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The is also inserted to break up a rising tone in 4c and 4d, a structure which is rare in tautomorphemic environments and thus also dispreferred. 1 Certain noun modifiers may also take the plural prefix. Descriptive adjectives take the prefix when they modify animate nouns. For example, in the noun phrase =C>H =C>H =C>H =C>H =C= =C= =C= =C= ‘large animals’, the adjective takes the plural prefix in modifying the animate noun, but in the noun phrase C>H C>H C>H C>H =5 =5 =5 =5 ‘large cups’, the same adjective is in its default form since the noun is inanimate. Cloarec-Heiss (p. 50) notes that in Linda, an ordinal number may also take a plural prefix, as in (5). This is likely the case in Mono as well, but I could not verify this with my corpus of data. (5) Ordinal number with plural prefix in Linda (Cloarec-Heiss, p. 50) => => => => 5 55 5 FA( FA( FA( FA( PL-two DET flee:NF ‘The second ones fled.’ Besides the plural prefix = =, = = there are several lexical means for marking plural. First, different verbs forms may be employed depending on whether a certain argument is singular or plural. For example, the verb = = = = ‘give’ is employed if the direct object is singular whereas the verb ‘give’ is employed if the direct object is plural: (6) Lexical marking of plural in verbs: vs. = = = = ‘take’ a. LJ LJ LJ LJ ( ( ( ( > > > 5= 5= 5= 5= ( ( ( ( I(FA I(FA I(FA I(FA >=A >=A >=A >=A three INF-give two SS remain one ‘Three minus two equals one.’ b. @K(K @K(K @K(K @K(K (= (= (= (= =A =A =A =A ( ( ( ( I(FA I(FA I(FA I(FA L== L== L== L== five INF-give one SS remain four ‘Five minus one equals four.’ 1 A similar allomorph occurs in the related language Linda. Cloarec-Heiss (1986: 209) suggests that the is inserted in order to avoid confusion between the plural prefix and the initial vowel = of the stem, which she considers a non-productive prefix. Thus, the use of = = = = would prevent the creation of a long vowel as in the words ==>=( ==>=( ‘fathers’ and == ==K( == K( K( K( ‘uncles’ in (4a-b). This explanation seems motivated, but Kamanda (1998: 332) points out that there are cases in Linda where the == == == == prefix (the form in Linda) occurs with words in which the initial vowel of the stem is not =, e.g. M M M M ‘spouse’ vs. ==M ==M ==M ==M ‘spouses’. Tisserant (1930: 27) on the other hand considers the use of == == == == to be a sign of respect. 95
Second, certain adjectives are lexically marked for plural. For example, the adjective A(CA(H( A(CA(H( A(CA(H( A(CA(H( ‘big’ is singular and the adjective C>H C>H C>H C>H ‘big’ is plural, as in (7): (7) Lexical marking of plural in adjectives: A(CA(H( A(CA(H( A(CA(H( A(CA(H( vs. C>H C>H C>H C>H ‘big’ a. =(I( =(I( =(I( =(I( @( @( @( @( A(CA(H( A(CA(H( A(CA(H( A(CA(H( =5 =5 =5 =5 this COP big(sg) cup ‘That is a big cup.’ b. =(I( =(I( =(I( =(I( @( @( @( @( C>H C>H C>H C>H =5 =5 =5 =5 this COP big(pl) cup ‘Those are big cups.’ Third, plural can be indicated by use of quantifiers, either numeral or non- numeral, as in (8): (8) Lexical marking of plural in quantifiers a. Ken I( I( I( I( @ @ @ @ =5 =5 =5 =5 > > 5= 5= 5= 5= PN be with cup two ‘Ken has two cups.’ b. Ken I( I( I( I( @ @ @ @ =5 =5 =5 =5 @H( @H( @H( @H( PN be with cup many ‘Ken has many cups.’ Before leaving the topic of the plural in Mono, one additional observation needs to be made. In Mono, there are a large number of lexical items which begin with the vowel = =, = = but do not carry the semantic notion of plural. These include some animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and adverbs. In the case of the adverbs, the initial = = = = is optional. (9) Sample words beginning with the vowel = = = = a. animate nouns =C= =C= =C= =C= ‘animal’ =J5( =J5( =J5( =J5( ‘louse’ =>=( =>=( ‘father’ (kinship term) b. inanimate nouns =K(CK =K(CK =K(CK =K(CK ‘mushroom’ =M= =M= =M= =M= ‘work’ =( =( =( =( ‘hoof’ (body part) c. adverbs =C>=(C =C>=(C =C>=(C =C>=(C ~ C>=(C C>=(C C>=(C C>=(C ‘brusquely, abruptly’ =>KJ5( =>KJ5( =>KJ5( =>KJ5( ~ >KJ5( >KJ5( >KJ5( >KJ5( ‘night’ (time word) =@= =@== =@= =@= = = = ~ @== @== @== @== ‘evening’ (time word) 96
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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE PHONO
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TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME ONE LIST O
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: The lan
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LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Banda sub
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Rhodes, Jim Roberts, Doug Sampson,
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ABSTRACT In this dissertation, I de
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This dissertation is dedicated to t
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There are several languages in the
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The Bubanda region is located to th
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convincing. More will be said about
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Her phonological analysis consists
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study informing the internal classi
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men hunt small game, but large game
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third of CAR. At its peak, the Uban
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of Lingala is reduced, both for men
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language. Also, code switching is n
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Finally, several documents dealing
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with the contrast between sounds, a
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CHAPTER 2 PHONEMES In this chapter,
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4. Frequency of occurrence. If a so
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Mono consonants share several trait
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Despite the fact that the labial fl
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The data in (1) show sample contras
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However, contrasts are readily atte
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case of the pronouns. If the pronou
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2.2 Vowels b. Labial-velar and lab
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If = were reinterpreted as a low fr
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The data in (19) show sample contra
Page 57 and 58: = Table 2.1: Consonant-vowel combin
Page 59 and 60: CHAPTER 3 TONE The majority of Afri
Page 61 and 62: (3) Tautomorphemic words containing
Page 63 and 64: 3.2 Grammatical tone Besides the le
Page 65 and 66: (13) a. = = = = = C=@( C=@( C=@( C=
Page 67 and 68: Certain locative adverbs in Mono ha
Page 69 and 70: CHAPTER 4 LABIALIZATION AND PALATAL
Page 71 and 72: tongue position in addition to a pr
Page 73 and 74: However, this is not what we find.
Page 75 and 76: 4.2 Suggested interpretations Chao
Page 77 and 78: each vowel in the sequence. She con
Page 79 and 80: consonant to be lower in sonority t
Page 81 and 82: entire word as its domain, which wo
Page 83 and 84: phonemically as ia, or as a semi-vo
Page 85 and 86: is suggested by Blevin’s (1995: 2
Page 87 and 88: . Alveolar ⎯ J =J=H= =J=H= =J=H=
Page 89 and 90: this is that these words bear stres
Page 91 and 92: Arabic, Japanese, Lardil, Estonian,
Page 93 and 94: (3) Underlying forms of sample V1CV
Page 95 and 96: the words, ‘far’, F F F F
Page 97 and 98: The adjective == == == == ‘small
Page 99 and 100: One question which arises is whethe
Page 101 and 102: 1994, Elders 2000), most of which f
Page 103 and 104: In my corpus of data, adverbs begin
Page 105 and 106: contains several morphemes are term
Page 107: (2) Sample animate nouns a. C> C> C
Page 111 and 112: Thus, according to Kamanda’s hypo
Page 113 and 114: (13) Sample compound nouns in Mono
Page 115 and 116: element begins with a vowel, vowel
Page 117 and 118: Cloarec-Heiss (1972: 86) for Linda.
Page 119 and 120: 121) considers this to be an unprod
Page 121 and 122: document clearly the formal propert
Page 123 and 124: Repetitive aspect (REP). The repeti
Page 125 and 126: (31) a. ( ( ( ( I( I( I( I( (F= (F=
Page 127 and 128: There is a plural form ( (, ( ( whi
Page 129 and 130: 7.1.3 Prepositional morphology Most
Page 131 and 132: (45) a. I( I( I( I( (= (= (= (=
Page 133 and 134: (49) a. ( ( ( ( → ~
Page 135 and 136: which reduces to '' ' ' in casual s
Page 137 and 138: CHAPTER 8 ACOUSTIC PHONETICS While
Page 139 and 140: This chapter consists of four parts
Page 141 and 142: Figure 8.2: Waveform and spectrogra
Page 143 and 144: Figure 8.4: Waveform and spectrogra
Page 145 and 146: languages on one hand (Degema and t
Page 147 and 148: Figure 8.8: Waveform of the possibl
Page 149 and 150: Figure 8.12: Waveform and spectrogr
Page 151 and 152: oth Speakers A and K. In Speaker A
Page 153 and 154: In the tokens I examined, then, I f
Page 155 and 156: ief glottalic ingressive mechanism,
Page 157 and 158: Figure 8.23: Waveform and spectrogr
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labial-velar stops is shorter than
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formant transitions at the release
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Figure 8.28: Waveform and spectrogr
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(1973) suggest plotting F1 vs. F2',
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Table 8.4: Bandwidth averages. Unit
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Figure 8.30: Plot of F1 vs. F3 (Spe
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Second, the value of F2 for the Mon
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start of or H. The second vowel wa
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Words with only two syllables shoul
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presence of a nasal formant at the
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Figures 8.40 and 8.41 show spectrog
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Second, I argue in Chapter 4 that l
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transition from the secondary artic
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linguistic universals and tendencie
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The two secondary articulations fou
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APPENDIX A TEXTS This appendix cont
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( 11. “>== >== >== >== =( =( =( =
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20. “A(FA( A(FA( A(FA( A(FA( == =
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33. “ @ @ @ @ J5(( J5(( J5(( J
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( 43. A@A A@A A@A A@A I( I( I( I( (
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( 55. J5A J5A J5A J5A =( =( =( =( =
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( ( ( =( =( =( =( ( ( ( ( MK( M
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( 9. =LKHK =LKHK =LKHK =LKHK A
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9. C> C> C> C> CA( CA( CA( CA( AC=
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Table A.2: Frequency counts of vowe
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=@AC =@AC =@AC =@AC n. bend, crook,
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== == == == M(A( M(A( M(A( M(A( n.
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(( ( >==C>= >==C>= >==C>= >==C>= CJ
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@A @A @A J5(( J5(( J5(( J5(( v. cho
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A(FA( A(FA( A(FA( A(FA( CKIK CKIK n
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C=>= C=>= C=>= C=>= v. honor, admir
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C>=@= C>=@= C>=@= C>=@= CK> CK> CK>
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ADJ. sharp. F F ADJ. tart. ADJ
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=5A =5A =5A =5A =C= =C= =C= =C= n.
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=>= =>= =>= =>= n. knife. #0929. =(
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= = = = Variant: >= >= >= >= n. ill
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F=IKHK F=IKHK F=IKHK F=IKHK n. slip
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C>@ C>@ C>@ C>@ (>= (>= (>= (>= n.
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H >H >H >H (5( (5( (5( (5( v. be dr
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— @ @ @ @ — @= @= @= @= v. vomi
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C>@ C>@ C>@ C>@ AAF= AAF= AAF= AAF=
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(C>( (C>( (C>( (C>( Variant: =(C>(
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I I I I @ @ @ @ A(FA( A(FA( A(FA( A
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J=@= J=@= J=@= J=@= n. lamp, torch.
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— J5 J5 — J5=( J5=( PREP.
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KK KK KK KK n. thigh (the part of t
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M=H M=H M=H M=H n. manioc paste. M=
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=M=( =M=( =M=( =M=( n. bitter herbs
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APPENDIX C AN EVALUATION OF NIGER-C
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changes to Greenberg’s work. This
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Williamson bases much of her classi
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original division between the two b
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Stewart and Williamson interpret th
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C.3.1 Inclusion of Bantu within Nig
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Third, the supposedly borrowed word
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Watters (1989: 409) notes that *KCM
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Congo. Greenberg (1970) named it Ad
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is already satisfied, and thus form
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The second major issue with respect
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difference of syllable structure) a
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published and personally elicited.
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languages compared. Consider a triv
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sound correspondences, and thus has
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in that they most often come about
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approximating gross groupings, ther
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The International Phonetic Alphabet
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One question which arises immediate
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Table D.1: Genetic affiliation of l
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This is identical to what Catford (
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D.5 Phonological status D.5.1 Evalu
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7. Borrowed words. If the sound is
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(4) Contrast with other labial soun
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(7) Sample lexical items in Karang
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which are shown in (11). Third, the
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distribution of the labial flap bea
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In addition, we provide evidence co
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South Mofu [MIF] (Cameroon). Barret
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the mouth (Karanga) or ‘of flicki
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ilabial or labiodental. Lim conside
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words are found in those subgroups.
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‘joint’, CM CM CM CM ‘ankle
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Feroge [FER] (Sudan). Santandrea (1
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the Méré dialect in the words CKL
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Mvuba [MXH] (D. R. Congo). Demolin
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Labial flap (1) Files labfl1_11025.
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Implosives and labialization (7) Fi
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(23) Secondary articulations I(
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(36) M= M= ‘send’ =(J= =(J= =(J
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MK( MK( I( I( I( I( AA AA AA AA
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Table F.1, continued. d. Labial con
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Table F.1, continued. e. Labial co
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Table F.1, continued. e. Alveolar c
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Table F.1, continued. e. Alveolar c
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Table F.1, continued. f. Palatal co
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Table F.1, continued. h. Palatal co
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Table F.1, continued. e. Velar/glot
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Table F.1, continued. d. Labial-vel
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Table F.2, continued. K E K@ K@
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Table F.3, continued. (12)
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Table F.4: Formant and bandwidth va
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Table F.4, continued. LA@= Spec 368
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Table F.4, continued. > Spec 326.
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Table F.4, continued. > Spec 532.86
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Table F.4, continued. > 5= Spec 619
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Table F.5, continued. E > 5= ‘two
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REFERENCES Arom, Simha, and France
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Buchanan, Michael. 1996. Rapport d
Page 373 and 374:
Demolin, Didier. 1988. Some problem
Page 375 and 376:
Greenberg, Joseph H. 1995. The conc
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International Phonetic Association.
Page 379 and 380:
McCarthy, John J., and Alan S. Prin
Page 381 and 382:
Pozzati, Aurelio. 1987. Vocabolario
Page 383 and 384:
Thomas, Jacqueline M.-C. 1963. Le p
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