldd<br />
EsPiiic!1 rYider.t"<br />
!.; snd contedpor6iy Probl..., rol.38, 1t74, P' 699-719<br />
1<br />
4<br />
n<br />
I<br />
.
!ct0oL76roPc<br />
!cIcccT6EEOA<br />
ICL4RETT<br />
IEOE<br />
lcogiJT30Dtc<br />
!coLlD75tPAf<br />
!c0 ltB? ?ctBA<br />
!coNLt76VOf,L<br />
acotLBTa$0Ilt<br />
lco0rP78TVOfi<br />
!ciEnJT ?CASI<br />
lctuT!76IOCI<br />
lcrJ!1t730tts<br />
62<br />
Cn!8h, L.l C. l:!eD.r, lichr.! U.b.pr!r., S.<br />
"tltrct<br />
o! Pollu!ion R.aulrtioD. on che i.rt.t RiEt o!<br />
Securiries i! rhe !. s.tr<br />
Jouro.l of E.onobic St!di€6, rol.5, !o, l, xry, !978, p,<br />
Cicclr.tti, Cbrr l., J.<br />
Fi.h.., lntbony c. 5!ith, v. (.r!t<br />
"An Eeo6o!.r!ic Er.1.!!rio! ot. c.i,e!!liz.d conr!o.r lurptus<br />
!e..u!e: the ireral (ina Conr!ove!!y',<br />
EcoEor.rric., vo1. 44, !o, 6, Nov€&be!, t916, p. L259-t2j6<br />
CIaE!., !de.!d 8.<br />
xsoci:l<br />
lslurtion..o!<br />
eev.arioB Ploc e. s<br />
Eqviton!.!t!1. Qustitt bt the D.D.!!t<br />
t'<br />
D!iv€ r6i! y of Chic.8o, l9?t<br />
Coh.n, J.rry J.<br />
"Oo D€ceroirinS the Co!r of 4!di.tion Expo6o!. to<br />
Populrrion. to! pu!p..es of Cost-!enefit Ao.lyriE'!<br />
&earth ?hyEice, eo!..25, nor.!b.rr r97t, p. 52?-:28<br />
Colla!d, D.v id<br />
"EoviroDaeat.l<br />
!olicy.!d E.onooi. !tt.!!al it i.r,'<br />
London, ux: fh€ Econooic Jo!!nr1, S.?terber, r975, p. 655-6<br />
Corooner, !.rry<br />
" C o 6 t - I i s k - I e n e f i t Analy!iB of xit!oae! !er!ili..rion: I<br />
c€ ee girtor!"<br />
Albio, vol._5, !o.2, l9??, p. 157-l6l<br />
Conl ey, artar C.<br />
rrtte ValuE oi 8sr.! Lifa i! ttr. DeBard f6r Sstett"<br />
Aoeric!n !.onoEic r.vi.r, vol.65, no. t, x.!ch, rr75, p.<br />
45-55<br />
Conley, l!y.. lt.<br />
'rthe value of qo!!n !ife in tb. De!.n.t for Safery: f,tte,rioE<br />
A6ericatr EconoEic Revi.*, vot. 68, no. 4, S.pteibe!, t978,<br />
p. 7 7IJ-120<br />
Coor, Philip j.<br />
'rThe<br />
Vrlue of luE.n Lif. i! rh. D.r.nd fo! S.tetr: CoEDenr.'<br />
lEeric€o Ecotroaic Reviee, vot.68, !o.4, s.Dr€;b.;, 19t8.<br />
p. 710-7ll<br />
Cr€oeans ! Johf, !.<br />
"con.eprual<br />
.rd SEr!i.tiarl Ir!ue5 in D.v.loping<br />
lnv i!oroent a I u€as!.e.--l.c.nr U.S. !xpe(i.nc."<br />
Revier of IncoEe !nd \,lertrh, vol. t3r no- Z, r9t?, E- 9.t-rt5<br />
C!ut3e!, P.ul J.<br />
"flie<br />
ID!..t of rle chto!ocarbon Indu6try oD tte Oroa. t.ye."<br />
Jo!rral of c€ophysical Rese.rch, vot. 81, tro.<br />
1, J6auary, 1978, D. 345-163<br />
ril<br />
t :<br />
$<br />
rF<br />
;i<br />
il<br />
,$<br />
rt<br />
.rd<br />
l<br />
!i<br />
I<br />
4<br />
'n<br />
I<br />
i,i<br />
l<br />
,.i
lct[,tlttottS<br />
lc0xr'tr74EoEt<br />
tcult9.rAoor<br />
tc0rtrfiIooo<br />
IDAlt6DT6XDAPRaoe<br />
e y, Drvid D.<br />
"A<br />
Note on rlir r.l1slio.,<br />
IDAIDRTTC'AO Dr!dir, Rache I fhorD.o!,<br />
trCo.t_lenefil<br />
Anal ys i t of tr'.<br />
for spnotrreled rutnitu!e"<br />
Universit y of x.ty1.nd, l9?7<br />
ID<strong>II</strong>IE'8EOSE<br />
!DEVGJT5CIAAcr..ff<br />
, J. D. v.<br />
"cosr-Eenefir An!!yri.. l ctitic.l vi.,"<br />
the South Af!ican Journa! of !cotroiic., tol. 43, !o. 2'<br />
1915, r, 731-744<br />
tDE'/t!74tP9l<br />
63<br />
non rh. lcorocic !orrl!..ra ti. v.lq. ot Lif.!<br />
!utl.tin ot Ecoloric Rc....ct, vol, 2t, 19t3, ?.61_tl<br />
CuEcins !, nonald Iotto., virgil<br />
iir'.<br />
Eioi..l"" of !!viro.D;!t.l-Pr...!v.tioo:<br />
ADe!icaD EconoDic l.vi.r, vo1.64, !o.6,<br />
l0rt-10?a<br />
a cor..!rn<br />
D.ce!ter' l9t4' D.<br />
Cur i nglotr, Di 1l i$ t.<br />
"An.ly.i. ot osEA'. ldpact o. th. t!.qo.!ct .6d 5.r.!ilt o!<br />
Occur!!io!.r Inj ur i.."<br />
Sy!iau.e, tY: rh. I.xv.tI school, l..lth 5tuai.. !.otr.r<br />
CurinAtotr, tilli!o l.<br />
"rhe<br />
irp.it of osx^ on th. !!.qu.!cv .qd s.v.ritv o!<br />
Occ!pe!io!.1 lrjuri€s"<br />
Syracuse, {.Y.: The ll.xe.lI School, $"lth Stqdit' ?roA!!r<br />
L.nd Ecooonicr, vol. 52, no.<br />
tDAtDf,tSC!AO<br />
"Coit-Ben.fiL<br />
An.lysis of !Iat!.bilitt 8t.nd!tdt" -<br />
Aoerican Journdl oll Aaricultural E.ono!i.r, voL.50' n.. 4'<br />
Itov€ole r, t978, p, 695-700<br />
tDottft6!st0<br />
lD0R!R7rt0tE<br />
Deni5on, Edv.!d l.<br />
"nff€.t3 of selected ch a o8..<br />
tnv i ronoent Upon O!tput r.!<br />
Surv. y of Csrresr Bu.in...,<br />
i! rh. Inrtitution.l end 8un.n<br />
J.ru.ry, I978, r.2l-44<br />
D.t.&, li&othr l- stith,9. x.!r,<br />
"R;!idential ?!o!.!ty v.1u.t .nd Ait t.llqtion: aot. X.t<br />
Qu.rE..lt i.ei.e of !co..ric. ud<br />
susin€s., vol. l{' lov€o!er, 1974, P. 93_100<br />
Dor lE.n, r.nct r.<br />
"The soclal V!l!. ol s.ving a !if."<br />
AEe!ican !ublic !.alth At.oci.tiotr' l9t6<br />
DorfDan, Rob. rt<br />
"IDcidence or th. !.!.t!tt .!d Cott. ot lnviion!.nt'1<br />
Iroa!r!r"<br />
9..iinsEob, Dc: ,|.!ic.o E.ono!i. t.vi€r<br />
P.oP2t ty vtlu.. lnd Fi.c.l<br />
r, x.r, l9?6, r.230-234<br />
!!o po tGa fI.!!.!ilitt St.nd.rd<br />
.?<br />
;<br />
i<br />
i<br />
i<br />
:<br />
,t<br />
:<br />
;<br />
I
!EADSCT8tOAt<br />
"the<br />
TEDI|US<br />
TttICA<br />
tEDtusTSrIol<br />
!r!LtD77ClAA<br />
rE!LtJT8lOSO<br />
B'ANRA**CEI2<br />
!tELtttSc,|Bo<br />
B FIRGAT6SOE<br />
I<br />
ltEtiB?EtlEO!<br />
B!ISCBT6CBAA<br />
!FISI{A'2EOE?<br />
IFISNAT4EOIP<br />
t978<br />
64<br />
!.trefit. oJ !.tt.! !6ne!ir. E.rlE.rioro<br />
!ubl ic Itrtere.t r.oiooic! tosn.t!!ion,<br />
l.t!un d d , Sr aht I<br />
"E!v<br />
i!ohrenr rl IEpa.r., Costti.tE<br />
N'naseE€nt revi'v, 'or ' 9, !o, 3, Sprins, r977,<br />
;:';iii"'"<br />
E
a<br />
tx)<br />
lll6lA74!oE? Cicci.rti - ch!rlc. J.<br />
"Th.<br />
E.ohooic! Ol Envi!oo!.!t.l PrG..lrttiot: toltl.!<br />
Di !c r.. iotr,'<br />
A!.tic.q Ecooosic R.vi.e, vol.64, no.6. Dec.rb.r' l9t4r P.<br />
t030-1039<br />
!flSEAtSBcE! lish.(, /|n!hont q. I!utill.' J.ln ?.<br />
"r.!oui..<br />
con.art.tion. heir.!r.b!.1 P!...rv.tio!.<br />
l.tG o! Dir.ount"<br />
Qu.rt.rLy Journal of Econoiic., eor.69, no. 3'<br />
359-370<br />
tfISStt6trE.l<br />
laoRsL? 6 sBaD<br />
r!RAUJt5Cl{IU<br />
l975, p.<br />
Firh.t, &thont C.<br />
?.te(ron, Fr.d.ric l.<br />
''lh.<br />
EaviroM.Dt ia lcotroric.rl S!rv.y"<br />
Jourtrrl<br />
p. l-33<br />
ol Ecoro'i. Li!.r.tur., vol. 14, no. I, I|.tch, l9t5i<br />
ao!.t.r, D. Lynn<br />
"Silul!ted<br />
B€ef teeillot !.hrvi,our sta.! Alt.rn.tie. L.t.r<br />
Potlution cont rol lu1.!'<br />
Are!i.an Joulnal of A8!icslturrl lcono.ic., rol.57, io. 2.<br />
Hay, 1.975, p. 259-268<br />
{oover, Robe!t<br />
Fr6uDeni. Jo.cDb 1.. Jr.<br />
"c.nc.r norr!ri!r ii !.S. Coubt!i.. tfith Ch..i..l Inarrrri..<br />
: ErvirooD.ntal R.!..rch, vol,9, 1975, p, t96-2O7<br />
<strong>II</strong>RAUJT5C!OL !lor, r,lilli& J.<br />
Fr.uE.n i ; JD.eph F., Jr,<br />
"CeoE!sphic!l<br />
a.tt.dr ot !!rt C....r. lad06ari.l<br />
r ltlllJ7?crru<br />
IttEEAT4ttt!<br />
IFREEA.'4OEAI<br />
AEe!rc.n Jou!.al o! Elid.riolott, rol.. lO3, oo.6, 1976, p.<br />
t39-550<br />
!lur r lliIli.E J. Brinto!, Louirc A.<br />
ar.@.ni, Jor.ph l. J!.,<br />
"C.!c.!<br />
Hortali!t i,r U.S. Cou.lri!3 9ltl Pe!r.ltur<br />
science, vol. 198, r977, p.5l-53<br />
!r.ena! r A, Utricl, <strong>II</strong>I<br />
rAi. Pollurio! .nd ?rop.rtt V.l!.s: A l!!tb.r CooE.nt"<br />
Reviee ot EcoooEic. altt S!.tiEtic., !or, 56, 1974, E.<br />
5 54-55 6<br />
F!..ian, A. ItyricL r <strong>II</strong>t<br />
'ron E6tibdrirR Air !ollutioE Conrrol<br />
!€..1i . 3 froo !.ad<br />
Chicago, !L: Jou!!ar of Envi!onr..t.l Econoric. .nd<br />
Hanaaeeent, wol- l1 1974, p. ?4-83<br />
EIAEEATtTa!E Free!.n, A. HyricL, ItI<br />
r'?he th.or.ti..l !..ir to! ErDitic.! l.rtrr.r.!tt of<br />
3.n.!it."<br />
j<br />
:<br />
:1<br />
.4<br />
I '!<br />
'..<br />
1<br />
t<br />
l
l!i,EEAttT!!t<br />
aFR!tl79l0t I<br />
rcl(sJ78 totA<br />
IGATiSR'<br />
TEAA!<br />
lc!rzulSEt!i<br />
BGIBSJ'5IOPPcibson,<br />
Joh! J,<br />
''Th.<br />
Interp!.r€rion of !!op.!ty pric. Ch.n!€r for. u.!sure<br />
or rhe t{elf.!. !en.fit. of poltution<br />
Co!r!ol: Lo S.irDl.<br />
!G0tDv74EOP5Coldlerg,<br />
vic cor !.<br />
''the<br />
t.onooic r of !rodrct<br />
Be rl Jotr!oal oI Econoric!<br />
1974, p. 683-688<br />
tcnAtaT8EOLA<br />
66<br />
!!b1irl.! iot rnoh, 1977<br />
F!eeDaa, A. Uyric L, <strong>II</strong>I<br />
rhe l.!efir. ol Elvirondetrt.l I!D!oicoeDt<br />
E.ltiEor€, tD: John. !oplin. Vniv.!sity Et... lor l.ro!!...<br />
!o! rrle hture, 1979<br />
cat6 r dt ter, J..t [.<br />
CalIabEn,<br />
"The<br />
Cl.reDce A.<br />
rEp.ct ol !ro.itty Applied<br />
oD Eut rophic,t ion Con!rotr'<br />
EfItue!! pbo.pboru! gt.nd.rd.<br />
raale! 8e!ources R€.er!cI,<br />
r155-r158<br />
vot. la, tro.6, D€..rbe!r !978r D.<br />
"EconoEic AE!1ysi, .!d Edi!onr.!r.t !,egrt!tiorsl<br />
: u.6. lrvironr.nt.t !rot.crioD AB.ncy, Dlv. o! rco..<br />
C.r z, t.lcotr Eu.nB, iuh-chila<br />
-coD.uEe! Revear.d Preferenc€ for tbviro.reEr.l cood3,,<br />
th€ Revier of EconoDica ard statisric5, !ol. 60, 1978, !.<br />
449-45a<br />
UrbaD studie., vor, 13, 1975, p,45-50<br />
G!.boeski, EeDry c.<br />
ve!!on, Johtr U.<br />
'tCotr.ub€! !!oduc ! Saf .rt<br />
Aoe! ic an xconooic Bevier.<br />
284 -9<br />
g.!c tt ard hrerfect In!o!&.tion',<br />
rDd l{.oas.Deot S. icd.e, vor , 5,<br />
vo1.68, tro. 2, xrr, I9?€, !,<br />
lcxAttDt6csAgr<br />
nCost-Benefir<br />
.s tl.ished ob C.netic sc.1.e!'<br />
rtr.ysy rEd the Envi!oD6err: cost Benefir Analy3i.,<br />
371-386<br />
I976, D.<br />
rcREt T9lFOt<br />
IGR<strong>II</strong>JT4EEO'<br />
lctulu?5c!at<br />
Green, rlark l,a i tzdar, Normen<br />
Bn.i!€ss Da! otr tie r,ar: An Aaalt.i. of r!. !.ne{ir. of<br />
Fede! a I lrealrh/Saf€!y Erfo!ceo.n!<br />
rhe Corporar€ Accoubtlrrility &ese!!.h Cro!p, l9?9<br />
G!tffib: JaDe s K.<br />
'tAo<br />
EcoooDerric Ev.l!.tion or tulfur t.xe."<br />
Jouinal of poliiic.l Ecotrobt, vol. B2, 1974, !: 669-I326<br />
"Cos!-!enefir<br />
Analysis ir thG Fore!t!y Se.tor'r<br />
E<br />
;<br />
I<br />
:<br />
I<br />
.<br />
1
!crDlt?5clll<br />
!f,Atrxs 74 ! caR<br />
lxA!otttrtr*<br />
tlaf,lJTl tall<br />
!nARntT8tsaE<br />
luAetDT 5r{!Fc<br />
llArrD?7cttI<br />
laAllDT6A!A?<br />
!lAnD7!DCrA<br />
!tAtiDt6DosF<br />
lElltDT6aaPA<br />
67<br />
tbc louth ltrlc.r Jo.r!.1 .t tco.orlcr' r.t. ltr ro. 2'<br />
1975, p. 187-!04<br />
E.oL.. st.v. B, l,!lL.r. llcb.!a<br />
nt:..iit-4.;r<br />
An.1r.i. rec;!.td.E.il: ^! !v.lurtio. ol th.<br />
xid- st.t. !!oj ec!rl<br />
t,t.r t.!ourc.6 v6o.8.!.!t, vol. 10, tlo.5, Octob..r 1974'<br />
p. 898_904<br />
"li!t-!.!efit An.ltti.r Putci!! .ltlG. o! tout Li!.n<br />
: At I rnt ic xasrzi!., 1979<br />
n.rirB, Jo tepn l|<br />
v.. Dev.!t.r. Alren<br />
"I.direct<br />
.oA Irduc.d t...!i!-Co.! l..ltti.r C.r. Studt"<br />
rh. R.viee ol Econoni...nd<br />
312-318<br />
st.ti.tict, io1. 60' 1978' D'<br />
E.rnisor, Los.l1 !.<br />
"Toxic Sqb.t.Dc.. !nd H..1th"<br />
u.s. !!b1ic ue.1th s.!vic.. Adiinintrrllou-_Public<br />
Il.!lth Re]o!ts, vo1. t3., oo. I, J!nu.rt. l9tE, P.3-10<br />
l.r! i.oa I Drvid, Jr.<br />
tho !.y. for Clean Airr t!. Co.t .rd tG..fi! Di!tribut:ot ot<br />
r.d.!.r Autoro! il. e EDi.!io. Control.<br />
c.rb!idE€, uA: !.llinge! ?ubli.biDg cooPrlt' l9?5<br />
[.rr i.ot, Dav id, Jr.<br />
"Cotr!ro1iinS<br />
Autoeobile xooiriont: noe ao<br />
Billiotr P.r re!r .td €lt tha Poot 7oo"<br />
c.Dbridae,<br />
t21-553<br />
lll: Publi. Polict. vol ' 25, no.<br />
6.v. Ho!. lt.n 5l<br />
r, r.rr, rlrr, p.<br />
Il.! r i 3on, Drvid, J!,<br />
Rub in f€ td, Dlniel L.<br />
"The Ai! Pollurioa .ad Ptop.ttt t.lu. !.b.t.: so.e EoPi!lc.l<br />
Ev i d.n..i'<br />
tt. Reri.r of Ecoiooic! rn.t St.titlictr vol. 60' ro. 4,<br />
l{oveobe!, 1978, p. 635-638<br />
Xar! i rot, Dlvid I Jr.<br />
Di'ttibutiv. con.id.r.tion. in 1.....ir! tt. lctc!itr .l<br />
ne.lth.!d stfert R€Au1.E iot."<br />
Ber&e1y sp!g3, c.YA: !ubIic I!iG!..t<br />
1978<br />
Eco.oric. !outd.ti.on'<br />
U.rr i.on, Drvid, J!.<br />
Rubinfeld, D.. i. t L.<br />
"Ihe Dist;i!!tiotr of lcne!it. lrot ioDlov.!€!t. ln orb.n lir<br />
Journ!l of lnvi!onr.nt.l Econosi.. .ltl t.n.a...!t, to!. 3,<br />
1978, p. ll3-ll2<br />
B..risotr, D.r id , Jr.<br />
rubinfeld, D.1i.1 L.<br />
"s.donic nou.inB r!ic.. .n.t th. D.trnd lor Cl.tn Air"<br />
i:<br />
!<br />
-i<br />
I<br />
a<br />
4 l<br />
4<br />
.<br />
;<br />
{
<strong>II</strong>ABRD?E!EPI<br />
A!AVIRl'D!OY<br />
EtrDClilr69 POB*<br />
!nEcRDTttt0!<br />
EtENAC?409I1<br />
lf,E&t{s77tcol<br />
IxILAllr 7FlllC<br />
!BOCSET6EOEP<br />
!TOTECTTDIA!<br />
IttvIt? ?caAo<br />
!Jf,Nt{A74!t!P<br />
BJEFNVT?AZKE<br />
!JONDJT2UOtC<br />
68<br />
Jour!rl ol Elvlrollcn!.1 !.onortc, .Erl l.D.a.rcEt r vol. 5r<br />
t9t8, D. 6l-I02<br />
Srve!a!, loberr E,<br />
gei!brod, lur.o! l',<br />
'D. fi!ina Benetit' of ?ublic<br />
Poli.y Ana1y. i."<br />
: Pub I irb er Nor Rnoun<br />
EochrrD, Balold lt. Rodae!., J.De. D.<br />
"Idreto<br />
opt iEal R.di!tribsrio!"<br />
AE.!ica! aconoiic Revi.e! vol. 59, 1969, D. 542-j5?<br />
t€ck.r, D.Dia1<br />
''uanpoue!<br />
IEDrct .f E.ite!!l !ollution conr!ol Erp.nditut€st'<br />
Uonthly L.bo! t.vicr, vol. t8, J.nur!y-Jun., 1975, p. 54-56<br />
"Opriotr valuGe in tne Ecouolier of Ir!epI.c..blc A.s.r.r,<br />
r€viei o! EcoDoric studi.r. 1974<br />
f,€rorn, Sler.rt W.<br />
th€ Health costs of Ai! PollqtioD<br />
Aae!ican Luns Assoc i.! io!, 1977<br />
UilaEti, Earvey J.<br />
"Facto!r<br />
i! ltor. Co6tlt lc.id.Dts D!rsn f!o! Core..sared<br />
Xonthly Labor Revi.e, vot. lOO, Julr-DEc.r tr77, p.4l_43<br />
ItgchDaD, Ei!hatr Zilb.rE.n. Drvid<br />
'Exsrrn.rion<br />
of Erviro.!.nr.t policie! U!irg ?rodrcEion !na<br />
lol I ut ion tic!opar.Dere! Disrribu!io!.I<br />
E..nobetiica, vol- 46r so.4, JuIy, 1978, D. 739_Z5O<br />
$ole, Cha! I es L.<br />
"Disllaced<br />
Faciliries arit aEnefit Calc!tations: ColEent.,<br />
L€nd EcoooEic5, ro1. 53, !o. 4, NoveEbe!, t977, p. 496_498<br />
lrviq, l\oEAs R.<br />
'A<br />
Cost-BeneIir Analysir of hLfu,<br />
leaul aE ions in ?hi1adelDhir"<br />
!ur in€s s EcoDoricc, l9?i<br />
"rhe<br />
lenefirr ro the pubtic<br />
XE.3!rina rhe IrnDeisurablE!'<br />
ol V.hict. leaisletion _<br />
Itech.nical tnsineering pu6licarioosr<br />
Ltd., 1974<br />
Jenner, Von Juraen<br />
rur xoDstrutrion eine3 UorEltE!,.briDdirato!s<br />
E.trict(lunssEoglichkeite! und c!enzen--- Ar Appr6rct Tos.rd<br />
rn 0ve!a1l Envi!onber r al rrdicaior"<br />
Janrbuchei f$ Natio.atokobie uDd s!.tisrik, vol. l9A, no.<br />
2, Septenbe!, 1977, '. 148^170<br />
Jotd!oe, Jahes X.<br />
"rre!.riprion<br />
Drus Ef f.ctive..js,,<br />
lrogr!!!: so!. coidlac. to!<br />
Dior ide Ab.t.!eDr<br />
I<br />
I<br />
i<br />
r<br />
- I<br />
!;l
I<br />
rJoxDJT2XOlC<br />
!JONEnT4VOC I<br />
lroiatT8voll<br />
Dt(AtEt.t8DA0E<br />
ItItLGTaSOCl<br />
ITLEITT8DATA Bleinilorfe!, Paul l.<br />
Run! e ulh.!, Bos!rd<br />
I'D.sc.iDtiv. and PrescriPtiv€.!tect3 of n€.lth .Dd S!f€tv<br />
rl(!rf,EA78AAAt<br />
ttoL}(s76}s.i<br />
BriIf,vT8EEO{<br />
DLAO'L? 6DA'C<br />
lLA9ELTTlPXt<br />
69<br />
!D!q!1irh.d Di....t!tion, Itriver.itt o! ri.con.i!' lt72<br />
Joner-!.., x i. b..l<br />
"rtr"<br />
v.rui ot ch..sGt i! th. Pro!.!ilitt of D.t!h ot Isjurv<br />
Joutnrl af Politic.r E.o!o!t, iol. !1, l97a<br />
Jotr" r-la., l. P.<br />
fthe varo; ol HuEa! Life i! thc Deo.nd fo. S.fEtv: ao!!'nt"<br />
a!erlc.q €coro!ic nevica, Yol.58, Do' 4' se!!!Dber' l9l8l<br />
9. 712-lt6<br />
Ri.& .t!r.r!!.tt ol Ervitolsent.l E.t.!a<br />
Iee rotl(: John riley .na so!!, !9r8<br />
Xi r l ough, J.J. Till, J.E<br />
"sceua;i;s lor catbon-14 n.le.r. rto! th. lrotlil lscI..t<br />
!o,er tDdu6try ftoo !9?5 t. 2020 .nd th' Etti!'t'd<br />
Xrdioloaical lop.c t "<br />
lrucl€ar safety, !o1. 19, so' 5, 5.pt.sbe!' l9?E' !. 602-6I7<br />
l.it"ty<br />
1978<br />
sp-e", T.va: Public llt.re.t i.o!o!ic. found.rio!'<br />
llxEEAlTllEU *n.e6e, aller vscbulze,<br />
Iril l i.E D.<br />
"Eavittonaenr, ttes I r h, .nd !.onoDic.---<br />
A6.rjcan Econori. l.viet' vol. 67 '<br />
?26- 13 2<br />
Th€ Clie of c.!c.tr'<br />
I€niu.ty, 1977' 9.<br />
rnee.e. lll.! V.<br />
"B€n€fit<br />
A!!1tti. !.d tod.Ye R.But.!ory lrol l.t.'<br />
Ber](€l' spia., lt. va: Prblic tDr.i.!t !conooic! !ouit.tlon,<br />
1978<br />
Iol!, s e ! E e- Ch ! i s to Ph.<br />
"Public<br />
safety"<br />
A!.!i.an tconoEic r..ti.e,<br />
382-78'<br />
tol.66, no. 3l Jur., 1t76, ?.<br />
!liealt\ tff.ct. of Loi.e Er!o!ut."<br />
ro"'n.r ot so!nd !ib!ation, vol.59, ro. l, 19t8, D' 65-71<br />
Irv€. L€rret B- SGttrnr luacn. ?.<br />
"Do€; air Polru.ioo cqu6e Lortalitv?"<br />
li.e Iotk, NY: R.tourcct for th€ rrrurG ' l9t6<br />
!!v€, L€ s t€! B. Serki., Euae.. !.<br />
!rAir Po11u.iotr 6 Hort.lity:<br />
Th. sitti.tic!t<br />
r;ofessioral En8ir.er, J*i,e, r9?7' t, l9-21<br />
j
llAlaP76tD0D<br />
E LEADB 75IOU!<br />
!ttlEs t4cBAO<br />
70<br />
"th.<br />
l.rc of Di..our in Co!r-B.D.fit Studie.,,<br />
Jo!!n.l of t!u!po!t !.ononic. lnd policy, rol.<br />
S€pt€{b€!<br />
10,<br />
, 1916, !. 263-266<br />
Leade!.! r !! i.tr t.<br />
zaer!ni rti, *.6ec c ! t,<br />
Stolsijt, JaD l.J,<br />
;B;-ili:i:""t<br />
EGarch !en.fit, du€ to f,.d!.tior. tn ^rbi..t<br />
!er-to.tr<br />
r. 31-3 7<br />
r|Y: Eovi!onnerrar {an.Bereot, vot, l, !o. r, 1926,<br />
Leb.rgott, st inl et<br />
{cost-aenefir Arrryri. of Cheoical.: Ad Eco!o!is?.. point.t<br />
u.s, N!rio!al Ac.d.!y of s.i.trc.r (unpubli.ted), l9?4<br />
ALIiTTDTSPDRA<br />
"?he<br />
Privare Di3cou!t Aare artt !€sosrc€ Co.se.v.!ion.',<br />
ca!adia! ro!rr!1 ot Ecotrooicr, vot. E, no. :, e"e""i, tgr:,<br />
p. 3 51- l6l<br />
ttt50J75 rAta<br />
"Ionovation<br />
lnd tesul.tioD: A Co!!.nt'<br />
Journal of publi. EcoroDics, vol,5, l9?f, ?. 3S9-!91<br />
Let o!roet, Al.ia<br />
"Saare!<br />
Ervilonee!r<br />
Auto{r d<br />
!t Consoarationr te.tic!1. Di.cu..io!<br />
"un !LETOA?5SAaC<br />
Bode l€',<br />
&evue xconoeique, vol.27, 1975, p. 4Ol-432<br />
8LIfiDa7 6QtcA<br />
"QuanEifyinS<br />
the Co!t! of !ne.ttrr<br />
Lrtion6l Insrirut. of t.di.tio! ?!ot.criDn, Syc.t.!, l9?5, p.<br />
347 -407<br />
slIlF!7 9EA*r<br />
!xAcIA**CSAO<br />
rrAJolT5Er{E!(<br />
ataBrIlt5!tAE<br />
!lrlzzttrra0At<br />
Lipferr, trederic r.<br />
I'Env<br />
i roEoen !.1 R.!ula!ionn<br />
ch€oicdl lnd rnSiie.rina N.,!, JuBe, I979, D. 36-t9<br />
xac ln r yre, A.gu! 4.<br />
I'AD 0utsider" Vi.e of rhe DDt Decision,'<br />
U.s, Nrcioa!1 l.rdery of s.ience, N.cional ne!.rrcb Coulcil<br />
llajocchi, Albe!to<br />
"EconoD€t!ic<br />
llethod, to! Be..!!ia8 th. Sbiftirt o! !ortu!ion<br />
CoDtrol Cosrr o! pri.c...!d rne En.ui!g rIt.cr; or ExEottin<br />
Rivirtr Inr€rDa.ionile di scien.. Eco!;,i.he e co.,"i.i"ii,<br />
toL. 22, 1975, p, t09-129<br />
x!it in, trilliaD E.<br />
t'E.onoric<br />
tt.enirud., .!d tcotroEic AtrGloativ.. in Lo,er<br />
a..i! Ure of Coro!ado River fl.te!'l<br />
N.tu.a1 &esources Jotro.t, vot. rjr J..uary, l9?5, I,<br />
229- 219<br />
{!z rocchi. Anthodv<br />
""An<br />
!v!1;.rion oi c.ns".et prot.cti.n<br />
L.8irl.iioo: rhe<br />
::.I<br />
'.1<br />
!
t<br />
BrrAZtATrtOtY !952 DlqE rr.ad..att"i .l Cott.t! rh. !t62 D!u! Ar.!d.'att":<br />
l Corr.bt th. t962 Dsus lcsndD.nt.": A CorD.nt"<br />
Frieddr ol th. E.rtb. 1977<br />
7l<br />
lxcG0t75EOCl xcCuir. ' lhoost<br />
"Th. 1962 D!uA ltcnd!.!!.": A corEent"<br />
B.!tf.!dr CT: JoutD.l of Politicrl x.ono!t, vol.83r !o. 3,<br />
1975<br />
Dt{cLAs75!oro {ccl.rahli!, 8..ocl<br />
!sr!.r.<br />
"Effect!<br />
lob.!t L.<br />
of Fluorlde on Photo.ttrth.!i, .ni! i.tDit.!lol o!<br />
!oD€ gouth-East AEe!ic!n<br />
Environoent.r P.ll!tion,<br />
!ote3i Tree."<br />
vol. 8, 197J, r. 9l_96<br />
lHcr{Il75xaGB x.xi11.!, .lvirre<br />
""xe.s{!in8 renefi!. c..!t.lcd bt ltb.n 9tr!r ?t!tt":<br />
Coboert"<br />
L.!d EconoDic., vol.5l, no.6r roveEb.t' l9t5' !. 379_361<br />
!ttELtlt9EA0P t{.!delrohD, lob.rt 0rcutt, G!t<br />
"Ao EEpi!i;.1 aE.lt6i3 ol ait iollutio! Do.e-l"Po!.' curv"<br />
Journal of Envi!on!€ntrI EcoDoGics.nd tt!!.g.!edt' vol. 6'<br />
l9 79, p. 85_106<br />
a|(ItSITEEOIE t{i.szkos3ki, Petet Saaer, A!th!r l{.<br />
ilo E6tirate of the Etfect..I Ai!Port ois€ on tloP'rtt<br />
v!1!e 5"<br />
x€' Yo!t, NY: Joq!na1 of u!bad Econooics, !o1. J' r978, D'<br />
425-440<br />
!tt1LLR77EAuP !ilIe!, lict<br />
nE!tirrtins.<br />
locho.n,<br />
Redo!ic Ptice<br />
Od.d<br />
FuDctloi of ltoP.ttt vrlut'<br />
Alons River Basios in the ctricsAo sxSl tilh !trti'!l!!<br />
EDph a3 i s ot saLer QuaIirY"<br />
l,!iv..sit y of cnicaso, l97t<br />
!t{ISffE78DlOl -- xirhrn. E.J.<br />
;li"r'it"ii'. rEDlic!tior. of Eco!ooi. c.n!!olt"<br />
B.tL.1y gPis. 1978<br />
' T'Vl: Publi. !Dt.!..t EcoioEict fourd'tio!,<br />
llloll-AtTEGAU r{or1e!, A.8e<br />
ntroe Cooil Ate Lot& fiois. St.nd.rdt?"<br />
Nes scientist, J.nud.y 27' r97?' ?' lt2-19'<br />
lltoll(TtlBAr no 11, KeDdall J.<br />
tih,osky, Denni. P'<br />
"Risk-!en.fit Ao.1y6is aor Itrdst!ri.1 .nd Soci'l !l'Gdtrr<br />
Aderi... Id
EtoBRCTS||PA!<br />
I|lUSEJT'A IAR<br />
ANELSJTSEAOl<br />
lxtLtJTSiCfiP<br />
r ELIvT3P!TC<br />
!<strong>II</strong> Ctr{7 715EA<br />
!NOt?t78IOO*<br />
!of,cD*EDSLO5<br />
||orri., Chri. r itr. Or!.tr<br />
72<br />
;l?:.i<br />
P.1t".r.", A.t.rpt.ir rcd.r.l control o! airEt.r.<br />
r..hi!aror, DC: irro..l<br />
1978, p.521-638<br />
t.rosrc.. Jour!.1, rol. lE, Julr,<br />
Hu!tin, J€.old l.<br />
8o!!..r itro, John 4., J!.<br />
"Erte!n!lities<br />
i! . leallrr.d tEdu.try: rhc Airc!.rr ioi!.<br />
,tDe!ic.! EcoEolic rlvie,, vol, 52, no;4, s.pt.rb.r, 1977,<br />
p. 170-4<br />
x.r !on, Joh! P.<br />
l.onoric An!ty!i. of T!r..port!tioo oire lbarerelr,<br />
Carb!i.lEa, XA: r!tlinEe! publishins Corp.oyr t9r8<br />
n.l .on , J.ho p -<br />
"R.6ideDri.l<br />
Choice, Eedoric prlc.., .nd tb. D.r.!d fo!<br />
u.brn Ait Q!.1i ry.t<br />
35j_369<br />
Joullrl of u!b.! r..nori.., eol.5, 1918, p.<br />
lesill, r.!n r.<br />
"Pollutiotr'.<br />
Prire--the CoEL i. Uuben n..trhI<br />
r.renc€ .nd pu!tic Affair., 0ctobrr, I9?3, p. {?_49<br />
Nicho l son. triltia! J.<br />
'loric<br />
Sub6tan..!: !.ctE!o!!rt .!rt irtu!. of rh. X![.n n.alth<br />
loxic subrt.r..3 Lae! & tea!l.rion!, !977<br />
l{., Jerrey Econodic policy Coulcil<br />
to!talitt lrd Air polluEion i! Nev J€!6€,<br />
iJ.shiDeron, D.C.: tl.s Je!rey A.onoric poiicy Council, 1979<br />
orrhrup, Eerb.rt R.<br />
loran, Rich.rd t,. terrt, Ch.rte. l<br />
Th. Irp.c L of oS{A<br />
lerinsro!, r(A: s$.rror School, lriv. or rentrrrlv.El., tr78<br />
OtBadi6.tiotr !o! Econoiic Co-ope!atiod !nd Dev.topoent<br />
EtrvironDe!c.1 Daorae co.rs<br />
Pari6, Fr.!.e: orBroi!.rioE For Ecotro!ic Co_op.r.rio! r.d<br />
Dev€1opoenr, t 974<br />
OtsEnisaLi.n for EcoooEic<br />
EDvitonr.nt Di!.cto!rt.<br />
So c 1.1 Co.t of Xoi.e<br />
Co-Oper.rio! atrd D.velopE.nE,<br />
P.ri3) r!.uce: O!B.nis.rion for Econo!i.<br />
D€ve I opD.tr!, EtrviroaDeDt Direcro!At.r 1976<br />
Co_Op.i.rioa !n,t<br />
trTbe lcon.Eics of ?roducr Srf.r,',<br />
.3ell.Journ.l of EconoEi.s .rd x;nr8eo.n! scr..ce, vol, 4,<br />
no, |, r971, p. 3-28<br />
1<br />
:<br />
:<br />
1
tor.ira74Eol8<br />
!oIr*rJ740lEo<br />
!0lcucTtAol|ll<br />
IPAGEJT4OItIT<br />
IPAI'YDT6Il|tIO<br />
aPAULtTl CAI{X<br />
!P!AtDt6LOCA<br />
DP<strong>II</strong>IA?2T!AC<br />
!PELTST5EOAI<br />
IPELtST5EOCP<br />
?3<br />
-i6. ;a;;;.i;. o! p.odoct 3rf.tr: a rejoind€!'<br />
AGll Jouid,l of Econo!ic. Etd x.nrSenent 5ci.!.., rol. 5,<br />
l97a, D, 689-6t5<br />
'or tbc f,.oDori.t ol Ind!.lri.l 3.f.t'"<br />
L.y rnd coot.!por.rt Probl.r., vol. 3E, 1974' !.569-619<br />
r!.ntl in, st.Ph.r D.<br />
liendel6oho. nobert sEiti, Jroet D.<br />
"appl i.rti;n. ol tt i . r o s i 6 u I . r i o r tl.thodologt: Doe. toa!<br />
Plobability oI De..h Depetrd oo Yonr Envi!onb.!t? I<br />
Hic roanal yt ic study"<br />
Ale!i.an Ecolotic xevi.er ?.pe!i.ntt<br />
!o. l, Febru.ry, I911 , 9. 760'264<br />
lrooeediog., vo!. 6?'<br />
craaff, J. D. r|. ltunsinB, P€ler t{.<br />
''occuDation.l<br />
4..1t.6.!d the Fed!r.l cov€!n!.tt:<br />
^.€ stirl rirt.!"<br />
JD. Itrg.s<br />
Lar .trd conteEpo!.ty P!oblGr!' 1t74, E. 651-661<br />
P.!vi.. D,vid r,L. Jr.<br />
"rarn'Banas.neni lEDlic.tiotr! of ledu.ed Aatlctltulrl<br />
Pollution Ielrr.d tD crttoq rroductior in Mis!i!6ippi"<br />
Ao€xican lournal of AsriculruraL E.ouosics, vo1.58, no. 5'<br />
DeceolEr, 1976, !, 978-983<br />
"can 4i!cr.ft Noi3. Nui3.ncc tol.. h€ Measu!ed ln Noaev?"<br />
Lolddn, uR; oxtord E.oooEi. ?!Ders, vol. 13, tro' 3'<br />
XoveEber, 19 71, p. ?97-322<br />
'!rhe I ir it. ol .Cort-BeE.f!t<br />
Env i!6nxent.l rolicrl<br />
Kyk Lo !, vo1.29,.o. I, 1976<br />
ITrre<br />
Ben;fi!..!d Co.t. of der Drus t.tcl.tlo..'<br />
Uriversit, of Cn ic aAo ' 1972<br />
!'rr' e aff€ct6.t Atto6obile Salety<br />
JorrnEI of Political rconoEy' vol,<br />
l!!rrii3 .. . alide to<br />
83, L91t I t. 577-123<br />
'r"An Ev!tu.tio. of Cont!!e! Prot.c!ion l,.gi.l!tioo: Tb. 1962<br />
D!u? Arend!.nt!<br />
nAr Eval!atio. o( con.uog! Prot"tio!<br />
L.RislrLion: Th. 1962 Drug AEendE.nt.": A R.Prv'<br />
Jouinal of Policictl Iconody. !ol. 83, no. 3, l9l5' l.<br />
663-661<br />
tPEPiDT TCBAA P.€!ce, D.!id<br />
"cost-Benefi! ^n.lr!it !!d lnviron!€lt.l loli.t: A l.Prv to<br />
Elliot atrd Y.r!ou.!d ar I th'<br />
lytror, l97t
PE8,1 7oP!OV<br />
rPESl(lt75CEll{<br />
BPETEJTTE4EC Peterson.<br />
"E.tiE,rins.!<br />
ierrotd |{.<br />
Ef<strong>II</strong>u.rr ch.rae: Tb. R...!v. Xiring C....1<br />
raod Econooic., vol. rt, oo.3, AuB!.r, r9??, p. i2s_ia1<br />
rPrEsD?4ErSC<br />
!POLI475APA!<br />
lPiM?!Daf I<br />
SBlUSC 74tlAE<br />
IRICRGT4E4O!<br />
BtorELt TCAO?<br />
!EO!!!t?tt?*<br />
BAOS!AT<br />
t SnrT<br />
74<br />
t. r rone r !ichola,<br />
l-l:!i.i"" P.'.E ou v.hicre s.r.r,<br />
'b' c'thoric<br />
;:;:::i:::',,?3'<br />
'Dniv.r!rt'<br />
:::ltl;,:;i:,^I;,,.,:.:I:.i":::"!:,iutio.<br />
ro,icy<br />
v..h:naton, Dc: th€ urb.n tnstiLUre, I975<br />
or ^'eri..,<br />
F I. s..3 ''rnvrroEDenc.l , De!.rrius J.<br />
poll!rioo,<br />
th€ United Sr are 6,'<br />
Soci.l Corrc !n,t !ealrh ?olic, in<br />
InL.rnarionsl Journal of B..ltb<br />
1911. , D, 213-2A1,<br />
S.!vice., vol. 6, no. 2,<br />
lorins&y, A. xittch.tl<br />
Shav.11, srever<br />
"The Air P.llrLion .Bd ?rop.rr, v!lue Deb.tG[<br />
i5Jiil..'<br />
r.."""rc' ..d st€ris.ic., vor. r7, l9?5, '.<br />
Priest, rr. Crrri.; xroblaucn. xrrr<br />
Draft Analysis for NpiM srroD; right. oi !o.ooorives<br />
IOcs! Ioc., t978<br />
R3u5!er, cordo! C,<br />
"techoicar prog.er. ard Etrvirotructrt.l r!rdeoff. itr l{!tur.l<br />
f,eEo!r.! 1ndu6tri..r,<br />
Jou!nal of rconori.E .nd !uEin.!s, ,ol. 27, lg:,4, p. t-t4<br />
ltlusG 75SCOE 8.u3.er, cordotr C. Eoei!r. iichard<br />
conLrol<br />
l::::1""t.t:<br />
or EnvironbenLar ExLerneriEie!,!<br />
Ann.rs oi r(onooic 6nd soci6) Meas!!eEenrr vol. 4, oo. 2,<br />
19J5, t. 27!-292<br />
Rick., c.R. rilli.e5, R.J.B.<br />
Lrre.ri or ArooBEheric !ollurion o! Decidtrous toodt.Eit parr<br />
3:-Eftecrr on ph.ro6yntheric pis!enrs of !erv.6 Que!cus<br />
re.r.e. ( hattuschkdJ Leibr''<br />
Enviion6enc.t potlution, vol.8r 1975, p.97<br />
lob€r I !on, L€on S.<br />
rA.<br />
c|iLical<br />
.An.lyEi. of pe1!.rr."! ,,i1.<br />
Autorob rl,e<br />
Effects<br />
s.fery<br />
of<br />
Beaulrrion{rt<br />
Journal or E.obo!ic Tssues, iot. tl, oo. !, Sepr.Db.!.<br />
p.<br />
t977,<br />
587-600<br />
R.berr son, L€on s.<br />
rrA R€j o i.d e! to pelrzrantl<br />
Jou:n.l o{ Econori. r.sues, eot. lt, no.3, Seprerb.!, 1977,<br />
p. 6?9-683<br />
"A<br />
si&ul.tion Hod.l !o! rh. ,conori. A.s..sn.nt of<br />
i<br />
]<br />
t<br />
d :<br />
!<br />
:<br />
rl<br />
l<br />
I<br />
I<br />
.
?<br />
to<br />
!lOitAt?SllFT dl(".ndtiY. Air Porru!io! R.8!l.tionr"<br />
Jou.n.I of l.8io..l Scierc., rol. 17, no. I' lt7?, P'<br />
321-1L4<br />
Af,USSJ?6!VlC Russell, J.Ees A. U€h!.bi.., Albert<br />
"Environx.ntal vrtia6tct ol cots!!er R€se.tchr'<br />
Journal of consurer Reseircn, vo! 3, Jun.' 1976, 9. 62-63<br />
aR0SSLr4s<strong>II</strong>{ f,us s e1t, Loui 5e D.<br />
"safety In.ertiee. in tlo!h.n't<br />
Jo!!nal of {uErb l..outc..' tol.<br />
corpensatioa lrtut..c!"<br />
9, !o. 3, 1974, D. 351-375<br />
BSCIiLAT6RAOA Schlo t !sann, r|l!.<br />
"A Regional Analy!i. of Air Qurlitl st'ndttdt, corl<br />
Conversion, aod rh€ stG.n-El.ct!ic coal t!let'<br />
Jo!!na! of_l.Eion.1 Sci€n.€, vol. 16, so' 3, l9?6' P'<br />
315'181<br />
BSC<strong>II</strong>LATTSEIA SchlotrEano, Al.. Abr.Er, l.etedc.<br />
"strtIui Erdi3siors taxe. and Co.1 le.ourcl.'<br />
ieriee of Eco.orlc. .n
lsntrF?9AIAU<br />
!s|'lrriT9IOOS<br />
CIC Criric.l !.vi.r!<br />
1979, p. l-?5<br />
sri th, iob.!t Stae.!t<br />
"lh.<br />
hp.ct of O.h.<br />
76<br />
in Envitont.!t.l Cotrttol, f.b!srrr,<br />
ta.p.c tion. or t|.nut.cturi!A Injc!y<br />
rhe Joulnat of X$ratr<br />
r979, p, t45-ttO<br />
Re.ou(ce., yor. l{, !o. 2, sp!ira,<br />
asxlrvr6rEco SEith, V. Ke!!y<br />
Tbe lcoooDic Co!r.queqc.,<br />
u.ED!rdg.r uar !.1liDa.r<br />
of li! pottorio!<br />
pubti.!ia8<br />
corp..r, l9?6<br />
l5t{ IlV7 TaLAE sr i th, v. (er!e<br />
!'Besid.nti.l<br />
iocrtior<br />
o! rhe Eviderce"<br />
era EDvi!oa.€a!.1 Aaeniti..r r r.ei.r<br />
Reaiooar s!udi€6, vol, lt, t9t?, D.4/_6t<br />
ts?aLMT6PrioA<br />
EatEttT6PSOA<br />
tst!LJ77tHtt<br />
lsltBD76IllPr<br />
BSTETCT'A!EE<br />
!6T0tt75ICPF<br />
!srottT3CEOt<br />
slana I €r, {i11€i B.<br />
'Prob.br!irtic<br />
rr.rho'1. o! A...3,rDt Rr.l in<br />
An.rysi_.<br />
Co.a_!c..fi!<br />
or Nucrear porer -.nd -iiliii<br />
!rrrr! rrtii".iiJi<br />
U.6. N!clear teEul!tory CoE6i!sio!, l9t6t p. 446_4r6<br />
stehbinsE, Jare3 t., J!.<br />
"P.oer<br />
studier of Acute ae.lrb Aff.cr. of Ai! pollrtion<br />
t.<br />
yrrdaopuroon!yr syEpEoo, in ^dull!, r.r yo!r,<br />
nee rorr,<br />
l97l_<br />
ny: Environo.nral<br />
r972n<br />
r€r.!;ch, vor.'ii,- tii6l p.<br />
€9-lrr<br />
SterlE.o, Je.E!. ta.<br />
-Tbe uiddea Eealrn roll - rhe Co.r of torl ro<br />
Civil liaht! Ditert, Fstl, tg].7, ,. 12_11<br />
"tiIling..s5<br />
ii:;;.""<br />
to p.y fo! to!e A8!e..b!. vort,,<br />
Rer.rid!., vor. r7, no. I, Feblu.!r, rerE, p.<br />
S I €r.!t , s. C. r J!.<br />
"1.!t.!<br />
to tb.liditor"<br />
uh.Errrrt r!d ErgiDeerira, JrD., l9i9<br />
St era.t, Chi.les T, Jr.<br />
Arr Pollurion i lIuE.n lteat Eh, lrd pu!tic poIic,<br />
and co'p€.y, t9t9<br />
Stone, RoberL F. FenroD, Rob.rt ,. ru...l!.!, Cb!!les<br />
rbjrrr co.E. projecr Firat R.bor!<br />
rerh:.gco!! DCr T..ta.l.sy + iconoEi.!r tnc., I9?6<br />
Sto!t, ca1! e !<br />
ITh. Cort Eff.criveo... of Int.!!.tional gehicl.<br />
/ruroooli Ie Engine..ira, l9?j<br />
lctulrtioD.<br />
.i<br />
.I<br />
:<br />
i<br />
i<br />
.l<br />
r$<br />
. i<br />
l<br />
.:<br />
'!
a<br />
ItaYLtTErlti<br />
BItAL*74VO5A<br />
alttAl)t4ct!A<br />
ItIXADT9ClAA<br />
lttLSt?l9rra<br />
!tlrLDT8CErO<br />
lrt!or76PoEE<br />
BUICEQ*iIltO5<br />
loscEqcsIAtS<br />
tttSct*cctltt?<br />
lDscErcaFro8<br />
luScf,.ctorr!<br />
aa<br />
t.tlor, to!.ld J,<br />
"Ind!rtri.l Irt.c! i! lar!ht!t.ctn Wh.tco! Colnlt<br />
_<br />
1976, p. 199 -213<br />
t.tcr. Air..n.t soil F.Ilution' vol. l0'<br />
rhr I cr. riehlrd los.n, al.rti!<br />
;iii-i'iri!-.i-s.rr"r-i-iii., iiijcocr rrou th€ L.bo! lt.tket'<br />
Itptor, rY: U!iY.r.itt oI toch..t.r DG?.!tneDt of i.onooi.!,<br />
t974<br />
Tibah 6lt, DGnri. l.<br />
"A Co!t-ii.l-!e!.fit atr.lt!i. of Totic Sub.t.ncc."<br />
trshinato!, DC: Joulnal of Etrtirolo€nt.1 sr.t.!.' Ju!.' 19,4<br />
lill.n.Lt, D€Ni! P.<br />
"A surv.y ot Enpitic.l !G!€lit studi.s (ut!e! P.rlutioa)"<br />
U. S- Enri!o.!ert.t Ptot.c!io! aa.o.v, O!!i.. o! 1...d!.h<br />
!!d D.velolieDt, l97t<br />
til.on, Ulsh A. Cib., P.tlict A.<br />
"sLr.reat<br />
for Lh€ a!!...!Grt of I.u!o!ehavio!rl con.equenc"<br />
of anvi ronr.trl. r Flclo!!"<br />
Envi!o.r.Etrl xerlth P.r!pec!iv€6, vol. 26, Octobe!, 1978'<br />
t, 281-29t<br />
Tri I lina, Don.ld r.<br />
n4<br />
Co.t-Aff..tivenc!r tvrl!.tion of ltiShe.t Arf.ty<br />
coun!c!r...ur..n<br />
t!affi. Q!!rt.rlt, vol' l2' Jrtrua!v' r978' ?.4r-65<br />
lybout, iictrrrd<br />
"ih. Pti..itrs of E!!i!onr.!trl hrcr!.liri€!"<br />
rivi.t! lnr;rltriot.1. di s.iclt. lcoEoticlt. E conberci.li'<br />
voI. 23, 1976, p. lllS-ll2a<br />
u.S. couo. il o. Enviror!eot.l Qu.litv<br />
th. Ha(ro.conoqi. rrp.c(! of Federrl Pollulioq cort.or<br />
!.S. Coun.il on Etrvirotrr€Etal Qulli!v' r975<br />
1,.s. C6!ncit ol l.viro!!edt.r Quarirv<br />
!1uo!ocarboor .td th. Enriro!.€trt--n.Pott ot th. F..l.t.I<br />
t.st to!c. o! hrdv.!te.! xodific.tion o! tbe Sr!'to,Phc!'<br />
U.8. CouDcil of E!ri.o!rilrt!l Qu.litt' 1975 -<br />
u,s. ser.t€ cot.itt.e or covertr!e!trl llf.i!.<br />
!.d.r.l xo!or Yenicl. s.te!t staadr!d xo.l2l-- Ait lr.L'<br />
u.S. S.nat. coE.itt.e oo corernreot.l Aff.ir.' 1977<br />
1r.5. Eoure Colritte. otr Agri.ultu!.<br />
|ri rrit. r.strictioDt o! PoulrtY<br />
Trrhingto., DC: u.s. Boose coo&ittee ot! Aatic!rru!!' l9tl<br />
u.s, Itout. cortittG. on rDt.tEt.te lod !or.ian coob'rc'<br />
o!!iiu- Hirr ttilins! coatlol act ol l97E<br />
Iarhinator, Dc: u.s. llou.€ co!!itt.e o! t!1.r.!rte !rd<br />
I<br />
l<br />
l<br />
))
BU5CA*C<br />
IUt(18<br />
rrs cd*c!rtA6<br />
!0scPs*rEAo7<br />
lu8cP5**E058<br />
luscPs**t!TE<br />
!usc?s**!LE4<br />
!u5cPs**6PS6<br />
luscas!Eaot5<br />
luscPs!Ec!a5<br />
r.!. itr cor!.r.e, I9Z8<br />
78<br />
E.l:!<br />
l::.<br />
.oslittee oo ?s!ric ro,Kr .nd rr...ro,!.rioo<br />
proara!,<br />
It.l:.iLi.y-""a..eqlip&.nr<br />
ror s.f€ry<br />
ii!lll. itl;rlf: Y;i; "'""'cob'ittee oo 'cbric eort. .!d<br />
g.:.<br />
!"."".'<br />
rroduct srf.!, co6Eir6ioD<br />
u,!.,rooauE.!_product s,fer, CoDoi.rion: t979 Annu.l iepor!<br />
Dc, u.s. corsu..r piodrc!<br />
iii;*r."",<br />
sarery c.;.i;;i;;,<br />
Etrael, Joseph A.<br />
(.!d E.orooic<br />
:::::11:""fi.<br />
rop.cr) ^n.rr.i. of . pro,or€d<br />
r.trdrrory co!.uoe. pEoduct<br />
s.r€!, siand!rd r.l--.ci..<br />
Te l€vi.ion Re c€ iv€! s "<br />
sv't.!s EnEi.ee!a.::ti;;;t'"<br />
or rrrinois' DePlrEoent or<br />
Siopson, Clenn<br />
_Econori. As5e.!oenr o!. po!en!ial CpsC tenze.e !€8ulerion.,<br />
L..bi.8roo! DC: U.s. Cons!!et !toduct s.!er, c;;;i;;i;;,<br />
t97 7<br />
Clrrr, Ali.on.<br />
or<br />
;]l:",:jj::.<br />
r.tron, $iIli.o u.<br />
s.feLy psckasi!a<br />
otr chir.r!.!.. a.pi.ir<br />
ra.shi!gto!,<br />
1978<br />
DC; U.S. Co.rrie! l!oduct 6.fet, CoEoi!Fion,<br />
Uthol6rered Fur ni r ure Ac r ion Cou!ci1<br />
by rhe Upholsrered FurniEu.€ Acrioo coutrcil<br />
the<br />
!o<br />
con.ule! p!od!ct s.re!y coEEissiod r"g".ai.e iiii--i..ii<br />
-R.coDoeDded<br />
!1.8!.bility S!.!drrtt for Uptrotster-a rurait"re<br />
Uphol!tered rurni!u.e Ac.ion councit, Dececber, l97B<br />
U.S. Con.uoe. producL SsIer, Coooi..ion<br />
/o(entrrt Econotric EffecLr of poser Ho,er sr.nd.rd<br />
Dc: u.s. consuoer !roducr srret,<br />
i;;1..","",<br />
coaoi!.ion,<br />
q.s. Con!ube! ?rod!cr Srfery Cooor.rron<br />
uoDsu!er producr Safery co!;i6sion: sui!oi!E poot Slide. __<br />
S.fery S r.!d.! d<br />
Ir!3h irt rotr, DC:0.8. Con.!r.r pr<br />
vor.4r,<br />
..r.tr<br />
no.<br />
co'oi!!ion,<br />
12, rsnu..y, ,rrr, oj"il..<br />
u.s. Con!uler product S!fety Coooi.riotr, But€ro of Ecorooic<br />
li"l'i::p3i":h:,:i::"I';:"";li";:Ir....,<br />
rnror.ation '"a o."r"ii"_<br />
rhe !o,r!!i!1<br />
rn'3'<br />
rrp!ct<br />
r - Indu;t!v<br />
sashinEroh, DC: U.s. Cons,rEer pr<br />
r"'".''"r i".ii"ri-i."iilili'igri'"ouct<br />
sar'Lv coEtri!sion,<br />
tnael, JoseDh g,<br />
"co3t/!enefiE<br />
(snd r.onoric IoDac r<br />
rrod.ro!y conrurer producr i.,.i"^".1i:i"."ij :r":..'i:::<br />
t<br />
.i<br />
{<br />
a<br />
I<br />
l<br />
.Jl
+<br />
!usctstEc!1,6<br />
IUSCPSB'DEA'<br />
l!sc?s!tEAA6<br />
!uscPs!aEAot<br />
!I'SCPSBEEIO6<br />
IUSCPSBEEIOT<br />
"!.;noric<br />
IUSCPSBEPEAT<br />
IUSCPS!f,PIA5<br />
79<br />
n. r.vi.io! l.c.ivctt'<br />
t..6i.arotr, Dc: o.s. Coitu.t lroa..! 8.t.!t ColElr.io!,<br />
t916<br />
Slobodov, Arl.r J.<br />
IDrrft<br />
xnri!on!.!t.l Ar.e..d€nt ind Fe8.tiv. D.cl!!!ti6n o!<br />
IDpacr.I P!opored lJ.raina St!t€reot oa a.ro.ol P!oducca<br />
lropel l ed by cbloro!luorocarbotr."<br />
L.shinston, DC:0.S. Cotrsurer lrodu.t 6.f.tt CoDli..i.D,<br />
!!reau of Ecsloric ln.lt3i3! ltTt<br />
"Final<br />
Rcport or Ervironoetrtsl lsse.!oenr An.lysic ot !<br />
ProDos€d s.f.ty sr.nd.Ed for Hst.hbDoks<br />
U,5, consu'.r Product Srfery coooi..io!, I976<br />
Ii.t cher , Jud i ih X-<br />
"EcoDoiic<br />
Arary6is of the tropo!€d S.l.!t St.id€rd fo!<br />
Sqior:!s Pool sIide."<br />
U.s. consloe! Product Srfett CoEEission, B!!eau of xconooic<br />
Riddle, T- E. hbt' A. l.<br />
"Res€.r.h<br />
l.po!t on Ecoloric hp.cl ot<br />
saIeEy st.!da!d -- !b!s. rl"<br />
tlasninA!ont DC: U.S. Co!.urer Product<br />
l9?6<br />
tnp.ct ol tbe Sh.tD x.t.l Edge<br />
na Eh ington, DC:0,S. CeDsuEer Plodlct<br />
Buresu of tcoaooic A.rl]'sis, 1977<br />
Cl one!, Jur ia P.<br />
"Pr€r iEi!!r y Envitodelt.l ^r3..!i!nt of<br />
TRls (2,3, bibroropropyl) Plo5pt.t. .. .<br />
!i.a!i.g lppare 1"<br />
t{.shiiaton, DC: lJ.S. ContuE€r Ptoduct<br />
lbrer! ol Econooi. Araly6is ' 1977<br />
U.S. co!!ure! Droduct s.l.tt coooir!ioo,<br />
Propo..d ltrtchbo6L<br />
S!Iett<br />
coE!1s s ion,<br />
Srf.ty co!!i.! io!,<br />
! l.n o! th. U.. of<br />
tld. R!t..d..t for<br />
sa t€ry Cob&i d s ion,<br />
!!r..s o f Eco.oric<br />
Ptelioirary Id.rtiIication ..d Discu!.ioq ot !.jot r.onoDic<br />
I!rues: BootBltch statda!d !roDosal<br />
coluEbus, ofi: tl-S. ConslEe! ?!6duct Saf.ty CoDDis5iotr'<br />
ru.,,D of Ecotori. r!.ltsi5, 1975<br />
luscPsBEtPo9 arh!, A. t- Li.lilt! | {. E.<br />
"fo!linE<br />
P.D.!t ou A..tt.i. of Pubric Pl.tatourd Equip!.nt:<br />
Ih-Depth ass.sr!.nt ol Ec.ooDic l!p.cr'<br />
t{€rlo Pa!t, cA: U.s. contu!e! Product S.fety Coodir!ior,<br />
1979<br />
tDSCPSD'AOCt lt-s. Co!r!r.r ttodu.t S.f.ty Co$ir.io!, Div. o! Eeon. P!oE.<br />
ah.l t 5 i.<br />
an.ly6ir of correrts fror ti€ De..!b.t 20, l97E Public<br />
H.eiins oh ophol.ler.d rur!iture Flaibrhili!t
80<br />
!USCPSDEAOCg fl..hitrgron, DC: U.S. c.nrn_-.<br />
Div. o! Econ. "".". ^"li;::::"rztoducG<br />
IUSCPSDEAoEt U.S. con.uEer pro.rucr str€ry Co!ri!.io!<br />
8r!'tv c6r'l..lon,<br />
3:.:;"-::;:i;"1::: :" i " ;i ;i"ii"'ii"tii"e,"i.oo..r,"r rrp:c,r<br />
cotrr.cr<br />
Bane<br />
Adh..ives<br />
xish, y<br />
i.::::::.i.1"::::.;o,<br />
!,.r..br.<br />
-i.t".y<br />
Dc:<br />
l;i)t"..",,<br />
0.s. cors!b!! r,iJ.ii<br />
co6.r..ion.<br />
aosCPSDltAE7 V.s.-Conruuer p!oduct<br />
s.r.ty<br />
Fi n.1<br />
Co!!t.!ion<br />
R.port. Ec6.<br />
;;;;;".;';;:;;,.:;:""1;" ";1i..::::..il::il:.. ^;ili::;t,t:;<br />
I;;)t*...,<br />
IUSCPSDAIAoE<br />
rrr.ge, r.n.,<br />
;:'i:l:i"s:t.ii;i"!!.dr<br />
Dc: u.s. con!ur.r produ.!<br />
of , !.q<br />
s.fety colri.3io!.<br />
otr tit€s coot.iling tec.l<br />
qashingron,<br />
DC: U.s. Cotr.uDer P!oduc<br />
6ur€au<br />
! s.t.rt<br />
or<br />
coroi!sio!<br />
!codoric Andry!i3, 1973<br />
AUSC?SDEUARS U.s. ConsuEer product<br />
safery CoDbi!.ion<br />
Eazard ^nrly,ig e.e..t, i".;".i.i--i",..i...a,ith<br />
objec!s<br />
srrtl<br />
Ii;!t"*...,<br />
Dc: u-s. cobsuoe_ produc!<br />
5.f.ty cooni!.ioE,<br />
BlJSCPSDltnltAg R.urherford,<br />
.BrA<br />
Ceor8€ e. , J!.<br />
lt.z.!d Ab;1r3i;: tnjuri..<br />
pl A..ociared<br />
iyg!ound<br />
,irh<br />
Eq u rpEent,,<br />
!ubtic<br />
colurbu6. OH:0,s. consgo€r prodrit<br />
safery Corris.ior, r9Z9<br />
IUSCPSDS!Ao9 Sibpsotr, ct€nn<br />
.,rconoric<br />
A33e3sr.bt of rh. propo3.d<br />
cpsc !etrle.e reSul.tion<br />
lUsClsE!ElO7<br />
lUsC?Slll!lO7<br />
i6ift*.".,<br />
Dc: u.s. con.uler ?!oduct !efc!, coo6ir6ioo,<br />
!,.y, D.l € R,<br />
;:::.::;:":::;".<br />
of th€ lan .f ce!t.i! ltoducr. cont.iain8<br />
U,S. cob!uDer<br />
]tn.l,3iI Div.,<br />
proituct<br />
I977<br />
Stf.t, cooDi..iosr E.o!.<br />
stobodost<br />
''Env<br />
Arlen J.<br />
irohr.nr a t As3e!rt'!t<br />
of ' lrt or ulvelted<br />
space E€arers"<br />
Gas-!i!'d<br />
U.s. ConsuE€r p.odtrc!<br />
S.fety Co,!i!3ioD, l9r7<br />
!USCPSqIFtOg poEe.oy,<br />
D.v irl<br />
.'Finat<br />
Repor! - on Ec<br />
R€snratio;;-<br />
Attedroent of thc g..ll<br />
P.rl!<br />
U.s. cons!oe! ptoducr<br />
S.fery Co&ission, l9?9<br />
lUl CPStt I pE t8 pooeror,<br />
'.lr€liEinsry<br />
David<br />
EconoEic tnfo!!arion tet.ri!. to ,!p rJa!e!<br />
,.:i<br />
i<br />
:<br />
:i
IUSCPS<strong>II</strong>IEIE<br />
auscPsosa!ol<br />
197 a<br />
8l<br />
f,.rt.!, - l.titio! cP't6-15"<br />
DC: tt.E. Cor.!r.r ttodsct s.t.ty conittion,<br />
xose., David r.<br />
'ran<br />
Ewal!a!io! of tb. Eff.clivcnerg<br />
te.binatan, DC: O.s. Con.q..i !!oduct<br />
Offi.€ of stt.t.!ic Pl.Dni.s' 1978<br />
of Cb ild-i..i !t.!t<br />
saf€ tt cooui t! ion,<br />
!t scPsosIoc9<br />
offic. o! gt d.S. co!.un.r P!oduc! Safety Con!r.5io!,<br />
!.1.a i c<br />
Plr!oing<br />
I!!act of crib s:{etr<br />
AEsdci!t.d eitb crib'<br />
LrrshisSlot, Dc: U.s.<br />
lctiviti.!<br />
eo!.u!.r<br />
o! Irjurie.<br />
Plodu.t Saietv<br />
.rd Dealhr<br />
Co!!i3Eion,<br />
o!!i.e of str.Eesi. P1!nDi!9, l9?9<br />
tDSCSTCAROCT U,S. Senat€ co&itt.. on Aaricultur. ntttltion .rd Fo!.ttrt<br />
Food saf€ty .dd Qu.rittr f,.8cl.tio. al ah.ti.!le iD Food tnd<br />
Aar ic u l. ure<br />
ria\iogtor, DC: U.s- S.o!t. CooDitt€€ otr A8riculttr!e<br />
xEttition.!d rore st rv, 1977<br />
luscsrcalroA?<br />
lttscs*cr{o5.7<br />
luscsrcL!oI7<br />
. !uscSrcLoot4<br />
l!scs*c1.o016<br />
llJscslcLoota<br />
l!scs*c?AQA4<br />
U.s. S€nrt€ CorEittee on Asticultu!e iuttltion.nd rot..t!t<br />
food saf€ty and qu.lity: us. of ltrtibiotic. in Ani!.l F.ea<br />
la6\inston, DC: O.s. S.r.te CoEditt..<br />
x!tt i t ion and Fo.€!t!y, 1977<br />
tr.S- Senat. CoDDitlee on Xu6!o RerourceB<br />
oc curat ional Di3eas.s 1977<br />
vrashitrg!on, Dc: lJ.S. se!ate coooittee or BrDan l.toulc"'<br />
| 91j<br />
U,S. seD.t. Co..itt.. oD guratr lc.ourc!.<br />
Itonito!i.s o{ tEd!rtrial To.t.rs ErPo.qil to ca!.ino8.nt !977<br />
Lashibaton, DC:1,.S. SenaEe CoEEitt.e o! ll{trrn l..ource',<br />
t9tJ<br />
U-s- Sena!e Comitt€. o! !.bot and lub1ic tl€la.!e<br />
Occup,cioa.l S{f.tt,trd ,€,1!h r.t levier 1974<br />
tlastington, DC: L.s. S.n6re CoD&ittee on rlbo! 'nd Psbli'<br />
u-S. senate Cor.ittGc on L.bor<br />
Oversiaht of !h. Adeitri.t!a!io!<br />
.td lublic l'r€lftte<br />
ot th. Oc.u!.tioE.1 s,fe"<br />
rod A.alth lct l9?6<br />
[a!shiogtoD, 0C: s. s. sen.te coroirr". at l.to! lDd P!!lic<br />
!.5. S€[at. Cotitt.. ot n.r.! le.olac..<br />
o""i"ill't o" ihe ^il.i!i.t!.tior ol tbe o.cuP.tioq.l safetv<br />
.Dd aealth ^ct 1978<br />
U.S. sen.te corritt.. o.8!crn Reto!r.ei' !978<br />
U.s. S€f,at€ coEEitt€. on !!blic !o!ts<br />
Air Qu.litt and A!rodobil€ Ersissiot corrror<br />
U.s- Sena!e Cobdit.ee otr P!bli. taotts, 1974<br />
'1<br />
,.j<br />
.<br />
'.j<br />
l<br />
l l<br />
J
DUSDI*BliAC<strong>II</strong><br />
82<br />
!usc8*c!PtE 7 sedrt.-Con!irr€. on Environdert ald lublic<br />
PollutioD<br />
Dort.<br />
taxe., !fflu.dt Cba!r€<br />
ror poLluLion<br />
r, rnd oth.! Alrer.!!iv.,<br />
con!!ol<br />
lJ.shir8ron, Dc: sen.te colEitree oo !.svir6nr.sr<br />
llo!ls,<br />
.nd<br />
Ma y,<br />
lublic<br />
t 97?<br />
!utcsrcPSoEg<br />
BUSDAT!5fI<br />
S9<br />
s.n.t. CoobiLr€e on roviron!enr rnd public l,.!k!<br />
or E.vironDebrar r"."""i"", e. uii!iI<br />
H.3hi!aron, Dc: sen,te coEEirr.e otr z,,t.oni.oi- rnd publt.<br />
Irorks) Julrr 1979<br />
LS, Depar!rerr of Asricolru!.<br />
Fin6l hp€cr st.reieDr: R..idu. r!os!.r, se.D te.r on<br />
r.er i ses ( STop)<br />
l,rashinston, DC: U.S. Depr!tEent of AE!ic!lture, 1979<br />
lJ-S. Depa!rr.rr oa Ag!icultB!e<br />
.slud, of th. Fpder.l I..r aDd t -- D'6c'ip!ior or tre<br />
;:.#';<br />
poultry<br />
near .;d<br />
t.rpecrion pio"trr:<br />
rouit"y r;i,piiilii-'<br />
l{6shinaron, DC: U,S. Dep.rtbehr of Aaricutru!e, 1977<br />
E! ic lsDn, L.E.<br />
''Ur€fulne.!<br />
o! At!elnative rir.8!.rive<br />
,erhodoloaie! in<br />
&!.!s!.nt<br />
plbli.<br />
aDsDA*OOSOTT<br />
ausDE***lroa8<br />
Decision &.kiaari<br />
9!rhingEon, DC: t.s. DepartEent of ED..ar, J!ly, 1976<br />
aDSDEE<br />
MtE<br />
U-S.. Dep.r-!d€nr of H€arLh, Lducarionr ..d gelf.r..<br />
;::i;lil:":i :::.::::"-<br />
or c;'c'r in tr'" i,.s. n"o.i"tui',i*,<br />
U.s. De!.!t!eDt of nealtt, Educatio{, .Dd rJelfs!e,<br />
197 A<br />
DiCatrio, Dr!iel_6. at!t., A!!h!r c. Colverr, Dooitric<br />
!rveque. Eda.! C,<br />
Accid€!t cosr Indicaro! llodel to E.cida!e cosr! to tndust!,<br />
and soLieLy frod. Dork_relarEd rnjuries .Dd De.ths ri<br />
undersround cost fiinine<br />
$.shireLon, lC, U-s. l.pe.r"err of tbe Int.!ior lure.u of<br />
Krnes, vot. I, Se<br />
p r erbe!, 1976<br />
!osDt*ASErE5 !.S, Dpp!rcoenL of Lrbor, ASpER, OSIA<br />
tbe rrlec!s or thc occu'arion!r<br />
;::;:::'"srr.!,<br />
rid E.rrEh<br />
0.S. Depa!tEe!r of L.borr 4SpER, (,sBA, rr75<br />
AUSDL*ALSAH5 Tillery, rir.!on<br />
].iI:.""::q<br />
rertrh provi,ion!<br />
B.rore<br />
. u.s. ,Fp.rLoenr<br />
and aft.! o6EA,,<br />
of L!bo!, Burer! "r r.r., si.iiiii.", t975<br />
BUSDT*o5EOO? U.S, D.parrdenr of L.bo., OSXA<br />
1l."llI":'.oJ<br />
:._,.1"",.d<br />
osHA redic.r AeEov.l p!orecrion<br />
re€d tndusr!ie6<br />
od L.bo.<br />
o( t.bo, , oSHA, 1977<br />
BUS DL*OSE IA6<br />
U. S. Deprrco€n! of Coomerce<br />
t'p"..<br />
,lllil.':<br />
An61y.j6 of propo3.d Nois.<br />
rrsnrngLorr<br />
resurarioo<br />
Dc: u.s. Dep.!rEenr of co!!e,c., april. t9?6<br />
.<br />
I
!uSDLrOStoL4<br />
lusDL*0sn0t9<br />
!U5DL*P!EFO5<br />
D05Dt*CGBEtt6<br />
r!8Dt.lBArA0<br />
l!tDt*FBr4lE4<br />
ttsDt*N{a809<br />
83<br />
!;3;.?'i?"iill."'":::::i o:l'rh.<br />
i"1.";1"""<br />
iorr',..c ror t.. 2,<br />
^-G. vol 3. APPerdice. fi 6 I E'onoEet!ic sirulrti<br />
,.hinAtotr DC: O.S, DePartreDt ol l''bor, osgA' Jt{ultt'<br />
t914<br />
u. s. D.P.rtDetrt of Ltbot<br />
I xoaei or the Ioplicit co!i furc!ionB Rel'v'nt fo!<br />
i"ti""ti.e tbe cost t; !! EconoEv oI occuPetion'l A'cidert5<br />
u.s. D€Pattretrt ot L.bor, l9t9<br />
C\.1idr, J.r.. t,<br />
;;;;;;;:ti;;; tJi osxe'. Perroo.nc.: rh. !..ront or rh!o"<br />
.rd rdpiri.al Fr iden.e"<br />
tlrshrDston, Dc: U.s. D€ P.. Lr.o t<br />
Cohen I StePb€n !.<br />
;";;'i"...; Efrective!..t u.thodoroatr<br />
eiiifii"ii..', Dc: u's. D.Dr!tr.!t o!<br />
!h"' t t""rch"<br />
1r'!'Port..ron<br />
T!ansport.tioE, Jul t, l9?6<br />
ur!!esor, Jates E- Itall, J.io!e t. s'ehilf iov !'<br />
A;cidEn! Raie3 an.l Co3ts on U!b.n '\!tcrials and Fr'evavs<br />
Ders!txent of Transport.tion, Feder't High{t'<br />
Addi. i s t!a!ioD, J.Dua!Y' 1970<br />
xentredy. 0a)ph G' Lloyd' ftlEL a Lov!et, rob'rt<br />
;;r "'i"li"a.r.e"<br />
ror E"arudtins the Eco!oric tEpact' of<br />
rDolvin. s,I lroad S,fet' sttndatds"<br />
;::ii;;F.;; ;i;--".!:';;;.;t;;., ot I'ansPor*Lion' Fe'rerrr<br />
a.ir.o!a li-i";"t'ation, voI. I' oc!o!€t, l9?4<br />
si:";:r,::ii::""1'3i!"u..a<br />
zrr"<br />
tla6hinstod,<br />
1979<br />
DC: lr.S- DePe!tt..t ot T!an!Po!t'tiou' NxlsA'<br />
alSDrr{EAlE9 u,s. D.D.rtt.rt ol tr..tpottrtion, |.AtsA<br />
AutoEotiv€ F!.1 Econorv grograo: lhird Annual R'pott to the<br />
Conare s s -- Janu.!Y r979<br />
n.=ii"g."", oc, v.s. i"pttt"ot ol transPottationr N<strong>II</strong>TSA'<br />
1977<br />
!l,sDTtlrIAoTo u-s. D.p.rt!.!t of tt.!.Do!a'tion,.xnTs^ -<br />
i;;ii..ii.;" of th. oEI c ' ! t - E I r ' c t i v ' tr ' ' B svs!er t!<br />
tl", :.t""Y, Notrh Carolinar 'nd Itah<br />
llesninEton, Dc: u.s' D"'rto€nr of T!605Port'tion'<br />
vo!. l, June ' l'70<br />
Ar I zo!r '<br />
N{TSI'<br />
BuSDI*XEE!S? -U.S, D€partoen; of TrttrlPo!t'tion, IATSA<br />
E.oEotic Iopact A53essEeDt: A!'!dr'nt to reder'l H6!or<br />
vehicle saretv stand:rd No' 208 (occxP:nt Cr!th !rot'ctioo)<br />
,con.ai. lEP.ct ^:'tt""tttt- Aiendte;r ro tr(vssNo' 208<br />
( oc c uPaDr Cr'sh P r o ! e ' t i o n ) - - r a r ! 11--BenefiEs<br />
o,s. i.p.t."""c of .lr$6Dortatio!'<br />
l{ItTsA' l9?7<br />
-.<br />
.<br />
l<br />
I<br />
t<br />
:
ausDT*XlrFAOgu.<br />
s. D.p.! tr.nt<br />
-<br />
of tr.tr.por!.!ior, RTsA<br />
!rDrr Ar.c..c.ut of rhe Buoper s!!nda!.t<br />
Dc: u.s. Deparioer! of rrdnspo,r.tio!,<br />
;;;!..*..",<br />
nErsa,<br />
lusDtrtaFIA?<br />
lttsDt.lttaltS<br />
auSD?.NEFSS8<br />
EUSDTtFgIACS<br />
rus$T*t|ttIoiE<br />
!u3Dr*Nltt{ftT6<br />
lusDt*[t{*AA8<br />
lusDT*xlttoR9<br />
ausDr*tlxsAo6<br />
84<br />
U, s.. Depdrroenf of tr.nsporrrLion, IHTsA<br />
rrnar ropacr Assess!.nr Dt the AutoEoriv. Fu.l EcoroN<br />
Standards for Rodet yer! t98l-1964 p.sseqse! C.!.<br />
u,shinston, Dc: u.s. Dep,rrEeDt ,t r..,!e..i.iion, xllts!,<br />
t977<br />
u,s, Depa!rDent of transror!aEion, xltTsa<br />
Final Iopacr Asses6n€nt of tbe Lishr Truck lDd V.n luct<br />
E c o I S n y - s r € h d a r d I ror Iodet ye.! 3 t 980 rnd lgEl<br />
'EshrnSron, Dc: u.s. Dep.rr.e.t oi rrao.pa;i;tiotr, r rsl,<br />
1978<br />
u.s. D.parrE.Dt ot lrrn.porr,r!ion, NHTsA<br />
Facr shppr -- so.iet.l Benefi rs or pas.ive Restr.itrr.<br />
llashinAton, DC: U.S. Depa!En€nt of T!!nE9o!t.!iorr trllsA,<br />
1978<br />
D,S, Dela!tEent of t!.n3po!tation, NErSA<br />
Iop.ct Assessreuc: Ctitd resr!aina S!rnitsrit (FrvSS Zr3,<br />
t.shinBton. DC: U.S. Depsr!oenr of tra!spo!r.rio!, nETsA,<br />
stutrr, Jane C.<br />
Reiofurt, Do n! 1.1 $.<br />
IEpsct 0t Recent Chaoge3 io th. giAbre, S.ter'' E.vilonoe!t:<br />
1r Projecr 0vervier<br />
IlasninAtotr, DC: U.S. Dep.r!o.n! o! tEr!sportetion, llf,TsA,<br />
s€P.eober, l97a<br />
U.S. D€partEent of Transpo!r.ti.n, nl{tSA<br />
lreliEinary Eval!ario! o! the p!opos€.r ExEen,ion of<br />
Standards No. ?01, ?03 and ?04 to !ishi r,r"r", r.""", .ij<br />
ltul t ipurrose Passe!ser vehicles<br />
I,rashinstotr, Dcr U-S, Dep.r!6en! of tra!3porrrtio!, l{xTst,<br />
t9?8<br />
0.s. DeplitEenr of 1!adsporrarion, dllTSA<br />
Res!1.ro!y tn.lyris: Aeendoe.t to Ft{vSS ltt __ r"","i""<br />
U.S. Depir!ti.Dt of tra!.po!t.tionr IHTSA, t9t6<br />
U.S. D€pa(Loerr of Tr.tr.porrario!, NqtSA<br />
reporr on eeque3Lr by cenerst oLor! ard Ford ro t.duc. Fuel ---_<br />
E.onony srandardr Ior My l98l-95 r"".."g"r e"to"ouii-"t,.rshing!o.,<br />
Dc: u.s. DelarrEenr of r!;nrpo!t.tiorr NntSA,<br />
l9?9<br />
Reinlurt, DoDal{t lJ.<br />
silvs, Claudi.o z. Seil., Ard!.v F.<br />
r--SL.Lisri.al Anatysis of S€.r Belr Eff.
!u5Dtrtf,!col<br />
BUSDT+t{BSCO9 U. S. Deprrtaent of T!.nrport.tiotr,lllTSA<br />
Soci.l Con6€qu.r... ot Ac. id.nt.<br />
U.s. Depr.tdetr. of t!.!.?ort.tio! ,NBTSA, 1979<br />
tusDir utco6<br />
lttstfar*tPL6<br />
85<br />
U.8. D.t.rtr.!t o! l!rn.Do!trtion, IUTSA<br />
1975 soci.!.1 Co.r. of xo!or vehicl. Accid.!1.<br />
ChicaSo, t!1,: u.s. Dep..!oetrt of 1!rtrspo.tatiod, lf,raAr l9r5<br />
U.S. Depa!tE.nt of ar.!rpor!.tion, NHTSA<br />
PreliEiaary Report. Th. Co!i!ibution. ot Autorobile<br />
IJr3!inAton, DC: ll.g. D!t.rt!..t o! l!.!.po!t.tioc, XBISA,<br />
1978<br />
l. ! i on.1 Rere..cn Cou6ci,l<br />
Analvtic SEudier to! th. V.S. Etrvirom.!!.1 !rot.ctio!<br />
Agencr-- vo1uo. 7 r|oi!. Abat.n.nt Poli.y Alt.r!!ti!.. !or<br />
T! ans?o! t€ i ion<br />
tashinaton, Dc: .tio^.1 Rer€.r.h Cooncil, !.1. 7,l9l1<br />
Feder.t Reti6ter<br />
Dridkina rlaEer rnd x.rlth--t.cor!eod.tion. of th. i.tior!l<br />
Acadery of s.ierce!<br />
$rshinstotr, Dc: F.rte!.1 t.ai.t.!, vol.42, no. 132, J!lt'<br />
1977, p. 357 64-79<br />
9.5. rnr i!onE.nt.l lrot.ctiotr lt.!cy<br />
l,oikina !.1.! L..d. coocep!s.l I33oc. it Cott-!?n.fit<br />
U.s, Envi!ori€nttl !!ot.ctioa ABen.y, 1!6E<br />
!OSEPASEOVPS U.S, Environoenlal ?rot.ction Ageocy, 0ffice of f,.r!.!.h.nd<br />
lgstPAoc!st6<br />
rusttaoscR08<br />
!0sE!AouwAT<br />
option 9.1u€r, Pr€s€rvation v.1!es .!d t€cr€.tion.l Bcn.fit!<br />
of IEDroved riar€r Qu.lity: A c6se Studt of Lhe Soutn Plrttc<br />
Biver l€Ein, Colo.ado<br />
U.s. rn!iroooent.l lror..tior as.ncy, otfic. of Re.e...b.rd<br />
D€veloprebt, l9 76<br />
thorp€, Roddey lioh.3, ltoE. s<br />
I'Econooic lJelfare IBpa.tr of Urb:! Noi.!!'<br />
U.S, Environoenl!l Protection Aseocyt 0f!ic. .f lc..rrch.ad<br />
Developr.nr, 1976<br />
0.s. En!i!o!Gent.l lrot.ctioD AS.EGt, Ofli.G of B..lth .nd<br />
Ecolosic.l Effect.<br />
C!itical R.vi.e of E.tio.ti.g !er.!iti of Ai! lnd vrrer<br />
?ollution con!rol<br />
lJashinBfon, Dc: U.s. Edvi!onsenL.l Pro!..tioA ABency, Office<br />
of Re.lLh.nd Ecolosic!l Eff..r3, vol.5, l97E<br />
D.S. Environoenl!l Pr.t.crion A!€n.y, Offic. of l.!..rcb.rd<br />
D. v.l op.en(<br />
Irzardo!s vr6t..: l ri3k-leD.tit ltr..sorL A!pIied<br />
C.d!iuo.nd Irbesto.<br />
lJarbinaron, DC. U.S. lrvi!oon..r.I lror.ctior At.acy, Ollice<br />
of B.r.rrcb rDd D.y.1oD!.nt, 1977<br />
tl<br />
l<br />
.<br />
j<br />
a<br />
I<br />
l
86<br />
BUSE!Aoll{DFl 0.s. Etrvi!oao.!rat plot.ction<br />
4s.ncr, of!ic. o! ti..lrh .nd<br />
E.oloaicat !ff€crs<br />
}{.rno.ls Developdenr fo! AssessiDa Air pollutioE co!lrol<br />
lea€f irs : rxecutive SuEslry<br />
A.E. lriangl. pt. fiC: U.s. !!vir6hetrrat plotection ^a.ac],,<br />
Offi.. of se.tth .nd Ecoloaicat Eff€cts, 1979<br />
B05E PAonMDF I !rootshi!e, D!vid S,<br />
.t .A! a. I Ralph C.<br />
sch!12e, r,rilli.o D,<br />
Tb aye! r ka!k 4.<br />
xethods DevelopDeDt fo! Asse.sitra Ai! !oltutior<br />
lenefits: vdluoe 2<br />
U,S. Environnenrat p!oEection<br />
4geDcy, 1979<br />
Cort!ol<br />
B0SEPAOHItDt3 A
uSEPA0lb!?4<br />
IUSEPAOAET'Q4 Jord€n iog, D.vid !,<br />
E.!ior!inr l!Lcr Qu!lirv Eerelitt<br />
s.shinRto;, Dc: u,s. Environrebt.l ProtGctiou AtG!cv' olllc.<br />
ol Res.rrch and DeveloPoert, 1974<br />
AUSEPAO<strong>II</strong>AS 7<br />
!v5E?AORltAT<br />
IOSEPAOROAPT<br />
DUSi?A0&OXC4<br />
AUIEPAOI?AE6<br />
'USEPAOSNNA3<br />
i0SEPAOfSBtr3<br />
tDs EPA0tr^llS<br />
87<br />
Unge! | S.tuel G.<br />
Jord!nidg, n.vid r.<br />
Biblio!.rDhv ot !"r!er Pollutio!<br />
<strong>cor'</strong>.lii.. on, t,s. tn"ito"..nt.l<br />
Conrrol B.tr.fit. .nd Cottr<br />
Pror.crion ^8.Dct, Offi..<br />
of Re.e.r.h.nd Deve toer.ot, 1974<br />
u.s. Eiviroor.nt.l lroEecrioa Aa.nct, oItiG. ol i....!ch.nd<br />
ldEr!iiic.tion ttd sDecitic.rior or I!Put. for l.n.lit-co.t<br />
xod.l itrr of Pes!icide !te<br />
nes. rrieaete PK, NC: U.s. raviro!!ent!t !rot.ctiotr A8E!.t'<br />
offic. of i.!.!!cb !nd DevelopoenE, r977<br />
cr.8or, John J.<br />
Int!r-0rb!. xort.li!t lnd Ait Qqrlitt: l! lcoronlc lr.It.i'<br />
of rh. cosis of Poll!tion-Irilu..d I|ort.litt<br />
ira!hjnr!on. Dc: lr,s. E.vironbeni.l Prot.ction ASeDct, 0ffic.<br />
.f R.r;,rch and Develor!.!r. 1977<br />
U.S. Eftvitoro.Dt.l PioE€c!ioh A8en.y, Ofti.. of R..€!r.h lnd<br />
o'id,"i ^i' ?orlutio. !nd IorL Per fora.6c. ot cit!ur E.tv€.t<br />
Ne! York, ll: u.S. lnvirouent.l rtot..tio! lSencv, Offi..<br />
of Re.eaEcb .nd D.velopDent, 1977<br />
J!Lsch, Jobn A.<br />
St oev€n.!, X. rb.!t E.<br />
ourpatieni edi..l Coit. Rel.ted to ll! Pollstio! in lh.<br />
Po!cl.nd, oregotr A!ee<br />
l,ra6hiagto!! DCr u.S, Environoent!1 PtoEcction ASeoct' 0fIic.<br />
of Rese..ch t.d D.v.loPeetr, 1974<br />
Li!, le!-chi.h tu, Eden Siu-hunl<br />
!hy;icar etrd E.oloric DlraB. runctior. fo! Ai! loIlut.!t. bt<br />
i"i"liii.. oR: u.s. EDvironoe!!a1 Prot.ccion As..ct' of!ic.<br />
oI- Res.!!ch .!d DeveIoP!.Dt, 1976<br />
Jordenirq, D.! id L.<br />
ae.earch- ne.ds 6nd Prioriti.r. 9.t.t l.l!!tion CD!trol<br />
Benefit. .bd Co.tr<br />
sa3hington, Dc: u.s, EnviloqEetrt.l !!ot.c.io! Aa€lct' Otlice<br />
o f Xes.rr.h ,nd Develop'e!1. l9tl<br />
tins€r, Saouel C. Erer.oDr ti. Jrlvin<br />
Jorde!io8, Dav id L.<br />
St.t.-oi:itt Reviev:t|.t.!<br />
Cor!..<br />
Eo!lutio! Couttol t.n.fit. .nd<br />
- voL I<br />
corv.l!is, oR: n.s. Envi!oot.nt.l Prot.ctio! aB.net' ollic.<br />
.t &.3€drch and Devel.p!.nt' ltTl<br />
srraetrt, Dorald s. r4ett, Joh! t. l.s..tt' J..t<br />
. i
DUSE!AOttAX5 techEic.l .od }ii.roeconooic An.ltri. of c.dEi!! .r.t itr<br />
iuSE!AtPBCA6<br />
lusEPASAt0?9<br />
!us{rDttrR!a6<br />
BUSXnliBNSOR6v8n<br />
llortr. Andler J.<br />
tirsod, Ri.ha!d<br />
The sratu6 of Ri.k-8.!efir Aoelyti!<br />
s€rhington, DC:<br />
n.!va!d Un ive!.it<br />
Ene!gy<br />
y, t976<br />
rod Eoei!ort..t.1 !olic, Centet,<br />
BI'S'DA**CETE<br />
!U8!DAOPDTA9<br />
Bt'SFDAO?I!D6<br />
8&<br />
l{!shington, Dc. D,S. EnvironDencal ?ro!ection 4A.Ecy Ofti.e<br />
of Toxic Sub3r.trcer, Juse, t975<br />
d'AlBe, R!1ph C. Eu!Enrkr, L.rry dr!riaator, Jo.eph<br />
letefir-Cost An!ty5is tor Be8!l!tins tois.ionr o!<br />
lluo!oc ar!ons 11 !nd l2<br />
I,rashinaro!, Dcr U.S. Eovi!onr€nt€1_ !!o!ectio! A8ency, 1975<br />
U,s. Enriionoeot.l !rotectidn Aseocy Scierce Advi.o!y Bo!!d<br />
Repo!t of rhe Beilth Effecr, Rere.rch a€vi.r c!ouD<br />
t.shinBtor, Dc: rI.s. En!ironoerrat prorEctioo Age;ct 6cien.E<br />
Advi sory aoard , 1979<br />
C1art, rlir€be!b J,<br />
v.n fioin. And!er J.<br />
ni6k-lenefit Ao!1y6i! .!d plbtic rolicy: A BibI!og!.ph,<br />
CaEb!idae, Ml: Enersy rDd Elvi!olEen!.t po1i.v Cent.!-<br />
Ear! aEd -Utrive.siry, t9?6<br />
U,S. Food rnd Drra Adoirirrr.!lor<br />
Cosbined !.onooic lcpact A66.sloes! ot. seri€s of plopo.als<br />
ReSar.lila !€niciltin/retra.y.tin.-Contairins pre!ixes<br />
Lashinaton, DC:0-s. !ood and D!ug AitEiDistr.tiotr, rgZE<br />
Levis, ?hil. ip F.<br />
"Resulato!y Analr6i. loi ! !io.l ResDlstiD! ror heituc!io! ot<br />
t€oporart tolerarces for polychtoriDrted !iDhenyls in Food'!<br />
tashrnecoa, DC: U.S. Food and Drus AdEitrisciaLi;n. 1977<br />
DsorkiD, !!y l. Reinsch, Susan p r,roore, St€ven R.<br />
Diaft reBulato!y Anrly!ir: ?!rietrr LabelisA Req!irereot! tDr<br />
!resc!iption Drl8s<br />
lJashiogtoD, Dc: tl.S, too.l 6nd D!us AdoinistrAtio!, r979<br />
U.S. Food Atrd D-us AdDini6!rarion Otfice of platrniia ald<br />
In Il at ion Ihpact st.teretr! ot lropo.€d ruleoarirg<br />
Die thy l6r i 1be s r!o I<br />
LashinEtor, DC: U.S. !ood And Dlua AdoiniEt!.tioE<br />
!I.tbins and Erald.tioD, l9t6<br />
Office o!<br />
B<strong>II</strong>SF!AOtM], U.s. ?ood lrd<br />
tvaluation<br />
Drug,{dEinistration O!fice o! rt:!!iD8 an6<br />
Inflarior topac! SrrreEent of p:opored Rut.o!tinE: cerr.ttr<br />
rluo.oca!b.n. (chtotofluorocarbons) ir rood,Food Addiiives,<br />
Dr!gs! AniDal iood, dnioal D!!gs, Cosoerics and Hedi.ai<br />
Devlce t!oducrs, A6 ?ro?ettanr! ir SelIjr!essuri,ed<br />
Cort.iDe! s: rrohibirios on Use<br />
narhinSton, Dc: D,s, Food And D!us Adaini!t!.!ion O!fic. of<br />
PlrtrrinB.nd EvaluaL ion. lt77<br />
ir<br />
:
lttstD^o?t!x6<br />
!0s!DAot!ts7<br />
lustEA0E!clr5<br />
!usxAstltDr{F5<br />
!08!rtccltNAE8<br />
!us!tRccxnHIS<br />
austltccxPa*9<br />
89<br />
tt,B. lood lna Dri! liii!i..r.cioE Olfic. o! ?l.rnins .rd<br />
lnfl.tio!<br />
(5-nicro)<br />
lop.ct<br />
coDeo und !<br />
of P!.po!.d tul.!!kin8: ritrofuri.<br />
te.hinStoo, DC: 0.s. lood tnd Dru! ldlinirt..!io! Otli.. of<br />
Pl !rr ina rnd Ev:ru..ior, 1975<br />
U,s, lood aod Dr!8 Adrini.tr.tior O!lic. ol ll.!Ditra ..d<br />
Ev.l uac ior<br />
Iofl.tion lop.cE Sr.!.r.ot of rropo..d R!1.r.Lir8: E.cctuin<br />
!nd its Salt! in lood., Dru8r, A.i!.1 l.edr, lniEsl Dr!83,<br />
Co6reticr, .nd.t. Food Addiriv.; !!olri!irioo o! UrG<br />
B.S. rood Add DruB Ad'ioisc.i!ion of!ice or Pl.n!i!8 .rd<br />
lvr Luat ioD, I977<br />
O. S. F.d.r.l lneray Aihi!i.t!.tio!<br />
3.n.fit-Co.r l,eEhoaolo8t fo! !e.lurt!n8 !n€!gy Coo..!v.tion<br />
U. S. Fea.rrl EaerBy,ldDirirt.,tioD, l9t5<br />
U. S. Cene!.1 AccobntinA Olfice<br />
A€n.fit3 of v.hicle Saf.ty sirndrrd.<br />
lla3hinaEon, Dc: U.s. G.n.r.l Accountitg Ottic., 1979<br />
U. s. Ce!€r!1 A.countins otlice<br />
ieporl ro the Co4iLt.. oo cooE.!c. of thc It. L S.o.r.:<br />
E!!€ctiven..r, B.nefiEE, ..d co.t. of Ecd.r.l S.f.rt<br />
Stinda.dd I.r Protecrion ol ?rs..ng.r C.r o..up.ntt<br />
U.shinstod, Dc: U, s, c€n€.a1 AccountinE olfic.t 1976<br />
U.S. N!.io.rl a.!e.!ch Council. CoEri,!3ion on I!!u!.1<br />
Re rout c e.<br />
Decision MatiDE fo! l..au1.tila chG!ical! in th. EEvlroro.li<br />
C.neva: U.s. N!tiotr.l t....!ch Cou!.i1, Cooai!.ioD .!<br />
Naltrral eesouicet, 1975<br />
U. s. Nation.l R€s€.rcn Co!n.iL<br />
itraces: Ar 6nviron6entdl As..t.s.nt<br />
I,r.shinator, Dc: U,s, NaEio!al *.s.r!cb Co!n.il, 1976<br />
U. s. rcioo.l l..errcb Cou!cil<br />
xonfruo!io.t.d l.lo!.th.!.. ir lh. trvl!6nn.nt<br />
$..hitrsron, Dc: 0.S. x.tio!.1 l....rch Cou!cil, 1978<br />
U. s. Narian!1 i.3€arcb Council<br />
Polychlo.in.red Biphcnylr<br />
lr,s. Narisaal R.s€.rc}! Co!hcil, l9t9<br />
Crad, lrrnk norenlh.l, A.J. t.t' J.A.<br />
The aotono6il..!.1 rt. r.tul.rion of itr lrprcc od tlr€<br />
lr,S. x.Eional g.i.o.. Foq.d:tio!, 1974<br />
tusxst**cBAa<br />
tl6t.ro.r. T,E, unitzee3ti. X.R,<br />
co.!/Ben,fil Ai.lrsi. of Fir. Det.c!o!.<br />
Collee. P.tk, rD: U,S, !9!!iortl Scien.. tolrdetio., l9?E
usNsrr*c!c8<br />
90<br />
D.rdi., R!ehe l SDith, B.F.<br />
cor!-AeDefir Analy6is of consuEe, ?!odEcr S.fe!y proa!aE.<br />
I,l.rlinston, Dct u,s. NaEional science roqn.t.tioi, r!ii"".y,<br />
I978<br />
Heyroo?t, J.B. Ja.olt, {. D.<br />
Aessl at ina the AuroDo!iIe<br />
xashiasron! DC: U.S. Iarion.t Science<br />
I9J 7<br />
lu8!tsaAsacB4li!Ehleif€!,<br />
J.<br />
Applyins Cost-ae!.Iit 4ralysis<br />
!oud!t ion, i.re!b.!,<br />
T, Repplporr, t.<br />
ro Proj€ct3 $bicb alrc! tuEed<br />
Sc i€nc€ r round.t ion, !ove!.b,<br />
IVANBAT6SOR! Ved {.rn, A!d!€r J.<br />
qilBon, f,icha!d<br />
rrTh.<br />
s!3tus of Risk-!enefit Aqat,.i.t'<br />
n.e lo!k, IY: !ioolhsver N.rionai laborarorr, l9t6<br />
!vAUPJ780taO vaupel, JaEei lt.<br />
nonthe<br />
re;efi!i of treattb and saf€ry !egul!tioo"<br />
Plblic lnrere.t E.osooic6 FouDdarion, r9i8<br />
!vIscrTS Ioos<br />
avlscI.7E!t90<br />
lvlscr?9 roos<br />
THADEJT?CASSU3de,<br />
JaEes C. ll.adt, !arl<br />
"coDtrolliqa<br />
O-<br />
Nonpoinr s-dinenr Sources ri!b C!oDlard<br />
araeeEenr: A NrtLon:l E.oromic Arses6oen<br />
aoericar Jou!!.1 of asri.ulrur,t Econooic., vol. 59, no. t,<br />
F€blua!y, 19 77, P. 25-36<br />
3$AtrJTSUOSC<br />
trft€asur€nent<br />
of sedirent cont!ot IElactE on ts!icDttrre,'<br />
tr8Lc' Resourcer R.se6r!h, vot. 1.. no. !, Febtu.ry, 1978, p.<br />
BIiEStTTTAMANItestr.n,<br />
Ualte! E.<br />
"loq<br />
uuch a!e n.tu!e"s Services r,ro!th?'<br />
Anerrcan A3.ociation fo! rhe Advan.erenr of Scies.e, 1977<br />
!$nr tMTSMtco<br />
|lash ing ron, DC: U.S. NaEional<br />
r 914<br />
vi tcus i , $. xi?<br />
"Tbe<br />
IEpac. of Oc.sDational SafEry and neqtth tegulrtiontt<br />
!ell Jou!nr1 o! xconoEica.!d xanagereat Scien.e; vor. rO,<br />
no. lr Sl!ing, L9J9, r. lt7-t40<br />
9i.cusi, U. Kip<br />
"l,abo! Na!ket Varuations ot rife aDd !iDb!Erpi!iceI Eyiderce<br />
dd Policy rDplications',<br />
?!!1ic Policy, vor,26, ro.3, Suooer, r978, p. 359-386<br />
vis.uri, F. (ip<br />
"Tbe<br />
Iopa.! of Occup!rionar S!Iety rnd teal!h Regul.rion"<br />
3eI!,Jourral of !coDo'i.r, vol. tO, no. I. Sp,in!, trzr, p.<br />
!,rhiEtread, Hichael<br />
''ueasurinB<br />
rh€ Cost. of Noise n..ui!.nc€ f!oo Ai!cr.tt,.<br />
Jou!D6I oI 1!anEporE EcohoEics .nd poticr, l9r8<br />
T
tt!or*9cf,f,F6<br />
llt LLB T T C0tA<br />
I|JILSRT9ATDB<br />
!ttzci?680^?<br />
BYT'**I'EADAR<br />
ItECBt? SPtV!<br />
lz!crl76l.xr9<br />
EZECi'RTTGCTT<br />
a zucxs 7 TtPBI<br />
9l<br />
To!1d !..lth or!.nlt.tlon<br />
ll€!1rh lt.2.!d6 froE ics Environr.at.l ?oIl!t.rt.<br />
r,torld n.rlth or8.oi.rtio!, 1976<br />
"Contt!.ir!. of th.ort rld Pr..tic! in th. ay.lu.tloD of<br />
Env!!on..nt.1 Qtrrri!rr'<br />
Urb.! srudi.s, vor, I{, 197?, ?.355-9<br />
ti I son, Ricb.!d<br />
'rAnrltzina rhe D.ilt li.t. ol !ife"<br />
Technology Revis,<br />
E.bru!ry, 19t9, p. 4l-46<br />
Dt2g3, Ronrld ,/l.<br />
'!The Ef!.ct of Ai! tollsti,o! up.n lto!t.lity: A Co!!1d.!.tior<br />
ol Di3rribut.d Lrr llod.l."<br />
Jorrn!l of the A{;ricrr Sr.Ei.!ic.l ArrDci.tl!!, vol, 71,<br />
no. 363, sett.!b.r , t914, p , 463-47?<br />
Y!, Ide! Sit-hu!8<br />
"A€sEh€iic<br />
D!oas. .nd Ao!se\o1d<br />
londo!: Journ!l of !nvi!on!€nt.l<br />
p. 261-8<br />
titnrsebent, vo t. 7, l9?6,<br />
2.. kh.us.r, R!c\ ard<br />
"P!oc.duret<br />
for 961uitra Live.'!<br />
Psblic Policy, vol.2l, !o.4, F.l!, t975, E. 4t9-465<br />
Z..khrur.r, Rich.rd<br />
Shepard, Donald<br />
"tiher€<br />
No, Fot saving !iver!"<br />
Durhao, NC: Lar.Dd<br />
197 6, p.5-45<br />
Co!t.rpni.!t Psobl!D., vol,40, Autu!!,<br />
Z.ctrr.u3.r, Rich{rd<br />
Iicbol., Alb.!i<br />
!!Coverrr.at Cor.t ro tbe lJo:lpl!..: ^n Arr.6r!ert dl OSAA"<br />
0.S. Codar..., Setr.!. coDDitre€ o! Gov.!nbe!t ope!!tiori,<br />
t977<br />
Zu.t.i, A.trour<br />
rrl.Sulriiotr! Pbrnto. !.!. fi t.-Icc sttl."<br />
!u. iner s ll..k, 1977<br />
:<br />
l
APPENDIX C: S<strong>II</strong>BJECT tftD (<br />
AIR<br />
SAPCA*QSSC42<br />
BASHFNT9ECST<br />
8BI]RCVTJETAE<br />
BCUTJGLT8 t0PC<br />
BCLARETTSEOE<br />
8C0ilEJ730DTC<br />
BCIE JTTCAS I<br />
BRCUTPTS t0Ct<br />
BDEN 'E78EOSE<br />
BEDr'lUSTTEtCA<br />
9ELL IJTSROSO<br />
BFERRETSHEOE<br />
BFTSCBT6CSAA<br />
BFI SI]A76E tEA<br />
EFRAUJI5CIlIU<br />
SFRAUJT5OPOL<br />
BFRAUJTTCXIU<br />
BFREEAT4OEAP<br />
BFREEATTTBTE<br />
EFREEAT9BOEI<br />
8GETzfi78capF<br />
8GREEn798WoT<br />
BBRIFJT4EEOS.<br />
BI]ARRDTTCAEH<br />
8HAlR078D0BF<br />
IHARRDT8<strong>II</strong>HIA<br />
BHERhS77flC0A<br />
Bl RV tTlTCBA0<br />
BJENNAT4BTIP<br />
O(NEEATSMAT<br />
8IAVEL77API4T<br />
BLEADST6EOI]B<br />
BIEI,IDiT9EA<strong>OF</strong><br />
B<strong>II</strong>ELSJTERCHP<br />
BOEcD**iEDC4<br />
BPEPRDTTCBAA<br />
BPI-ESDT4EPSC<br />
BSCHLAT6MOA<br />
ESCdLATTSETA<br />
AIR<br />
92<br />
BSrY*C78sE0A<br />
8SI'ALKTTETAP<br />
BSIl ITVTTRLAE<br />
B5TEBJ76P5OA<br />
SSTEVCT94PHH<br />
BllscEQ**11105<br />
EUSCEQCSFATS<br />
EIJSCPSBEDEAT<br />
EU5C5*CPAQA4<br />
BUsCS*CPS0t9<br />
BUsDL'r0sE007<br />
BLJSEPAOHCRO8<br />
BUSTPAOHHDFI<br />
ElrstPAoRtMAT<br />
BIJSEPAOROAPT<br />
BUSEeA0Ror,{C4<br />
BUSEPAORPAE6<br />
BUSEPAOTTM5<br />
BUSFDAOP IPFT<br />
8U5NSF**RTA7<br />
SVANHAT5SORB<br />
8llE STr./7 7l]flAN<br />
BI.JYZGRTEEOAP<br />
BY!**E78A0Ari<br />
4!IS<br />
BJEINATYBTIP<br />
BROSE!77RTP*<br />
AUTO EH ISS ION<br />
CONTROL<br />
AUTo E tSS tOtS<br />
BI'IARRDTTCAEI<br />
AUTo Erl tS s lox s<br />
CONTROL<br />
AUTOHOBILE<br />
BHARRDTSH<strong>II</strong>PA<br />
BUSCS+CPAQA4<br />
SUSOIdNHAEO9<br />
BUSDI*N<strong>II</strong>FAD9<br />
EUSDT*N<strong>II</strong>FIAT<br />
BUS!T'!NI'INHT8<br />
BUSDT*NHMA8<br />
BUSDT*NHROR9<br />
BUSDT+N<strong>II</strong>S406<br />
AUTOI]OEILES<br />
BROBELTTCAOP<br />
BUSGAO{*E8A6<br />
!4!!l!<br />
88ARA|176R0EC<br />
EBRUCLT5ARBA<br />
BCRUTPTS t0C I<br />
BED<strong>II</strong>USTSTIOA<br />
BFMUJT5C<strong>II</strong>IU<br />
BTRAUJT5CPO!<br />
EFRAUJTTCntU<br />
EKNEEATTEPEH<br />
B OLLATTHEA<strong>II</strong><br />
BUSCEqCSFATS<br />
BUSDHENIEOTS
coitsufiEi<br />
BASnFNT9€CRr<br />
BBROC}J75EAOT<br />
BDARORT8CBAO<br />
8GRA8<strong>II</strong>78EOLA<br />
SGREfNT9BVOI<br />
EHARRDT8HIPA<br />
B0 t.::r.r7lE0Ps<br />
BPAUL}17ICANN<br />
BPELTST2TBAC<br />
8P€LTST5EOAR<br />
sPE!Ts75E0CP<br />
8R08EL77CAoP<br />
8SAtTB77CBA0<br />
BUSCPS**AR*9<br />
EUSCPS*i!€0SB<br />
B!lscPs**PBr8<br />
BUSCPS:r:\PtEtt<br />
8USCP58Ea8A5<br />
EUSCPSSEDtAT<br />
8U5CPS3EEl07<br />
8U5CPSBEVP09<br />
EUSCPSDHHARS<br />
BLJSCPSDHHHA9<br />
BUSCPSHIEAOT<br />
8U5CPsdrfRO9<br />
EUSCPSI|tPE l8<br />
8USCP50S r0Ca<br />
SUSOT*NHAE09<br />
BU5oT*ftHEl57<br />
8USOTlNHF5S8<br />
BIJSFDAOP IPFT<br />
8US0A0i*E945<br />
B!| tsRT9ATDi<br />
8YU**E78ADA<strong>II</strong><br />
COST-BENEFIT<br />
BAC(EET3USFB<br />
BAPCAt0SSCA2<br />
8A5HFI{79ECRT<br />
ltAt tETq taq,A<br />
88tSiR78E5AU<br />
E8t .ANR785 STU<br />
aEoLLH778AC0<br />
Bt0L!|177CBSt<br />
tB0ND|l58A0flP<br />
93<br />
c0sT-SElrEFlr<br />
tSi,tNl{77HCAB<br />
iBi0c\,J75€a0T<br />
B8q00J78TT!A<br />
BBROI,JRT6SOTI<br />
BC I CCC75lE0A<br />
8CrAia775E0E<br />
8C0HtJ730DTC<br />
8C0Nl{877CR8A<br />
8C0NLB78V0Ht<br />
8C00KP78TV0H<br />
SCRExJTTCAS I<br />
BCU<strong>II</strong>i.1RT{EUEP<br />
EDARORT8CBAO<br />
BDEVGJT5CBAA<br />
lE!t TDTTCBAA<br />
8FEi6A7650E I<br />
BFtSC8T6CSAA<br />
BFISI]A72EOEP<br />
BFI SHAT{TOEP<br />
BFISHAT5RCEP<br />
BfI SHA75E I EA<br />
IFRTTAT4OEAP<br />
8'REEAT9BOE I<br />
8GRA8H78EOIA<br />
BGAEE}479BVOT<br />
BCRUnl75C8Al<br />
BhAN(S7{0CAR<br />
BHARROT8DC IA<br />
BHARRDTSTIHPA<br />
E I RVI r77C8A0<br />
8J0XE't78V0Ht<br />
BK<strong>II</strong>EEATT€PE<strong>II</strong><br />
8KNtEA786AAT<br />
BK0lnsT6PS*r<br />
BLAYAPT6TDOD<br />
BLE8ES7qC8A0<br />
8L tN0875QTCA<br />
EliAJ0AT5Ellftt<br />
SnttDl75N8GB<br />
Bn tsflE78D t0E<br />
BNU5KJ77€ IAi<br />
Br{ELSJ78RCfiP<br />
E0ECD.r*t0crl<br />
8PARVD76Ftt0<br />
EPEAROTSLOCA<br />
SPttTST2TBAC<br />
6P€LTS7'EOAR<br />
BEELTST5EOCP<br />
BPEPRDTTCEA^<br />
COST-BE<strong>II</strong>EFIT<br />
8PESKH75C8AV<br />
BPETEJTTEAEC<br />
BROEELTTCAOP<br />
8SI rT877CBA0<br />
8THALSTrrvosA<br />
BTIHADT4CREA<br />
BTIHADT9CSAA<br />
BuscEQ*'r 105<br />
BUSCPS*NPTE4<br />
BUSCPSSECBA5<br />
8U5CP58€E t07<br />
BUSCPSBEVPO9<br />
8!SCF5H tFR09<br />
BUSCPSN tPE t8<br />
BUSCS*CPS0[9<br />
BUSDT*FRHFE4<br />
sus0t4NrAr09<br />
8US0tr{}tEts7<br />
BUSDT}NHFAO9<br />
BUSOT*N<strong>II</strong>FIAT<br />
8U50T*r{flFtA8<br />
0USDT:!rlHNHTS<br />
BUSDT'NHRAAS<br />
BUSDT*NHBOR9<br />
BUSEPAHEOVPS<br />
EUSEPAOGESI6<br />
EUSEFAOHCROS<br />
SUSEPAOHIlDFI<br />
BUSIPAONEAS6<br />
BusEPAoREvrQlr<br />
BUSEPAOR I AS7<br />
BUSEPAOR <strong>II</strong>1A7<br />
BUS€PAORPAf6<br />
SUSEPAORRNAS<br />
BUSEPAORSRV3<br />
8USFEAoEBCfi5<br />
BIJSGAo*rE8A5<br />
B1rtscLl78t0o5<br />
BVrSCr,l79r00s<br />
BtADEJTTCItSS<br />
BLIAD€J78X05C<br />
8vH I Tn78rlTCo<br />
8VtLur77C0IA<br />
SZECKRT5Vt{FS<br />
EZECKifTGCTT
O ISCOUNT RAI€<br />
EELL r 077CBAA<br />
SFI SHAT2EOEP<br />
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