Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study Final Report

Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline 

Study 

Final Report 

Submitted to: 

Environment Canada 

February 2007

Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

WE WISH TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SPECIFIC 

ORGANIZATIONS, COMPANIES AND INDIVIDUALS WHO HAVE PROVIDED TIME AND 

RESOURCES TO THIS STUDY. THESE INCLUDE VARIOUS PROVINCIAL 

GOVERNMENT STAFF IN CANADA AND STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

REPRESENTATIVES IN THE US, AS WELL AS WDO (WASTE DIVERSION ONTARIO). 

May 2006


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

The purpose of this study was to develop a baseline of information on the estimated numbers and 

weights of consumer and household batteries (i.e. non-industrial) that are sold, re-used, stored, recycled 

and disposed each year by Canadian consumers, and how this number may change over time. The 

extent to which various battery types pose a risk to human health and the environment was addressed, as 

well as legislative trends. 

Consumer batteries are either primary (non-rechargeable) or secondary (rechargeable) and include a 

variety of shapes, sizes and chemical properties. 

Alkaline batteries are the most common primary batteries used by Canadian consumers, followed by zinc 

carbon batteries. Lithium primary batteries are making some inroads into the market for particular 

applications. Silver oxide and zinc air button cell batteries are used for particular applications that 

require high energy and flat voltage. 

Secondary batteries are used in higher charge applications, such as cell phones, cordless power tools 

and laptop computers. Secondary batteries include nickel-cadmium, nickel metal hydroxide, lithium ion, 

lithium polymer and small sealed lead acid batteries. 

Small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLAs) have been included in the study. These batteries are commonly 

used in emergency lighting and alarm systems (for household and commercial use), which require 

uninterrupted power supply (UPS). SSLAs play a small role in other consumer battery needs such as 

electric lawn mowers and other mobile equipment. 

Larger lead acid batteries (ULABs), used primarily for vehicle and heavy duty applications (i.e. industrial 

applications, automotive SLI – start, lighting, ignition and UPS – uninterrupted power supply applications), 

are outside the scope of this study. 

Some batteries contain heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium and lead, which are CEPA toxic 

substances and are scheduled under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA, 1999). 

Nickel may pose a threat if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds. Lithium, 

while not considered toxic under CEPA 1999, could be a concern in lithium batteries by virtue of being 

reactive when not fully discharged. 1 

Information used for this study was purchased from research houses, and identified through a literature 

search. Interviews were also conducted with various stakeholders in Canada and the US. A short e-mail 

survey of selected battery OEMs and associations was carried out to identify specific sources of 

additional information relevant to the study. Comments were received from US and Canadian reviewers. 

Consumer Battery Sales in Canada 

Table ES1 shows that in 2004, an estimated 450 million (15,182 tonnes) consumer batteries were sold 

into the Canadian marketplace. Of this total, 430.5 million units (10,991 tonnes) were primary batteries, 

and 19.7 million (4,191 tonnes) were secondary batteries. 

Within the primary battery category, most of the sales consisted of alkaline (ZnMnO2) batteries at 309.5 

million units, followed by zinc carbon (ZnC) batteries at 81.2 million units. 

In the secondary consumer battery category, nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries account for 12.8 million of 

the units sold in 2004 followed by 4.1 million nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries. Lithium ion (Li-ion) 

batteries made up a small percentage of the total at 1.54 million units sold in 2004 as did small sealed 

1 Input provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, February 2006 

Executive Summary Page i May 2006


lead acid (SSLA) batteries at 1.1 million units sold in 2004 and lithium polymer (Li-polymer) at 140,000 

units sold in 2004. 

The market share of battery sales is expected to change from 2004 to 2010. The primary battery market 

share is expected to decline slightly with secondary batteries taking up the change in market share. By 

2010, a decline in market share of zinc carbon primary batteries is predicted, with the other primary 

chemistries increasing slightly (i.e. alkaline) or remaining stable. 

Looking out at 2010, the breakdown of secondary battery sales is expected to change. Total units sold 

are expected to increase to 38.6 million units by 2010, compared to 19.7 million units sold in 2004. While 

overall nickel cadmium (NiCd) sales will continue to increase, their share of the market will be lower by 

2010 (based on data purchased from Global Industry Analysts) accounting for 58% of secondary battery 

sales (from the current 65% market share). NiCd batteries are being replaced by NiMH and lithium 

batteries which do not suffer from memory loss and do not contain cadmium. By 2010, nickel metal 

hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries will have a higher market share compared with 2004. 

Primary Batteries 

Zinc 

Carbon 

kg/unit (000s) 

Table ES1: Comparison of Batteries Sold in 2004 and 2010 

2004 2010 

Units Sold Weight Sold Units Sold Weight Sold 

% 

(by 

segment) 

(tonnes) 

% 

(overall) 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

(000s) 

% 

(by 

segment) 

(tonnes) 

% 

(overall) 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

0.027 81,190 19% 2,192 14.4% 68.56 93,789 15% 2,532 11.1% 75.79 

Alkaline 0.028 309,537 72% 8,667 57.1% 271.06 473,944 76% 13,270 58.1% 397.19 

Zinc Air 0.033 41 0.01% 1 0.0% 0.04 60.0 0.01% 1.98 0.0% 0.06 

Lithium 0.016 6,049 1% 97 0.6% 3.03 9,317 2% 149 0.7% 4.46 

Silver 

Oxide 

Button Cell 

Zinc Air 

Button Cell 

Subtotal 

Primary 

Secondary Batteries 

0.001 10,668 2% 13 0.1% 0.40 10,297 2% 12.4 0.1% 0.37 

0.001 23,037 5% 21 0.1% 0.65 33,267 5% 29.9 0.1% 0.90 

430,522 100% 10,991 72.4% 343.74 620,674 100% 15,996 70.0% 478.77 

NiCd 0.203 12,810 65% 2,600 17.1% 81.33 22,380 58% 4,543 19.9% 135.98 

NiMH 0.093 4,100 21% 381 2.5% 11.93 10,490 27% 976 4.3% 29.20 

Lithium Ion 0.040 1,540 8% 62 0.4% 1.93 4,290 11% 172 0.8% 5.14 

Lithium 

Polymer 

0.040 140 1% 6 0.04% 0.18 360 1% 14.4 0.1% 0.43 

SSLA 1.045 1,093 6% 1,142 7.5% 35.72 1,093 3% 1,142 5.0% 34.18 

Subtotal 

Secondary 

19,683 100% 4,191 27.6% 131.08 38,613 100% 6,847 30.0% 204.93 

Total 450,205 15,182 100% 474.81 659,287 22,843 100.0% 683.70 

Executive Summary Page ii May 2006

Recovery and Disposal of Consumer Batteries 


Consumer batteries are currently managed through voluntary programs such as RBRC (Rechargeable 

Battery Recycling Corporation) and various cellphone collection programs. RBRC is the only voluntary 

national rechargeable battery collection program in Canada. Prince Edward Island has implemented the 

“Re-Store Your Batteries” program enabling consumers to recycle their primary batteries at participating 

grocery stores. HHW (household hazardous waste) programs also provide drop-off options for some 

consumer batteries. Legislation targeting WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment) which is 

being considered by most provinces in the next few years will target the batteries contained in various 

products managed by these programs, in particular batteries in laptop computers, which are typically 

included in all WEEE programs. 

An Excel spreadsheet based model was constructed to estimate the flow of consumer batteries through 

the Canadian waste management system. In order to populate the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow 

Model (C2BFM) with data, a thorough literature search was conducted of data sources in Canada, the 

United States and Europe. The C2BFM model used data collected on annual unit sales by battery type, 

weight data by battery type, lifespan of different battery types, the amount of time each battery type is 

likely to be held in storage (hoarded) before disposal and reported recycling weights from RBRC to 

estimate the flow of consumer batteries in Canada. The assumptions used in the C2BFM model are 

presented in Table ES2. 

Table ES2: Canadian Consumer Battery Flow (C2BFM) Model Assumptions 

Battery Weights Alkaline (ZnMnO2) -28 grams 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) - 27 grams 

Zinc air (ZnO2) – 33 grams 

Lithium Primary -16 grams 

Assumptions 

Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) – 1.2 grams 

Zinc air (ZNO2) – 0.9 grams 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) – 203 grams 

Lithium- Ion (Li-ion) – 40 grams 

Lithium-ion Polymer – 40 grams 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) – 93 grams 

Small Sealed Lead Acid (SSLA) – 1,045 grams 

Battery lifespan 3 year lifespan 5 year lifespan for NiCd, Li-ion and SSLA 

7 year lifespan for NiMH 

Hoarding of batteries before discard 30% hoarded for 5 years 60% hoarded for 5 years 

Battery Reuse 0% reuse 0% reuse 

Recycling Rates 2% recycling rate after 1996 Recycling begins in 1997 with the launch of 

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation 

(RBRC) in Canada. A recycling rate of 0% is used 

prior to 1997 and the tonnage recycled is 

assumed to have grown in a straight line from 1997 

to 2003. 

Recovery weights identified by RBRC for 2003 

and 2004 were used by the model to estimate the 

recycling rates (weight recovered divided by weight 

discarded) for each of the secondary battery 

chemistries, by dividing the weight recovered 

(RBRC) by the estimated weight discarded 

(C2BFM). 

An annual growth rate of 16.7% (provided by 

RBRC for 2005) is assumed from 2005 to 2010. 

Tables ES3 to ES5 provides a comparison of estimates of batteries discarded, recycled and disposed in 

2004 and 2010. An estimated 347 million (11,623 tonnes) of consumer batteries were discarded in 2004. 

Discards include batteries available for recycling and final disposal. Of this total, an estimated 337 million 

units (8,610 tonnes) were primary consumer batteries and 11.2 million units (3,013 tonnes) were 

secondary consumer batteries. Most of the primary batteries discarded were alkaline (ZnMnO2) batteries 

(about 234 million units discarded in 2004), followed by carbon zinc (ZnC) batteries (73 million units 

discarded). The estimates show that 1.1 million SSLA’s were discarded; this may be an overestimate due 

Executive Summary Page iii May 2006


to the lack of availability of reliable SSLA sales figures and projections. Most of the secondary batteries 

are NiCd (8.4 million units) followed by nickel metal hydride (1.2 million units). 

By 2010, an estimated 494 million units (15,977 tonnes) of consumer batteries will be discarded, of which 

most (478 million units) will still be primary consumer batteries. The significant increase in primary 

consumer battery usage is attributed to the increased availability of toys and other products which will 

require portable power. By 2010, the number of secondary batteries discarded will increase from 11.1 

million units discarded in 2004 to 16.3 million units discarded in 2010. 


Table ES3: Comparison of Batteries Discarded in 2004 and 2010 

Units 

Discarded 

kg/unit (000s) tonnes 

2004 2010 

Weight Discarded 

% 

(overall) 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

Units 

Discarded 

(000s) 

tonnes 

Weight Discarded 

% 

(overall) 

Per Capita 

(grams) 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 72,805 1,966 16.9% 61.48 84,002 2,268 14.2% 67.88 

Alkaline 0.028 233,945 6,550 56.4% 204.87 350,788 9,822 61.5% 293.98 

Zinc Air 0.033 29 1 0.0% 0.03 46.2 1.53 0.0% 0.05 

Lithium 0.016 4,151 66 0.6% 2.08 6,947 111 0.7% 3.33 

Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 9,423 11 0.1% 0.35 10,575 12.7 0.1% 0.38 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 16,322 15 0.1% 0.46 25,724 23.2 0.1% 0.69 

Subtotal Primary 336,675 8,610 74.1% 269.26 478,084 12,239 76.6% 366.31 


NiCd 0.203 8,358 1,697 14.6% 53.06 11,171 2,268 14.2% 67.87 

NiMH 0.093 1,209 112 1.0% 3.52 2,684 250 1.6% 7.47 

Lithium Ion 0.040 423 17 0.1% 0.53 1,209 48 0.3% 1.45 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 34 1 0.01% 0.04 110 4.4 0.03% 0.13 

SSLA 1.045 1,135 1,186 10.2% 37.09 1,118 1,168 7.3% 34.97 

Subtotal Secondary 11,158 3,013 25.9% 94.24 16,292 3,738 23.4% 111.89 

Total 347,833 11,623 100% 363.50 494,376 15,977 100.0% 478.20 

An estimated 7.6 million batteries (323 tonnes) were recycled and 340 million (11,300 tonnes) consumer 

batteries were disposed in 2004. Of this total, an estimated 6.7 million primary battery units (172 tonnes) 

were recycled and an estimated 817,000 secondary battery units (151 tonnes) were recycled. Of the 

amount disposed, 330 million units (8,437 tonnes) were primary consumer batteries and 10.3 million units 

(2,863 tonnes) were secondary consumer batteries. 

In 2004, most of the primary batteries recycled and disposed were alkaline (about 4.7 million units 

recycled and about 229 million units disposed in 2004), followed by carbon zinc (ZnC) batteries (1.4 

Executive Summary Page iv May 2006


million recycled and 71 million units disposed). Most of the secondary batteries recycled and disposed 

are NiCd (estimated at 651,000 units recycled and 7.7 million units disposed) followed by nickel metal 

hydride and lithium-ion. The estimates show that only 7,000 SSLA’s were recycled and 1.1 million 

disposed; this may be an overestimate due to the lack of availability of reliable SSLA sales figures and 

projections. 

By 2010, the total amount of consumer batteries recycled and disposed will have increased to 11.8 million 

units (650 tonnes) and 483 million units (15,327 tonnes), respectively. Most of units recycled (6.7 million 

units or 172 tonnes) and disposed (469 million units or 11,994 tonnes) will still be primary consumer 

batteries. By 2010, the number of secondary batteries recycled will increase from 817,000 units (151 

tonnes) in 2004 to 2.2 million units (406 tonnes) in 2010 and the amount disposed also will increase from 

10.3 million units (2,863 tonnes) in 2004 to 14 million units (3,333 tonnes) in 2010. 

The recycling rate for all secondary battery chemistries will increase in 2010 compared with 2004, with 

NiCd batteries showing the highest growth rate overall. 


Table ES4: Comparison of Batteries Recycled in 2004 and 2010 

Units 

Recycled 


(tonnes) 

2004 2010 

Weight Recycled 

% 

(overall) 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

Units 

Recycled 

(000s) 

(tonnes) 


% 

(overall) 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 1,456 39 12.2% 1.23 1,680 45 7.0% 1.36 

Alkaline 0.028 4,679 131 40.6% 4.10 7,016 196 30.2% 5.88 

Zinc Air 0.033 1 0.02 0.01% 0.001 0.9 0.03 0.005% 0.00 

Lithium 0.016 83 1 0.4% 0.04 139 2 0.3% 0.07 

Silver Oxide Button 

Cell 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

0.001 188 0.2 0.1% 0.01 212 0.3 0.004% 0.01 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 326 0.3 0.1% 0.01 514 0.5 0.1% 0.01 

Subtotal Primary 6,733 172 53.4% 5.39 9,562 245 37.6% 7.33 


NiCd 0.203 651 132 41.0% 4.13 1,756 356 54.8% 10.67 

NiMH 0.093 80 7 2.3% 0.23 220 20 3.1% 0.61 

Lithium Ion 0.040 73 3 0.9% 0.09 210 8 1.3% 0.25 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 6 0.2 0.1% 0.01 19 0.8 0.1% 0.02 

SSLA 1.045 7 8 2.4% 0.24 19 20 3.0% 0.59 

Subtotal Secondary 817 151 46.6% 4.71 2,224 406 62.4% 12.14 

Total 7,551 323 100% 10.09 11,786 650 100.0% 19.47 

Executive Summary Page v May 2006



Table ES5: Comparison of Batteries Disposed in 2004 and 2010 

Units 

Disposed 


(tonnes) 

2004 2010 

Weight Disposed 

% 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

Units 

Disposed 

(000s) 

(tonnes) 

Weight Disposed 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 71,349 1,926 17.0% 60.25 82,322 2,223 14.5% 66.53 

Executive Summary Page vi May 2006 

% 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

Alkaline 0.028 229,266 6,419 56.8% 200.77 343,773 9,626 62.8% 288.10 

Zinc Air 0.033 29 1 0.0% 0.03 45.3 1.49 0.0% 0.04 

Lithium 0.016 4,068 65 0.6% 2.04 6,808 109 0.7% 3.26 


Cell 

0.001 9,235 11 0.1% 0.35 10,364 12.4 0.1% 0.37 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 15,995 14 0.1% 0.45 25,210 22.7 0.1% 0.68 

Subtotal Primary 329,941 8,437 74.7% 263.88 468,522 11,994 78.3% 358.98 


NiCd 0.203 7,706 1,564 13.8% 48.93 9,415 1,911 12.5% 57.20 

NiMH 0.093 1,129 105 0.9% 3.28 2,464 229 1.5% 6.86 

Lithium Ion 0.040 350 14 0.1% 0.44 999 40 0.3% 1.20 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 28 1 0.0% 0.04 91 3.6 0.0% 0.11 

SSLA 1.045 1,127 1,178 10.4% 36.85 1,099 1,149 7.5% 34.38 

Subtotal Secondary 10,341 2,863 25.3% 89.53 14,068 3,333 21.7% 99.75 

Total 340,282 11,300 100% 353.41 482,590 15,327 100.0% 458.73 

Impacts of Consumer Batteries on the Canadian Environment 

Consumer batteries account for a very small percentage of the Canadian municipal waste stream by 

tonnage. An estimated 346 million consumer batteries were discarded in 2004, representing a weight of 

11,011 tonnes. 2 The number is expected to rise to 16,067 tonnes by 2010, representing the annual 

discard of 495 million consumer batteries. 3 

The number of consumer batteries discarded is increasing dramatically, with an increased demand for 

consumer electronics which require portable power, and the rapid rate at which new electronic products 

which require batteries are being introduced into the market. 

The metals discharged into the environment as a result of disposal of consumer batteries in Canada in 

2004 are shown in Table ES6. 

2 This compares to about 12,700,000 tonnes of residential waste generated and 9,500,000 tonnes of residential waste discarded. 

Statistics Canada. 2004. Waste Management Industry Survey: Business and Government Sectors. ISSN 1701-5677 

3 At the same time there will be a comparable rise in residential waste to 13,834,000 tonnes generated and 10,307,000 tonnes 

discarded. Projections calculated using 1.09% growth rate provided by Statistics Canada. 2004. Waste Management Industry 

Survey: Business and Government Sectors. ISSN 1701-5677


Table ES6: Comparison of Metal Discharged from Batteries in 2004 and 2010 

Metals Disposed From Consumer 

Batteries in 2004 

(Tonnes) 

CEPA Toxic Metals 

Disposed From Consumer 

Batteries in 2010 

(Tonnes) 

Lead (Pb) 766 747 

Mercury (Hg) 0.4 0.5 

Cadmium (Cd) 235 287 

Nickel (Ni)* 386 543 

Other Materials 

Zinc (Zn) 1,674 2,376 

Manganese (Mn) 2,437 3,501 

Silver (Ag) 4.3 6.8 

Lithium (Li) 1.6 3.1 

Iron (Fe) 2,424 3,321 

Aluminum (Al) 5.3 11.5 

* Nickel is considered toxic under certain conditions 

Release of these battery-related contaminants to the environment would most likely occur through 

leaching to groundwater beneath landfill/disposal locations. Potential exposures would most likely occur 

in areas where groundwater is used as a source of potable water. The presence of battery-related 

contaminants in leachate would only constitute a potential concern if levels exceeded the Canadian 

Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality values. It should be noted that in most landfills, leachate is captured 

and treated. Based on the currently available information, it is not possible to determine if metals and 

other contaminants are being released from consumer batteries in landfills, in sufficient quantities to be a 

potential environmental or human health concern. Environmentally sound treatment and/or recycling 

(versus general disposal) is generally recognized as a prudent risk management approach for batteries 

that contain substances scheduled under CEPA 1999. 

Lead, Cadmium, Mercury and Nickel Issues 

This study estimated that almost 793 tonnes of lead from small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries could 

enter the Canadian environment through disposal of SSLA’s. It is likely that most of these units are 

discarded into municipal waste streams, and therefore would be contained in Canadian landfills. The 

threat posed to the environment would depend on the design of the landfills where the municipal solid 

waste (MSW) is disposed, but would be limited to groundwater contamination; the largest human 

exposure would be where the groundwater is used as a source of drinking water. 

An estimated 234.7 tonnes (rounded to 235 tonnes in the table above) of cadmium entered the Canadian 

environment through disposal of consumer batteries in 2004. This number will increase significantly in 

future years, as NiCd batteries purchased in the last 10 years are discarded. NiCd batteries have been 

the subject of a number of legislative efforts in the US and Europe, because of a concern about cadmium 

content. Sales projections purchased from GIA for this study identified a trend towards higher sales for 

NiCd batteries in future years. There is a general feeling from battery OEMs that NiCd sales are on the 

decline, but this opinion could not be verified through purchased sales data sources or through formal 

comments from the battery industry. 

Most batteries contain no mercury and only a very small amount of mercury is found in button cell 

batteries. A mercury free zinc air battery has been introduced in Europe, but not in North America. There 

is a significant concern regarding the potential for imports and counterfeit batteries to contain 

unacceptable levels of mercury. 

Executive Summary Page vii May 2006


Nickel compounds are considered a CEPA toxic substance and are scheduled under the Canadian 

Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA, 1999). Nickel may pose a threat if combined with other 

materials therefore it is toxic under certain conditions. 

Legislative Initiatives 

For the past decade, Europe has assumed a leadership role in the management of primary and 

secondary batteries. Battery management is prescribed by the European Union through a series of 

directives beginning with the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on Batteries and Accumulators containing 

certain dangerous substances, adopted March 1991 and followed by two amended versions. The purpose 

of the directives is to establish measures for proper recovery, treatment and disposal of waste batteries 

and to restrict the sale of designated batteries throughout the European Union. 

Throughout North America, various jurisdictions have enacted legislation targeting mercury in batteries, 

and NiCd batteries, because of the presence of lead, mercury and cadmium. In the United States, battery 

management is driven by the hazardous components in the batteries rather than the battery type. Since 

the early 1990’s, the US Federal government has taken steps to eliminate or significantly reduce mercury 

use in primary batteries resulting in the elimination of mercury in primary alkaline batteries and zinc 

carbon batteries since 1993. 

The passage of the Battery Act in 1996 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 

established national, uniform labeling requirements for nickel cadmium (NiCd) and other regulated 

batteries to facilitate the increased collection and recycling of these batteries. About the same time, the 

US EPA introduced the Universal Waste Rule in May 1995 to target deleterious hazardous wastes, 

including nickel cadmium (NiCd) and small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries, in the municipal waste 

stream and encourage recycling and proper management of targeted wastes. 

State initiatives include the implementation of landfill bans on mercury-containing batteries and NiCd 

batteries and the introduction of legislation requiring proper collection, management and labeling of 

targeted batteries. 

To date, neither Canada nor its provinces or territories have initiated legislative or producer responsibility 

programs targeting primary or secondary consumer batteries. Legislation in the US has been a driver for 

some developments in Canadian provinces. Most initiatives in Canadian provinces indirectly target 

batteries through electronic stewardship programs and proposed household hazardous waste programs. 

Additional Research Needs 

More accurate sales projections are needed for NiCd batteries. The sales projections purchased from 

GIA showed an increase in NiCd battery sales in Canada to year 2010, although various published 

commentaries indicate that NiCd batteries are being phased out by many manufacturers. 

The recovery rate for small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLA’s) is based on sales data which may be 

overestimated. Sales estimates for SSLA’s were based on very limited German and Japanese data 

which could have included SSLA’s from the commercial sector. It is therefore suggested that a more 

accurate sales estimate be requested from the Canadian Battery Industry. 

Executive Summary Page viii May 2006


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1 

2. METHODOLOGY 3 

3. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON CONSUMER BATTERIES 5 

3.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND CHARACTERISTICS 

3.2 BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS 

3.2.1 Primary Consumer Batteries 

3.2.2 Secondary Consumer Batteries 

3.3 COMPOSITION OF BATTERIES 

3.4 CURRENT STATUS OF THE CANADIAN CONSUMER BATTERY MARKET 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

10 

3.5 CURRENT CONSUMER BATTERY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS IN CANADA 

3.5.1 HHW (Household Hazardous Waste) Management Programs 

3.5.2 Rechargable Battery Recycling Corporation 

3.5.3 Cell Phone Collection Programs 

3.6 REPORTED CONSUMER BATTERY GENERATION AND RECOVERY RATES 

3.7 REPORTED EUROPEAN CONSUMER BATTERY GENERATION AND RECOVERY RATES 

10 

11 

11 

13 

13 

15 

4. CANADIAN CONSUMER BATTERY SALES AND MODEL ASSUMPTIONS 16 

4.1 ANNUAL SALES OF SECONDARY (RECHARGEABLE) BATTERIES 16 

4.2 PRIMARY BATTERY SALES ESTIMATES 17 

4.3 COMPARISON OF CANADIAN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONSUMER BATTERY SALES ESTIMATES WITH OTHER SOURCES 18 

4.4 BATTERY WEIGHT DATA 21 

4.5 BATTERY LIFESPAN 24 

4.6 BATTERY REUSE 25 

4.7 BATTERY STORAGE 26 

4.8 ASSUMED RECYCLING RATES FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BATTERIES 26 

5. BATTERY FLOW ESTIMATES 28 

5.1 BATTERIES SOLD IN CANADA 28 

5.2 BATTERIES DISCARDED ANNUALLY IN CANADA 30 

5.3 FLOW OF CONSUMER BATTERIES IN 2004 33 

5.4 LOADING OF METALS AND OTHER MATERIALS CONTAINED IN CONSUMER BATTERIES 35 

5.5 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH RISKS POSED BY CONSUMER BATTERIES DISPOSED IN CANADA (2004) 38 

6. BATTERY LEGISLATION, POLICIES AND MANAGEMENT 41 

6.1 CANADA 41 

6.1.1 Content Restrictions 41 

6.1.2 Manifesting and Handling Requirements 41 

6.1.3 Environmental Labelling 41 

6.1.4 Canadian Municipal Collection and/or Disposal Bans 42 

6.1.5 Stewardship and Take Back Programs 42 

6.2 UNITED STATES 46 

6.2.1 State Leaders in Legislation and/or Programs Targeting Batteries 49 

6.3 EUROPE 53 

6.3.1 WEEE and ROHS Directives 56 

6.4 JAPAN 57 

6.5 TAIWAN 57


TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED 

7. ISSUES AND TRENDS IN PRODUCT AND BATTERY DESIGN 59 

7.1 ISSUES 59 

7.2 MARKET SHARE TRENDS 60 

7.3 TRENDS 62 

8. CONCLUSIONS 64 

9. GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS 68 

10. REFERENCES 68 

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 

Table 3.1: Primary Consumer Battery Characteristics 

Page 

6 

Table 3.2: Secondary Consumer Battery Characteristics 8 

Table 3.3: Chemical Composition of Consumer Batteries by Battery Chemistry 9 

Table 3.4: Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation Breakdown of Collected Tonnage By Battery Chemistry 12 

Table 3.5 Consumer Battery Consumption Rates for Selected North American Jurisdictions 14 

Table 3.6: Average Consumer Battery Generation and Recovery Rates In European Countries 15 

Table 4.1: Annual Shipments of Secondary Consumer Battery Units in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010 17 

Table 4.2: Estimated Annual Small Sealed Lead Acid Battery Sales in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010 

Table 4.3: RIS International Estimates of Annual Primary Consumer Battery Sales in Canada By Chemistry Type 

17 

2004 to 2010 18 

Table 4.4: Estimated Per Capita Consumption of Various Types of Primary and Secondary Batteries in Canada, 2004 19 

Table 4.5: Per Capita Consumer Battery Consumption in the US 

Table 4.6: Breakdown of 2004 Consumer Battery Sales Estimates As % of Primary and Secondary Segment 

19 

and % of Total Consumer Battery Market 20 

Table 4.7: Available Battery Unit Weight Information By Battery Chemistry 22 

Table 4.8: Average Battery Weight By Chemistry Calculated from French Data (2002) 23 

Table 4.9: Average Battery Weight Data by Chemistry Calculated Using German Data (2003 and 2004) 

Table 4.10: Unit Weights Applied to All Units Within Battery Chemistry Groupings in the Canadian 

23 

Consumer Battery Flow Model 24 

Table 4.11: Recycling Rate Estimates for Secondary Batteries 27 

Table 5.1: Consumer Battery Units Sold Into the Canadian Market 2001 to 2010 28 

Table 5.2: Estimated Weight of Consumer Battery Units Sold Into the Canadian Market 2001 to 2010 30 

Table 5.3: Consumer Battery Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal) in Canada 2001 to 2010 

Table 5.4: Estimated Weight of Consumer Battery Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal) 

31 

in Canada 2001 to 2010 32 

Table 5.5: Estimated Flow of Consumer Battery Units in Canada, 2004 33 

Table 5.6: Estimated Flow of Consumer Battery Units in Canada, 2010 34 

Table 5.7: Consumer Batteries Discarded in Canada by Province and Territory (2004) 35 

Table 5.8: Material Contained in Consumer Battery Units Sold in Canada, 2004 36 

Table 5.9: Material Contained in Consumer Battery Units Disposed in Canada, 2004 

Table 5.10: Surface Water, Drinking Water and Soil Quality Guidelines For Selected Metals and Other Substances 

37 

Contained in Consumer Batteries Sold in Canada 39 

Table 6.1: Estimate of Household Hazardous Waste in Residential Waste In Manitoba in 1998 43 

Table 6.2: Alberta’s WEEE Program 44 

Table 6.3: Products Targetted Under Ontario WEEE Legislation 45 

Table 6.4: Mercury Content of Button Batteries Sold By US Manufacturers In 2002 47 

Table 6.5: Legislation Affecting Battery Management in US States 49 

Table 6.6: European Member State National Battery Programs 54 

Table 7.1: Primary Battery Market Forecast 61 

Table 7.2: Power Pack Market Forecast 61 

Table 7.3: Comparison of Portable Power Alternatives 62


Table 8.1: Comparison of Batteries Recycled in 2004 and 2010 64 

Figure 2.1: Flow of Consumer Batteries Through The Canadian Waste Management System 4

1. Introduction and Background 


Since the first battery prototype was designed in the late 1800’s, batteries have become an integral part 

of our daily lives. Over the years, industry has made significant technological improvements enabling 

recharging, extended lifespan and reduction or elimination of some heavy metals. The demand for 

different batteries has grown exponentially in the last few years, with the rapidly increasing demand for 

portable power sources. Consumers have a very wide range of batteries to choose from, ranging from 

single use primary batteries to rechargeable secondary batteries of different chemistries. 

In general, primary batteries are dominated by “cylindrical” 4 and button cell batteries. The most common 

primary cylindrical batteries used by Canadian consumers include zinc carbon, alkaline and lithium 

primary batteries with button cell batteries consisting of silver oxide and zinc air. Secondary batteries are 

dominated by the “cylindrical” form or are combined to form power packs used in higher charge 

applications, such as cell phones, cordless power tools and laptop computers. Secondary batteries 

include nickel-cadmium, nickel metal hydroxide, lithium ion and lithium polymer. 

Small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLAs) have been included in this study. These batteries are 

commonly used in emergency lighting and alarm systems (for household and commercial use), which 

require uninterrupted power supply (UPS). SSLAs play a small role in other consumer battery needs 

such as electric lawn mowers and other mobile equipment. 

Larger lead acid batteries, used primarily for vehicle and heavy duty applications (SLI – starting, lighting, 

ignition i.e. industrial) and UPS (uninterrupted power supply), are outside the scope of this study. 

Batteries are used for a wide range of purposes in today’s world. With the proliferation of wireless and 

portable devices, the demand for batteries has increased over the past decade and continues on an 

upward curve; in fact, the secondary battery market grew 67% in total between 1998 and 2003 5 . The 

increased use and popularity of cell phones, digital cameras, portable games and laptop computers are 

fueling this demand. Projected cumulative growth for battery sales in Canada to 2010 is estimated at 

7.6% for primary and secondary batteries. 6 This translates into tens of millions of batteries sold to 

Canadian consumers on an annual basis. 

Some batteries contain heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium and lead which are CEPA toxic 

substances and scheduled under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA, 1999). Other 

metals, such as nickel, may pose a threat if combined with other materials. Lithium, while not considered 

toxic under CEPA 1999, is highly reactive and must be properly managed and transported to prevent 

possible explosions. 

Some jurisdictions, especially Europe, have taken a leadership role in promoting proper recovery, 

treatment and disposal of waste batteries and restrict the sale of designated batteries throughout the 

European Union. The requirements set out in the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on Batteries and 

Accumulators applies to batteries containing more than a specified amount of mercury, cadmium or lead 

and placed bans on specific batteries containing mercury beginning January 1 st , 1993. 

Legislation introduced world-wide combined with industry’s investment in technological improvements has 

significantly reduced the amount of mercury in batteries in North America. However, cadmium remains a 

concern. In Canada, efforts to collect and recycle primary and secondary batteries, especially nickel 

cadmium batteries, have been through voluntary initiatives. The degree to which primary and secondary 

batteries are being discarded has not been quantified for Canada, until this Baseline Study was 

commissioned by Environment Canada. 

4 Battery industry term 

5 Kearney, A.T. 2003. Global Manufacturing Strategy: The Future of the Power Pack. A.T. Kearney Inc. 

6 Source: Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. Consumer Batteries Report. 

Page 1 May 2006


The objective of this study was to establish a baseline on current consumer battery usage and 

management in Canada. The study identified the historical, current and projected quantities of consumer 

and household batteries (i.e. non-industrial) that are sold, re-used, hoarded, recycled and disposed each 

year by Canadian consumers. The extent to which various battery types pose a risk to human health and 

the environment was explored. Legislative and management trends world-wide were examined, as well 

as the changing nature of battery demands and composition that will impact on future management 

requirements. 

This study will provide Environment Canada with the necessary information and tools it needs to review 

and explore policy options for the management of consumer batteries in Canada. 

Page 2 May 2006

2. Methodology 

The study included the following tasks: 


• Identification of the amount of batteries which are discarded in Canada on an annual basis; 

• Brief assessment of the potential environmental risks associated with these batteries; 

• A review of legislation in place to manage batteries in other jurisdictions and 

• A brief description of trends in battery design into the future. 

Information sources used for the study included: 

• An extensive literature search, carried out by Intellsearch, the research arm of the Toronto Public 

Library; 

• Purchase of selected data sources identified by Intellsearch; 

• Purchase of battery sales data from Global Industry Analysts (GIA) and Fredonia Group 7 ; 

• Purchase of legislation related information from Inform; 

• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for different battery types; 

• Review of battery related annual and research reports published by US, UK, European and 

Japanese sources and 

• Interviews with government officials in Canada and the US (referenced throughout the text). 

An Excel spreadsheet based model (the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model (C2BFM)) was 

constructed to estimate the flow of consumer batteries through the Canadian waste management system. 

In order to populate the model with data, a thorough literature search was conducted in Canada, the 

United States and Europe to identify the following relevant information: 

• Annual unit sales data by battery type; 

• Weight data by battery type; 

• Lifespan of different battery types; 

• The amount of time each battery type is likely to be held in storage (hoarded) before disposal; 

and 

• Reported primary and secondary battery recycling rates for various jurisdictions. 

The model is constructed to reflect the typical flow of batteries through the Canadian waste management 

system, shown in Figure 2.1 

RIS distributed a survey (included in Appendix A) to selected battery OEMs including Sony, Panasonic, 

Rayovac, Procter and Gamble, Electronic Product Stewardship Canada (EPSC), EIA and NEMA in the 

US, and associations. The survey was carried out to identify sources of additional information relevant to 

the study, to confirm assumptions made during the study and to explore future trends in battery design. 

7 

A representative from the battery industry has noted that the battery industry has historically felt that these groups tend to have 

inflated projection data. 

Page 3 May 2006


Figure 2.1: Mass Flow of Consumer Batteries Through The Canadian Waste Management System 

Consumer Batteries 

Purchased as Units or 

as Part of Product Sale 

Consumer Batteries Are 

A No Longer Useable and 

are Retired - End of 

Operational Lifespan 

B 

A=C+D 

B=D 

C+D=E+F 

A=E+F 

C D 

Consumer Batteries are 

Discarded into the Municipal 

Solid Waste Management System 

(landfill or incineration) 

or Recycling System 

E F 

Final Disposal 

(i.e.Landfill or 

Incineration) 

Consumer Batteries 

are Hoarded or Stored 

Recycled 

into New Products 

The mass flow of consumer batteries is determined by the simple formulae shown above. “A” represents 

the tonnage of consumer batteries purchased and entering the waste management stream. All of “A” 

tonnes will in time become retired or reach the end of their lifespan. This tonnage is then split into two 

categories. “B” represents batteries that are stored at home or hoarded, that is they do not go directly into 

a recycling stream nor to a waste facility. “C” represents batteries that are discarded from the home either 

to a recycling facility or a waste management facility for incineration or landfilling. “B” tonnes eventually 

become discarded as well, but not immediately after they have been retired. All discarded batteries “C” 

plus “D” are either recycled into new products i.e “F” or they are sent to final disposal in a landfill or 

incinerator (E). The sum of “E” and “F” will equal “A”. 

Page 4 May 2006


3. Background Information on Consumer Batteries 

3.1 Historical Overview and Characteristics 

Today batteries are a common feature in our everyday lives. Most users of batteries take the 

development of batteries for granted, not realizing that the earliest ancestor to the modern battery was 

invented over two hundred years ago and has been a work in progress ever since. The explosion in the 

use of portable devices and electronic products such as computers, toys, audio devices, etc. has resulted 

in a rapidly increasing demand for both primary (non-rechargeable) and secondary (rechargeable) 

batteries. A concern regarding the need for mobile sources of power during hurricanes, ice storms, 

power blackouts, etc. has also resulted in a rapidly increased demand for all types of batteries and 

portable power. 

The first battery prototype was invented in the late 1700s by Italian physician Volta who used a stack of 

zinc and copper disks separated by cardboard soaked in a saline or acid solution to generate a low 

electric charge. 8 Leclanche designed the wet cell battery, a precursor to the dry cell battery a decade 

later. The Leclanche battery eventually became synonymous with the zinc carbon battery, the first dry 

cell battery commercially available in 1896. 

The onset of the First World War increased the demand for improved batteries that could be used to 

power equipment at the front lines. Great strides were made in battery performance between the two 

world wars, resulting in the development of silver zinc and nickel zinc (a precursor to the rechargeable 

nickel cadmium) batteries. 

Sixty years after the introduction of the carbon zinc battery, the first alkaline battery was developed in 

1959 by Lew Urry – a Canadian; it was commercialized soon after. Since it first appeared on the market, 

the performance of the alkaline battery has improved 40 fold. 9 

The nickel cadmium battery was the first rechargeable battery introduced to the market, in 1960. The first 

version of a lithium metal rechargeable battery was introduced to the market in 1983. It was not 

commercialized as the popular lithium ion battery until 1991. Nickel metal hydride batteries appeared 

about the same time in 1990. Lithium polymer batteries became commercially available in 1999. 

3.2 Battery Characteristics 

In North America, batteries are divided into two categories: primary and secondary. 

• Primary batteries are characterized by their one time use and inability to be recharged and 

reused (non-rechargeable); 

• Secondary batteries can be recharged and are often referred to as rechargeable batteries or 

accumulators (in Europe). 

Europe often combines both categories of batteries and describes them as “portable batteries”. 

Each primary and secondary battery category is further broken down into their dry cell and wet cell 

chemistries (designs). In a dry cell battery, the electrolyte is absorbed in a porous medium, or is 

otherwise restrained from flowing. In a wet cell battery, the electrolyte is in liquid form and free to flow and 

move. Most portable primary and secondary batteries are dry cell. The largest wet cell battery dominating 

the non-portable battery market is the lead acid battery used for automotive, industrial and emergency 

back-up power reserves. 

8 Energizer website at http://www.energizer.com/learning/historyofbatteries.asp?year=1798 

9 Corrosion-Doctor Organization at www.corrosion-doctors.org/PrimBatt/urry.htm 

Page 5 May 2006

3.2.1 Primary Consumer Batteries 


In general, primary consumer batteries are dominated by cylindrical and button cell batteries (both dry 

cell). The most common primary dry cell batteries used by Canadian consumers include: 

Cylindrical 

• Zinc carbon (ZnC) – Zinc carbon batteries are cheaper than alkaline batteries but have a shorter 

life span and are used in low drain applications. Zinc carbon batteries are commonly used for 

flashlights, toys, clocks and radios; 

• Alkaline (ZnMnO2)– Alkaline batteries are often called “general purpose” batteries and although 

they are more expensive than zinc carbon batteries they last longer and are considered leakproof. 

Alkaline batteries are commonly used in toys, radios, flashlights, clocks, etc. 

• Lithium Primary – Lithium primary batteries provide a constant voltage until they are fully 

discharged; they are commonly used for cameras, watches and games. 

Button Cell 

• Zinc air (ZnO2)– Zinc air batteries are longer lasting than other button cell batteries and they 

provide a medium power drain; they are used primarily in hearing aids. 

• Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) – Silver oxide button cell batteries provide a medium power drain; they are 

commonly used for watches, toys and calculators. 

Table 3.1 presents the different types of primary consumer batteries in common use in Canada, and the 

types of products in which they are typically used. 

Table 3.1: Primary Consumer Battery Characteristics 

Battery Type Other names Toxic 

substances 

under CEPA 

1999 

Uses Status 

Primary 

Dry Cell 

Zinc Carbon “general purpose” 

battery 

Leclanche battery 

ZnC 

none - Low drainage uses i.e. flashlights, toys, 

radios, clocks, shavers, radio, calculators 

Zinc Chloride ZnCl none - Low drainage uses i.e. flashlights, toys, 

radios, clocks, shavers, calculators, cassette 

players/recorders 

Alkaline 

Lithium 

Manganese 

Dioxide 

Button Cell 

Batteries – zinc 

air 

Zinc manganese 

dioxide 

ZnMnO2 

Zinc-alkaline 

Lithium primary 

LiMnO2 

ZnO2 

none - general purpose battery available for 

low/medium or high drain requirements i.e. 

digital cameras, portable power tools, 

portable electronics, flashlights, toys, clocks, 

CB walkie-talkies, radios, portable 

televisions, video games, pagers, portable 

audio systems, MP3 players, shavers, 

toothbrushes, appliances 

none Commonly used for high drain and outdoor 

use i.e. digital camera, watches, portable 

power tools, portable video games, portable 

audio systems, pagers,, MP3 players, 

shavers, toothbrushes, appliances, 

flashlights, CB walkie-talkies, watches 

Contains 

small 

amounts of 

mercury 

Used for high energy density and flat voltage 

curve i.e. hearing aids, watches, radio 

pagers 

- limited use portable electronic devices 

requiring high drain requirements 

- since 1993, no longer contain mercury 

- not used as much any more, being phased out 

- not used as much any more, being phased out 

- represents majority of primary consumer 

battery sales 

- Since 1993, alkaline batteries manufactured in 

Canada,USA, Japan and Europe no longer 

contain mercury 

- some of market share being replaced by 

primary lithium and secondary NiMH batteries 

Experiencing increasing share of primary battery 

market 

Projected to account for 16% of consumer 

primary battery sales in 2009 (Freedonia Group, 

Sept 2005) 

Popular for hearing aids but limited use 

otherwise 

Market for hearing aids expected to grow as 

baby boomers age 

Page 6 May 2006

Battery Type Other names Toxic 

substances 

under CEPA 

1999 

Button Cell 

Batteries – 

silver oxide 

Button Cell 

Batteries – 

mercuric oxide 

ZnAgO2 

AgO 

ZnHgO 

HgO 

Wet Cell None 


Contains 

small 

amounts of 

mercury 

Contains 

small 

amounts of 

mercury 

3.2.2 Secondary Consumer Batteries 

Uses Status 


i.e. hearing aids, watches, photographic 

equipment, calculators, photoelectric 

exposure meters, instruments, pagers 


i.e. hearing aids, watches, photographic 

equipment, electronic measuring 

instruments, intruder alarms, pacemakers, 

sensors, detectors, radio transmitters 

Not used as much due to mercury and silver 

content 

No longer available for sale in Canada since Jan 

1996 due to mercury content 

Dry Cells 

In general, secondary consumer batteries are dominated by single dry cell cylindrical units which are 

frequently combined to form “power packs”. The most common secondary consumer batteries used by 

Canadian consumers include: 

• Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) – Nickel cadmium batteries comprise the largest segment of the 

secondary battery market and are good for equipment requiring high power but frequent charging. 

NiCd batteries are not good in applications requiring long storage times. They are commonly 

used for rechargeable appliances such as portable power tools, hand held vacuums, and 

cordless phones that need high power and frequent charging. A recent survey sponsored by the 

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) found that 85% of cordless power tools are 

powered by Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) batteries. The other 15% of cordless power tools run on 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) and Small Sealed Lead (Pb) rechargeable batteries. 10 

• Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) – Nickel metal hydride batteries are longer lasting than nickel 

cadmium batteries but are more expensive; they are commonly used for cellular phones, video 

camera, and in some applications as a rechargeable replacement to alkaline batteries. 

• Lithium Ion (Li-ion) – Lithium ion batteries are lighter in weight and have a greater energy storage 

capacity than NiCd or NiMH batteries but are more expensive. These are commonly used for 

cellular phones, laptop computers and video cameras. 

• Lithium Polymer (Li-polymer) – Lithium polymer batteries are slightly lighter and lower in cost than 

lithium ion batteries 11 but are unable to provide power bursts required of electronic equipment 

(e.g. laptop computers). A hybrid form is used in cellular phones. 

Wet Cells 

Small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLA) are also referred to as Gel cell batteries. These batteries (gel 

cells and sealed lead-acid batteries) are commonly used to power industrial equipment, emergency 

lighting, and alarm systems. Other applications include uninterrupted power supply (UPS) devices and 

start lighting ignition (SLI) devices. Small sealed lead-acid batteries play a small role in certain consumer 

market segments like electric mowers, electric wheel chairs, electric bikes, some toys, some cordless 

power tools, UPS (uninterrupted power supply) and certain telecommunication applications. 

Table 3.2 presents the characteristics of secondary batteries and battery chemistries. 

10 Dewalt tools at http://www.dewalt.com/us/articles/article_cordless.asp?Site=cordless&ID=239 

11 Advanced Technology Program. June 2005. Factors Affecting the U.S. Production Decisions: Why are There No Volume 

Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturers in the United States? ATP Working Paper Series 

Page 7 May 2006

Battery Type Other 

names 


Dry Cell 

Nickel Cadmium NiCd 

Ni-Cad 

Nickel-Metal 

Hydride 


Table 3.2: Secondary Consumer Battery Characteristics 

Toxic 

substances 

under CEPA 

1999 

Cadmium and 

nickel if found in 

oxidic, sulphidic 

or soluble 

inorganic nickel 

compounds 

NiMH Nickel if found in 

oxidic, sulphidic 

or soluble 

inorganic nickel 

compounds 

Uses Status 

- used for low/medium drain requirements i.e. 

lightweight portable power devices (cordless power 

tools, personal stereos, portable telephones, laptop 

computers, shavers, motorized toys, remote controls) 

portable radios and devices with a battery backup 

(answering machines, clocks/radios) and standby 

power devices (alarms, emergency lighting) 

-used for all discharge rates although commonly used 

in high drain devices i.e. digital cameras, portable 

power tools, flashlights, CB walkie-talkies, radios, 

portable televisions, video games, portable audio 

systems, CD players, MP3 players, appliances, 

shavers, toothbrushes, cell phones, camcorders, 

computers 

Lithium-Ion Li-Ion none - used for high energy density i.e. cellular phones, 

laptops camcorders and other mobile computing 

devices 

Lithium Ion 

Polymer 

Wet Cell 

SSLA (small 

sealed lead 

acid) 

Li-Polymer none - used for high energy density i.e. cellular phones, 

laptops camcorders and other mobile computing 

devices 

SSLA Lead Small niche in electric mowers, electric wheel chairs, 

electric bikes, some toys, camcorders, alarm 

systems, cordless/cellular phones 

Lead-Acid Lead Automobile and other vehicle SLI (starting, lighting, 

ignition) 

Power storage 

-losing market share due to cadmium 

content and memory loss problems 

- claiming greater market share, replacing 

NiCd and primary batteries 

- provides more energy than NiCd or NiMH 

batteries 

- projected to grow in market demand 

Use in portable market is low: main use is 

starter and drive applications and UPS 

(uninterrupted power supply) 

- estimated that 99.2% recycled in the 

United States in 2004 (Battery Council 

International, June 2005) 

- RIS 1994 report estimates over 90% 

recycled (RIS, 1994) 

3.3 Composition of Batteries 

Several sources were used to identify the metal and chemical composition of different battery types 

presented in Table 3.3. The table shows the composition of various battery types as the percentage of 

the total weight comprised of different metals, electrolytes, plastic and paper. As an example, primary 

zinc carbon batteries consist of: 20% zinc, 25% manganese, 20% ferrous metal, 5% zinc chloride, 10% 

water and 20% plastic, paper and carbon. Alkaline batteries have a similar composition for some 

materials, with a few differences. They consist of 20% zinc, 30% manganese, 20% ferrous metal, 5% 

potassium hydroxide, 10% water and 15% paper, plastic and carbon. Lithium primary batteries consist of 

50% ferrous metal, 30% manganese and 2% lithium, as well as other materials. 

Most of the batteries have a high ferrous metal content. 

Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries contain 20% nickel, 15% cadmium and 45% ferrous metal. Nickel metal 

hydride (NiMH) batteries contain a small amount of aluminum (5%), cobalt (10%), manganese (5%) and 

70% nickel. Small sealed lead acid batteries consist of 65% lead, 8% sulphuric acid, 17% water and 10% 

other non-metals materials. 

Page 8 May 2006


Table 3.3: Chemical Composition of Consumer Batteries by Battery Chemistry 

(Percentage by weight) 

Battery Type Metals Electolyte Non-Metal 

Toxic Substances under 

CEPA* 1999 

Other Metals 

Battery Type Pb Hg Cd Ni** Zn Mn Ag Li Fe Al 

Primary 

Zinc Carbon 

(ZnC) 20 25 20 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 20 30 20 

Lithium Primary 30 2 50 

Primary Button 

Cell 

Zinc Air (ZnO2) 

Button Cell 

Silver Oxide 

(ZnAgO2) Button 

2 30 45 

Cell 

Secondary 

Nickel cadmium 

1 10 30 40 

(NiCd) 

Nickel metal 

15 20 45 

hydride (NiMH) 70 5 5 

Lithium 30 2 50 

Small sealed lead 

acid (SSLA) 65 

Co 

H2SO4 KOH 

Page 9 May 2006 

Na 

OH 

10 5 5 

NH4Cl/ 

ZnCl2 

Organ 

Electrolyte 

H2O 

plastic, 

paper 

carbon 

5 10 20 

5 10 15 

10 10 

4 8 12 

3 6 10 

5 10 5 

Not 

available 

Not 

available 

10 10 

8 17 10 

*CEPA (Canadian Environmental Protection Act) 

** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds. (Personal communication with Bryan Leece, PhD, Dillon Consulting, Toxicologist) 

Sources: Fricke, Dr. J.L.,and N. Knudsen. May 2002. Disposal of Portable Batteries. Prepared for Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS) 

Duracell MSDS for NiMH batteries at http://www.duracell.com/oem/safety/pdf/2030 3C.pdf 

NiMH information from MSDS information provided by Duracell and Energizer @ 

http://www.duracell.com/oem/safety/pdf/2030_3C.pdf 

http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/nickelmetalhydride_psds.pdf


3.4 Current Status of the Canadian Consumer Battery Market 

Primary Consumer Battery Market 

In 1995, alkaline batteries represented the largest segment in the US battery market, accounting for 95% 

of consumer battery sales 12 . Today, the alkaline market share has slowly eroded as it faces greater 

competition from new and improved primary and secondary batteries such as primary lithium and 

secondary NiMH batteries. 

Significant world battery manufacturers include companies such as: Matsushita/Panasonic, Duracell, 

PowerPak, Energizer, and Rayovac. 

In North America, the alkaline battery market is dominated by three US based multi-national companies, 

representing 84% of alkaline battery sales in North America: 

• Duracell (owned by Procter & Gamble) has a 37% market share; 

• Energizer (formally Eveready Battery) has a 26% market share; 

• Rayovac (Spectrum Brands as of May 2005) has a 21% market share. 13 

Secondary Consumer Battery Market 

Most secondary batteries used for portable power devices (i.e. cell phones, laptop computers, portable 

games, etc.) are manufactured in Japan and, increasingly, China. Only a fraction of the manufacturing 

takes place in North America. All laptops, cellphones, etc. contain a secondary battery. This 

rechargeable battery is only replaced after its recharging cycles (e.g. 300, 500 or up to 1,500 recharging 

cycles) are spent. The recharging cycles vary depending on use and application. By the time the original 

product is spent, a new product has often entered the market and the whole product, rather than the 

battery is replaced. 

The global demand for secondary batteries grew 67% between 1998 and 2003 with 12% of the growth 

occurring from 2002 to 2003. 14 At the same time, Japan, which held 94% of the market share, saw its 

market share drop to about 65% in 2003 15 , with China taking a large portion of the lost market share. 

In 2001, Rayovac stated that its rechargeable nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery were replacing primary 

alkaline batteries. This trend is reportedly being driven by the very high demand for digital cameras. 16 

3.5 Current Consumer Battery Management Programs in Canada 

Consumer batteries are currently managed through voluntary programs such as RBRC and various 

cellphone collection programs. HHW (household hazardous waste) programs also provide drop off 

options for some consumer batteries. Legislation targeting WEEE (waste electrical and electronic 

equipment) which will be enacted by most provinces in the next few years will target the batteries 

contained in various products managed by these programs, in particular batteries in laptop computers, 

which are typically included in all WEEE programs. 


13 Spectrum Brands. 2003. America’s Battery Overview 


15 CMS Info. March 2004. Battery and EV Industry Review 

16 Rayovac. 2001. Annual Report 

Final Report Page 10 8 May 2006


3.5.1 HHW (Household Hazardous Waste) Management Programs 

Many municipalities across Canada operate HHW (household hazardous waste) drop off programs where 

residents are permitted to drop off various materials such as paint, anti-freeze, etc. Many of these 

programs also collect batteries. In Ontario, which is the only province to conduct annual municipal 

program surveys, 83 HHW programs operate, representing 95% of the Ontario population. Most of these 

communities collect dry cell batteries as part of the HHW program. 17 

3.5.2 Rechargable Battery Recycling Corporation 

The Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) program operates in both the United States 

and Canada. The NiCd battery manufacturing industry through the Portable Battery Rechargeable Battery 

Association (PRBA) established the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RCRB) in 1994 in the 

United States to implement a voluntary take-back program. The voluntary program was established in 

response to pressure from state legislation on NiCd battery manufacturers to properly label and manage 

their NiCd batteries. The voluntary collection program was launched throughout 50 US states in 1995 and 

Canada in 1997, even though there was no immediate legislative threat in Canada. Initially the RBRC 

program focused on voluntary collection of NiCd batteries but in 2001/2002 RBRC expanded the program 

to accept all secondary batteries including NiMH, lithium-ion, lithium polymer and SSLA. The RBRC 

voluntary program is the only national battery recovery program available. 

In 2004, the “Call2Recycle” program was launched by RBRC to recover cell phones and their batteries. 

The Call2Recycle program (owned by RBRC) features over 6,100 collection locations across Canada 

where consumers can drop off used rechargeable batteries and old cell phones. Almost 400 communities 

and almost 140 public agencies participate in the program. Cell phones collected through the 

Call2Recycle program are recycled or refurbished and resold, with a portion of the proceeds benefiting 

national charities, such as Boys & Girls Clubs of America and the National Center for Missing & Exploited 

Children. 

The RBRC has developed easy to understand messages to encourage higher participation in the 

program, such as the slogan “If it is rechargeable, it is recyclable” and has actively promoted the program 

through such mechanisms as public service announcements, print advertising, and sponsorships. 

Collection of batteries is dependent on active program promotion by participating retailers and awareness 

of the program by consumers. 

Today RBRC is supported voluntarily by 300 battery manufacturers/brand owners and is not mandated 

under either Canadian or US legislation. The costs of operating the program are monitored and reviewed 

annually by RBRC members and any necessary fee adjustments are made accordingly. Costs of the 

RBRC program are borne by members who pay a levy on each battery sold. The current fee schedule for 

expanded chemistries (beyond NiCd batteries) is capped at $50,000 per year payable by any company, 

and includes: 

• Single cell batteries up to 1.5 volts: $.0025 per battery 

• Small battery packs 1.5 volts to 8 volts: $.01 per battery 

• Large battery packs 8.1 volts and greater: $.02 per battery 

There is no fee limit for NiCd batteries. 

RBRC reports that 90% of manufacturers/brand owners of batteries and battery operated products 

comply with the program. The remaining non-participating “free riders” are reportedly small and transient 

and mostly located and/or headquartered in Asia. Free ridership remains a concern among RBRC 

17 Waste Diversion Ontario. July 6, 2005. Highlights of the 2004 Tonnage Datacall Household Special Waste 

Final Report Page 11 May 2006


members. 18 Other challenges facing the battery industry, include the issue of counterfeit batteries and its 

impact on the voluntary environmental efforts of primary battery manufacturers and the issue of mercurycontaining 

batteries being imported into Canada. The Canadian Household Battery Association (CHBA) 

has requested the Government of Canada to introduce legislation to control mercury containing batteries. 

All participants (retailers, communities, businesses, public agencies) receive the RBRC collection boxes 

free-of-charge. The shipping charges also paid for by the RBRC. The boxes are shipped to the central 

processing facility when full. Participants are not required to generate annual reports or other supporting 

documentation. The RBRC provides this information upon request and with the support of the federal and 

provincial governments has the necessary legal authority in place to enable the collection sites to 

operate and the spent batteries to be shipped. According to RBRC, there are an estimated 30,000 

retailers and hundreds of municipalities participating in the collection drop off programs across North 

America. 

RBRC does not publish a detailed breakdown of the amounts of batteries collected by battery types. All 

published information is aggregated. In 2005 RBRC reported that it had collected a total of 175,729 

kilograms (387,417 lbs) of rechargeable batteries 19 in Canada through their Call2Recycle program, an 

increase of 16.7% from 2004 (331,910 pounds or 150,551 kilograms). RBRC report that recovery 

tonnages in 2004 were up 53% from 2003 (283,193 pounds or 114,846 kilograms) and recovery 

tonnages in 2003 were up 125% from 2002 (172,307 pounds or 78,157 kilograms) 20 . Through personal 

contact between Environment Canada and RBRC staff, Environment Canada obtained a breakdown of 

the collected tonnage by battery chemistry, shown in Table 3.4. 

Table 3.4: Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation Breakdown of Collected Tonnage By Battery Chemistry21 2003 - Canada 2004 - Canada 

Battery Type % Breakdown % Breakdown 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 92% 85% 

Nickel metal hydride 

(NiMH) 3% 6% 

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) 1% 3% 

Small sealed lead acid 

(SSLA) 4% 6% 

Total 100% 100% 

Although RBRC reports aggregate tonnages for batteries collected annually, it does not link these figures 

to annual battery discards. 22 . This makes it difficult to assess with complete assurance how many 

rechargeable batteries discarded each year in Canada are actually collected through its program. 

Estimates of recycling rates for NiCd batteries are not generally available. The State of Florida however 

estimates that NiCd batteries were being recycled at a rate of 13% in 2000 and between 20-30% in 2004 

primarily through the RBRC program. 23 

18 

Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. Battery Recovery Laws World-wide Update Edition. 

19 

This includes the whole cell phone according to RBRC – information provided by Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation 

(RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study. Presented to Environment Canada 

20 

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the Canadian Consumer Battery 

Baseline Study. Presented to Environment Canada. 

21 

Personal communications between RBRC and Environment Canada. February 8, 2005 

22 


Baseline Study. Presented to Environment Canada. 

23 

Communication with Amy Roering, Environmental Services, Hennepin County, August 31, 2005 


3.5.3 Cell Phone Collection Programs 


There are a number of cell phone collection programs operating throughout Canada which encourage 

recycling of end-of-life cell phones and their batteries. The most prominent cell phone recovery programs 

in Canada include: 

Reduce, Reuse and Redial - Launched in 2003, this is Bell Mobility’s recycling and reuse initiative which 

allows cell phone users to drop off any used cellular phones, batteries, pagers, accessories or cordless 

phones, whether purchased though Bell or not, at participating Bell World/Espace Bell locations across 

Canada. Drop off boxes are located in each participating store. Refurbished phones are resold in foreign 

countries or are donated to a local women’s shelter or children’s charity. The program is not widely 

advertised or promoted and relies on individuals donating their used cell phones at participating locations. 

Bell collected approximately 50,000 used cell phones during the first year of the program and 50,700 cell 

phones in 2004. Bell estimates that 96% of the more than 15 million used mobile phones in Canada are 

recyclable. The Reduce, Reuse, Redial program has diverted about 50,000 of 15 million cellphones 

discarded, or a small fraction (less than 1% )of available cell phones. 24 

Phones for Food Project - is Rogers Wireless’ national cell phone collection program. It was 

established in October 2004 to provide funds to food banks across Canada. Community groups, schools, 

municipalities or workplaces can set up a collection box for donated cell phones. When a collection box is 

full, it is sent to a central location where the cartridges and phones are sorted and sold to the 

remanufacturing industry. This industry turns them into refurbished products for consumers. Funds are 

raised for the local food banks through this process. 25 

The Wireless Source Canada - Through its Charitable Recycling Program, the Wireless Source Canada 

collects 40% of donated cell phones through donation drives set up by charities and community groups. 

These donation drives target individual donors who help the charity by donating their used cell phone and 

in turn, the charities receive financial compensation for each cell phone collected and brought to Wireless 

Source Canada. The remaining donations are acquired from manufacturers (10%), auctions/bids (20%) 

and dealers/brokers or special promotions (30%). Approximately 30% of donated cell phones originate 

from Ontario, with the remaining 70% coming from other provinces. All cell phones originating in the 

United States are collected through an affiliated program managed by The Wireless Foundation. 

Of the cell phones acquired by the Wireless Source Canada, approximately 50-70% can be refurbished 

for reuse. The remaining 30% are beyond economic repair and are recycled or have parts removed for 

reuse. All waste components are recycled including batteries, accessories (chargers, adaptors) and 

“beyond economic repair” handsets. 26 

3.6 Reported Consumer Battery Generation and Recovery Rates 

Consumer batteries represent a small portion of the total solid waste stream. In a residential waste audit 

conducted in rural and urban locations in Manitoba in 2000, the household hazardous waste (HHW) 

stream accounted for less than one percent (0.63%) of the total residential waste stream. Batteries were 

counted as part of the HHW and made up almost one third (29%) of the HHW component. Extrapolating 

this to the entire residential waste stream, batteries accounted for estimated 0.17% of the residential 

waste stream. 27 

24 

Waste Diversion Ontario (WDO) June 2005. EEE Material Flow and WEEE Infrastructure 

25 


26 

Interview with Gord Weis, President. Wireless Canada. May 2005 

27 

Green Manitoba Eco Solutions. October 19, 2005. Discussion Paper: Household Hazardous Waste/HHW. Prepared for the 

Government of Manitoba 



Table 3.5 summarizes information collected from jurisdictions throughout the United States on consumer 

battery generation and recovery rates. 

Table 3.5: Consumer Battery Consumption Rates for Selected North American Jurisdictions 

Location Reported Consumption Rate Reference 

California Estimates that 14.7 units generated per capita in 2001 California Integrated Waste Management Board. 

August 2002. Household Universal Waste 

Generation in California 

US Almost 3 billion dry cell batteries annually (~10/capita) United States Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management 

Legislation and Regulations at 

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/nonhw/muncpl/battery.htm 

US More than 350 million rechargeable batteries are purchased 

annually (1.2/capita) 

United States Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA). March 2002. The Battery Act, 

Enforcement Alert Newsletter 

US Consumers purchase on average 10 batteries per year Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 

University of Nebraska, 1997 

US Consumers discard an average of 8 primary batteries annually United States Environmental Protection Agency 




The background to the estimates in the table is: 

• The California Integrated Waste Management Board estimated that approximately 507,259,000 

units of household batteries were sold in California in 2001, which averages 14.7 units per capita 

(34,600,463 population in 2001). 28 

• The USEPA estimates that Americans purchase on average almost three billion dry cell batteries 

annually, which averages almost ~10 units per capita (293,655,000 population in 2004) and 

discards eight dry-cell primary batteries per year. 29 

• The USEPA estimates that Americans purchased about 350 million rechargeable batteries in 

2001 which averages almost 1.2 units per capita (281, 422,000 population in 2001) 30 

Consumer Battery Recovery Rates 

Limited information is available on reported recovery rates for consumer batteries. There is a general 

impression that the battery problem is under control in North America with the elimination of mercury in 

alkaline batteries, only trace amounts permitted in button cell batteries, and the voluntary collection of 

nickel cadmium batteries and other secondary batteries by industry through the Rechargeable Battery 

Recycling Corporation (RBRC). Information identified through the study research included: 

• The Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) reported collecting 172,307 pounds 

(78,157 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2002; 283,193 pounds (114,846 

kilograms) in 2003; 331,910 pounds (150,551 kilograms) in 2004 and 387,417 pounds (175,729 

kilograms) in 2005, but does not express this figure as a recovery rate (i.e. a ratio of batteries 

collected versus sold into the Canadian marketplace) 31 

• Hennepin County, Minnesota has been collecting primary and secondary batteries since 1990 

and recording the quantities and types collected. Unfortunately, the County does not compare 

recovery rates with generation rates. In 2004, about 84% of batteries collected were alkaline and 

28 

California Integrated Waste Management Board. August 2002. Household Universal Waste Generation in California 

29 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management Legislation and Regulations at 

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/battery.htm 

30 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). March 2002. The Battery Act, Enforcement Alert Newsletter 

31 Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) website http://www.call2recycle.org/releases/PR_2_21_05.1.html 



zinc carbon, less than 1% were button cell batteries, 6% were nickel cadmium, and less than 1 % 

were lithium ion and nickel metal hydride. 

3.7 Reported European Consumer Battery Generation and Recovery Rates 

The European Union Battery Directive (Directive 91/157/EEC) has been in place since 1991. The 

Directive specifies that batteries containing mercury, cadmium or lead should be collected separately. 

Austria was the first EU country to respond by mandating collection of all batteries in 1991, followed by 

the Netherlands in 1995, Belgium in 1997, and Germany in 1998. By 2003, an estimated 55% of the 

European Union battery market was managed through take-back regulations. 32 

Table 3.6 summarizes information on primary and secondary consumer battery generation and recovery 

rates for Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany, four European Countries that currently collect 

batteries, track data and maintain publicly available records. The generation and recovery rates address 

all portable batteries (primary and secondary) with the exception of lead-acid car batteries. The average 

European reportedly purchased 410 grams per capita per year of consumer batteries in 2002, with the 

consumer battery purchasing rate for individual countries ranging from 250 to 425 gram per capita per 

year. 33 This cannot be converted to the number of units because sufficient data on weight per unit for 

different battery sizes and chemistries is not available. 

Table 3.6: Average Consumer Battery Generation and Recovery Rates In European Countries 

Country 2002 

Total Generation 32 

2000 34 

Recovery Rate 

2002 35 

Recovery Rate 

2003 36 

Recovery Rate 

Grams/capita Grams/capita Grams/capita Grams/capita 

Austria 405 177 

(43%) 

The Netherlands 365 116 

(32%) 

Belgium 384 205 

(53%) 

Germany 405 114 

(35%) 

32 th 

European Portable Battery Association. 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9 International 

Congress for Battery Recycling, June 2-4, 2004. 

33 

Bio Intelligence Service, July 2003. Impact Assessment on Selected Policy Options for Revision of the Battery Directive. 

Prepared for the European Commission by 

34 

European Portable Battery Association (EPBA) website at www.epbaeurope.net/Recycling_.html 

35 

European Commission. November 24, 2003. Commission Staff Working Paper: Directive of the European Parliament and of 

the Council on Batteries and Accumulators and Spendt Batteries and Accumulators, Extended Impact Assessment. 

36 th 


Congress for Battery Recycling, June 2-4, 2004. 

Final Report Page 15 May 2006 

179 

(44%) 

116 

(32%) 

228 

(59%) 

157 

(39%) 

179 

(44%) 

129 

(35%) 

239 

(62%) 

140 

(34%)


4. Canadian Consumer Battery Sales and Model Assumptions 

In order to populate the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model (C2BFM) with data, a thorough search 

was conducted in Canada, the United States and Europe to identify the following relevant information: 

• Annual unit sales data by battery type; 

• Weight data by battery type; 

• Lifespan of different battery types; 

• The amount of time each battery type is likely to be held in storage (hoarded) before disposal; 

and 

• Reported recycling rates for various jurisdictions. 

The research conducted for each information category is discussed in this section and summarized 

below. 

Canadian Consumer Battery Flow (C2BFM) Model Assumptions 

Assumptions 

Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries 

Battery Weights Alkaline (ZnMnO2) - 28 grams 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) – 203 grams 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) - 27 grams 

Lithium- Ion (Li-ion) – 40 grams 

Zinc air (ZnO2) – 33 grams 

Lithium-ion Polymer – 40 grams 

Lithium Primary -16 grams 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) – 93 grams 

Small Sealed Lead Acid (SSLA) – 1,045 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) – 1.2 grams 

Zinc air (ZNO2) – 0.9 grams 

grams 

Battery lifespan 3 year lifespan 5 year lifespan for NiCd, Li-ion and SSLA 

7 year lifespan for NiMH 

Hoarding of batteries before discard 30% hoarded for 5 years 60% hoarded for 5 years 

Battery Reuse 0 reuse 0 reuse 

Recycling Rates 2% recycling rate after 1996 Recycling begins in 1997 with the launch of 

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation 

(RBRC) in Canada. A recycling rate of 0% is 

used prior to 1997 and is assumed to have 

grown in a straight line from 1997 to 2003. 

Recovery tonnages identified by RBRC for 

2003 and 2004 weredivided by discarded 

tonnages estimated by the model to estimate 

the recycling rates for each of the secondary 

battery chemistries. 

An annual growth rate of 16.7% in the 

tonnage recovered (provided by RBRC for 

2005) is assumed from 2005 to 2010. 

4.1 Annual Sales of Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries 

In June 2004, Global Industry Analysts published a report titled “Consumer Batteries: A Global Strategic 

Business Report”. This report provided information on worldwide consumer battery markets, including a 

separate analysis for Canada. Global Industry Analysts, Inc. (GIA) was founded in 1987 and publishes 

off-the-shelf market research on most major industries. The company provides data and research to over 

5,000 companies including major battery brand owners and manufacturers. Information purchased from 

Global Industry Analysts is presented in Table 4.1. 



Table 4.1: Annual Shipments of Secondary Consumer Battery Units in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010 

(in Million Units) 37 

Global Industry Analysts (GIA) 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 % CAGR 38 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 9.10 9.94 10.69 11.71 12.81 13.95 15.10 16.45 18.24 20.24 22.38 9.42 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 2.21 2.59 2.99 3.51 4.10 4.77 5.52 6.40 7.54 8.88 10.49 16.85 

Lithium Ion (LI-ion) 0.74 0.89 1.07 1.29 1.54 1.84 2.16 2.53 3.04 3.64 4.29 19.21 

Lithium Ion Polymer 

(Li-polymer) 

0.06 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.21 0.25 0.28 0.33 0.36 19.62 

Total 12.11 13.51 14.84 16.63 18.59 20.72 22.99 25.63 29.10 33.09 37.52 11.97 

2004 & 2005: GIA Estimates 2006-2010: GIA Projections (*) All figures are at the Manufacturer’s Level 

Annual sales figures for 2000 to 2003 were actual data collected by Global Industry Analysts (GIA) at the 

manufacturer level. Figures for 2004 and 2005 are GIA estimates. Figures for 2006 to 2010 are 

projections developed by GIA. 

GIA was unable to provide data for small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries. Instead, data from Japan 

and Germany on units of SSLA sold in 2004 were averaged on a per capita basis (0.355 units/capita in 

2003 and 0.34 units/capita in 2004) and extrapolated to the Canadian market as shown in Table 4.2. 39 

Since no relevant information could be found on future SSLA market trends, SSLA battery sales 

estimates from 2005 to 2010 were flat lined using 2004 data and battery sales estimates from 2000 to 

2003 were flat lined using 2003 data, see Table 4.2. 

Table 4.2: Estimated Annual Small Sealed Lead Acid Battery Sales in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010 

(in million Units) 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

SSLA 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 

Note: SSLA battery sales were flatlined from 2000 to 2002 using 2003 sales estimates and from 2005 to 2010 using 2004 sales 

estimates 

Sources of SSLA data: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005. GRS Annual Report, Germany 

and Battery Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.html 

4.2 Primary Battery Sales Estimates 

No consolidated source of data on primary (non-rechargeable) consumer battery sales into the Canadian 

market was located during this study. A number of different sources of data (discussed in the following 

sections) were therefore used to develop primary consumer battery unit sales estimates for Canada and 

to project unit sales to 2010, presented in Table 4.3. Per capita sales of primary batteries from Japanese, 

French and German data were reviewed for applicability to the Canadian market. In the end, the German 

data was used due to the good availability of data and extrapolated to the Canadian population for 

different primary battery chemistries to estimate the number of units sold in Canada in 2004. 40 The 

37 

Battery units include individual batteries or battery packs of varying sizes and chemistries 

38 

CAGR = compound annual growth rate 

39 

Sources of SSLA data: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual Report, Germany 

and Battery Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.htm 

40 

Sources of data: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual Report, Germany 

Battery Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.htm 

Agence do l’environnement et de la maitriese de l’Engerie. November 2003. Obserevatoire des piles et accumujlateurs: La 

situation en 2002. 



projected growth in battery unit sales was developed using the following information purchased from 

research houses: 

• Zinc carbon battery demand in Canada is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 

2.31% to 2010 41 

• Alkaline primary battery demand in Canada is expected to grow at a compound annual growth 

rate of 7.26% to 2010 42 

• Zinc air primary battery sales are estimated at $US 135 million in 2004 and $US 185 million in 

2009 43 

• Silver oxide primary battery demand is expected to decrease from $US 68 million in 2004 to $US 

66 million in 2009 44 

• Primary lithium battery sales are expected to grow from $US 660 million in 2004 to $US 960 

million in 2009 45 

These sources only projected demand from 2004 onward and did not provide sales information prior to 

2004. For this reason, primary battery sales were provided from 2004 to 2010 only. 

Table 4.3: RIS International Estimates of Annual Primary Consumer Battery Sales in Canada By Chemistry Type 

2004 to 2010 (millions of units) 

Battery Chemistry 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Cylindrical 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 81 83.0 84.9 86.9 89.0 91.3 93.8 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 310 331.7 355.8 381.9 410.1 440.7 473.9 

Zinc air (ZnO) 0.041 0.044 0.048 0.05 0.054 0.057 0.060 

Lithium primary 6 6.6 7.1 7.6 8.2 8.8 9.3 

Button Cell 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.5 10.4 10.4 10.3 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 23.0 24.7 26.4 28.1 29.9 31.6 33.2 

Total Units Sold 

430.5 456.7 484.9 515.1 547.7 582.8 620.7 

Sources of information: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual Report 

Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. Consumer Batteries Report 

Freedonia Group. May 2005. Batteries to 2009 

These estimates are approximate and can be updated at a future time if a source of primary consumer 

battery sales information is located. 

4.3 Comparison of Canadian Primary and Secondary Consumer Battery Sales Estimates With 

Other Sources 

Per Capita Sales of Consumer Batteries 

The estimated unit sales of consumer batteries for Canada (presented in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3) are 

converted to per capita consumption rates in Table 4.4. 

41 Global Industry Analysts, June 2004. Consumer Batteries 

42 Global Industry Analysts, June 2004. Consumer Batteries 

43 Fredonia Group, May 2005, Batteries to 2009. 





Table 4.4: Estimated Per Capita Consumption of Various Types of Primary and Secondary Batteries in Canada, 2004 

Estimated unit sales 

developed in this study 

for 2004 

(thousands of units) 

Estimated unit per 

capita 


2004 

Average weight per 

unit 

(grams/unit) 

Average weight per 

capita 

(grams) 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 81,190 2.54 27 68.56 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 309,537 9.69 28 271.06 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 41 0.001 33 0.04 

Lithium Primary 6,049 0.19 16 3.03 

Button Cell 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 10,668 0.33 1 0.40 

Zinc air (ZNO2) 23,037 0.72 1 0.65 

Total Primary 430,522 13.48 343.74 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 12,810 0.4 203 81.33 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 4,100 0.1 93 11.93 

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 1,540 0.05 40 1.93 


(Li-polymer) 

140 0.004 

Small sealed lead acid (SSLA) 1,093 0.034 1045 35.72 

Total Secondary 19,683 0.59 131.08 

Total Batteries 450,205 14.07 474.81 

Information provided for various US jurisdictions indicates that Americans purchase between 10 – 15 

batteries per capita per year (see Table 4.5). The unit per capita estimate for Canada (at 14 units per 

capita) developed for this study is within the range identified for the United States. 

Table 4.5: Per Capita Consumer Battery Consumption in the US 

Jurisdiction Annual Battery Demand in Units/capita Source 

California 14.7 units generated in 2001 California Integrated Waste Management 

Board. August 2002. Household Universal 

Waste Generation in California. 

US Almost 3 billion dry cell batteries annually (~10/capita) United States Environmental Protection Agency 




US Over 350 million rechargeable batteries annually (~1.2/capita) United States Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA). March 2002. The Battery Act, 

Enforcement Alert Newsletter 

US Consumers purchase on average 10 batteries per year Institute of Agriculture & Natural Resources, 

University of Nebraska, 1997 

40 

0.18


Market Share of Different Consumer Battery Types (By Chemistry) 

Table 4.6 presents a breakdown of estimated 2004 consumer battery sales in Canada by chemistry and 

type as a percentage, based on unit sales. 

Table 4.6: Breakdown of 2004 Consumer Battery Sales Estimates As % of Primary and Secondary Segment 

and % of Total Consumer Battery Market (expressed in thousands of units sold) 

Battery Type and Chemistry 

Primary 

Unit Sales 

(Thousands) 

% of Segment Unit Sales 

% of Total Battery Market 

Unit Sales 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 81,190 19% 18% 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 309,537 72% 69% 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 41 0.01% 0.01% 

Lithium Primary 6,049 1% 1% 

Button Cell- 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 10,668 2% 2% 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 23,037 5% 5% 

Primary Total 430,522 100% 96% 

Secondary 46 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 12,810 65% 3% 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 4,100 21% 1% 

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 1,540 8% 0.34% 


(Li-polymer) 

140 1% 0.03% 

Small sealed lead acid (SSLA) 1,093 6% 0.24% 

Secondary Total 19,683 100% 4% 

Total All Consumer Batteries 450,205 100% 

The table shows that primary batteries dominate the sales of batteries (by units), accounting for 96% of 

the units sold in 2004. Alkaline batteries represent the largest number of units sold for an individual 

battery type, at 69% of all estimated consumer battery sales in 2004. Secondary batteries account for a 

small portion of the market share at only 4% of the total number of units sold in 2004, with sales of nickel 

cadmium batteries representing almost 70% of the secondary market share. 

No North American sources were identified for comparison, however the following data were located in 

UK and European references: 

• British Batteries Manufacturers Association reports that 89% of the batteries purchased in the UK 

in 2001 were general purpose batteries (primary) of which 69% of purchased batteries were 

alkaline and 24% were zinc carbon 47 ; 

46 Source: Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. Consumer Batteries Report 

47 British Battery Manufacture’s Association. No date. Battery Storage at http://www. bbma.co.uk/introduction.htm 



• The European Portable Battery Association reports that alkaline batteries represented 62% of unit 

sales in 2002, with zinc carbon representing 23%, rechargeables representing 8% and button 

cells representing 6% of unit sales in 2002. At 92% of unit sales primary batteries dominate the 

battery market. 48 

The estimates developed for this study and presented in Table 4.4 fall within the range of the reported 

European market share data. 

4.4 Battery Weight Data 

Battery weight data were needed to estimate the tonnage of batteries sold into the Canadian market each 

year. While battery manufacturers provided detailed tables containing dimensional data (i.e. weight and 

height) for each manufactured battery size (e.g. AA, AAA, etc.) , very little information was found on the 

average weights for different battery chemistry groupings for which sales data were available (e.g. nickel 

cadmium, carbon zinc, etc) . 

Several reports and sources were identified which provided information on individual weights for different 

battery sizes: 

• “Environmental Impacts of Household Battery Use in Canada” developed by the Institute for Risk 

Research, University of Waterloo in 1997 provided information on average battery weight by 

primary and secondary battery type and size 49 ; 

• “Risk Assessment” prepared for the Belgium Federal Department of the Environment in May, 

2003 focused on assessing the risks of cadmium used in NiCd batteries over different life cycle 

stages such as manufacturing, recycling and disposal 50 ; and 

• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) on OEM websites. 

Weights from battery manufacturers were also used. The information is summarized in Table 4.7. 

48 th 


Congress for Battery Recycling, June 2-4, 2004 

49 

Institute for Risk Research. January 1997. Environmental Impacts of Household Battery Use in Canada. Report 34. Prepared 

for the Canadian Household Battery Association. 

50 

Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment: Cadmium (oxide) as used in Batteries 

(response to final draft) 



Table 4.7: Available Battery Unit Weight Information By Battery Chemistry 

Institute for Risk 

Research 

(January 1997) 

Battery Type 

Primary Battery 

Battery Size Average Weight 

(grams) 

Belgium Federal 

Dept. of the 

Environment 

(May 2003) 

Average Weight 

(grams) 

Review of Battery MSDS 

for Energizer (E) 

Duracell (D) 

Rayovac (R) 


(grams) 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) AAA 11.0 11.5 Energizer 

11 Duracell & Rayovac 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) and 

Zinc Chloride (ZnCl) 

AA 23.0 23 Energizer 

24 Duracell 

23 Rayovac 

C 68.0 66.2 Energizer 

65 Duracell 

70 Rayovac 

D 135.0 141.9 Energizer 

138 Duracell 

144 Rayovac 

9 volt 46.0 45.6 Energizer 

45 Duracell 

45.4 Rayovac 

AAA 8.7 9 Duracell 

9 Rayovac 

AA 16.5 19 Duracell 

18.4 Rayovac 

C 44.0 50.5 Duracell 

50 Rayovac 

D 91.5 104 Duracell 

97 Rayovac 

9 volt 36.0 37 Duracell 

42.5 Rayovac 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 33 Energizer 

Lithium Primary 

Button Cell 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 

Secondary Battery 

17.2 3-40 Energizer 

3.3-17 Duracell 

1.2 0.12-2.55 Energizer 

0.23-2.3 Duracell 

0.9 0.2-1.9 Energizer 

0.17-1.8 Duracell 

Review of Battery 

MSDS for Sanyo 

Panasonic 

Toshiba 


(grams) 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) general 10-700 

AAA 9.4 12.0 11.0 

AA 23.5 22.0 23.0 

C 54.5 75.0 77.6 

D 67.5 145.0 150.8 

9 volt 40.0 35.0 

Power pack 20-450 

1800 mHh 280.0 

3000 mHh 322.5 

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 11.5-46.5 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) general 163.7 9-178 

AA 24.75 

AAA 12.5 

C 80 

D 173.25 



Annual battery recovery reports from Germany and France provided tonnage and unit battery sales for 

different battery types. The data was used to generate average weights by battery type (see Tables 4.8 

and 4.9) by dividing total units recovered by total reported weights. 

Primary 

Secondary 

Table 4.8 : Average Battery Weight By Chemistry Calculated from French Data (2002) 

Units sold (2002) Reported Weight (kg) 

Calculated 

g/unit 

Mercuric Oxide(HgO) 579,893 1,700 3 

Zinc Chloride (ZnCl) 119,404,269 5,720,000 48 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 416,987,943 13,462,000 32 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 24,345,121 487,000 20 

Lithium Primary 25,910,983 209,000 8 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 19,745,639 4,010,000 203 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 17,926,343 901,000 50 

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 14,593,719 590,000 40 

Source: Agence do l’environnement et de la maitriese de l’Engerie. November 2003. Obserevatoire des piles et 

accumujlateurs: La situation en 2002. 

Table 4.9: Average Battery Weight Data By Chemistry Calculated Using German Data (2003 and 2004) 

Germany 2003 2004 

Battery Type Units Sold 

Primary 

Reported weight 

(kg) 

Calculated 

g/unit 

Units Sold 

Reported weight 

(kg) 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 243,332,000 6,727,965 28 209,673,000 5,633,383 27 

Alkaline (AlMn)* 724,903,000 19,341,076 27 799,377,000 20,770,657 26 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 372,000 60,550 163 107,000 56,622 529 

Lithium Primary 17,207,000 286,023 17 15,624,000 250,585 16 

Button Cell 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 28,163,000 41,423 1.5 27,552,000 36,007 1.3 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 52,068,000 45,974 0.9 59,495,000 51,291 0.9 

Secondary 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 29,388,000 1,967,345 67 21,109,000 2,027,977 96 

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 15,548,000 1,327,917 85 23,196,000 1,736,833 75 

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 56,742,000 1,494,720 26 55,281,000 1,483,017 27 


Calculated 

g/unit 

Small Sealed Lead Acid 

655,000 664,538 1,015 904,000 971,691 1,075 

(SSLA) 

* as reported in German documents 

Source: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual Report, Germany


The various sources of data on battery weight were used to create average unit weights by battery 

chemistry. The values used in the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model are shown in Table 4.10. 

Where the reported battery unit weights from different sources varied considerably, the average weight 

was used. In several instances only one source of battery weight was identified, and this value was used 

until other sources of data are identified. 

Table 4.10 

Unit Weights Applied to All Units Within Battery Chemistry Groupings in the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model 

Battery Type Weight Range from 

Various Sources 

(grams) 

Average Weight Used 

in Model 

(grams) 

Source of Weight 

Used in Model 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 26-32 28 Average of France and Germany 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 27-28 27 Germany 

Zinc air (ZnO2) 33 33 One data source 

Lithium Primary 3-40 16 Mean of data 

Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 0.12-2.5 1.2 Averaging of data 

Zinc air (ZNO2) 0.9 Mean of data 

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 11-450 203 Average of France (all) 

Lithium- Ion (LI-ion) 11-75 40 Average of France (all) 

Lithium-ion Polymer 

(Li-polymer) 

Nickel Metal Hydride 

(NiMH) 

Small Sealed Lead Acid 

(SSLA) 

* weights not available, therefore, used lithium ion weights 

11-75* 40 Average of France (all) 

9-178 93 Averaging of data 

1015-1075 1045 Average of Germany 

Sources: Institute for Risk Research. January 1997. Environmental Impacts of Household Battery Use in Canada. Report 34. 

Prepared for Canadian Household Battery Association 

Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual Report, Germany 

Agence do l’environnement et de la maitriese de l’Engerie. November 2003. Obserevatoire des piles et accumujlateurs: La 

situation en 2002. 

Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment: Cadmium (oxide) as used in Batteries 

Review of Battery MSDS for Energizer (E), Duracell (D), Rayovac (R), Sanyo, Panasonic, Toshiba 

4.5 Battery Lifespan 

The lifespan of all batteries is linked to the capacity of the battery (e.g. in Ampere hours) and the amount 

of current (Amperes) drawn from the battery by the device which it powers. Temperature, humidity and 

other environmental factors also have an impact on battery lifespan. Unlike secondary batteries, the 

capacity of primary batteries cannot be replenished (or recharged) after being drained and therefore they 

possess a longer useful lifespan than their primary battery counterparts. Secondary batteries can be 

recharged a variety of times depending on the battery chemistry. The recharging cycles vary depending 

on use and application. However, various battery charging behaviours (recharging a battery before it is 

full discharged) considerably shorten the battery life (depending on the battery). 



Various European reports have made the following assumptions about battery lifespans: 

• Three years for general purpose batteries (UK) 51 ; 

• 1 to 5 years for a nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery (Belgium) 52 ; 

• 4-5 years for a nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery (IEE) 53 ; 

• 3 years for zinc Air (ZnO2) batteries (Duracell). 54 

In a report prepared for the European Commission 55 the following lifespans were used for different battery 

types: 

• Three years for general purpose primary battery (i.e. alkaline, zinc carbon); 

• Three years for button cell batteries; 

• Three years for all other primary batteries; 

• Five years for nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries; 

• Seven years for nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries 

• Five years for lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries; 

• Five years for small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries. 

The following assumptions were used in the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model, and the lifespans 

for NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion batteries were confirmed by the Canadian Household Battery Association 

(CHBA) and the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) during a review meeting held on 3 

February, 2006 with Environment Canada staff: 

• an average three year lifespan for primary batteries; 

• an average five years lifespan for NiCd and Li-ion batteries; 

• an average seven year lifespan for NiMH batteries; 

• an average five year lifespan for SSLA batteries. 

The Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model is designed so that it is easy to change lifespan 

assumptions as new information becomes available. 

4.6 Battery Reuse 

Although the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model accounts for reuse of a battery after its first life 

(when its first owner discards it), this value has been set at zero since the research carried out for this 

study did not identify any noteworthy reuse activities taking place at this time. This reuse term is not 

related to the number of recharges that may occur for secondary batteries. The recharging life of 

secondary batteries has been factored into the battery lifespan value (see section 4.5). 

It has been assumed for preliminary estimates that batteries are generally fully used or dead when 

discarded, and that reuse of batteries (by a second owner) is zero. This is different to the flow of 

electronics, where reuse of a TV or computer can provide the unit with a second useful life. 

The C2BFM model is structured so that this value can be changed at a future time if additional research 

comes to light which would alter the assumptions used. For example, in the future a process may 

become viable that would take spent batteries and re-manufacture them for reuse in which case the zero 

value would need to be altered to reflect the new reuse opportunities. 

51 UK Department of Trade and Industry, August 2002. Batteries 

52 Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment. 

53 Institution of Electrical Engineers. June 2004. Recycling of Batteries 

54 Duracell report that it is best to use zinc air batteries within 3 years of manufacture 

55 Bio Intelligence Service, July 2003. Impact Assessment on Selected Policy Options for Revision of the Battery Directive, 

Prepared for the European Commission, Directorate General Environment 


4.7 Battery Hoarding 


Hoarding (or storage) refers to the fact that consumers often store or hoard products (particularly 

electronics-related products) for a period of time before finally discarding them. Also referred to as 

hoarding and clearance rates, a number of reports attempted to estimate and identify hoarding rates for 

consumer batteries: 

• The hoarding rate for portable NiCd developed for the Belgium Federal Department of the 

Environment assumed a very slow clearance rate of only 5% after five years (after sale), 33% 

after 15 years with the remaining 62% being cleared by 25 years. 56 

• The NiCd industry in Europe claims that 65-95% of portable NiCd batteries sold over the last 10 

years are still being hoarded. 57 

• The hoarding rate assumption used for primary (non-rechargeable) batteries is 30% and 60% for 

secondary (rechargeable) batteries in a report prepared for the European Commission. 58 

In its report, the Belgium Federal Department of the Environment acknowledges that “since both battery 

lifetime and hoarding behaviour are difficult to assess, calculating the amount available for collection will 

thus be subject to an error proportional to the uncertainty over these parameters” (May 2003, pg 71). 

For the purpose of the Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model, it has been assumed that 30% of 

primary batteries and 60% of secondary batteries are hoarded (stored) after the end of their operational 

life. In both cases it has been assumed that the batteries are hoarded for 5 years and are then discarded. 

4.8 Assumed Recycling Rates for Primary and Secondary Batteries 

Information on recycling rates for primary and secondary batteries vary considerably from country to 

country depending on the degree to which a recovery program has been implemented. In the case of 

Canada, the RBRC voluntary program is the only national battery recovery program available. With the 

exception of household hazardous waste (HHW) programs offered by municipalities, few public or private 

sector programs target consumer battery collection. Other programs in a similar situation as Canada (i.e. 

United Kingdom in 1999 and United States) reported low recovery rates: 

• The United Kingdom reported recycling rates for consumer secondary batteries of less than two 

percent in 1999 59 increasing to 5% for rechargeable batteries in 2001 60 ; and 

• Raymond Communications has sourced recycling rates of less one percent. 61 

For the purpose of the model a recycling rate of 2% was used for primary batteries, to reflect the current 

situation where virtually no recycling takes place. 

For secondary batteries, the recycling rate was calculated by dividing the weight of secondary batteries 

recovered for 2003 to 2005 (provided by RBRC) by the amount of secondary batteries discarded 

(calculated by C2BFM) in each of these years. Future recycling rates were calculated by dividing RBRC 

projected tonnages recovered for each year from 2006 to 2010 by the amounts of batteries to be 

discarded in each of these years (calculated by C2BFM). 

56 Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment 

57 Commission of the European Communities, November 2003. Draft Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council 

on Batteries and Accumulators and Spent Batteries and Accumulators (2003) 723 

58 Bio Intelligence Service. July 2003. Impact Assessment on Selected Policy Options for Revision of the Battery Directive. 

Prepared for the European Commission, Directorate General Environment 

59 Department of Trade and Industry, United Kingdom. August 2002. Batteries 

60 The Institution of Electrical Engineers. June 2004. Recycling of Batteries 

61 Raymond Communications. 2005. Battery Recovery Laws Worldwide – Update Edition 



RBRC provided information on the tonnage by battery chemistry collected in Canada in 2003 and 2004, 

through personal contact between Environment Canada and RBRC in the US (refer to Table 3.4). Total 

recovered tonnages for 2002 to 2005 in Canada were provided by the Canadian RBRC representative. 

The Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) reported collecting: 

• 172,307 pounds (78,157 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2002; 

• 283,193 pounds (114,846 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2003; 

• 331,910 pounds (150,551 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2004; and 

• 387,417 pounds (175,729 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2005. 62 

The average percentage breakdown for each secondary battery chemistries was applied to the 2002 to 

2005 total recovered tonnages to estimate annual tonnage recovered for different battery types. 

Table 4.11 presents the recycling rate estimates for each year and each secondary battery chemistry 

using the approach described above. Lithium ion and lithium polymer batteries are combined for the 

lithium battery category. The “discarded” tonnages were estimated by the C2BFM model using the sales 

data presented earlier in this section, in Table 4.1, and assumptions on battery lifespan, hoarding and unit 

weight presented throughout this section. Recycling rate is the recycled tonnage (RBRC) divided by 

discarded tonnage (C2BFM). 

The recycling rate for rechargeable batteries was assumed to be zero in 1996, before RBRC was 

established. It was assumed that it grew in a straight line from zero in 1996 to the recovery rate calculated 

for 2002 (weight recovered divided by weight discarded). The recycling tonnage for secondary batteries 

was assumed to grow by 16.7% annually from 2005 to 2010 (the reported increase from 2004 to 2005, 

reported by RBRC). 

2002 

discard 

2002 

recycled 

(tonnes) 

2002 

recycling 

rate 

(by 

weight) 

Table 4.11: Recycling Rate Estimates for Secondary Batteries 

2003 

discard 

2003 

recycled 

(tonnes) 

2003 

recycling 

rate 

(by 

weight) 

2004 

discard 

(tonnes) 

2004 

recycled 

(tonnes) 

2004 

recycling 

rate 

(by 

weight) 

2005 

discard 

(tonnes) 

2005 

recycled 

(tonnes) 

NiCd 1625 69 4.2% 1661 100.8 6.1% 1,697 132.2 7.8% 1,751 154.3 8.8% 

NiMH 74 4 5.2% 75 5.6 7.5% 112 7.4 6.6% 150 8.6 5.7% 

Lithium 

Ion & 

Lithium 

Polymer 


2005 

recycling 

rate 

(by 

weight) 

12 2 13.6% 12 2.4 19.6% 18 3.2 17.3% 25 3.7 14.6% 

SSLA 712 4 0.6% 949 5.9 0.6% 1,186 7.8 0.7% 1,186 9.1 0.8% 

Total 2422 78 3.2% 2,697 114.8 4.3% 3,013 150.5 5.0% 3,112 175.7 5.6% 

* Sources of recycling tonnages provided by Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) 

Output sheets from the C2BFM model are presented in Appendix B to this report 

62 Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) website http://www.call2recycle.org/releases/PR_2_21_05.1.html

5. Battery Flow Estimates 


The assumptions used to develop consumer battery flow estimates were described in Section 4. This 

section describes the estimated flow of consumer batteries in Canada calculated by the Canadian 

Consumer Battery Flow Model (C2BFM) developed for this project. 

5.1 Batteries Sold in Canada 

Table 5.1 shows the estimated number of different types of consumer batteries sold (referred to as units) 

into the Canadian market for the years 2001 to 2010. The methodology used to develop these estimates 

is described in Section 4. 


Table 5.1 Consumer Battery Units Sold Into the Canadian Market, 2001 to 2010 (Thousands of Units) 

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Zinc Carbon 75,290 77,204 79,139 81,190 82,961 84,860 86,880 89,034 91,340 93,789 

Alkaline 256,346 276,240 297,372 309,537 331,762 355,816 381,898 410,119 440,715 473,944 

Zinc Air 33 36 39 41 44 48 51 53 57 60 

Lithium 4,750 5,228 5,719 6,049 6,594 7,139 7,683 8,228 8,772 9,317 

Subtotal Primary Cylindrical Batteries 336,419 358,708 382,269 396,817 421,361 447,863 476,512 507,434 540,884 577,110 

Primary Button Cell Batteries 

Silver Oxide Button Cell 10,857 10,794 10,732 10,668 10,607 10,545 10,483 10,421 10,359 10,297 

Zinc Air Button Cell 18,464 20,060 21,679 23,037 24,743 26,447 28,152 29,857 31,562 33,267 

Subtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 29,320 30,855 32,411 33,705 35,350 36,992 38,635 40,278 41,921 43,564 

Subtotal Primary Batteries 365,740 389,563 414,680 430,522 456,711 484,855 515,147 547,712 582,805 620,674 


NiCd 9,940 10,690 11,710 12,810 13,950 15,100 16,450 18,240 20,240 22,380 

NiMH 2,590 2,990 3,510 4,100 4,770 5,520 6,400 7,540 8,880 10,490 

Lithium Ion 890 1,070 1,290 1,540 1,840 2,160 2,530 3,040 3,640 4,290 

Lithium Polymer 90 90 120 140 160 210 250 280 330 360 

SSLA 1,135 1,135 1,135 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093 

Subtotal Secondary Batteries 14,645 15,975 17,765 19,683 21,813 24,083 26,723 30,193 34,183 38,613 

Total Primary Plus Secondary 380,385 405,538 432,445 450,205 478,524 508,938 541,870 577,905 616,988 659,287 



Number of Consumer Battery Units Sold Into Canadian Market, 2004 

The year 2004 is being used as the baseline in this study. In 2004, an estimated 450 million consumer 

batteries were sold into the Canadian marketplace. Of this total, 430.5 million units were primary 

batteries, and 19.7 million were secondary batteries. Within the primary battery category, cylindrical 

batteries made up the bulk of the units sold, at 396.8 million units. Within the cylindrical category, alkaline 

(ZnMnO2) batteries made up the lion’s share, at 309.5 million units, followed by zinc carbon (ZnC) 

batteries at 81.2 million units. 

An estimated 33.7 million button cell primary batteries were sold in 2004. In the button cell category, zinc 

air (ZnO2) batteries accounted for 70% of sales (at 23 million units), with silver oxide (AgO) button cells 

making up about 30% of unit sales, at 10.7 million units sold in 2004. 

In the secondary consumer battery category, nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries account for 65% (12.8 

million of the 19.7 million) of units sold in 2004. An estimated 4.1 million nickel metal hydride (NiMH) 

batteries were sold in 2004. Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries made up a small percentage of the total at 1.54 

million units sold in 2004 as did small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries at 1.1 million units sold in 2004. 

Lithium polymer (Li-polymer) accounted for a very small fraction of the total at 140,000 units sold in 2004. 

Looking out to 2010, the breakdown of secondary battery sales is expected to change considerably. 

Total units sold are expected to increase to 38.6 million units by 2010, compared to 19.7 million units sold 

in 2004. While overall nickel cadmium (NiCd) sales will continue to increase, their share of the market will 

be considerably lower by 2010, when they will account for 58% of secondary battery sales (from current 

65%). 

Weight of Consumer Batteries Sold Into Canadian Market in 2004 

The estimated weight of consumer batteries sold into the Canadian market between 2001 and 2010 is 

presented in Table 5.2. The weight was estimated by applying average unit weights for battery chemistry 

groupings found in the literature (and described in Section 4) to the estimated total units in Table 5.1. 

For 2004, Table 5.2 shows that the 450 million consumer batteries sold into the Canadian marketplace 

weighed an estimated 15,182 tonnes. Of this total, most (10,991 tonnes) were primary batteries and 

4,191 tonnes were secondary consumer batteries. Within the primary battery category, alkaline 

(ZnMnO2) batteries made up most of the weight, at 8,667 tonnes, followed by zinc carbon (ZnC) batteries, 

at 2,192 tonnes. In the secondary battery category, most of the battery weight sold into the market was 

nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries, at 2,600 tonnes. 




Table 5.2 Estimated Weight of Consumer Battery Units Sold Into the Canadian Market, 2001 to 2010 (tonnes) 

kg/unit 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 2,033 2,085 2,137 2,192 2,240 2,291 2,346 2,404 2,466 2,532 

Alkaline 0.028 7,178 7,735 8,326 8,667 9,289 9,963 10,693 11,483 12,340 13,270 

Zinc Air 0.033 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 

Lithium 0.016 76 84 92 97 106 114 123 132 140 149 



Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 17 18 20 21 22 24 25 27 28 30 

Subtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 30 31 32 34 35 36 38 39 41 42 



NiCd 0.203 2,018 2,170 2,377 2,600 2,832 3,065 3,339 3,703 4,109 4,543 

NiMH 0.093 241 278 326 381 444 513 595 701 826 976 

Lithium Ion 0.040 36 43 52 62 74 86 101 122 146 172 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 4 4 5 6 6 8 10 11 13 14 

SSLA 1.045 1,186 1,186 1,186 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142 



5.2 Batteries Discarded Annually in Canada 

The Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model (C2BFM) was used to estimate the number and weight of 

batteries discarded (recycled and disposed) in Canada each year. The model combines the following 

information: 

• Annual sales (in units); 

• Estimated weight of batteries sold into the Canadian market (units multiplied by assumed 

weights); 

• Average lifespan of different battery types (assumed to be three years for primary batteries and 

five or seven years for secondary batteries, depending on the chemistry); 

• Hoarding of batteries before being discarded; 

• Fate of batteries when discarded (recycled, disposed). 

It was assumed that: 

• no consumer batteries are reused after their first owner discards them (note that recharging 

rechargeable batteries is already counted as part of the service life of a secondary battery; reuse 

means use after first life); 



• 30% of primary batteries are hoarded for 5 years, and are then discarded; 

• 60% of secondary batteries are hoarded for 5 years, and are then discarded. 

The C2BFM model combines all of these factors to estimate the amount of batteries recycled and 

discarded each year. Table 5.3 presents the estimated number of units discarded each year from 2001 to 

2010. 


Table 5.3: Consumer Battery Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal) in Canada 2001 to 2010 (thousands of units) 

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Zinc Carbon 67,748 69,341 70,982 72,805 74,625 76,444 78,265 80,103 82,009 84,002 

Alkaline 189,699 202,783 217,473 233,945 251,769 268,032 285,356 303,962 326,520 350,788 

Zinc Air 22 24 26 29 32 35 37 40 43 46 

Lithium 3,013 3,346 3,712 4,151 4,605 5,020 5,453 5,904 6,423 6,947 



Silver Oxide Button Cell 7,098 8,134 9,104 9,423 9,666 10,104 10,441 10,699 10,637 10,575 

Zinc Air Button Cell 12,264 13,482 14,805 16,322 17,868 19,341 20,850 22,389 24,053 25,724 

SubSubtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 19,362 21,616 23,909 25,745 27,534 29,445 31,291 33,088 34,690 36,299 

SubSubtotal Primary Batteries 279,844 297,110 316,103 336,675 358,565 378,974 400,403 423,097 449,685 478,084 


NiCd 7,828 8,004 8,181 8,358 8,625 8,971 9,432 9,928 10,475 11,171 

NiMH 776 793 811 1,209 1,615 2,030 2,118 2,255 2,455 2,684 

Lithium Ion 271 278 284 423 582 767 850 946 1,057 1,209 

Lithium Polymer 22 23 23 34 50 65 74 81 91 110 

SSLA 454 681 908 1,135 1,135 1,135 1,135 1,129 1,124 1,118 



Table 5.3 shows that an estimated 348 million consumer batteries were discarded in 2004. Of this total, 

337 million units were primary consumer batteries and over 11.2 million units were secondary consumer 

batteries. Most of the primary batteries discarded were alkaline (ZnMnO2) batteries (about 234.0 million 

units discarded in 2004), followed by carbon zinc (ZnC) batteries (73 million units discarded). Button cell 

batteries accounted for 25.7 million units discarded in 2004. Most of the secondary consumer batteries 

discarded in 2004 were nickel cadmium (NiCd) (8.4 million units), followed by nickel metal hydride (NiMH) 

units (about 1.2 million units) and SSLA’s at 1.1 million units. The SSLA estimates are considered a soft 

number. No research could be identified on trends in SSLA sales over time, therefore a flatline sales 

assumption of 1.135 million units per year has been assumed, based on one year of data. 

Projections presented in Table 5.3 show that by 2010, the total annual consumer battery discards will 

have increased to 494 million units, of which most (478 million units) will still be primary consumer 



batteries. The significant increase in primary consumer battery usage is attributed to the increased 

availability of toys and other products which will require portable power. By 2010, the number of 

secondary batteries discarded will increase from 11.1 million units discarded in 2004 to 16.3 million units 

discarded in 2010. Most of the discarded units in 2010 will be nickel cadmium (11.2 million units), 

followed by nickel metal hydride (NiMH) at 2.7 million units. Discards of lithium batteries (lithium ion and 

lithium polymer) will total about 1.2 million units, and an estimated 1.1 million units of SSLA’s. 

Table 5.4 presents estimates of the tonnage of consumer batteries discarded in Canada each year from 

2001 to 2010. Looking at 2004 as the baseline year for this study, an estimated 11,623 tonnes of 

consumer batteries were discarded. Most of this tonnage was primary batteries, at 8,610 tonnes. An 

estimated 3,013 tonnes were secondary consumer batteries, most of which were SSLA’s (1,186 tonnes) 

and nickel cadmium (NiCd) units (1,697 tonnes). By 2010, the tonnage discarded is expected to increase 

to 15,977 tonnes, of which 12,239 tonnes are primary consumer batteries and 3,736 tonnes are 

secondary consumer batteries. Within the secondary battery category, nickel cadmium batteries will 

account for most of the secondary rechargeable units discarded, at 2,268 tonnes of the 3,738 tonne total 

and small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries will remain second largest at 1,168 tonnes. 

Table 5.4: Estimated Weight of Consumer Battery Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal) in Canada 2001 to 2010 

(tonnes) 


kg/unit 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 1,829 1,872 1,917 1,966 2,015 2,064 2,113 2,163 2,214 2,268 

Alkaline 0.028 5,312 5,678 6,089 6,550 7,050 7,505 7,990 8,511 9,143 9,822 

Zinc Air 0.033 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 

Lithium 0.016 48 54 59 66 74 80 87 94 103 111 



Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 13 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 11 12 13 15 16 17 19 20 22 23 

Subtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 20 22 24 26 28 30 31 33 34 36 



NiCd 0.203 1,589 1,625 1,661 1,697 1,751 1,821 1,915 2,015 2,126 2,268 

NiMH 0.093 72 74 75 112 150 189 197 210 228 250 

Lithium Ion 0.040 11 11 11 17 23 31 34 38 42 48 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.2 3.6 4.4 

SSLA 1.045 474 712 949 1,186 1,186 1,186 1,186 1,180 1,174 1,168 




5.3 Flow of Consumer Batteries in 2004 


Table 5.5 presents the estimated flows of consumer batteries through various parts of the battery supply 

chain in 2004. It should be noted that the batteries discarded in 2004 were sold into the Canadian market 

a few years earlier, as discards always lag behind sales. Table 5.5 shows that in 2004, an estimated 348 

million consumer batteries were discarded (i.e. available for recycling and disposal). An estimated 337 

million units were primary batteries and 11.2 million secondary batteries were discarded. The discarded 

batteries weighed an estimated 11,623 tonnes (8,610 tonnes of primary consumer batteries and 3,013 

tonnes of secondary batteries). 


kg/unit 

Table 5.5: Estimated Flow of Consumer Battery Units in Canada, 2004 

Units 

(000s) 

Sold Discarded Recycled Disposed 

(tonnes) 

Units 

(000s) 

(tonnes) 


Units 

(000s) 

(tonnes) 

Units 

(000s) 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 81,190 2,192 72,805 1,966 1,456 39 71,349 1,926 

Alkaline 0.028 309,537 8,667 233,945 6,550 4,679 131 229,266 6,419 

Zinc Air 0.033 41 1 29 1.0 0.6 0.02 29 0.9 

Lithium 0.016 6,049 97 4,151 66 83 1 4,068 65 

Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 10,668 13 9,423 11 188 0.2 9,235 11 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 23,037 21 16,322 15 326 0.3 15,995 14 

Subtotal Primary 430,522 10,991 336,675 8,610 6,733 172 329,941 8,437 


NiCd 0.203 12,810 2,600 8,358 1,697 651 132 7,706 1,564 

NiMH 0.093 4,100 381 1,209 112 80 7 1,129 105 

Lithium Ion 0.040 1,540 62 423 17 73 3 350 14 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 140 6 34 1 6 0.2 28 1 

SSLA 1.045 1,093 1,142 1,135 1,186 7 8 1,127 1,178 

Subtotal Secondary 19,683 4,191 11,158 3,013 817 151 10,341 2,863 

Total 450,205 15,182 347,833 11,623 7,551 323 340,282 11,300 

(tonnes) 

Table 5.6 presents the estimated flows of consumer batteries through various parts of the battery supply 

chain in 2010. It shows that in 2010, an estimated 494 million consumer batteries will be discarded (i.e. 

available for recycling and disposal). An estimated 478 million units primary batteries and 16.3 million 

secondary batteries were discarded. The discarded batteries weighed an estimated 15,977 tonnes 

(12,239 tonnes of primary consumer batteries and 3,738 tonnes of secondary batteries).


kg/unit 


Table 5.6: Estimated Flow of Consumer Battery Units in Canada, 2010 

Units 

(000s) 

Sold Discarded Recycled Disposed 

(tonnes) 

Units 

(000s) 

(tonnes) 


Units 

(000s) 

(tonnes) 

Units 

(000s) 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 93,789 2,532 84,002 2,268 1,680 45 82,322 2,223 

Alkaline 0.028 473,944 13,270 350,788 9,822 7,016 196 343,773 9,626 

Zinc Air 0.033 60 2 46 1.5 0.9 0.03 45 1.5 

Lithium 0.016 9,317 149 6,947 111 139 2 6,808 109 

Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 10,297 12 10,575 13 212 0.3 10,364 12 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 33,267 30 25,724 23 514 0.5 25,210 23 

Subtotal Primary 620,674 15,996 478,084 12,239 9,562 245 468,522 11,994 


(tonnes) 

NiCd 0.203 22,380 4,543 11,171 2,268 1,756 356 9,415 1,911 

NiMH 0.093 10,490 976 2,684 250 220 20 2,464 229 

Lithium Ion 0.040 4,290 172 1,209 48 210 8 999 40 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 360 14 110 4 19 0.8 91 4 

SSLA 1.045 1,093 1,142 1,118 1,168 19 20 1,099 1,149 

Subtotal Secondary 38,613 6,847 16,292 3,738 2,224 406 14,068 3,333 

Total 659,287 22,843 494,376 15,977 11,786 650 482,590 15,327 

The allocation of the discarded batteries to different provinces in Canada (pro-rated by population) is 

shown in Table 5.7. Values in Table 5.7 are shown to one decimal place, because some of the numbers 

are relatively small. It should be noted that figures may not add exactly, due to this rounding, when 

comparing one table to another.

2004 

Population 


Table 5.7: Consumer Batteries Discarded in Canada by Province and Territory (2004) 

% of 

Canadian 

Population 

Primary 

Batteries 

Discarded 

(Thousands of 

Units) 

Primary 

Batteries 

Discarded 

(Tonnes) 

Primary 

Batteries 

Discarded per 

Capital 

(Grams) 

Secondary 

Batteries 

Discarded 

(Thousands of 

Units) 

Secondary 

Batteries 

Discarded 

Tonnes) 


Secondary 

Batteries 

Discarded per 

Capital 

(Grams) 

Nfld and Labrador 517,300 1.6% 5,447 139 269.26 181 49 94.24 

PEI 137,900 0.4% 1,452 37 269.26 48 13 94.24 

Nova Scotia 937,500 2.9% 9,871 252 269.26 327 88 94.24 

New Brunswick 752,100 2.4% 7,919 203 269.26 262 71 94.24 

Quebec 7,547,700 23.6% 79,474 2,032 269.26 2,634 711 94.24 

Ontario 12,407,300 38.8% 130,306 3,332 268.57 4,319 1,166 94.00 

Manitoba 1,170,200 3.7% 11,985 306 261.91 397 107 91.66 

Saskatchewan 994,300 3.1% 10,469 268 269.26 347 94 94.24 

Alberta 3,204,800 10.0% 33,745 863 269.26 1,118 302 94.24 

BC 4,201,900 13.1% 44,143 1,129 268.65 1,463 395 94.02 

Yukon 30,900 0.3% 1,090 28 901.90 36 10 315.65 

NWT 42,900 0.1% 325 8 193.95 11 3 67.88 

Nunavut 29,700 0.1% 452 12 388.94 15 4 136.12 

Total 31,974,500 100% 336,675 8,610 269.26 11,158 3,013 94.24 

The extent to which the discarded batteries are recycled varies by province and territory. 

5.4 Loading of Metals and Other Materials Contained in Consumer Batteries 

The battery composition information provided in Table 3.3 was used to estimate the total metal loadings 

generated from the current use and disposal of different types of consumer batteries in Canada, 

presented in Table 5.8 

A composition could not be located for primary zinc air batteries, therefore the numbers in Table 5.9 add 

up to a somewhat smaller total than the values in Tables 5.2, 5.4 and 5.5.


Table 5.8: Material Contained in Consumer Battery Units Sold in Canada, 2004 (tonnes) 



CEPA* 1999 

Other Metals 


Primary 


Co 

H2SO4 KOH 

Na 

OH 

NH4Cl/ 

ZnCl2 

Organ 

Electrolyte 

Zinc Carbon 

(ZnC) 438.4 548.0 438.4 109.6 219.2 438.4 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 1733.4 2600.1 1733.4 433.4 866.7 1300.1 

Lithium Primary 29.0 1.9 48.4 9.7 9.7 


Cell 


Button Cell 

Silver Oxide 


0.3 3.8 5.8 0.5 1.0 1.5 

Cell 

Secondary 

0.2 2.1 6.2 8.3 0.6 1.2 2.1 


(NiCd) 

Nickel metal 

390.1 520.1 1170.2 130.0 260.0 130.0 

hydride (NiMH) 266.9 19.1 19.1 38.1 18.1 19.1 * * 

Lithium 20.2 1.3 33.6 6.7 6.7 


acid (SSLA) 742.4 91.4 194.2 114.2 

TOTAL (tonnes) 742.4 0.5 390.1 787.0 2177.7 3216.4 6.2 3.3 3438.1 19.1 38.1 91.4 582.6 19.1 109.6 16.4 1542.4 2002.7 

*CEPA (Canadian Environmental Protection Act) 

** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds 

H2O 

plastic, 

paper 

carbon


Table 5.9: Material Contained in Consumer Battery Units Disposed in Canada, 2004 (tonnes) 



CEPA* 1999 

Other Metals 


Primary 


Co 

H2SO4 KOH 

Na 

OH 

NH4Cl/ 

ZnCl2 

Organ 

Electrolyte 

Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 385.3 481.6 385.3 96.3 192.6 385.3 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 1283.9 1925.8 1283.9 321.0 641.9 962.9 

Lithium Primary 19.5 1.3 32.5 6.5 6.5 


Cell 


Button Cell 

Silver Oxide 


Cell 

Secondary 


(NiCd) 

Nickel metal 

hydride (NiMH) 

0.2 3.3 5.0 0.4 0.9 1.3 

0.1 1.4 4.3 5.8 0.4 0.9 1.4 

234.7 312.9 704.0 78.2 156.4 78.2 

73.5 5.3 0.0 5.3 10.5 5.0 5.3 * * 

Lithium 4.5 0.0 0.3 7.6 1.5 1.5 


acid (SSLA) 

765.8 94.3 200 118 

TOTAL (tonnes) 765.8 0.4 234.7 386.4 1673.9 2436.8 4.3 1.6 2424.0 5.3 10.5 94.3 405.1 5.3 96.3 8.0 1193.1 1555.0 

* CEPA (Canadian Environmental Protection Act) 

** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds 

H2O 

plastic, 

paper 

carbon


Table 5.8 presents the estimated amount of metals and other substances contained in consumer 

batteries sold into the Canadian market in 2004. However, this is of little consequence until the units are 

actually disposed. Table 5.10 presents the loading to the environment from disposed consumer batteries. 

In Table 5.9, SSLA’s account for all of the lead (766 tonnes) discharged into the environment from 

primary and secondary batteries. No lead content was identified for any of the other primary or 

secondary batteries on the table. Secondary batteries (NiCd and NiMH) account for all cadmium (235 

tonnes) and nickel (386 tonnes) disposed. Cadmium is a toxic substance under the Canadian 

Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) 1999. Other metals discarded only from secondary batteries 

include aluminum (4.3 tonnes). Primary batteries are responsible for disposal of other metals such as 

zinc (1,674 tonnes) and manganese (2,437 tonnes). Iron is disposed by both primary and secondary 

batteries (2,424 tonnes) as well as lithium (1.6 tonnes). 

Table 5.9 presents estimates of the loading of metals and other substances contained in consumer 

batteries disposed in Canada in 2004 (the baseline year for the study). 

No information is provided for zinc air primary batteries in Table 5.9 as a full set of composition 

information could not be identified. Therefore, tonnages shown in Tables 5.8 and 5.9 are lower than totals 

in Table 5.4. 

5.5 Environmental and Health Risks Posed by Consumer Batteries Disposed in Canada (2004) 

Batteries can contain a number of different metals and other compounds that can be released to the 

environment when these products are disposed. Table 3.3 provides a list of the elements and compounds 

present in consumer/household batteries in Canada. Of the compounds listed in Table 3.3, cadmium, 

mercury, lead and nickel 63 are included on the CEPA 1999 Toxic Substances List (updated Schedule 1 as 

of November 30, 2005) and would be considered to represent potential concerns for human and 

ecological receptors if released to the environment. 

Soil, water quality and drinking water guidelines have been established for several of the metals listed in 

Table 3.3. These guidelines represent concentrations of the metals in soil, surface water and drinking 

water that would represent potential concerns for humans or the environment. A summary of the surface 

water, drinking water and soil quality guidelines are provided in Table 5.10. 

The health concerns associated with each of the metals is as follows: 

• Lead - Lead is a problem for both human and animals. It is a neurotoxin and is a particular 

concern for pregnant women and very young children where exposure can result in neurological 

impairment; 

• Cadmium - In humans, cadmium causes adverse effect in the kidney when ingested and can 

cause lung cancer when inhaled. Environmentally cadmium is a problem for aquatic and 

terrestrial receptors; 

• Nickel - Some forms of nickel are considered to be carcinogenic in humans, also dermal 

exposure can lead to a hypersensitivity reaction (skin rash). Nickel also can have an adverse 

effect on both aquatic and plant life. 

• Mercury – Mercury is a neurotoxin and accumulates through the food chain. There have been a 

number of high profile mercury poisoning episodes in industrialized countries in the last 30 to 40 

years; these lead to strict limits on mercury emissions, and significant efforts to eliminate mercury 

from products where possible. 

63 Only some compounds of nickel are toxic under CEPA 



Table 5.10: Surface Water, Drinking Water and Soil Quality Guidelines For Selected Metals and Other Substances Contained in 

Consumer Batteries Sold in Canada 

Compound 

Surface Water 1 Drinking Water 2 Soil 1 

µg/L µg/L Ecological 3 Human 4 

Aluminium 5 - 100 nv 5 nv nv 

Cadmium 0.017 5 3.8/10 6 1.4/14 

Iron 300 300 7 nv nv 

KOH nv nv nv nv 

Lead (Pb) 1-7 10 

70µg/g agriculture 

300 µg/g residential 

600 µg/g 

commercial or 

industrial 

140 µg/g 

residential 

260 µg/g 

commercial 

740 µg/g industrial 

Lithium nv nv nv nv 

Manganese nv 50 7 nv nv 

Mercury 0.1 1 12/12 6.6/6.6 

NaOH nv nv nv nv 

NH4Cl nv nv nv nv 

Nickel 25 - 150 nv 50/50 nv 

Silver 1 nv 20/20 20/20 

Zinc 30 5,000 7 200/200 nv 

ZnCl2 nv nv nv nv 

Sources: 

1: CCME, Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 2002 update 

2: Health Canada Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality 

3: Guideline to protect ecological receptors 

4: Guideline to protect human health 

5: NV – no value established 

6: 3.8/10 – agricultural/residential land use 

7: Guideline based on drinking water aesthetics not human health. 

Given that CCME and Health Canada have established guidelines for some of these metals and other 

compounds present in consumer batteries, it is reasonable to conclude that their release to the 

environment could represent potential risks to ecological and/or human receptors if potential routes of 

exposure are found to be present. Environmental quality guidelines have not been established for lithium, 

potassium hydroxide (KOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) or zinc chloride 

(ZnCl2). Lithium is a common treatment for manic/depressive disorders and would not be expected to 

represent a potential concern for human or ecological receptors (lithium batteries, however, can be 

hazardous by virtue of being reactive when not fully discharged). Sodium and potassium hydroxide would 

not be expected to represent direct concerns for ecological or human receptors. However, these 

compounds could be a potential concern if they are present in sufficient quantity to alter the pH of soil 

and/ or landfill leachate and thereby increase the mobility of metals from landfill to groundwater. 



Ammonium chloride and zinc chloride are readily soluble in water and could be expected to be present as 

ammonia, zinc and chloride. 

The evaluation of the potential concern should focus on the potential for humans and ecological receptors 

to be exposed to the metals and other compounds in batteries. Release of these battery-related 

contaminants to the environment would most likely occur through leaching to groundwater beneath 

landfill/disposal locations. Thus, potential exposure routes for ecological receptors would be limited to the 

migration of groundwater to surface water receiving bodies (lakes and rivers etc.). The release of batteryrelated 

contaminants to surface water, while undesirable, would only constitute a potential environmental 

concern if the levels in the receiving waters exceeded the CCME guidelines. A very small percentage 

(4%) of municipal waste is incinerated in Canada. Where batteries are in the feedstream to the 

incinerator, there is a concern regarding air emissions, which could result in direct contact with human 

receptors through air quality, through the food chain by direct precipitation on crops, or by ingestion by 

animals. Proper emission control from thermal processing facilities treating municipal solid waste would 

address this concern. 

With respect to human health, potential exposures would most likely occur in areas where groundwater is 

used as a source of potable water. The presence of battery-related contaminants in leachate would only 

constitute a potential concern if levels exceeded the Canadian Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 

values listed in Table 5.10. For some of the metals listed in Table 5.10 the drinking water guidelines are 

based on aesthetic objectives, set to protect the palatability of the water source. 

Based on the currently available information, it is not possible to determine if metals and other 

contaminants are being released from batteries in landfills in sufficient quantities to be a potential 

environmental or human health concern. All of these metals can be toxic to both human and 

environmental receptors, and their presence in the environment only presents a problem when 

concentrations are sufficient to exceed established thresholds. The disposal tonnages presented in Table 

5.5 represent disposal across Canada in 2004. Disposal amounts at any one location will be much 

smaller than this total, and in fact, the amounts disposed will be widely dispersed in very small quantities 

through all provinces and territories. Environmentally sound treatment and/or recycling (versus general 

disposal) is recognized as a more prudent risk management approach for batteries that contain 

substances scheduled under CEPA 1999 and has been recognized as the appropriate waste 

management approach by RBRC with regard to NiCd batteries (source Environmental Impacts of 

Household Battery Use in Canada prepared for Canadian Household Battery Association, Institute for 

Risk Research, University of Waterloo January 1997, page 9). 

It should be noted that in most landfills, leachate is actively collected and treated. Therefore, batteryrelated 

contaminants would not be expected to be entering the environment from most landfills at levels 

that would constitute a potential concern for human health or for ecological receptors. 

Also, the Canadian Council of Ministers of Environment (CCME) has initiated a process to produce three 

Canada-wide standards for mercury targetting mercury emissions (i.e. from incinerators and smelters), 

mercury containing lamps and mercury in dental amalgam waste (June 2005). Batteries have not been 

targeted for development of standards for mercury although they may require management under the 

standards regulating mercury emissions from incinerators. 



6. Battery Legislation, Policies and Management 

Legislative efforts to manage battery waste vary widely throughout North America, Europe and Asia. 

Europe, on the whole, is more proactive than North America in managing end-of-life primary and 

secondary batteries. Japan has introduced some legislation to manage secondary batteries while North 

America has primarily relied on the voluntary approach to manage end-of-life batteries. The legislation 

and management programs in each of these jurisdictions are discussed below. 

6.1 Canada 

To date, neither Canada nor its provinces or territories have initiated legislative or producer responsibility 

programs directly targeting primary or secondary consumer batteries, although these are included in 

HHW collection programs, and were specifically targeted in the HHW stewardship program recently 

announced by Ontario. Legislation in the US has been a driver for some developments in Canadian 

provinces and there are a number of efforts underway that indirectly target proper management of 

batteries within Canadian jurisdictions. 

6.1.1 Content Restrictions 

Unlike the United States or Europe, Canada has not imposed substance content restrictions for batteries 

that can be marketed within the country. Canadian jurisdictions have benefited from legislation enacted in 

the United States, which has forced the elimination of intentionally introduced mercury in alkalinemanganese 

and zinc-carbon batteries, the discontinued manufacturing of button cell mercuric-oxide 

batteries, the low levels of mercury use in alkaline-manganese button cell batteries, and the voluntary 

collection of end-of-life secondary batteries. As a direct consequence of the United States 1996 Battery 

Act, the manufacture of mercury oxide batteries was discontinued in Canada as of January 1996, and the 

battery OEMs voluntarily eliminated mercury from all alkaline, zinc carbon, and zinc chloride batteries. 

Manufacturers still use small amounts of mercury in button cell batteries but the maximum amount of 

mercury used button cell batteries does not exceed 25mg. There is a concern with counterfeit batteries 

which do not meet mercury limits, even though they are marketed as if they do. In addition, prior to the 

1996 Battery Act, battery labeling legislation in 13 U.S. states, and legislation establishing battery 

collection and recycling programs in 9 of those states, prompted the nickel cadmium battery OEMs to 

launch the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) and its voluntary nickel cadmium (NiCd) 

and other secondary battery collection program throughout North America. 

6.1.2 Manifesting and Handling Requirements 

The export/import and interprovincial movement of battery waste is controlled under federal hazardous 

waste regulations such as the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act (TDGA) and the Export and Import 

of Hazardous Waste regulation under CEPA 1999, which mandate proper manifesting, shipping and 

handing requirements for dangerous goods and wastes. A number of provinces also have established 

hazardous waste management regulations that impact battery waste. 

6.1.3 Environmental Labelling 

Batteries sold in Canada should be labeled as required in the International Electrotechnical Commission 

Standard applicable to the model, when available, or with at least the following information: safety-related 

prohibitions: use-related instructions to prevent hazards, promote maximum battery life, and utility. The 

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the leading global organization that prepares and 

publishes international standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies. A number of 

examples of environmental labeling requirements for other jurisdictions are described later in this text (the 



requirement for NiCd and SSLA battery labeling in the US 1996 Battery Act; State of Maine requirement 

for labeling of mercury containing batteries; EU requirements for labeling batteries containing lead, 

mercury or cadmium, Nokia plans to add a holographic label to combat counterfeit batteries, etc.). 

6.1.4 Canadian Municipal Collection and/or Disposal Bans 

Some Canadian jurisdictions have implemented collection and disposal bans targeting batteries: 

The Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) in British Columbia has placed a disposal ban on nickel 

cadmium batteries. This may be related to the fact that some of the GVRD municipal waste stream is 

incinerated at the Burns Bog EFW (Energy from Waste) facility, and cadmium would be a concern in 

incinerator emissions. 

Some communities indirectly target batteries through collection or disposal bans targeting the following 

categories of waste, all of which contain batteries: 

Household Hazardous Waste Collection and Disposal Bans: 

• City of Owen Sound, Ontario 

• Regional District of Central Okanogan, British Columbia 

• Greater Vancouver Regional District, British Columbia 

Waste Electronics and Electrical Equipment Disposal Bans: 

• Region of Waterloo, Ontario 

• City of Owen Sound, Ontario 

• City of Calgary, Alberta 

• Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD), British Columbia 

In addition, most Canadian municipalities offer household hazardous waste collection programs which 

enable residents to drop off primary and/or secondary batteries, free of charge, for proper management. 

6.1.5 Stewardship and Take Back Programs 

Since 1997, through RBRC, Canada has had a voluntary program to collect spent nickel cadmium (NiCd), 

nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium polymer (Li-polymer) and small sealed lead acid 

(SSLA) batteries. This is the only national battery recovery program in Canada and has received the 

support of all provinces. 64 See Section 3.6.2 for a more detailed description of the program. 

Recently, a number of provinces have begun to address proper management of spent primary and/or 

secondary batteries through a number of initiatives including Prince Edward Island’s Re-Store Your 

Batteries Program, Manitoba’s proposed Household Hazardous Waste Stewardship Regulation as well as 

through Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (WEEE) programs underway in a number of 

provinces. 

Prince Edward Island’s Re-Store Your Batteries Program 

The Island Waste Management Corporation, in partnership with two dozen participating PEI grocery 

retailers, introduced the “Re-Store Your Batteries” program in July 2005 enabling consumers to recycle 

their primary batteries at participating grocery stores. This service will allow consumers and visitors to 

return alkaline/lithium batteries (D, C, AA, AAA, 9-volt, 12-volt, etc.) as well as button type batteries 

64 


Baseline Study. Presented to Environment Canada 



(watch, hearing aid batteries, etc.) at no charge. The batteries will be shipped to the mainland to be 

broken down and recycled. 

Prince Edward Island’s Lead Acid Take Back Program 

Legislated in 1993, this program requires retailers to charge $5 on new battery purchases, unless an old 

battery is returned within 30 days. The regulation mandates that retailers must send old batteries to the 

appropriate facilities for recycling. This program focuses on lead acid batteries including all vehicle 

batteries (car, truck, snowmobile, motorcycle, off-road vehicle, ride-on lawnmower batteries). 

BC Used Lead-Acid Battery Collection Program 

British Columbia launched the first lead acid battery collection program in Canada in 1991. The Program 

is funded from revenue collected from a $5 levy collected from the consumer upon purchase of the 

battery. Companies (referred to as brokers) that collect the batteries from various generators can register 

with the Battery Program in order to receive the Program’s Transportation Incentive Payments (TIPs) 

which covers the cost of transportation of the batteries to a certified processor. The TIP rates vary 

depending on the location of the broker from the processor (the province is divided into 15 zones). The 

BC Government estimates that today virtually 100% of the used lead-acid batteries generated annually in 

the province are recovered given the right market conditions. 

Manitoba’s Proposed Household Hazardous Waste Stewardship Regulation 

The Province of Manitoba has proposed legislation that would establish collection and disposal systems 

for household hazardous wastes using a product stewardship approach which would place primary 

responsibility for managing the designated wastes on the manufacturers and sellers of those products. 

The province estimates that 276 tonnes of batteries were disposed by residents based on residential solid 

waste audits conducted in 2000 (see Table 6.1). 

Table 6.1: Estimate of Household Hazardous Waste in Residential Waste In Manitoba in 2000 65 

- Winnipeg Rural Total 

Material Tonnes % Tonnes % Tonnes % 

Batteries 226 35.3% 279 24.6% 506 28.5% 

Full Medicine 74 11.5% 37 3.2% 110 6.2% 

Fluorescent Tubes 33 5.1% 75 6.6% 107 6.0% 

Used Oil & Filters 45 7.1% 142 12.5% 187 10.5% 

Paint 54 8.4% 395 34.8% 449 25.3% 

Solvents 63 9.8% 207 18.3% 270 15.2% 

Other HHW 146 22.8% 0 0.0% 146 8.2% 

Total 641 - 1,135 - 1,176 - 

Percentage of 

Residential Waste 

0.52% 0.73% 0.63% 

The proposed regulation would permit the Province of Manitoba to implement product stewardship 

programs to deal with HHW. Industry has been asked to come up with a proposal to manage the 

designated materials. The regulation may require the establishment of new collection infrastructures for 

designated products including a "one-stop" approach to collection, where a single site would collect a 

number of HHW products (which could use existing depot network systems such as the Used Oil Depot 

system). Some products, such as pharmaceuticals and rechargeable batteries, could be returned 

primarily through return-to-retail systems. The regulation may approve existing collection programs, such 

as the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) collection program to collect nickel-cadmium 

and other rechargeable batteries thereby avoiding the need to implement a new program. Program 

65 Manitoba Product Stewardship Corporation, October 19, 2005. Discussion Paper: Household Hazardous Waste/HHW 



funding will be provided through industry contributions or advanced disposal surcharge (ADS). Industry 

will provide the program proposal including funding. 

In the case of batteries, the regulation defines stewardable batteries as: 

Batteries – Devices that convert chemical energy to electrical energy, but not including zinc-carbon or 

alkaline-type batteries. Lead acid (vehicle) batteries, small portable batteries and rechargeable batteries 

may be included in this group. 

Since 2006, the HHW Regulation has been grouped with three other stewardship regulations, including 

electronics, tires, printed paper and packaging. The HHW stewardship regulation remains essentially the 

same except for the removal of electronics from the regulation. Electronics are addressed in a separate 

regulation (see below). 

WEEE (Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment) Collection Programs 

Provincial Governments across Canada have been giving considerable attention to waste electronic and 

electrical equipment (WEEE) and the need for stewardship programs to manage these wastes. Currently, 

Alberta, Saskatchewan and Ontario have WEEE regulations in place. The remaining provinces and 

territories have announced plans to bring WEEE programs on-line within the next two to three years. 

These programs are discussed below. 

Alberta’s Electronic Recycling Program 

Alberta was the first province to enact legislation requiring take back of designated WEEE products. 

Alberta launched the first provincial electronics recycling program in Canada on October 1, 2004. The 

program is administered by ARMA (Alberta Recycling Management Authority) which has collected an 

advanced disposal surcharge (ADS) on designated electronics since February 1, 2005. The current list of 

designated WEEE products targets all computer products and televisions. The Alberta government has 

announced, however, that cell phones, stereos, VCRs, DVD players, electronic games and fax machines 

may be added to the program at a later date. Table 6.2 describes the structure of Alberta’s program. 

Table 6.2: Alberta’s WEEE Program 

Description 

Scope Alberta’s program targets all computer equipment including computer monitors and 

televisions including LCDs, CRTs and plasma screens 

Structure Alberta’s WEEE program is operated by the electronic industry under the auspices of the 

Alberta Recycling Management Authority, a non-profit organization 

Supporting Framework The program is mandatory and governed by provincial legislation 

Funding Mechanism Alberta’s WEEE program relies on advanced disposal surcharges (ADS) to fund the 

management of designated WEEE products 

The advance disposal surcharge charged on designated WEEE products in Alberta is visible 

to the consumer (although the retailer can choose to hide the fee and not show the 

consumer) 

Program Responsibilities Alberta’s program charges the brand-owner the applicable advanced disposal surcharge 

which is passed down through the economic chain to the consumer where it is up to the 

discretion of the retailer to make the fee visible or hidden 

Ontario’s Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (WEEE) Regulation 

On December 14, 2004, the Ontario Minister of the Environment filed the Waste Electronic and Electrical 

Equipment (WEEE) regulation under the Waste Diversion Act, 2002 (WDA). The regulation designates 

seven categories of electronic and electrical equipment as waste, and targets more than 200 items that 

could be designated, including computers, telephones, broadcast equipment, televisions and CD players, 

children's toys, power tools, lawn mowers and navigational and medical instruments. The stewardship 

program will take a staged approach to targeting all 200 products. Table 6.3 lists the products designated 

under the Ontario legislation. Some of these products within the IT equipment, telecommunications 



equipment and AV equipment categories contain secondary batteries. Many of these products can also 

be powered by primary consumer batteries. All of these batteries would require proper end of life 

management under the new stewardship program. 

Priority Categories 

Table 6.3: Products Targetted Under Ontario WEEE Legislation 

Household Appliances • Air conditioners 

• Clothes dryers 

• Clothes washers 

• Dishwashing machines 

IT Equipment • CD-ROM and disk drives 

• Computers (desktop, handheld, laptop, 

notebook, notepad) 

• Monitors (CRT, LCD, plasma) 

Telecommunications equipment • Fax/telephone answering machine 

• Modems 

Audio-Visual Equipment • Sound equipment 

• Cameras 

List of WEEE Products 

• Freezers 

• Refrigerators 

• Stove 

• PDAs 

• Keyboard, mouse, terminals 

• Printers, copiers, typewriters 

• Pagers 

• Telephones (cell, cordless, wire) 

• Televisions 

• Video player, projector, recorder 

In the spring of 2005, an Ontario WEEE working group comprised of industry and consumer stakeholder 

groups worked with a consulting team to develop a Baseline Study on WEEE in Ontario. The study was 

submitted to the Minister of Environment on July 20, 2005. The WEEE program was announced in April 

2006, and will initially target computers and related equipment, as well as cellphones. 

Saskatchewan’s Waste Electronic Equipment Regulation 

The province of Saskatchewan passed a regulation requesting an industry-led product stewardship 

approach for end-of-life electronics on 21st October, 2005. The regulation designates electronic 

equipment including personal computers, laptops, computer monitors, peripherals, and televisions for 

collection and recycling. A schedule has been developed for the phased in management of designated 

electronics. 

The regulation requires that a product management program have the following elements before 

receiving Minister approval: 

(a) contains details of the management structure of the program; 

(b) provides details respecting: 

(i) the creation of an advisory committee to the operator of the product management program; 

(ii) the role of the advisory committee in relation to the operation of the program; and 

(iii) the manner in which Saskatchewan interests will be represented on the advisory 

committee; and 

(c) provides details respecting: 

(i) how waste electronic equipment will be collected in all areas of Saskatchewan; 

(ii) recycling options for waste electronic equipment, listed in descending order of preference; 

(iii) the policies and procedures to be followed by any person processing waste electronic 

equipment collected pursuant to the program; 

(iv) how the program will be funded; 

(v) the quality control and assurance aspects of the program, including tracking and auditing 

mechanisms; and 

(vi) the public education or public awareness and communication strategy for the program 



Electronics Product Stewardship Canada (EPSC), which is taking the lead in developing a program, has 

established an advisory committee consisting of key stakeholders. The advisory committee has issued a 

bidder's request document for the management and administrative services for the proposed program 

and submitted a stewardship proposal as of February 1, 2006 as the regulation requires. 

British Columbia’s Recycling Regulation Targets Electronics 

In October 2005, BC Environment Minister Barry Penner released an Intentions Paper on the regulation 

of end-of-life electronics and the requirement for an industry-led stewardship approach. On February 16, 

2006, the province amended and released their Recycling Regulation, including the addition of a new 

schedule designating electronics for product stewardship. The BC government anticipates having a 

program in place by 2007. 

Manitoba Considers Electronic Waste Program 

Manitoba has created a new entity known as Green Manitoba to manage stewardship program 

development in the province. The Manitoba Government removed electronics from its Household 

Hazardous Waste Regulation and has established a separate stewardship regulation for managing 

electronic waste. The general principles governing the development of product stewardship plans states 

that the cost of managing designated wastes should be borne by the producers and users of the product 

or package and not the taxpayers. The province is in the very early stages of program planning and set 

up a consultation meeting with affected stakeholders in October 2005. It is still attempting to identify 

targeted electronic wastes. 

Quebec, Nova Scotia and other Maritime provinces are all exploring or developing similar stewardship 

programs for electronic products. The consumer batteries contained within these products 

(predominantly laptop computers) will be managed as part of the stewardship programs. 

6.2 United States 

In the United States, battery management is driven by the hazardous components in the batteries rather 

than the battery type. For this reason, this section is divided into three components: mercury, nickelcadmium 

and lithium. 

Mercury – Since the early 1990s, states and the federal government have taken steps to eliminate or 

significantly reduce mercury use in primary batteries. The threat of legislation restricting mercury use in 

primary batteries encouraged the battery industry to take early action to eliminate mercury in alkaline 

(ZnMnO2) (with the exception of alkaline manganese button cell batteries) and zinc carbon (ZnC) 

batteries. 66 Consequently, these batteries have been mercury free since 1993. The 1996 Mercury- 

Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act (better known as the Battery Act), Title II, 

prohibited the sale of alkaline-manganese and zinc-carbon batteries containing intentionally introduced 

mercury and restricted the use of mercury in alkaline-manganese button cell batteries to concentrations of 

25 milligrams or less. Title II also prohibited the sale of button cell mercuric-oxide batteries and 

conditioned the sale of other mercuric-oxide batteries. 67 

According to an industry trade association, most batteries made and sold in the United States do not 

contain mercury and consequently the amount of mercury in the municipal waste stream attributed to 

batteries has decreased significantly. Since 1996, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association 

(NEMA) has tracked discarded alkaline batteries in three counties: Camden County, New Jersey; 

Hennepin County, Minnesota; and Lee County, Florida. Since 2002, the percentage of mercury free 

alkaline batteries discarded by consumers ranged from 93-98.7%. The number of mercury containing 

batteries continues to decline every year. NEMA estimates the average level of mercury from alkaline 

66 

The industry had been reducing the use of mercury through technological improvements already. This legislation was developed 

in cooperation with industry. 

67 

Since 1993, battery manufacturers in the US, Europe and Japan claim that they have manufactured only mercury free alkaline 

batteries. 



batteries will continue to decline by about 50% every two years, with most out of the waste stream by 

2010. 68 

Most US States permit alkaline batteries (purchased after 1993) to be placed in the garbage and only a 

handful ban mercuric oxide (HgO) batteries from disposal (see Table 6.4). Mercury found in batteries is 

primarily limited to button cell batteries. Zinc air (ZnO2) button cell batteries account for 86% of mercury 

used in the manufacturing of batteries in the United States. Batteries represent an estimated 2% of 

mercury consumption in the manufacturing process in the United States 69 . No state currently bans the 

disposal of button cell batteries and there are no state sponsored programs to collect them. 70 

Table 6.4: Mercury Content of Button Batteries Sold By US Manufacturers In 2002 

Battery Technology Average Mercury Content Total Amount of Mercury % of total 

Zinc Air (ZnO2) 8.5 4,540.3 86% 

Silver Oxide (AgO) 2.5 473.6 9% 

Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 10.8 269.6 5% 

Total 5,283.5 100% 

Source: Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005 

A handful of States have enacted legislation prohibiting the sale of novelty items (including toys) 

containing mercury including Connecticut, Illinois, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and 

Washington State. The State of Connecticut requires collection systems for the mercury containing 

products, including button cell batteries, to be in place as a prerequisite to selling these products in the 

State. Most States including the State of Indiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Rhode Island 71 , New York, 

Vermont, and Washington exempt button cell batteries from the definition of mercury containing novelty 

items. 

As a result of the reduced levels of mercury in batteries, many states have begun to redirect their interest 

away from batteries and toward other mercury containing devices such as thermostats and thermometers. 

In March 2006, the US battery industry announced an initiative to eliminate added mercury in button cell 

batteries by June 30, 2011 and “participating organizations will devote resources to resolve 

manufacturing challenges and to continue to advance emerging technologies”. 72 

Nickel-Cadmium - The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has identified nickel 

cadmium (NiCd) batteries as the largest source of cadmium in the municipal solid waste stream. To 

address these concerns, the 1996 Battery Act established national, uniform labeling requirements for 

nickel cadmium (NiCd) and other regulated batteries 73 to facilitate the increased collection and recycling 

of these batteries. State governments can not implement and enforce any labeling requirement that is 

less stringent than that in the Battery Act. 

About the same time, the EPA introduced the Universal Waste Rule in May 1995 to target deleterious 

hazardous wastes, including nickel cadmium (NiCd) and small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries, in the 

municipal waste stream and encourage recycling and proper management of targeted wastes. The 

Universal Waste Rule streamlined a number of RCRA hazardous waste collection, storage, and 

transportation requirements for designated materials, making it easier to collect and recycle them. For 

68 

National Electrical Manufacturers Association. July 2004 Summary Report of Analyses of Mercury from Consumer Batteries 

in the Waste Stream. 

69 

Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries. 

70 

Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries. 

71 

A bill has been introduced in Rhode Island to eliminate the exemption on the ban of mercury containing batteries from novelty 

products 

72 

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 2, 2006. NEMA Announces Battery Industry Commitment to 

Eliminate Mercury in Button Cells 

73 

“Other regulated batteries” refers to certain SSLA and, in the future, other rechargeable batteries or battery packs if US EPA 

decides to add them to the list. 



example, the rule extends the amount of time that businesses can accumulate these materials on site. It 

also allows companies to transport them with a common carrier, instead of a hazardous waste 

transporter, and no longer requires companies to obtain a manifest. 

In anticipation of pending legislation in the US, the nickel cadmium (NiCd) industry established the 

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation in 1994 to implement a voluntary take-back program (see 

Section 3 for more details about the RBRC program). With the introduction of the Universal Waste Rule, 

the RBRC was able to launch its voluntary nickel cadmium (NiCd) and small sealed lead acid (SSLA) 

collection program throughout the United States and Canada. 

Most States rely on the voluntary collection program to manage nickel cadmium (NiCd) and other 

rechargeable batteries and have introduced no other legislation or program to manage these batteries. 

Eight States have introduced disposal bans on nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries: Florida, Iowa, Maine, 

Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, Vermont, and California 

Nickel metal hydride, Lithium and others - Other batteries, such as nickel metal hydride (NiMH), 

lithium-ion (Li-ion) or lithium polymer (Li-polymer), are not on the radar screen for State agencies (with the 

exception of the State of California and New Jersey) for two reasons. Firstly, they are generally not 

considered to be hazardous (toxic or reactive) under RCRA, although the lithium batteries can be 

hazardous by virtue of being reactive when not fully discharged. 74 Secondly, the high demand for cobalt 

in the lithium batteries and nickel in the nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries is acting as a strong 

economic driver for industry to maximize recovery. 75 

Table 6.5 summarizes legislation to manage battery waste in leading-edge US states. 

74 Input provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, February 2006 

75 Communications with John Price, Florida Bureau of Solid and Hazardous Waste, August 26, 2005 



Table 6.5: Legislation Affecting Battery Management in US States 

State Mercury containing batteries NiCd Other 

California Banned from disposal Banned from disposal All batteries (primary and secondary) are 

considered hazardous waste when they 

are discarded. 

After February 8, 2006, all batteries 

must be recycled or taken to a 

household hazardous waste facility, a 

universal waste handler (e.g. storage 

facility or broker) or an authorized 

recycling facility 

Connecticut Requires collection of button cell 

batteries 

Florida Bans from disposal above set limit 

State approved collection program for 

mercuric oxide batteries required 

Municipalities to recycle NiCd within 3 

months of service becoming available at 

processing centre 

Bans from disposal 

State approved collection programs 

required 

Iowa Disposal ban and mandatory collection 

for NiCds 

Maine Sales ban on novelties with batteries 

containing mercury 

Ban on button cell batteries in 2007 

Disposal ban and mandatory collection 

requirements 

Maryland Disposal ban and requires NiCd industry 

to establish recycling plan 

Minnesota Disposal ban on mercury containing and 

silver oxide batteries 

Bill introduced to exempt button cell 

batteries from collection requirements 

Bans all rechargeable batteries from 

disposal 

Consumers must be informed about 

recycling and battery must be labeled 

properly 

Disposal bans and mandatory collection 

for SSLAs 

Ban on disposal Responsibility of manufacturer to collect 

designated batteries 

New Hampshire Ban on disposal Requires incinerators to pre-sort 

products containing mercury 

New Jersey Ban on disposal Includes SSLA 

Requires counties to prepare HHW 

plans that include collection of batteries 

New York Ban on mercury containing products 

from incineration 

Rhode Island Ban on disposal Environmentally sound management 

recommended 

Vermont Collection and recycling of mercury 

containing batteries required 

Ban on disposal 

Sources: USEPA Safe Mercury Management Legislation and Regulations 

Raymond Communications Inc. 2005 Battery Recovery Laws World-wide, Update Edition. 

State Legislation sites 

National Electrical Manufacturers Association: mercury - http://www.nema.org/gov/env_conscious_design/mercury/ 

6.2.1 State Leaders in Legislation and/or Programs Targeting Batteries 

Maine 

Maine has enacted a ban on nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries and mandatory collection requirements. 

Maine also enacted legislation in 2004 requiring the review of the sale of mercury containing batteries, 

especially button cell batteries. The legislation directed Department of the Environmental Protection to 

assess: 

• the need for a collection program targeting button cell batteries; 

• labeling requirements; 

• whether button cell batteries should be prohibited in novelty items and other uses and 

• the availability of alternative non-mercury button cell batteries. 



Since then, the State has introduced several bills that would ban products containing mercury batteries 

that are designed for children and require a disposal fee for batteries containing mercury. 

The bill - LD 1058 (SP 375)- An Act To Regulate the Use of Batteries Containing Mercury was enacted 

into Public Law March 27, 2006. Effective January 1, 2007, no person is permitted to dispose of button 

cell batteries in a solid waste disposal facility and the bill requires that such batteries be packaged with 

information regarding proper disposal. This bill also bans, after January 1, 2007, the sale of novelties that 

contain batteries that contain mercury, such as light-up games, cards and adornments. The wording of 

the Act is presented below: 

Sec. 1. 38 MRSA §1611 is enacted to read: 

§1611.__Button cell batteries 

LD 1058 (SP 375)- 

"An Act to Regulate the Use of Batteries Containing Mercury" 

1. Button cell battery defined.__For the purposes of this section, "button cell battery" means a tiny, circular battery that 

contains mercuric oxide and that is made for microelectronic applications, including, but not limited to, watches. 

2. Label required.__A button cell battery must bear an appropriate identification mark and must be packaged with 

information regarding proper disposal in accordance with this section. 

3. Disposal.__Beginning January 1, 2007, a person may not dispose of a button cell battery in a solid waste disposal 

facility or by burial, incineration, deposit or dumping so that the battery or any of its constituents may enter the 

environment or be emitted into the air or discharged into any waters. 

4. Button cell battery retailers._A person selling or offering for retail sale button cell batteries must accept, at the point of 

transfer, used button cell batteries in reasonably clean and unbroken condition from customers. 

5. Violations.__A person that violates this section commits a civil violation subject to section 349. 

Sec. 2. 38 MRSA §1661, sub-§1, D and E, as repealed and replaced by PL2001, c. 656, §1, are amended to read: 

D. An electric relay or other electrical device; and 

E. A lamp.; and 

Sec. 3. 38 MRSA §1661, sub-§1, F is enacted to read: 

F.__A novelty with a battery that contains mercury. 

Sec. 4. 38 MRSA §1661, sub-§6 is enacted to read: 

6. Novelty.__"Novelty" means a product intended mainly for personal or household enjoyment or adornment.__"Novelty" 

includes, but is not limited to, items intended for use as practical jokes, figurines, adornments, toys, games, cards, 

ornaments, yard statues and figures, candles, jewelry, holiday decorations and items of apparel. 

California 

California considers batteries hazardous and has listed them in its Universal Waste Rule (with the 

exception of lead-acid batteries) which prohibits all listed waste from being discarded into the municipal 

solid waste stream. Most batteries have failed California’s leachate/toxicity tests, which are more 

stringent than RCRA. Until February 8, 2006 households and conditionally exempt small quantity 

generators (SQG) were exempt from the Universal Rule. After this date, they were be prohibited from 

disposing batteries in the waste stream. 

In October 2005, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Bill 1125, referred as the 

Rechargeable Battery Act of 2006 (written with the assistance of the household battery industry and 

specifically, the RBRC), requiring specific retailers who sell rechargeable batteries, including those used 

in power tools and laptop computers, to take back the battery at no cost to the consumer by July 1 st , 

2006. The law exempts stores that primarily sell food and retailers with annual gross sales of less than $1 



million. Retailers can use existing take-back programs such as the one the Rechargeable Battery 

Recycling Corp. offers. 76 

Furthermore, the legislation requires the Department of Toxic Substances Control to annually survey 

battery handling and recycling operations on or before July 1 of each year. The department will use the 

information to determine the estimated amount by weight of each type of rechargeable batteries returned. 

Florida 

Under Florida law, it is illegal to discard nickel cadmium (NiCd) or small sealed lead acid (SSLA) or other 

rechargeable batteries or products containing such rechargeable batteries in the municipal waste stream. 

The batteries must be recycled or sent to a facility permitted to dispose of those batteries. This prohibition 

applies to every resident as well as every business, institutional, government, industrial, commercial, 

communications or medical facility in the state. The state requires that manufacturers and marketers of 

designated rechargeable batteries provide recycling programs by establishing their own program or 

participating in RBRC’s collection program. As a result of this initiative, the State of Florida estimates that 

nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries were being recycled at a rate of 13% in 2000 and between 20-30% in 

2004 (primarily through the RBRC program). 77 

While mercury containing batteries were targeted as a high priority product in the early 1990s due to the 

mercury content, the State of Florida has decided that recent initiatives to eliminate mercury in batteries 

have made batteries safe for disposal. In its 2001-2002 Solid Waste Management Report, the State 

estimated that mercury in the Florida municipal solid waste stream has declined from an estimated 12 

tons in 1995 to 5.5 tons in 2000, with the biggest reduction resulting from batteries. The State of Florida is 

no longer focusing on mercury batteries as a hazardous material requiring management. It is now 

directing its attention toward fluorescent lamps, thermostats and thermometers. 

US Municipality Battery Initiatives 

City of San Francisco 

In June 2005, the City of San Francisco became the first city in the United States to adopt a green 

product procurement law. The city’s Precautionary Purchasing Ordinance (Ord. No. 115-05) requires city 

personnel to purchase environmentally preferred products including rechargeable batteries. The city will 

use full-cost accounting to evaluate alternative products. The section specifically dealing with batteries is 

provided below. 

76 Waste News, October 17, 2005. New Californian Law Requires Retailers to Take Back Rechargeable Batteries 

77 Communication with Amy Roering, Environmental Services, Hennepin County, August 31, 2005 



San Francisco’s Precautionary Purchasing Ordinance (Ord. No. 115-05) 

C. BATTERIES (Formerly Environment Code §512) 

1. Definitions 

(a) “Battery” means two or more connected cells that produce a direct current by converting chemical energy to electrical energy. For 

purposes of this regulation, “battery” does not include automotive batteries. 

(b) “Battery charger” means a device that restores anew the active materials in a battery. 

(c) “Battery pack” means multiple batteries joined together in a single housing. 

2. A City department that purchases or contracts to purchase batteries or products that include or incorporate battery or battery packs, 

shall purchase and contract to purchase: 

(a) only the following types of batteries and battery packs which are deemed to be on the Approved Alternatives List for batteries and 

battery packs 

(i) Rechargeable alkaline batteries 

(ii) Rechargeable nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, or 

(iii) Another rechargeable battery type identified by the Director pursuant to regulations adopted under Section 203(d) of the Environment 

Code. 

(b) only from vendors that collect spent batteries and recycle them in accordance with applicable laws: 

3. At the request of the City department, a vendor must submit written certification and documentation that collected spent batteries were 

recycled in accordance with applicable laws. 

4. A City department that purchases or contracts to purchase battery chargers shall purchase and contract to purchase chargers that 

recharge NiMH batteries as well as other battery types. 

5. Each department that purchases batteries must require in the contract that the products be accompanied by detailed recycling 

instructions and any batteries containing cadmium, mercury, lead, or other hazardous materials include a written explanation of the toxic 

hazards of these substances in the waste stream. 

6. A City department that purchases or contracts to purchase products that include or incorporate battery packs shall purchase and 

contract to purchase such products in which the batteries are easily removable. 

Hennepin County 

The State of Minnesota prohibits nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries from being discarded in the waste 

stream. In response, Hennepin County provides collection containers at approximately 100 sites (i.e. 

retailers, libraries, municipal buildings) for citizens to recycle their batteries. The County also relies on 

RBRC to augment collection. Hennepin County also targets button cell batteries in its collection program. 

While the County keeps detailed records on the types and amounts of batteries collected, it does not 

keep track of the types and amounts sold for comparison. 

New York City 

The Mayor of New York City recently enacted legislation requiring stores to accept rechargeable batteries 

for recycling. The law (written with the assistance of the household battery industry and specifically, the 

RBRC) requires retailers selling rechargeable batteries in the city to accept them back from consumers 

even if they were not purchased at their store. Retailers also must post a sign at the store 

entrance notifying customers that they are required to recycle rechargeable batteries and that the store is 

a collection point. Rechargeable battery manufacturers must submit a plan to the city that identifies how 

they will collect the batteries from retailers and recycle them. 78 

78 Waste Age, Dec 5, 2005. NYC to require stores to accept rechargeable batteries for recycling 


6.3 Europe 


For the past decade, Europe has assumed a leadership role in the management of primary and 

secondary batteries (referred to as portable batteries in Europe). Battery management is prescribed by 

the European Union through a series of directives beginning with the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on 

Batteries and Accumulators containing certain dangerous substances, adopted March 1991 and followed 

by two amended versions. The purpose of the directives is to establish measures for proper recovery, 

treatment and disposal of waste batteries and restrict the sale of designated batteries throughout the 

European Union. 

The requirements set out in the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on Batteries and Accumulators applies to 

batteries containing more than a specified amount of mercury, cadmium or lead and placed bans on the 

specific batteries containing mercury beginning January 1 st , 1993. It also stipulates the need for 

collection and recycling of hazardous batteries and markings indicating separate collection, heavy metal 

content and recycling where applicable. The Directive requires member states to prepare four year 

programs to gradually reduce household spent batteries. 79 

The 1991 Battery Directive was amended in October 1993 to provide specifics on a marking system 

required in the 1991 Battery Directive. The Council Directive 93/86/EEC requires that all batteries sold in 

the European Union after January 1, 1994 must be marked with a logo showing special collection 

requirements and heavy metal content. 80 

The 1991 Battery Directive was amended a second time in December 1998 to limit mercury content of 

batteries sold into the European market. The Council Directive 98/101/EEC required member states to 

ban by January 1, 2000 batteries and accumulators containing more than 5 ppm of mercury by weight 

(including batteries used in appliances) and button cell batteries containing more than 2% of mercury by 

weight. It exempts button cell batteries containing less than 2% of mercury by weight. Furthermore, 

member states were required to adopt and publish, before 1st January 2000, the provisions necessary to 

comply with the Directive. 

Member countries have been left with the responsibility to establish collection programs, resulting in the 

implementation of a wide array of different collection programs targeting different battery types, resulting 

in different recovery levels. For example, Austria, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden have 

introduced battery legislation that is more stringent than the EU Directive and twelve countries require 

retailers to take back batteries at the point of sale, with the collection costs funded by a fee on 

manufacturer battery sales. Table 6.6 summarizes the different battery collection programs implemented 

throughout Europe. 

79 Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. Battery Recovery Laws World-wide, Update Edition 

80 European Commission. October 4,1993. European Commission Directive 93/86/EEC on batteries and accumulators 

containing certain dangerous substances at http://www.epbaeurope.net/Legislation/9386EEC.htm 


Country Year of Legislation Recovery 

Target 

Austria 1991 

Federal Ordinance on 

Batteries 

Belgium 1996 

Royal Order on Batteries 

Denmark 1993 

Bill for Duty on Lead 

Accumulators and 

Hermetically Seals Nickel 

Cadmium Accumulators 

France 1999 

Decree Relating to the 

Marketing of Batteries and 

Accumulators and to Their 

Disposal 

Germany 1998 

German Ordinance on the 

Return and Disposal of Used 

Batteries and Accumulators 

Italy 1997 

Regulation Conveying the 

Rules for the Incorporation of 

Directives 91/157/EEC and 

93/68/EEC on Batteries and 

Accumulators Containing 

Dangerous Substances 

Netherlands 1995 

The Battery Disposal Decree 

Norway 1994 

Regulations Concerning 

Changes in the Regulation on 

Batteries 

Portugal 2001 

Legal Regime Governing 

Management of Batteries and 

Accumulators and 

Management of Used 

Batteries and Accumulators 

Sweden 1997 

Battery Ordinance 

Switzerland 1996 

Order Regulating Materials 

Harmful to the Environment 


Table 6.6: European Member State National Battery Programs 

Batteries Targetted for Collection and 

Recycling 

All batteries 

(beyond EU Battery 

Directive 

19/157/EEC 

requirements) 

Batteries required 

under EU Battery 

Directive 

19/157/EEC 

(Hg, NiCd, Pb) 

Collection 

Responsibility 

none √ Municipalities & 

retailers 

Economic 

Instrument 

By weight 

75% √ Industry Levy per unit 

75% √ Municipalities Levy per unit 

none √ Retailers By weight and 

type 

none √ Municipalities & 

retailers 

By weight and 

type 

none √ varies Voluntary by 

weight 

95% √ Municipalities By weight and 

type 

80% + NiMH + Li-ion Industry and 

retailers 

25% √ Municipalities & 

retailers 

none √ Municipalities Levy 

80% √ Municipalities & 

retailers 


Levy 

Deposit if 

recovery rates 

not met 

Sources: European Commission. April 2002. Importing Batteries in EU Member States, EU Commission’s Safety Awareness 

Facts and Tool (SAFT) 

European Portable Battery Association, June 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9 th 

International Congress for Battery Recycling, June 2-4, 2004 

Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. Battery Recovery Laws World-wide, Update Edition


It is estimated that the existing Batteries Directives cover an estimated 7% of all portable (primary and 

secondary) batteries placed on the EU market annually. Furthermore, the Commission estimates that in 

2002, 45.5% of all portable batteries sold in the EU went to final disposal, with significant environmental 

concern linked to the materials they contain, particularly mercury, cadmium and lead. 

In response to the fractured approach by member states to address the Battery Directive, the EU has 

proposed a more stringent Battery Directive, published March 18, 2005, which is currently under 

negotiation. The EU Government anticipates that the Directive will be adopted by mid 2006. If approved, 

the new Directive will replace the Directive 91/157/EEC. Member states will have 24 months to bring into 

force the laws, regulations and administrative provisions necessary to comply with the Directive. 81 

The new Battery Directive will aim to maximize the separate collection and recycling of spent batteries 

and accumulators, and to reduce the disposal of batteries and accumulators in the municipal waste 

stream. The directive proposes the following measures: 

• to ban the landfilling or incineration of all automotive and industrial batteries; 

• to set up national collection systems, allowing consumers to return their spent batteries free of 

charge; 

• to set a collection target for consumer batteries of 160g per inhabitant per year (corresponding to 

4-5 portable batteries per person per year); 

• to set a collection target of 80% for nickel cadmium (NiCd) consumer batteries (NiCd batteries 

used in power tools exempt and reviewed in four years, also emergency and medical equipment 

exempt); 

• to set recycling targets of 65% by weight for lead-acid batteries, 75% for nickel cadmium (NiCd) 

batteries and 55% for all other batteries; 

• producers to be made responsible for costs related to collection, treatment and recycling; 

• producers to be allowed to use a 'visible fee' for a maximum of five years after implementation. 

The battery industry ‘s response to the proposed recycling targets has varied. Responses include: 

• The European Battery Recycling Association (EBRA) urges the Commission not to delay the 

legislation any longer. The EBRA warns of a "serious risk" of their know-how disappearing and 

investment in recycling capacity drying up without legislative backing. It wants mandatory targets 

of 75 percent for each type of portable battery, and 95 percent for industrial and automotive 

batteries, to be achieved within 5 years by each Member State. Targets should be expressed in 

terms of battery weight arising for disposal each year. 82 

• To minimize adverse environmental impacts the EBRA advocates collection of batteries with 

other recyclable wastes, such as WEEE, packaging or glass, where possible and feasible. 83 

• The European Environmental Bureau (EEB) and Greenpeace congratulated the Parliament for 

resisting industry pressure not to ban nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries. "Taking action at source 

to substitute the most dangerous chemicals, such as lead, mercury and cadmium, is by far the 

best way to protect our environment and health," the two said in a joint statement. 84 

• The U.S. power tool makers are in Europe, arguing that it will be impossible to maintain a 

recycling infrastructure on a battery that is slated for extinction. Experts on both sides are offering 

proof of whether the nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries can be effectively replaced by alternatives 

by 2008 - and there are rumours that the Commission is leaning towards giving up the ban if they 

can impose deposits on batteries to ensure high recovery targets. No country has been able to 

81 

United Kingdom Government website at http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/legislation/380525/389181/?lang=_e 

82 

EurActive. April 28, 2004. Environment. Battery Directive at http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-117445- 

16&type=LinksDossier 

83 

European Portable Battery Association. 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9th International 

Congress for Battery Recycling, June 2-4, 2004 

84 

EurActive. April 28, 2004. Environment. Battery Directive at t http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-117445- 




recycle more than about half of its nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries in separate programs - and 

the cost can be high. 85 

• The American Chamber of Commerce in Belgium reacted to the Commission's proposals by 

saying that a ban on cadmium would infringe on free trade agreements with the US. It considers 

that the most appropriate end-of-life management solution is a coherent and efficient mandatory 

collection and recycling program for spent NiCd batteries. 86 

• In the UK, DEFRA – and its delivery organization WRAP – launched a trial involving local 

authorities and the community sector, to collect batteries from over 350,000 households. The trial 

was funded by the BREW (Business Resource Efficiency and Waste) initiative, which was 

established to help UK businesses cope with the increasing Landfill Tax. The Department has 

explained that although the trial will collect batteries from households, it will ultimately benefit 

businesses, because it will ease the transition towards producer responsibility for waste batteries, 

being brought in by the EU Battery Directive 87 . 

Members of the European Parliament have approved the first reading of the proposed Battery Directive 

and it is expected to be approved in the spring of 2006. 

6.3.1 WEEE and RoHS Directives 

Two Directives have been enacted in Europe to manage the manufacturing of electronic products (the 

RoHS Directive) and the discard of waste electronics (the WEEE Directive). The impact of these 

Directives on battery production and management is explored below. 

Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and 

Electronic Products (RoHS Directive) 

Enacted in February 2003, the RoHS Directive requires European Union member states to eliminate six 

hazardous substances from the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment by placing a ban on 

their incorporation in electronic and electrical equipement beginning July 1, 2006. The six specified 

substances include cadmium, hexavalent chromium, lead, mercury, poly-brominated biphenyls and 

polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Some exemptions apply. 

Despite the targeting of hazardous substances found in batteries (i.e. chromium, lead and mercury), the 

RoHS Directive does not apply to batteries but refers to the Battery Directive for management or use of 

these hazardous substances. 

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) 

The WEEE Directive takes a stewardship approach by requiring manufacturers and importers 

("producers") of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) to provide collection opportunities to 

consumers and cover the costs of the collection, treatment and recovery of WEEE. Each member state is 

responsible for developing regulations to ensure recovery of WEEE. The EEE products covered under 

the WEEE Directive include: 

• Large household appliances 

• Small household appliances 

• IT and telecommunications equipment 

• Consumer equipment 

• Lighting equipment 

• Electrical and electronic tools (with the exception of large-scale stationary industrial tools) 

• Toys, leisure and sports equipment 

• Medical devices (with the exception of all implanted and infected products) 

85 

American Recycler. No date. Battery Makers Battle Over Cadmium at http://www.americanrecycler.com/08battery.html 

86 

EurActive. April 28, 2004. Environment. Battery Directive at t http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-117445- 


87 

URL: http://www.letsrecycle.com/legislation/news.jsp?story=5349 


• Monitoring and control instruments 

• Automatic dispensers 


The WEEE Directive was to take effect August 13 2005 requiring member states to enact legislation 

ensuring that producers cover the costs of collection, treatment, recovery and sound disposal of 

designated WEEE. However, in some countries implementation has been delayed resulting in the WEEE 

deadline being extended until June 2006 (with the labeling requirement deadline still August 13, 2005). 

Both member states and producers must meet the recovery targets by December 31, 2006. 

The WEEE Directive requires that any WEEE product containing batteries must have the batteries 

removed prior to recycling of WEEE products and defers to the Battery Directive for proper management 

of the spent batteries stating:’ 

“This Directive should cover all electrical and electronic equipment used by consumers and electrical and 

electronic equipment intended for professional use. This Directive should apply without prejudice to Community 

legislation on safety and health requirements protecting all actors in contact with WEEE as well as specific 

Community waste management legislation, in particular Council Directive 91/157/EEC of 18 March 1991 on 

batteries and accumulators containing certain dangerous substances (1).” 88 

6.4 Japan 

Japan has enacted two measures to manage rechargeable (secondary) batteries. In April 2001 the Law 

to Promote the Efficient Usage of Resources was enacted requiring all manufacturers and importers of 

rechargeable batteries and equipment using rechargeable batteries to establish collection and recycling 

systems for the batteries. The following recycling targets for designated batteries were established for 

2003: 

• Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries – 60% recycling target 

• Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries – 55% recycling target 

• Lithium-ion (Li-Ion) batteries – 30% recycling target 

• Small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries – 50% recycling target. 

The Battery Association of Japan's (BAJ) Center to Promote Rechargeable Battery Recycling promotes 

the collection and recycling of batteries. Consumers can bring end of life rechargeable batteries, free of 

charge to retailers who sell batteries and cooperate in the recycling of rechargeable batteries. There are 

an estimated 30,000 sites in Japan. Industry is responsible for the collection and recycling costs. 

In addition to the collection and recycling requirements, the Japanese government established a stringent 

labeling system for rechargeable batteries using a colour coding and marking system to help facilitate 

recycling and sorting of the batteries. The labeling system being promoted by the Battery Association of 

Japan is shown below: 89 

88 European Commission. January 2003. DIRECTIVE 2002/96/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 

27 January 2003 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) 

89 Battery Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.html 


6.5 Taiwan 


The Taiwanese the Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) has announced that from September 

2006, the manufacture, importation and sale of zinc manganese and non-button cell alkaline manganese 

batteries with a mercury content exceeding 5 parts per million (ppm) is to be prohibited in Taiwan. 

Anyone found manufacturing or importing non-compliant batteries will be subject to fines ranging from 

NT$60,000 (US$1,847) to NT$300,000 (US$9,200). Tests carried out in 2005 by the Taiwanese EPA 

showed that the mercury levels of around 10 percent of dry cell batteries on the market exceeded 5 ppm, 

and that some batteries imported from China had mercury levels as high as 848 times that level. The EPA 

estimates that 1.47 percent of batteries on the market, or 117 tonnes annually, have an excessively high 

mercury content 90 . 

90 URL: http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2006/03/09/2003296466 



7. Issues and Trends in Product and Battery Design 

7.1 Issues 

Battery manufacturers today face a number of challenging issues such as counterfeit battery 

manufacturing and increasing demand for longer lasting batteries. 

Demand for Longer Life Batteries 

As more products and devices require portable power and at the same time become more complex, 

offering more and more features, the demand for power increases. With every new feature added to a 

cell phone, laptop computer, digital music player, portable video game player, etc. more energy is 

required. The demand for energy from the new wireless generation of devices is insatiable. For example, 

with cell phones now offering additional wireless features that enable the user to take and send pictures, 

download music, send emails, search the internet, etc. the demand for longer lasting battery packs is 

significant. Under these high energy demand circumstances, a cell phone battery will last only a few 

hours. 

Since the first battery prototype developed in the late 19 th century, the basic battery design has not 

changed significantly; only the chemistries have evolved. Introduction of new chemistry composition, 

such as lithium ion, has improved battery life but has not solved the demand. In fact, for most batteries, it 

is believed that they have been optimized to reach their maximum output and lifespan. This especially 

applies to primary batteries and nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries. Conventional batteries are falling 

behind the demand for more battery “juice”. It does not appear, however, that the lithium-ion battery has 

reached its maximum charge limit. Recent announcements by Sony and Matsushita (which makes 

Panasonic batteries) claim to have improved the life of the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery by up to 30%. 91 

Other innovations to increase battery life are explored in Section 7.3 – Trends. 

Counterfeit Battery Concerns 

North American and Japanese multi-national battery manufacturers are facing an increasing prevalence 

of counterfeit batteries entering the marketplace, particularly in battery packs but also primary batteries. 

Counterfeit batteries pose human health and environmental concerns. National Electrical Manufacturers 

Association (NEMA) has stated that “Counterfeit products are products designed to mislead consumers 

into thinking they are purchasing a good quality branded product. When poorly constructed, these 

counterfeit products are prone to leakage of electrolyte. Battery electrolytes are potentially harmful to 

body tissues and reputable battery makers take great care to design products where leakage is 

essentially prevented. Battery electrolyte is also potentially harmful to the circuitry in devices”. 92 

Furthermore, some counterfeit primary batteries (i.e. alkaline and carbon zinc) have been found to 

contain mercury levels above the legislated thresholds in the US and Europe. 

In addition, if the counterfeit battery does not contain a venting system, there may be pressure build up 

which could result in an explosion. This situation is more of a concern with lithium-ion and lithium polymer 

batteries and has become the number one concern of battery manufacturers after a growing number of 

accidents were reported over the past couple of years. 93 

In response, some larger battery manufacturers have begun to introduce measurers to combat counterfeit 

batteries. In the case of Nokia, it announced plans to mark its batteries with a holographic label. In other 

91 

Toronto Star. Monday October 24, 2005. The Charge Towards Better Batteries 

92 

National Electrical Manufacturers Association. May 2004. Dry Battery Anti-Counterfeit White Paper at 

http://www.nema.org/prod/elec/drybat/upload/dry-bat-anticounterfeit.doc 

93 

Shepard, Jeff. March 3, 2005. Batteries buffeted by demands for more safety. EDN Voice of Electrical Engineers. v50 i5 

pP17(3) 



cases, product manufacturers, such as cell phone manufacturers, are programming the chips to 

recognize only legitimate battery packs. 94 

The Canadian Household Battery Association (CHBA) has an on-going request to the Government of 

Canada to provide assistance by developing appropriate legislation targeting counterfeit batteries. 

In March 2006, the US Government passed the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act which 

amends the US criminal code prohibiting trafficking of counterfeit goods. The National Electrical 

Manufacturers Association spent the better part of three years pushing for the legislation. The bill, 

“recognizes that the import and export trade involving counterfeit products is criminally culpable conduct 

and that bartering or even free transactions in counterfeit goods can lead to liability”. 95 

7.2 Market Share Trends 

The demand for batteries is on an upward curve as the demand for new wireless devices and games 

increases. Global Strategic Analysts predict that overall Canadian battery market demand is expected to 

grow at a compounded annual rate of 7.63% to 2010. 96 Other analysts predict similar trends for the 

United States, with US overall battery demand increasing 5.9% through 2009 97 The demand for cell 

phones, digital camera and other portable electronic devices such as MP3 players will fuel much of this 

increased demand for batteries. 


While primary batteries will continue to command the largest market share overall, their rate of market 

share growth will lag behind secondary batteries. Most of the attention of market share analysts is on the 

secondary batteries and power packs which are used in many electronic devices. A 2004 study by 

Freedonia predicts that most of the demand increase will be associated with secondary batteries with 

primary batteries growing “at a below-average pace since they are generally used in more mature 

markets and have less potential for technological upgrades”. 98 Among primary battery sales, Feedonia 

estimates that consumer applications will account for more than 70% of primary battery sales to 2009 of 

which 69% of sales are for alkaline batteries, 16% for primary lithium and 15% for others (i.e. button 

batteries – zinc air). Table 7.1 summarizes primary battery market share trends. 

The market share for batteries for hearing aids is expected to grow 16% between 2000 and 2006. One 

reason cited is that the Baby Boomers are getting to a stage where they need hearing aids. In general 

the sale of button cell batteries in the United States is on the rise. This trend has been observed by the 

State of Maine which reports a three fold increase in the sale of button cell batteries from 1990 to 2002. 99 

94 Shepard, Jeff. March 3, 2005. Batteries buffeted by demands for more safety. EDN Voice of Electrical Engineers. v50 i5 

pP17(3) 

95 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 7, 2006. NEMA Praises Congressional Passage of Legislation 

on Counterfeiting 

96 Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. Consumer Batteries Report 

97 Freedonia Group, September 2005. Battery & Fuel Cell Materials to 2009 

98 Freedonia Group, November 2004, Power Supplies for Portable Products to 2008 

99 Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries 



Table 7.1: Primary Battery Market Forecast 

Chemistry Forecast Source 


Alkaline Projected to account for 69% of consumer primary battery 

sales in 2009 

The Canadian demand for alkaline batteries is projected to 

grow at a compounded annual 

rate of 7.26% to 2010 

Freedonia, May 2005 

Global Strategic Analysts, June 2004 

Primary lithium Sales are expected to grow 5.7% annually to 2009 Business Communications Company, 

Sept 2004 

Button Cell Zinc air are expected to grow from a $US 12 million market 

in 2004 to $US 26 million in 2009 

Battery Power Products & Technology, 

January 2005 


The demand for different types of secondary batteries over the next five years will increasingly shift away 

from nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries to lithium batteries, with demand for lithium ion (Li-ion), lithium 

polymer(Li-polymer) and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) experiencing the strongest rates of growth. Global 

Strategic Analysts predict that the market for lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries is likely grow at a compounded 

annual growth rate of over 32% to 2010. 100 Table 7.2 summarizes secondary battery market share 

trends. 

Also, the demand for "Second Packs" (or back-up packs) is expected to rise, as the new wireless 

technologies make the security of back-up power more important. Notebooks are expected to be the 

fastest growing power pack demand item. A recent study by the Darnell Group predicts that Li-ion 

batteries are expected to account for 70% of the market share for power packs by 2010. Li-polymer is 

expected to experience the highest growth rate at 19.3% but still remain a niche market (growth from 70 

million units in 2005 to 170 million units in 2010). The Darnell Group projects that Nickel cadmium (NiCd) 

will see sales fall 8% annually to 2010. 101 . However, data purchased for this study did not indicate this 

trend, and no confirmation of NiCd sales projections was received from the battery industry, although 

some battery OEMs have indicated that they no longer manufacture NiCd batteries. Efforts to improve 

the amount of power from the nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery will help it replace the nickel cadmium 

(NiCd) battery in power tools. 102 

Equipment 

Table 7.2: Power Pack Market Forecast 

Forecast Source 

Portable Power Packs Increase demand of 6.1% per year through 2008 Freedonia, Nov. 2004 

Growth in sales projected from 1.1 billion units in 

2005 to 1.6 billion unites in 2010 

Darnell Group, 2005 

Some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with different secondary batteries are explored in 

Table 7.3 below. 

100 Global Industry Analysts (GIA), June 2004. Consumer Batteries Report 

101 The Darnell Group. 2005. Power Packs for Portable Electronics: Global Forecasts and Competitive Environment 

102 Portable Design. Jan 2003. Batteries Continue to Evolve at their own Pace. V9 i1 pg(5) 



Table 7.3: Comparison of Portable Power Alternatives 

Nickel cadmium (NiCd) Can deliver high levels of power at a very low cost and 

recharges quickly. 

1,500 charge cycles 

Nickel metal hydride 

(NiMH) 

Advantages Disadvantages 

Supports high-discharge rates well; delivers more power for 

its size than NiCd; no memory-effect issues. 

Lithium ion (Li-ion) Combines high energy density and light weight. No memoryeffect 

issues. Same cycle life as NiMH. 

Lithium polymer (Lipolymer) 

Same characteristics as lithium ion but can be molded into 

very thin shapes. 

Reusable alkaline Discharge rate is low when not in use: 0.3% per month vs. 

10% for lithium ion and 30% for NiMH. 

Direct methanol fuel cells Long run times, which can be extended by refueling the 

device. 

Source: Cadex Electronics Inc., Richmond, British Columbia 

7.3 Trends In Battery Design 

Low energy density; suffers from memory effect that can cut 

battery life if battery isn’t maintained properly. Cadmium 

batteries are environmentally unfriendly and likely to be 

phased out. 

Lasts for 300 to 500 charge cycles vs. 1,500 for NiCd. 

Relatively expensive. Volatile chemistry requires special 

safety mechanisms and strict manufacturing controls. 

More expensive than traditional lithium ion. 

Limited to about 50 charge cycles vs. 300 to 500 for lithiumbased 

batteries. 

Still at prototype stage; mature products not expected before 

2010. Complex to build. Inefficient process generates waste 

heat; reacts too slowly to peak load demands. 

There are a number of recent advances in the chemistry and design of 

conventional batteries which will reduce toxicity and heavy metal concerns. 

For example, Energizer has developed a zero-mercury zinc air (ZnO2)battery, 

which has been introduced in Europe but not yet in North America. The 

company currently offers mercury free zinc air batteries in four models in the 

European market, but has given no timeline as to when these batteries will be 

commercially available outside Europe. In addition, Sony recently introduced 

10 models of mercury-free silver oxide button cell batteries which have been 

available in the market since 2005. Sony plans to eliminate mercury from its 

entire silver oxide (AgO) battery line in the near future and has developed a mercury free logo in support 

of its commitment. 103 

There are a number of advances in battery and product design which will improve battery life but cannot 

be considered revolutionary. For example, Matsushita (which makes Panasonic batteries) has worked 

with Intel to extend the operating time of a laptop computer by combining the design of a battery that 

allows the battery to be discharged down to a lower voltage with the re-design of a laptop platform that 

will take advantage of the lower discharge battery (which Intel refers to as the Napa platform). The lower 

discharge means that the battery can be run down to a lower voltage before it needs recharging. 104 In 

addition Intel has developed its Centrino chip to consume reduced power. 105 The ultimate goal is to 

enable a labtop to run for an eight hour day before needing to be recharged. According to Intel, the 

combination of the new Napa platform with improvements in LCD and battery technology, it may achieve 

the eight hour goal by 2008. 106 

In the area of primary batteries, Matsushita has developed an improved version of the alkaline battery 

which is calls the Oxyride battery which delivers 1.5 times the power of a regular alkaline battery and can 

last up to twice as long as alkaline batteries 107 . The battery was designed specifically for use in high 

power devices, such as digital cameras and MP3 players. The Oxyride battery improves on the alkaline 

103 Sony. September 29 2004. World's first commercialization of Mercury-Free Silver Oxide Battery - Realization of 

Environment-Conscious mercury-free battery (press release) at http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/200409/04-051E/ 

104 Toronto Star. Monday October 24, 2005. The Charge Towards Better Batteries 

105 Computerworld. January 10, 2005. Mobile Computing’s Energy Crisis. 

106 PC Magazine. March 3, 2005. Intel’s Napa Could Boost Laptop Battery Life. 

107 Freedonia Group. May 2005. Batteries to 2009 



chemistry by using a finer grained graphite and manganese dioxide, allowing a denser fill of material. 

With an advanced substance for the cathode or negative (-) side (oxy nickel hydroxide) the batteries 

maintain higher voltage. Under the Panasonic name the Oxyride battery was introduced in the U.S. in 

June 2005. 108 

To date, there have been no revolutionary advancements in battery design, but this may soon change 

with the introduction of the micro fuel cell battery. In recent years there has been a flurry of activity as the 

battery industry focuses its research efforts on the micro fuel cell. The fuel cell shows promise in being 

able to deliver higher energies over a longer period of time. Instead of hoping for a laptop that stays 

charged for eight hours, fuel cell proponents are hoping that battery life can increase two to ten fold. It is 

estimated that more than 60 companies are competing to develop the micro fuel cell battery, including 

IBM, Motorola, Toshiba and NEC. 109 

Some companies are focusing on fuel cell recharging devices. For example, Medis Technologies, based 

in New York, has developed a disposal Power Pack that can be used to power or recharge high energy 

devices such as cell phones, digital music player or hand held video games. The company claims that 

the micro fuel cell power pack can power a cell phone for up to 20 hours or recharge it five or six times. 110 

Micro fuel cells are not expected to become widely available in the market place for another few years but 

when available they will experience wide scale adoption. The North Carolina Fuel Cell Alliance predicts 

that although the fuel cell market is currently valued at $1billion it is expected to grow to $13 billion over 

the next decade. 111 

108 Source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-oxyride-battery.htm 

109 San Francisco Chronicle. The Best Battery? Soon, it may be none at all. 

110 Wise Geek. 2005. What is an Oxyride Battery? at http://www.medistechnologies.com/products.asp?id=82 

111 Consumers Electronics Association. 2006. Five Technologies to Watch 


8. Conclusions 


Amount of Consumer Batteries Discarded In Canada 

Like consumer electrical and electronic equipment, consumer batteries account for a very small 

percentage of the Canadian municipal waste stream by tonnage. An estimated 348 million consumer 

batteries were discarded in 2004, representing a weight of 11,623 tonnes. Discards include batteries 

available for recycling and final disposal. Of this total, 337 million units (8,610 tonnes) were primary 

consumer batteries and 11.2 million units (3,013 tonnes) were secondary consumer batteries. 

The total number of discarded consumer batteries is expected to rise to 15,977 tonnes by 2010, 

representing the annual discard of 494 million consumer batteries of which most (478 million units) will 

still be primary consumer batteries. The significant increase in primary consumer battery usage is 

attributed to the increased availability of toys and other products which will require portable power. 

Secondary battery sales in 2010 are expected to increase to 38.6 million units by 2010, compared to 19.7 

million units sold in 2004. Most of the secondary batteries are NiCd (8.4 million units) followed by nickel 

metal hydride (1.2 million units). While overall nickel cadmium (NiCd) sales will continue to increase, their 

share of the market will be lower by 2010, when they will account for 58% of secondary battery sales 

(down from the current 65% market share). 

The number of consumer batteries discarded is increasing significantly, with an increased demand for 

consumer electronics which require portable power, and the rapid rate at which new electronic products 

which require batteries are being introduced into the market. 

Current Recycling Rates for Consumer Batteries 

Recycling rates for alkaline and other primary (non-rechargeable )batteries are minimal. A value of 2% 

was used for this study, but the actual recovery may be lower. 

Recycling rates for rechargeable consumer batteries were estimated by dividing the tonnage of batteries 

recovered in 2003 and 2004 (provided by RBRC) by the estimated amount of batteries discarded in 2003 

and 2004 (from the C2BFM). Recycling rates for 2005 to 2010 were estimated by dividing the tonnage of 

batteries recovered (estimated using projected increases provided by RBRC) by the amount to be 

discarded (estimated by the C2BFM based on historical sales data). Table 8.1 presents estimated 

recycling rates for 2004 and 2010. 




Table 8.1: Comparison of Batteries Recycled in 2004 and 2010 

Units 

Recycled 


(tonnes) 

2004 2010 


% 

(overall) 

Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

Units 

Recycled 



(000s) 

(tonnes) 

% 

(overall) 

Zinc Carbon 0.027 1,456 39 12.2% 1.23 1,680 45 7.0% 1.36 

Alkaline 0.028 4,679 131 40.6% 4.10 7,016 196 30.2% 5.88 

Zinc Air 0.033 1 0.02 0.01% 0.001 0.9 0.03 0.005% 0.00 

Lithium 0.016 83 1 0.4% 0.04 139 2 0.3% 0.07 


Cell 

0.001 188 0.2 0.1% 0.01 212 0.3 0.004% 0.01 

Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 326 0.3 0.1% 0.01 514 0.5 0.1% 0.01 

Subtotal Primary 6,733 172 53.4% 5.39 9,562 245 37.6% 7.33 


Per 

Capita 

(grams) 

NiCd 0.203 651 132 41.0% 4.13 1,756 356 54.8% 10.67 

NiMH 0.093 80 7 2.3% 0.23 220 20 3.1% 0.61 

Lithium Ion 0.040 73 3 0.9% 0.09 210 8 1.3% 0.25 

Lithium Polymer 0.040 6 0.2 0.1% 0.01 19 0.8 0.1% 0.02 

SSLA 1.045 7 8 2.4% 0.24 19 20 3.0% 0.59 

Subtotal Secondary 817 151 46.6% 4.71 2,224 406 62.4% 12.14 

Total 7,551 323 100% 10.09 11,786 650 100.0% 19.47 

While the tonnage of secondary batteries recycled will increase from 2004 to 2010, so too will the amount 

of secondary batteries discarded. 

The recycling rate for small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLA’s) is based on sales data which may be 

overestimated. Sales estimates for SSLA’s were based on very limited German and Japanese data 

which could have included SSLA’s from the commercial sector. It is therefore suggested that a more 

accurate sales estimate be requested from the Canadian Battery Industry.


Metals Discharged to the Environment from Consumer Batteries 

The metals discharged into the environment as a result of disposal of consumer batteries in Canada in 

2004 are shown below: 

Metals Tonnes Disposed From 

Consumer Batteries (2004) 

Toxic Substances underCEPA* 1999 

Lead (Pb) 765.8 

Mercury (Hg) 0.4 

Cadmium (Cd) 234.7 

Nickel (Ni)** 386.4 

Other Metals 

Lead, Cadmium and Mercury Issues 

Zinc (Zn) 1673.9 

Manganese (Mn) 2436.7 

Silver (Ag) 4.3 

Lithium (Li) 1.6 

Iron (Fe) 2,424.0 

Aluminum (Al) 5.3 

* CEPA (Canadian Environmental Protection Act) 

** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or 

soluble inorganic nickel compounds. 

This study estimated that almost 766 tonnes of lead from small sealed lead acid batteries could enter the 

Canadian environment through disposal of these units. It is likely that most of these units are discarded 

into municipal waste streams, and would therefore be contained in Canadian landfills, with a very small 

amount possible disposed in municipal solid waste incineration facilties. The threat posed to the 

environment would depend on the design of the landfills where the MSW is disposed, but would be limited 

to groundwater contamination; the largest human exposure would be where the groundwater is used as a 

source of drinking water. The threat from incineration would be small (as only 4% of Canadian MSW is 

incinerated) and could be controlled by appropriate emission controls. 

An estimated 235 tonnes of cadmium entered the Canadian environment through disposal of consumer 

batteries in 2004. This number will increase significantly in future years, as NiCd batteries purchased in 

the last 10 years are discarded. NiCd batteries have been the subject of a number of legislative efforts in 

the US and Europe, because of a concern about cadmium content. Sales projections purchased for this 

study identified a trend towards higher sales for NiCd batteries in future years. This finding should be 

confirmed with the Canadian battery industry as various sources predict a decline, but no source of sales 

projections identifying this trend could be located during the study research. Companies such as Sony 

are introducing wireless/cordless products that use chemistries other than NiCd. 112 

There is a very small amount of mercury in batteries, and a mercury free zinc air battery has been 

introduced in Europe, but not in North America. There is a significant concern regarding the potential for 

counterfeit batteries to contain unacceptable levels of mercury. 

112 Communication with Nick Aubry, Environmental Manager, Sony of Canada Ltd., February 6 th , 2006. 




9. Glossary of Acronyms 


ADS – Advanced Disposal Surcharge 

ARMA – Alberta Recycling Management Authority 

CCME – Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment 

C2BFM – Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model 

CHBA - Canadian Household Battery Association 

EEB – European Environmental Bureau 

EIA – Electronics Industry Association (US) 

EPSC – Electronic Product Stewardship Canada 

EU – European Union 

GIA – Global Industry Analysts 

GVRD – Greater Vancouver Regional District 

HHW – Household hazardous waste 

IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission 

Li-ion – Lithium Ion 

Li-polymer – Lithium Polymer 

MSDS – Material Safety Data Sheet 

NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers Association 

NiCd – Nickel Cadmium battery 

NiMH – Nickel Metal Hydride battery 

OEM – Original equipment manufacturers 

PC – Personal computer 

PRBA – Portable Rechargeable Battery Association 

RBRC – Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation 

SLI – Start, lighting, ignition 

SQG – Small quantity generator 

SSLA – small sealed lead acid batteries 

TDGA – Transportation of Dangerous Goods 

ULAB – Used lead acid battery 

UPS – Uninterrupted power supply 

USEPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency 

WDO – Waste Diversion Ontario 

WEEE – waste electrical and electronic equipment 

ZnAgO2 – Silver Oxide button cell battery 

ZnC – Zinc Carbon battery 

ZnMnO2 – Alkaline battery 

ZnO2 – Zinc Air button cell battery 


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Inc. 

Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries 

Maine, State of. 2005. Proposed Bill - LD 1058 (SP 375) - An Act To Regulate the Use of Batteries 

Containing Mercury 

Manitoba Product Stewardship Corporation, October 19, 2005. Discussion Paper: Household 

Hazardous Waste/HHW 

Medis Technologies. 2005. Disposable Power Pack (news release) at 

http://www.medistechnologies.com/products.asp?id=82 

National Electrical Manufacturers Association. May 2004. Dry Battery Anti-Counterfeit White Paper at 

http://www.nema.org/prod/elec/drybat/upload/dry-bat-anticounterfeit.doc 



National Electrical Manufacturers Association. July 2004. Summary Report of Analyses of Mercury 

from Consumer Batteries in the Waste Stream 

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 2, 2006. NEMA Announces Battery 

Industry Commitment to Eliminate Mercury in Button Cells 

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 7, 2006. NEMA Praises Congressional 

Passage of Legislation on Counterfeiting 

PC Magazine. March 3, 2005. Intel’s Napa Could Boost Laptop Battery Life. v24 i4 p7(1) 

Portable Design. Jan 2003. Batteries Continue to Evolve at their own Pace. v9 i1 p6(5) 

RadioShack. No date. RadioShack's On-line Battery Guidebook at 

http://support.radioshack.com/support_tutorials/batteries/batgd-c.htm 

Raymond Communications Inc. July 2001. San Francisco Passes Resolution Calling Battery EPR 

Inadequate 

Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. Battery Recovery Laws World-wide, Updated Edition 

Raymond Communications, July 29, 2005. State Recycling Laws Update 

Rayovac. 2001. Annual Report 

Rayovac. No date. Primary Batteries- Alkaline, & Heavy Duty: Application Notes and Product Data 

Sheet 

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC) website at 

http://www.call2recycle.org/releases/PR_2_21_05.1.html 

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the Canadian 

Consumer Battery Baseline Study. Presented to Environment Canada 

Resource Integration Systems (RIS) Ltd. 1994. Guidelines fro the Management of Used Lead-Acid 

Batteries in Canada. Prepared for Environment Canada. 

San Fransisco. June 2005. Precautionary Purchasing Ordinance (Ord. No. 115-05) 

Shepard, Jeff. March 3, 2005. Batteries buffeted by demands for more safety. EDN: Voice of Electrical 

Engineers. v50 i5 pP17(3) 

Sony. September 29 2004. World's first commercialization of Mercury-Free Silver Oxide Battery - 

Realization of Environment-Conscious mercury-free battery (press release) at 

http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/200409/04-051E/ 

Spectrum Brands. 2003. America’s Battery Overview 

Statistics Canada. 2004. Waste Management Industry Survey: Business and Government Sectors. 

ISSN 1701-5677 

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Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). May 2002.Germany GRS Batterien, 

Germany 

Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual Report, Germany 

Toronto Star. Monday October 24, 2005. The Charge Towards Better Batteries 



Ultra Life Batteries. December 1, 2005. Transportation Regulations for Lithium, Lithium Ion and 

Polymer Cells and Batteries 

United Kingdom Government website at 

http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/legislation/380525/389181/?lang=_e 

United Kingdom Department of Trade and Industry. August 2002. Batteries 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). November 1997. Implementation of the 

Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). March 2002. The Battery Act, Enforcement 

Alert Newsletter 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management Legislation 

and Regulations at http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/mercury/ 

Waste Age. December 5 ,, 2005. NYC to require stores to accept rechargeable batteries for recycling 

Waste Diversion Ontario. July 6, 2005. Highlights of the 2004 Tonnage Datacall Household Special 

Waste 


Waste News. October 17, 2005. New Californian Law Requires Retailers to Take Back Rechargeable 

Batteries 

Wise Geek. 2005. What is an Oxyride Battery? at http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-oxyridebattery.htm 



APPENDIX A 

BATTERY INDUSTRY SURVEY TEMPLATE 


24 TH November, 2005 

Dear Survey Participant, 


RIS International Ltd has been contracted by Environment Canada to prepare a Consumer Battery 

Baseline Study for Canada. The baseline study has developed estimates of the flow of consumer 

batteries in Canada, combining available annual sales information for different battery chemistries 

(primary and secondary) with the expected lifespan of each battery chemistry. The flow estimates 

account for the amount of time the battery is “hoarded” before it is discarded. 

We have assumed that all secondary battery recovery is carried out by RBRC, and that primary battery 

recovery is minimal, through household hazardous waste (HHW) collection days run by municipalities. 

We are surveying a number of battery OEMs and other companies directly involved in various aspects of 

the battery business in Canada and the US to collect additional information to add to the study, and also 

to confirm the assumptions we have used in the Battery Baseline Study. 

I hope that you can take a few minutes to answer the following questions (ignore those for which you do 

not have readily available information): 

1. Are unit sales of primary batteries in Canada proportionally comparable to unit sales of primary 

batteries (i.e. alkaline, zinc carbon, lithium primary, button cells) in the United States? 

2. Are there differences in per capita sales of primary batteries in Germany and Japan compared to 

Canada, and if so, can you provide some reasons for those differences? 

3. Are there differences that you know of in the per capita consumption of secondary batteries in 

the US, Germany and Japan, compared to Canada, and if so, can you provide us with one or 

more reasons for these differences? 

4. We have assumed that primary batteries have an average lifespan of three years and that 

secondary batteries have an average lifespan of five years before they are discarded. Can you 

confirm that these assumptions are reasonable, or provide figures that you think are more 

accurate? 

5. We have also assumed that 30% of primary batteries and 60% of secondary batteries are 

“hoarded” (stored in the basement) after their first use. In both cases it has been assumed that 

the batteries are hoarded for 5 years and are then discarded. We have found estimates up to 15 

years for hoarding in the literature. Have you carried out any research on hoarding of primary or 

secondary batteries before they are discarded?. Can you confirm or modify these assumptions? 

6. Can button cell batteries be manufactured without mercury? What are the impediments to 

manufacturing without mercury (what is the unique property of mercury which can not be 

replicated by other materials)? 

7. Are there trends in the design of button cell batteries which will change their composition, or is 

there any effort to replace them with a new battery chemistry? What is the future outlook for 

these batteries?. The sales data that we have identified indicate a trend to higher sales because 

baby boomers will use more hearing aids. Are there other factors which will also increase the use 

of button cell batteries? 



8. What is the future for NiCd batteries? The sales projections we have purchased from Global 

Industry Analysts indicate that sales of NiCd batteries will continue to increase, although their 

market share is on the decline. 

9. Are there particular uses where NiCd batteries are the best power source, and a new design has 

not been identified (and therefore NiCd will be used for the foreseeable future? 

10. Does the industry feel that NiCd batteries could become obsolete in the next five to ten years, 

and if so, what would they be replaced with? 

11. What are future trends that will impact on battery market sales for alkaline, lithium ion, lithium 

polymer and NiMH batteries? 

12. Is there a new design approach or other trends that we should be aware of that will significantly 

change the landscape for the design and use of primary and secondary consumer batteries in the 

next 10 years (i.e. what is the status of the micro fuel cell battery?). 

Please feel free to call me at 416-482-7007, ext 21 if you would rather complete the survey by phone, if 

you would like more information on the Consumer Battery Baseline Study, or if you would like me to 

clarify the questions. 

Thank you for taking the time to provide us with information, which will be a valuable addition to the 

Baseline Study. 



APPENDIX B 

Canadian Consumer Battery Flow Model 

Output Tables

Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study Final Report

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