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Table D.2 lists all the languages in which there is significant evidence that the
labial flap is part of the phonologically system. We have also included our judgment as to
if the sound is definitely, probably, or possibly part of the phonological system of the
language. The labial flap is definitely a part of the phonological system of thirteen
languages, probably a part of the system in twelve languages, and possibly a part of the
system in seven languages.
D.6 The origin of the labial flap
At this point, an excursus on the origin of the labial flap is appropriate. Greenberg
(1983) suggests as its ultimate source either Adamawa-Ubangi or Central Sudanic,
“without a convincing basis for choice” (p. 12). Our findings go further in establishing
the source of the sound. As we saw in Section D.2, the sound is most widely attested in
Niger-Congo, particularly the Adamawa-Ubangi sub-group, followed by Nilo-Saharan
(Central-Sudanic), and finally Afro-Asiatic (Chadic). In addition, in the previous section
we have seen that evidence for incorporation of the sound into the phonological system of
a given language follows the same pattern—the best evidence is found in Niger-Congo,
followed by Nilo-Saharan, and finally Afro-Asiatic.
This suggests an ultimate Niger-Congo origin for the labial flap. However, it was
likely not a part of proto-Niger-Congo. As mentioned before, the sound is well-attested
only in Adamawa-Ubangi sub-group of Niger-Congo, with only a few sporadic
attestations in Benue-Congo, and none in the other Niger-Congo sub-branches. This leads
us to suggest that the sound developed as an innovation in Adamawa-Ubangi. The sound
was probably borrowed into Central Sudanic soon thereafter, with borrowing into Chadic
and Benue-Congo being recent occurrences.
Having pinpointed the likely source of the labial flap, an additional question
arises: how did this sound develop historically? On this question, much research is still
needed, but we set forth an initial hypothesis. Greenberg (1983) notes that the geographic
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