Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study Final Report
Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study Final Report
Canadian Consumer Battery Baseline Study Final Report
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<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong><br />
<strong>Study</strong><br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong><br />
Submitted to:<br />
Environment Canada<br />
February 2007
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
WE WISH TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SPECIFIC<br />
ORGANIZATIONS, COMPANIES AND INDIVIDUALS WHO HAVE PROVIDED TIME AND<br />
RESOURCES TO THIS STUDY. THESE INCLUDE VARIOUS PROVINCIAL<br />
GOVERNMENT STAFF IN CANADA AND STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT<br />
REPRESENTATIVES IN THE US, AS WELL AS WDO (WASTE DIVERSION ONTARIO).<br />
May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY<br />
The purpose of this study was to develop a baseline of information on the estimated numbers and<br />
weights of consumer and household batteries (i.e. non-industrial) that are sold, re-used, stored, recycled<br />
and disposed each year by <strong>Canadian</strong> consumers, and how this number may change over time. The<br />
extent to which various battery types pose a risk to human health and the environment was addressed, as<br />
well as legislative trends.<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> batteries are either primary (non-rechargeable) or secondary (rechargeable) and include a<br />
variety of shapes, sizes and chemical properties.<br />
Alkaline batteries are the most common primary batteries used by <strong>Canadian</strong> consumers, followed by zinc<br />
carbon batteries. Lithium primary batteries are making some inroads into the market for particular<br />
applications. Silver oxide and zinc air button cell batteries are used for particular applications that<br />
require high energy and flat voltage.<br />
Secondary batteries are used in higher charge applications, such as cell phones, cordless power tools<br />
and laptop computers. Secondary batteries include nickel-cadmium, nickel metal hydroxide, lithium ion,<br />
lithium polymer and small sealed lead acid batteries.<br />
Small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLAs) have been included in the study. These batteries are commonly<br />
used in emergency lighting and alarm systems (for household and commercial use), which require<br />
uninterrupted power supply (UPS). SSLAs play a small role in other consumer battery needs such as<br />
electric lawn mowers and other mobile equipment.<br />
Larger lead acid batteries (ULABs), used primarily for vehicle and heavy duty applications (i.e. industrial<br />
applications, automotive SLI – start, lighting, ignition and UPS – uninterrupted power supply applications),<br />
are outside the scope of this study.<br />
Some batteries contain heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium and lead, which are CEPA toxic<br />
substances and are scheduled under the <strong>Canadian</strong> Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA, 1999).<br />
Nickel may pose a threat if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds. Lithium,<br />
while not considered toxic under CEPA 1999, could be a concern in lithium batteries by virtue of being<br />
reactive when not fully discharged. 1<br />
Information used for this study was purchased from research houses, and identified through a literature<br />
search. Interviews were also conducted with various stakeholders in Canada and the US. A short e-mail<br />
survey of selected battery OEMs and associations was carried out to identify specific sources of<br />
additional information relevant to the study. Comments were received from US and <strong>Canadian</strong> reviewers.<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Sales in Canada<br />
Table ES1 shows that in 2004, an estimated 450 million (15,182 tonnes) consumer batteries were sold<br />
into the <strong>Canadian</strong> marketplace. Of this total, 430.5 million units (10,991 tonnes) were primary batteries,<br />
and 19.7 million (4,191 tonnes) were secondary batteries.<br />
Within the primary battery category, most of the sales consisted of alkaline (ZnMnO2) batteries at 309.5<br />
million units, followed by zinc carbon (ZnC) batteries at 81.2 million units.<br />
In the secondary consumer battery category, nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries account for 12.8 million of<br />
the units sold in 2004 followed by 4.1 million nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries. Lithium ion (Li-ion)<br />
batteries made up a small percentage of the total at 1.54 million units sold in 2004 as did small sealed<br />
1 Input provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, February 2006<br />
Executive Summary Page i May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
lead acid (SSLA) batteries at 1.1 million units sold in 2004 and lithium polymer (Li-polymer) at 140,000<br />
units sold in 2004.<br />
The market share of battery sales is expected to change from 2004 to 2010. The primary battery market<br />
share is expected to decline slightly with secondary batteries taking up the change in market share. By<br />
2010, a decline in market share of zinc carbon primary batteries is predicted, with the other primary<br />
chemistries increasing slightly (i.e. alkaline) or remaining stable.<br />
Looking out at 2010, the breakdown of secondary battery sales is expected to change. Total units sold<br />
are expected to increase to 38.6 million units by 2010, compared to 19.7 million units sold in 2004. While<br />
overall nickel cadmium (NiCd) sales will continue to increase, their share of the market will be lower by<br />
2010 (based on data purchased from Global Industry Analysts) accounting for 58% of secondary battery<br />
sales (from the current 65% market share). NiCd batteries are being replaced by NiMH and lithium<br />
batteries which do not suffer from memory loss and do not contain cadmium. By 2010, nickel metal<br />
hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries will have a higher market share compared with 2004.<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
Zinc<br />
Carbon<br />
kg/unit (000s)<br />
Table ES1: Comparison of Batteries Sold in 2004 and 2010<br />
2004 2010<br />
Units Sold Weight Sold Units Sold Weight Sold<br />
%<br />
(by<br />
segment)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
(000s)<br />
%<br />
(by<br />
segment)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
0.027 81,190 19% 2,192 14.4% 68.56 93,789 15% 2,532 11.1% 75.79<br />
Alkaline 0.028 309,537 72% 8,667 57.1% 271.06 473,944 76% 13,270 58.1% 397.19<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 41 0.01% 1 0.0% 0.04 60.0 0.01% 1.98 0.0% 0.06<br />
Lithium 0.016 6,049 1% 97 0.6% 3.03 9,317 2% 149 0.7% 4.46<br />
Silver<br />
Oxide<br />
Button Cell<br />
Zinc Air<br />
Button Cell<br />
Subtotal<br />
Primary<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
0.001 10,668 2% 13 0.1% 0.40 10,297 2% 12.4 0.1% 0.37<br />
0.001 23,037 5% 21 0.1% 0.65 33,267 5% 29.9 0.1% 0.90<br />
430,522 100% 10,991 72.4% 343.74 620,674 100% 15,996 70.0% 478.77<br />
NiCd 0.203 12,810 65% 2,600 17.1% 81.33 22,380 58% 4,543 19.9% 135.98<br />
NiMH 0.093 4,100 21% 381 2.5% 11.93 10,490 27% 976 4.3% 29.20<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 1,540 8% 62 0.4% 1.93 4,290 11% 172 0.8% 5.14<br />
Lithium<br />
Polymer<br />
0.040 140 1% 6 0.04% 0.18 360 1% 14.4 0.1% 0.43<br />
SSLA 1.045 1,093 6% 1,142 7.5% 35.72 1,093 3% 1,142 5.0% 34.18<br />
Subtotal<br />
Secondary<br />
19,683 100% 4,191 27.6% 131.08 38,613 100% 6,847 30.0% 204.93<br />
Total 450,205 15,182 100% 474.81 659,287 22,843 100.0% 683.70<br />
Executive Summary Page ii May 2006
Recovery and Disposal of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> batteries are currently managed through voluntary programs such as RBRC (Rechargeable<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation) and various cellphone collection programs. RBRC is the only voluntary<br />
national rechargeable battery collection program in Canada. Prince Edward Island has implemented the<br />
“Re-Store Your Batteries” program enabling consumers to recycle their primary batteries at participating<br />
grocery stores. HHW (household hazardous waste) programs also provide drop-off options for some<br />
consumer batteries. Legislation targeting WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment) which is<br />
being considered by most provinces in the next few years will target the batteries contained in various<br />
products managed by these programs, in particular batteries in laptop computers, which are typically<br />
included in all WEEE programs.<br />
An Excel spreadsheet based model was constructed to estimate the flow of consumer batteries through<br />
the <strong>Canadian</strong> waste management system. In order to populate the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow<br />
Model (C2BFM) with data, a thorough literature search was conducted of data sources in Canada, the<br />
United States and Europe. The C2BFM model used data collected on annual unit sales by battery type,<br />
weight data by battery type, lifespan of different battery types, the amount of time each battery type is<br />
likely to be held in storage (hoarded) before disposal and reported recycling weights from RBRC to<br />
estimate the flow of consumer batteries in Canada. The assumptions used in the C2BFM model are<br />
presented in Table ES2.<br />
Table ES2: <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow (C2BFM) Model Assumptions<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Weights Alkaline (ZnMnO2) -28 grams<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) - 27 grams<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) – 33 grams<br />
Lithium Primary -16 grams<br />
Assumptions<br />
Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) – 1.2 grams<br />
Zinc air (ZNO2) – 0.9 grams<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) – 203 grams<br />
Lithium- Ion (Li-ion) – 40 grams<br />
Lithium-ion Polymer – 40 grams<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) – 93 grams<br />
Small Sealed Lead Acid (SSLA) – 1,045 grams<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> lifespan 3 year lifespan 5 year lifespan for NiCd, Li-ion and SSLA<br />
7 year lifespan for NiMH<br />
Hoarding of batteries before discard 30% hoarded for 5 years 60% hoarded for 5 years<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Reuse 0% reuse 0% reuse<br />
Recycling Rates 2% recycling rate after 1996 Recycling begins in 1997 with the launch of<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation<br />
(RBRC) in Canada. A recycling rate of 0% is used<br />
prior to 1997 and the tonnage recycled is<br />
assumed to have grown in a straight line from 1997<br />
to 2003.<br />
Recovery weights identified by RBRC for 2003<br />
and 2004 were used by the model to estimate the<br />
recycling rates (weight recovered divided by weight<br />
discarded) for each of the secondary battery<br />
chemistries, by dividing the weight recovered<br />
(RBRC) by the estimated weight discarded<br />
(C2BFM).<br />
An annual growth rate of 16.7% (provided by<br />
RBRC for 2005) is assumed from 2005 to 2010.<br />
Tables ES3 to ES5 provides a comparison of estimates of batteries discarded, recycled and disposed in<br />
2004 and 2010. An estimated 347 million (11,623 tonnes) of consumer batteries were discarded in 2004.<br />
Discards include batteries available for recycling and final disposal. Of this total, an estimated 337 million<br />
units (8,610 tonnes) were primary consumer batteries and 11.2 million units (3,013 tonnes) were<br />
secondary consumer batteries. Most of the primary batteries discarded were alkaline (ZnMnO2) batteries<br />
(about 234 million units discarded in 2004), followed by carbon zinc (ZnC) batteries (73 million units<br />
discarded). The estimates show that 1.1 million SSLA’s were discarded; this may be an overestimate due<br />
Executive Summary Page iii May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
to the lack of availability of reliable SSLA sales figures and projections. Most of the secondary batteries<br />
are NiCd (8.4 million units) followed by nickel metal hydride (1.2 million units).<br />
By 2010, an estimated 494 million units (15,977 tonnes) of consumer batteries will be discarded, of which<br />
most (478 million units) will still be primary consumer batteries. The significant increase in primary<br />
consumer battery usage is attributed to the increased availability of toys and other products which will<br />
require portable power. By 2010, the number of secondary batteries discarded will increase from 11.1<br />
million units discarded in 2004 to 16.3 million units discarded in 2010.<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
Table ES3: Comparison of Batteries Discarded in 2004 and 2010<br />
Units<br />
Discarded<br />
kg/unit (000s) tonnes<br />
2004 2010<br />
Weight Discarded<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
Units<br />
Discarded<br />
(000s)<br />
tonnes<br />
Weight Discarded<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Per Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 72,805 1,966 16.9% 61.48 84,002 2,268 14.2% 67.88<br />
Alkaline 0.028 233,945 6,550 56.4% 204.87 350,788 9,822 61.5% 293.98<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 29 1 0.0% 0.03 46.2 1.53 0.0% 0.05<br />
Lithium 0.016 4,151 66 0.6% 2.08 6,947 111 0.7% 3.33<br />
Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 9,423 11 0.1% 0.35 10,575 12.7 0.1% 0.38<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 16,322 15 0.1% 0.46 25,724 23.2 0.1% 0.69<br />
Subtotal Primary 336,675 8,610 74.1% 269.26 478,084 12,239 76.6% 366.31<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 0.203 8,358 1,697 14.6% 53.06 11,171 2,268 14.2% 67.87<br />
NiMH 0.093 1,209 112 1.0% 3.52 2,684 250 1.6% 7.47<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 423 17 0.1% 0.53 1,209 48 0.3% 1.45<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 34 1 0.01% 0.04 110 4.4 0.03% 0.13<br />
SSLA 1.045 1,135 1,186 10.2% 37.09 1,118 1,168 7.3% 34.97<br />
Subtotal Secondary 11,158 3,013 25.9% 94.24 16,292 3,738 23.4% 111.89<br />
Total 347,833 11,623 100% 363.50 494,376 15,977 100.0% 478.20<br />
An estimated 7.6 million batteries (323 tonnes) were recycled and 340 million (11,300 tonnes) consumer<br />
batteries were disposed in 2004. Of this total, an estimated 6.7 million primary battery units (172 tonnes)<br />
were recycled and an estimated 817,000 secondary battery units (151 tonnes) were recycled. Of the<br />
amount disposed, 330 million units (8,437 tonnes) were primary consumer batteries and 10.3 million units<br />
(2,863 tonnes) were secondary consumer batteries.<br />
In 2004, most of the primary batteries recycled and disposed were alkaline (about 4.7 million units<br />
recycled and about 229 million units disposed in 2004), followed by carbon zinc (ZnC) batteries (1.4<br />
Executive Summary Page iv May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
million recycled and 71 million units disposed). Most of the secondary batteries recycled and disposed<br />
are NiCd (estimated at 651,000 units recycled and 7.7 million units disposed) followed by nickel metal<br />
hydride and lithium-ion. The estimates show that only 7,000 SSLA’s were recycled and 1.1 million<br />
disposed; this may be an overestimate due to the lack of availability of reliable SSLA sales figures and<br />
projections.<br />
By 2010, the total amount of consumer batteries recycled and disposed will have increased to 11.8 million<br />
units (650 tonnes) and 483 million units (15,327 tonnes), respectively. Most of units recycled (6.7 million<br />
units or 172 tonnes) and disposed (469 million units or 11,994 tonnes) will still be primary consumer<br />
batteries. By 2010, the number of secondary batteries recycled will increase from 817,000 units (151<br />
tonnes) in 2004 to 2.2 million units (406 tonnes) in 2010 and the amount disposed also will increase from<br />
10.3 million units (2,863 tonnes) in 2004 to 14 million units (3,333 tonnes) in 2010.<br />
The recycling rate for all secondary battery chemistries will increase in 2010 compared with 2004, with<br />
NiCd batteries showing the highest growth rate overall.<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
Table ES4: Comparison of Batteries Recycled in 2004 and 2010<br />
Units<br />
Recycled<br />
kg/unit (000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2004 2010<br />
Weight Recycled<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
Units<br />
Recycled<br />
(000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Weight Recycled<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 1,456 39 12.2% 1.23 1,680 45 7.0% 1.36<br />
Alkaline 0.028 4,679 131 40.6% 4.10 7,016 196 30.2% 5.88<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 1 0.02 0.01% 0.001 0.9 0.03 0.005% 0.00<br />
Lithium 0.016 83 1 0.4% 0.04 139 2 0.3% 0.07<br />
Silver Oxide Button<br />
Cell<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
0.001 188 0.2 0.1% 0.01 212 0.3 0.004% 0.01<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 326 0.3 0.1% 0.01 514 0.5 0.1% 0.01<br />
Subtotal Primary 6,733 172 53.4% 5.39 9,562 245 37.6% 7.33<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 0.203 651 132 41.0% 4.13 1,756 356 54.8% 10.67<br />
NiMH 0.093 80 7 2.3% 0.23 220 20 3.1% 0.61<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 73 3 0.9% 0.09 210 8 1.3% 0.25<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 6 0.2 0.1% 0.01 19 0.8 0.1% 0.02<br />
SSLA 1.045 7 8 2.4% 0.24 19 20 3.0% 0.59<br />
Subtotal Secondary 817 151 46.6% 4.71 2,224 406 62.4% 12.14<br />
Total 7,551 323 100% 10.09 11,786 650 100.0% 19.47<br />
Executive Summary Page v May 2006
Primary Batteries<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table ES5: Comparison of Batteries Disposed in 2004 and 2010<br />
Units<br />
Disposed<br />
kg/unit (000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2004 2010<br />
Weight Disposed<br />
%<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
Units<br />
Disposed<br />
(000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Weight Disposed<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 71,349 1,926 17.0% 60.25 82,322 2,223 14.5% 66.53<br />
Executive Summary Page vi May 2006<br />
%<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
Alkaline 0.028 229,266 6,419 56.8% 200.77 343,773 9,626 62.8% 288.10<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 29 1 0.0% 0.03 45.3 1.49 0.0% 0.04<br />
Lithium 0.016 4,068 65 0.6% 2.04 6,808 109 0.7% 3.26<br />
Silver Oxide Button<br />
Cell<br />
0.001 9,235 11 0.1% 0.35 10,364 12.4 0.1% 0.37<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 15,995 14 0.1% 0.45 25,210 22.7 0.1% 0.68<br />
Subtotal Primary 329,941 8,437 74.7% 263.88 468,522 11,994 78.3% 358.98<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 0.203 7,706 1,564 13.8% 48.93 9,415 1,911 12.5% 57.20<br />
NiMH 0.093 1,129 105 0.9% 3.28 2,464 229 1.5% 6.86<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 350 14 0.1% 0.44 999 40 0.3% 1.20<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 28 1 0.0% 0.04 91 3.6 0.0% 0.11<br />
SSLA 1.045 1,127 1,178 10.4% 36.85 1,099 1,149 7.5% 34.38<br />
Subtotal Secondary 10,341 2,863 25.3% 89.53 14,068 3,333 21.7% 99.75<br />
Total 340,282 11,300 100% 353.41 482,590 15,327 100.0% 458.73<br />
Impacts of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries on the <strong>Canadian</strong> Environment<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> batteries account for a very small percentage of the <strong>Canadian</strong> municipal waste stream by<br />
tonnage. An estimated 346 million consumer batteries were discarded in 2004, representing a weight of<br />
11,011 tonnes. 2 The number is expected to rise to 16,067 tonnes by 2010, representing the annual<br />
discard of 495 million consumer batteries. 3<br />
The number of consumer batteries discarded is increasing dramatically, with an increased demand for<br />
consumer electronics which require portable power, and the rapid rate at which new electronic products<br />
which require batteries are being introduced into the market.<br />
The metals discharged into the environment as a result of disposal of consumer batteries in Canada in<br />
2004 are shown in Table ES6.<br />
2 This compares to about 12,700,000 tonnes of residential waste generated and 9,500,000 tonnes of residential waste discarded.<br />
Statistics Canada. 2004. Waste Management Industry Survey: Business and Government Sectors. ISSN 1701-5677<br />
3 At the same time there will be a comparable rise in residential waste to 13,834,000 tonnes generated and 10,307,000 tonnes<br />
discarded. Projections calculated using 1.09% growth rate provided by Statistics Canada. 2004. Waste Management Industry<br />
Survey: Business and Government Sectors. ISSN 1701-5677
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table ES6: Comparison of Metal Discharged from Batteries in 2004 and 2010<br />
Metals Disposed From <strong>Consumer</strong><br />
Batteries in 2004<br />
(Tonnes)<br />
CEPA Toxic Metals<br />
Disposed From <strong>Consumer</strong><br />
Batteries in 2010<br />
(Tonnes)<br />
Lead (Pb) 766 747<br />
Mercury (Hg) 0.4 0.5<br />
Cadmium (Cd) 235 287<br />
Nickel (Ni)* 386 543<br />
Other Materials<br />
Zinc (Zn) 1,674 2,376<br />
Manganese (Mn) 2,437 3,501<br />
Silver (Ag) 4.3 6.8<br />
Lithium (Li) 1.6 3.1<br />
Iron (Fe) 2,424 3,321<br />
Aluminum (Al) 5.3 11.5<br />
* Nickel is considered toxic under certain conditions<br />
Release of these battery-related contaminants to the environment would most likely occur through<br />
leaching to groundwater beneath landfill/disposal locations. Potential exposures would most likely occur<br />
in areas where groundwater is used as a source of potable water. The presence of battery-related<br />
contaminants in leachate would only constitute a potential concern if levels exceeded the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality values. It should be noted that in most landfills, leachate is captured<br />
and treated. Based on the currently available information, it is not possible to determine if metals and<br />
other contaminants are being released from consumer batteries in landfills, in sufficient quantities to be a<br />
potential environmental or human health concern. Environmentally sound treatment and/or recycling<br />
(versus general disposal) is generally recognized as a prudent risk management approach for batteries<br />
that contain substances scheduled under CEPA 1999.<br />
Lead, Cadmium, Mercury and Nickel Issues<br />
This study estimated that almost 793 tonnes of lead from small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries could<br />
enter the <strong>Canadian</strong> environment through disposal of SSLA’s. It is likely that most of these units are<br />
discarded into municipal waste streams, and therefore would be contained in <strong>Canadian</strong> landfills. The<br />
threat posed to the environment would depend on the design of the landfills where the municipal solid<br />
waste (MSW) is disposed, but would be limited to groundwater contamination; the largest human<br />
exposure would be where the groundwater is used as a source of drinking water.<br />
An estimated 234.7 tonnes (rounded to 235 tonnes in the table above) of cadmium entered the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
environment through disposal of consumer batteries in 2004. This number will increase significantly in<br />
future years, as NiCd batteries purchased in the last 10 years are discarded. NiCd batteries have been<br />
the subject of a number of legislative efforts in the US and Europe, because of a concern about cadmium<br />
content. Sales projections purchased from GIA for this study identified a trend towards higher sales for<br />
NiCd batteries in future years. There is a general feeling from battery OEMs that NiCd sales are on the<br />
decline, but this opinion could not be verified through purchased sales data sources or through formal<br />
comments from the battery industry.<br />
Most batteries contain no mercury and only a very small amount of mercury is found in button cell<br />
batteries. A mercury free zinc air battery has been introduced in Europe, but not in North America. There<br />
is a significant concern regarding the potential for imports and counterfeit batteries to contain<br />
unacceptable levels of mercury.<br />
Executive Summary Page vii May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Nickel compounds are considered a CEPA toxic substance and are scheduled under the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA, 1999). Nickel may pose a threat if combined with other<br />
materials therefore it is toxic under certain conditions.<br />
Legislative Initiatives<br />
For the past decade, Europe has assumed a leadership role in the management of primary and<br />
secondary batteries. <strong>Battery</strong> management is prescribed by the European Union through a series of<br />
directives beginning with the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on Batteries and Accumulators containing<br />
certain dangerous substances, adopted March 1991 and followed by two amended versions. The purpose<br />
of the directives is to establish measures for proper recovery, treatment and disposal of waste batteries<br />
and to restrict the sale of designated batteries throughout the European Union.<br />
Throughout North America, various jurisdictions have enacted legislation targeting mercury in batteries,<br />
and NiCd batteries, because of the presence of lead, mercury and cadmium. In the United States, battery<br />
management is driven by the hazardous components in the batteries rather than the battery type. Since<br />
the early 1990’s, the US Federal government has taken steps to eliminate or significantly reduce mercury<br />
use in primary batteries resulting in the elimination of mercury in primary alkaline batteries and zinc<br />
carbon batteries since 1993.<br />
The passage of the <strong>Battery</strong> Act in 1996 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)<br />
established national, uniform labeling requirements for nickel cadmium (NiCd) and other regulated<br />
batteries to facilitate the increased collection and recycling of these batteries. About the same time, the<br />
US EPA introduced the Universal Waste Rule in May 1995 to target deleterious hazardous wastes,<br />
including nickel cadmium (NiCd) and small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries, in the municipal waste<br />
stream and encourage recycling and proper management of targeted wastes.<br />
State initiatives include the implementation of landfill bans on mercury-containing batteries and NiCd<br />
batteries and the introduction of legislation requiring proper collection, management and labeling of<br />
targeted batteries.<br />
To date, neither Canada nor its provinces or territories have initiated legislative or producer responsibility<br />
programs targeting primary or secondary consumer batteries. Legislation in the US has been a driver for<br />
some developments in <strong>Canadian</strong> provinces. Most initiatives in <strong>Canadian</strong> provinces indirectly target<br />
batteries through electronic stewardship programs and proposed household hazardous waste programs.<br />
Additional Research Needs<br />
More accurate sales projections are needed for NiCd batteries. The sales projections purchased from<br />
GIA showed an increase in NiCd battery sales in Canada to year 2010, although various published<br />
commentaries indicate that NiCd batteries are being phased out by many manufacturers.<br />
The recovery rate for small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLA’s) is based on sales data which may be<br />
overestimated. Sales estimates for SSLA’s were based on very limited German and Japanese data<br />
which could have included SSLA’s from the commercial sector. It is therefore suggested that a more<br />
accurate sales estimate be requested from the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Industry.<br />
Executive Summary Page viii May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1<br />
2. METHODOLOGY 3<br />
3. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON CONSUMER BATTERIES 5<br />
3.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND CHARACTERISTICS<br />
3.2 BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS<br />
3.2.1 Primary <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
3.2.2 Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
3.3 COMPOSITION OF BATTERIES<br />
3.4 CURRENT STATUS OF THE CANADIAN CONSUMER BATTERY MARKET<br />
5<br />
5<br />
6<br />
7<br />
8<br />
10<br />
3.5 CURRENT CONSUMER BATTERY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS IN CANADA<br />
3.5.1 HHW (Household Hazardous Waste) Management Programs<br />
3.5.2 Rechargable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation<br />
3.5.3 Cell Phone Collection Programs<br />
3.6 REPORTED CONSUMER BATTERY GENERATION AND RECOVERY RATES<br />
3.7 REPORTED EUROPEAN CONSUMER BATTERY GENERATION AND RECOVERY RATES<br />
10<br />
11<br />
11<br />
13<br />
13<br />
15<br />
4. CANADIAN CONSUMER BATTERY SALES AND MODEL ASSUMPTIONS 16<br />
4.1 ANNUAL SALES OF SECONDARY (RECHARGEABLE) BATTERIES 16<br />
4.2 PRIMARY BATTERY SALES ESTIMATES 17<br />
4.3 COMPARISON OF CANADIAN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONSUMER BATTERY SALES ESTIMATES WITH OTHER SOURCES 18<br />
4.4 BATTERY WEIGHT DATA 21<br />
4.5 BATTERY LIFESPAN 24<br />
4.6 BATTERY REUSE 25<br />
4.7 BATTERY STORAGE 26<br />
4.8 ASSUMED RECYCLING RATES FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BATTERIES 26<br />
5. BATTERY FLOW ESTIMATES 28<br />
5.1 BATTERIES SOLD IN CANADA 28<br />
5.2 BATTERIES DISCARDED ANNUALLY IN CANADA 30<br />
5.3 FLOW OF CONSUMER BATTERIES IN 2004 33<br />
5.4 LOADING OF METALS AND OTHER MATERIALS CONTAINED IN CONSUMER BATTERIES 35<br />
5.5 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH RISKS POSED BY CONSUMER BATTERIES DISPOSED IN CANADA (2004) 38<br />
6. BATTERY LEGISLATION, POLICIES AND MANAGEMENT 41<br />
6.1 CANADA 41<br />
6.1.1 Content Restrictions 41<br />
6.1.2 Manifesting and Handling Requirements 41<br />
6.1.3 Environmental Labelling 41<br />
6.1.4 <strong>Canadian</strong> Municipal Collection and/or Disposal Bans 42<br />
6.1.5 Stewardship and Take Back Programs 42<br />
6.2 UNITED STATES 46<br />
6.2.1 State Leaders in Legislation and/or Programs Targeting Batteries 49<br />
6.3 EUROPE 53<br />
6.3.1 WEEE and ROHS Directives 56<br />
6.4 JAPAN 57<br />
6.5 TAIWAN 57
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED<br />
7. ISSUES AND TRENDS IN PRODUCT AND BATTERY DESIGN 59<br />
7.1 ISSUES 59<br />
7.2 MARKET SHARE TRENDS 60<br />
7.3 TRENDS 62<br />
8. CONCLUSIONS 64<br />
9. GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS 68<br />
10. REFERENCES 68<br />
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES<br />
Table 3.1: Primary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Characteristics<br />
Page<br />
6<br />
Table 3.2: Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Characteristics 8<br />
Table 3.3: Chemical Composition of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries by <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry 9<br />
Table 3.4: Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation Breakdown of Collected Tonnage By <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry 12<br />
Table 3.5 <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Consumption Rates for Selected North American Jurisdictions 14<br />
Table 3.6: Average <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Generation and Recovery Rates In European Countries 15<br />
Table 4.1: Annual Shipments of Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010 17<br />
Table 4.2: Estimated Annual Small Sealed Lead Acid <strong>Battery</strong> Sales in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010<br />
Table 4.3: RIS International Estimates of Annual Primary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Sales in Canada By Chemistry Type<br />
17<br />
2004 to 2010 18<br />
Table 4.4: Estimated Per Capita Consumption of Various Types of Primary and Secondary Batteries in Canada, 2004 19<br />
Table 4.5: Per Capita <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Consumption in the US<br />
Table 4.6: Breakdown of 2004 <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Sales Estimates As % of Primary and Secondary Segment<br />
19<br />
and % of Total <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Market 20<br />
Table 4.7: Available <strong>Battery</strong> Unit Weight Information By <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry 22<br />
Table 4.8: Average <strong>Battery</strong> Weight By Chemistry Calculated from French Data (2002) 23<br />
Table 4.9: Average <strong>Battery</strong> Weight Data by Chemistry Calculated Using German Data (2003 and 2004)<br />
Table 4.10: Unit Weights Applied to All Units Within <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry Groupings in the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
23<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model 24<br />
Table 4.11: Recycling Rate Estimates for Secondary Batteries 27<br />
Table 5.1: <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Sold Into the <strong>Canadian</strong> Market 2001 to 2010 28<br />
Table 5.2: Estimated Weight of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Sold Into the <strong>Canadian</strong> Market 2001 to 2010 30<br />
Table 5.3: <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal) in Canada 2001 to 2010<br />
Table 5.4: Estimated Weight of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal)<br />
31<br />
in Canada 2001 to 2010 32<br />
Table 5.5: Estimated Flow of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units in Canada, 2004 33<br />
Table 5.6: Estimated Flow of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units in Canada, 2010 34<br />
Table 5.7: <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Discarded in Canada by Province and Territory (2004) 35<br />
Table 5.8: Material Contained in <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Sold in Canada, 2004 36<br />
Table 5.9: Material Contained in <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Disposed in Canada, 2004<br />
Table 5.10: Surface Water, Drinking Water and Soil Quality Guidelines For Selected Metals and Other Substances<br />
37<br />
Contained in <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Sold in Canada 39<br />
Table 6.1: Estimate of Household Hazardous Waste in Residential Waste In Manitoba in 1998 43<br />
Table 6.2: Alberta’s WEEE Program 44<br />
Table 6.3: Products Targetted Under Ontario WEEE Legislation 45<br />
Table 6.4: Mercury Content of Button Batteries Sold By US Manufacturers In 2002 47<br />
Table 6.5: Legislation Affecting <strong>Battery</strong> Management in US States 49<br />
Table 6.6: European Member State National <strong>Battery</strong> Programs 54<br />
Table 7.1: Primary <strong>Battery</strong> Market Forecast 61<br />
Table 7.2: Power Pack Market Forecast 61<br />
Table 7.3: Comparison of Portable Power Alternatives 62
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 8.1: Comparison of Batteries Recycled in 2004 and 2010 64<br />
Figure 2.1: Flow of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Through The <strong>Canadian</strong> Waste Management System 4
1. Introduction and Background<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Since the first battery prototype was designed in the late 1800’s, batteries have become an integral part<br />
of our daily lives. Over the years, industry has made significant technological improvements enabling<br />
recharging, extended lifespan and reduction or elimination of some heavy metals. The demand for<br />
different batteries has grown exponentially in the last few years, with the rapidly increasing demand for<br />
portable power sources. <strong>Consumer</strong>s have a very wide range of batteries to choose from, ranging from<br />
single use primary batteries to rechargeable secondary batteries of different chemistries.<br />
In general, primary batteries are dominated by “cylindrical” 4 and button cell batteries. The most common<br />
primary cylindrical batteries used by <strong>Canadian</strong> consumers include zinc carbon, alkaline and lithium<br />
primary batteries with button cell batteries consisting of silver oxide and zinc air. Secondary batteries are<br />
dominated by the “cylindrical” form or are combined to form power packs used in higher charge<br />
applications, such as cell phones, cordless power tools and laptop computers. Secondary batteries<br />
include nickel-cadmium, nickel metal hydroxide, lithium ion and lithium polymer.<br />
Small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLAs) have been included in this study. These batteries are<br />
commonly used in emergency lighting and alarm systems (for household and commercial use), which<br />
require uninterrupted power supply (UPS). SSLAs play a small role in other consumer battery needs<br />
such as electric lawn mowers and other mobile equipment.<br />
Larger lead acid batteries, used primarily for vehicle and heavy duty applications (SLI – starting, lighting,<br />
ignition i.e. industrial) and UPS (uninterrupted power supply), are outside the scope of this study.<br />
Batteries are used for a wide range of purposes in today’s world. With the proliferation of wireless and<br />
portable devices, the demand for batteries has increased over the past decade and continues on an<br />
upward curve; in fact, the secondary battery market grew 67% in total between 1998 and 2003 5 . The<br />
increased use and popularity of cell phones, digital cameras, portable games and laptop computers are<br />
fueling this demand. Projected cumulative growth for battery sales in Canada to 2010 is estimated at<br />
7.6% for primary and secondary batteries. 6 This translates into tens of millions of batteries sold to<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> consumers on an annual basis.<br />
Some batteries contain heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium and lead which are CEPA toxic<br />
substances and scheduled under the <strong>Canadian</strong> Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA, 1999). Other<br />
metals, such as nickel, may pose a threat if combined with other materials. Lithium, while not considered<br />
toxic under CEPA 1999, is highly reactive and must be properly managed and transported to prevent<br />
possible explosions.<br />
Some jurisdictions, especially Europe, have taken a leadership role in promoting proper recovery,<br />
treatment and disposal of waste batteries and restrict the sale of designated batteries throughout the<br />
European Union. The requirements set out in the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on Batteries and<br />
Accumulators applies to batteries containing more than a specified amount of mercury, cadmium or lead<br />
and placed bans on specific batteries containing mercury beginning January 1 st , 1993.<br />
Legislation introduced world-wide combined with industry’s investment in technological improvements has<br />
significantly reduced the amount of mercury in batteries in North America. However, cadmium remains a<br />
concern. In Canada, efforts to collect and recycle primary and secondary batteries, especially nickel<br />
cadmium batteries, have been through voluntary initiatives. The degree to which primary and secondary<br />
batteries are being discarded has not been quantified for Canada, until this <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong> was<br />
commissioned by Environment Canada.<br />
4 <strong>Battery</strong> industry term<br />
5 Kearney, A.T. 2003. Global Manufacturing Strategy: The Future of the Power Pack. A.T. Kearney Inc.<br />
6 Source: Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries <strong>Report</strong>.<br />
Page 1 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
The objective of this study was to establish a baseline on current consumer battery usage and<br />
management in Canada. The study identified the historical, current and projected quantities of consumer<br />
and household batteries (i.e. non-industrial) that are sold, re-used, hoarded, recycled and disposed each<br />
year by <strong>Canadian</strong> consumers. The extent to which various battery types pose a risk to human health and<br />
the environment was explored. Legislative and management trends world-wide were examined, as well<br />
as the changing nature of battery demands and composition that will impact on future management<br />
requirements.<br />
This study will provide Environment Canada with the necessary information and tools it needs to review<br />
and explore policy options for the management of consumer batteries in Canada.<br />
Page 2 May 2006
2. Methodology<br />
The study included the following tasks:<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
• Identification of the amount of batteries which are discarded in Canada on an annual basis;<br />
• Brief assessment of the potential environmental risks associated with these batteries;<br />
• A review of legislation in place to manage batteries in other jurisdictions and<br />
• A brief description of trends in battery design into the future.<br />
Information sources used for the study included:<br />
• An extensive literature search, carried out by Intellsearch, the research arm of the Toronto Public<br />
Library;<br />
• Purchase of selected data sources identified by Intellsearch;<br />
• Purchase of battery sales data from Global Industry Analysts (GIA) and Fredonia Group 7 ;<br />
• Purchase of legislation related information from Inform;<br />
• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for different battery types;<br />
• Review of battery related annual and research reports published by US, UK, European and<br />
Japanese sources and<br />
• Interviews with government officials in Canada and the US (referenced throughout the text).<br />
An Excel spreadsheet based model (the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model (C2BFM)) was<br />
constructed to estimate the flow of consumer batteries through the <strong>Canadian</strong> waste management system.<br />
In order to populate the model with data, a thorough literature search was conducted in Canada, the<br />
United States and Europe to identify the following relevant information:<br />
• Annual unit sales data by battery type;<br />
• Weight data by battery type;<br />
• Lifespan of different battery types;<br />
• The amount of time each battery type is likely to be held in storage (hoarded) before disposal;<br />
and<br />
• <strong>Report</strong>ed primary and secondary battery recycling rates for various jurisdictions.<br />
The model is constructed to reflect the typical flow of batteries through the <strong>Canadian</strong> waste management<br />
system, shown in Figure 2.1<br />
RIS distributed a survey (included in Appendix A) to selected battery OEMs including Sony, Panasonic,<br />
Rayovac, Procter and Gamble, Electronic Product Stewardship Canada (EPSC), EIA and NEMA in the<br />
US, and associations. The survey was carried out to identify sources of additional information relevant to<br />
the study, to confirm assumptions made during the study and to explore future trends in battery design.<br />
7<br />
A representative from the battery industry has noted that the battery industry has historically felt that these groups tend to have<br />
inflated projection data.<br />
Page 3 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Figure 2.1: Mass Flow of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Through The <strong>Canadian</strong> Waste Management System<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
Purchased as Units or<br />
as Part of Product Sale<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Are<br />
A No Longer Useable and<br />
are Retired - End of<br />
Operational Lifespan<br />
B<br />
A=C+D<br />
B=D<br />
C+D=E+F<br />
A=E+F<br />
C D<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries are<br />
Discarded into the Municipal<br />
Solid Waste Management System<br />
(landfill or incineration)<br />
or Recycling System<br />
E F<br />
<strong>Final</strong> Disposal<br />
(i.e.Landfill or<br />
Incineration)<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
are Hoarded or Stored<br />
Recycled<br />
into New Products<br />
The mass flow of consumer batteries is determined by the simple formulae shown above. “A” represents<br />
the tonnage of consumer batteries purchased and entering the waste management stream. All of “A”<br />
tonnes will in time become retired or reach the end of their lifespan. This tonnage is then split into two<br />
categories. “B” represents batteries that are stored at home or hoarded, that is they do not go directly into<br />
a recycling stream nor to a waste facility. “C” represents batteries that are discarded from the home either<br />
to a recycling facility or a waste management facility for incineration or landfilling. “B” tonnes eventually<br />
become discarded as well, but not immediately after they have been retired. All discarded batteries “C”<br />
plus “D” are either recycled into new products i.e “F” or they are sent to final disposal in a landfill or<br />
incinerator (E). The sum of “E” and “F” will equal “A”.<br />
Page 4 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
3. Background Information on <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
3.1 Historical Overview and Characteristics<br />
Today batteries are a common feature in our everyday lives. Most users of batteries take the<br />
development of batteries for granted, not realizing that the earliest ancestor to the modern battery was<br />
invented over two hundred years ago and has been a work in progress ever since. The explosion in the<br />
use of portable devices and electronic products such as computers, toys, audio devices, etc. has resulted<br />
in a rapidly increasing demand for both primary (non-rechargeable) and secondary (rechargeable)<br />
batteries. A concern regarding the need for mobile sources of power during hurricanes, ice storms,<br />
power blackouts, etc. has also resulted in a rapidly increased demand for all types of batteries and<br />
portable power.<br />
The first battery prototype was invented in the late 1700s by Italian physician Volta who used a stack of<br />
zinc and copper disks separated by cardboard soaked in a saline or acid solution to generate a low<br />
electric charge. 8 Leclanche designed the wet cell battery, a precursor to the dry cell battery a decade<br />
later. The Leclanche battery eventually became synonymous with the zinc carbon battery, the first dry<br />
cell battery commercially available in 1896.<br />
The onset of the First World War increased the demand for improved batteries that could be used to<br />
power equipment at the front lines. Great strides were made in battery performance between the two<br />
world wars, resulting in the development of silver zinc and nickel zinc (a precursor to the rechargeable<br />
nickel cadmium) batteries.<br />
Sixty years after the introduction of the carbon zinc battery, the first alkaline battery was developed in<br />
1959 by Lew Urry – a <strong>Canadian</strong>; it was commercialized soon after. Since it first appeared on the market,<br />
the performance of the alkaline battery has improved 40 fold. 9<br />
The nickel cadmium battery was the first rechargeable battery introduced to the market, in 1960. The first<br />
version of a lithium metal rechargeable battery was introduced to the market in 1983. It was not<br />
commercialized as the popular lithium ion battery until 1991. Nickel metal hydride batteries appeared<br />
about the same time in 1990. Lithium polymer batteries became commercially available in 1999.<br />
3.2 <strong>Battery</strong> Characteristics<br />
In North America, batteries are divided into two categories: primary and secondary.<br />
• Primary batteries are characterized by their one time use and inability to be recharged and<br />
reused (non-rechargeable);<br />
• Secondary batteries can be recharged and are often referred to as rechargeable batteries or<br />
accumulators (in Europe).<br />
Europe often combines both categories of batteries and describes them as “portable batteries”.<br />
Each primary and secondary battery category is further broken down into their dry cell and wet cell<br />
chemistries (designs). In a dry cell battery, the electrolyte is absorbed in a porous medium, or is<br />
otherwise restrained from flowing. In a wet cell battery, the electrolyte is in liquid form and free to flow and<br />
move. Most portable primary and secondary batteries are dry cell. The largest wet cell battery dominating<br />
the non-portable battery market is the lead acid battery used for automotive, industrial and emergency<br />
back-up power reserves.<br />
8 Energizer website at http://www.energizer.com/learning/historyofbatteries.asp?year=1798<br />
9 Corrosion-Doctor Organization at www.corrosion-doctors.org/PrimBatt/urry.htm<br />
Page 5 May 2006
3.2.1 Primary <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
In general, primary consumer batteries are dominated by cylindrical and button cell batteries (both dry<br />
cell). The most common primary dry cell batteries used by <strong>Canadian</strong> consumers include:<br />
Cylindrical<br />
• Zinc carbon (ZnC) – Zinc carbon batteries are cheaper than alkaline batteries but have a shorter<br />
life span and are used in low drain applications. Zinc carbon batteries are commonly used for<br />
flashlights, toys, clocks and radios;<br />
• Alkaline (ZnMnO2)– Alkaline batteries are often called “general purpose” batteries and although<br />
they are more expensive than zinc carbon batteries they last longer and are considered leakproof.<br />
Alkaline batteries are commonly used in toys, radios, flashlights, clocks, etc.<br />
• Lithium Primary – Lithium primary batteries provide a constant voltage until they are fully<br />
discharged; they are commonly used for cameras, watches and games.<br />
Button Cell<br />
• Zinc air (ZnO2)– Zinc air batteries are longer lasting than other button cell batteries and they<br />
provide a medium power drain; they are used primarily in hearing aids.<br />
• Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) – Silver oxide button cell batteries provide a medium power drain; they are<br />
commonly used for watches, toys and calculators.<br />
Table 3.1 presents the different types of primary consumer batteries in common use in Canada, and the<br />
types of products in which they are typically used.<br />
Table 3.1: Primary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Characteristics<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Other names Toxic<br />
substances<br />
under CEPA<br />
1999<br />
Uses Status<br />
Primary<br />
Dry Cell<br />
Zinc Carbon “general purpose”<br />
battery<br />
Leclanche battery<br />
ZnC<br />
none - Low drainage uses i.e. flashlights, toys,<br />
radios, clocks, shavers, radio, calculators<br />
Zinc Chloride ZnCl none - Low drainage uses i.e. flashlights, toys,<br />
radios, clocks, shavers, calculators, cassette<br />
players/recorders<br />
Alkaline<br />
Lithium<br />
Manganese<br />
Dioxide<br />
Button Cell<br />
Batteries – zinc<br />
air<br />
Zinc manganese<br />
dioxide<br />
ZnMnO2<br />
Zinc-alkaline<br />
Lithium primary<br />
LiMnO2<br />
ZnO2<br />
none - general purpose battery available for<br />
low/medium or high drain requirements i.e.<br />
digital cameras, portable power tools,<br />
portable electronics, flashlights, toys, clocks,<br />
CB walkie-talkies, radios, portable<br />
televisions, video games, pagers, portable<br />
audio systems, MP3 players, shavers,<br />
toothbrushes, appliances<br />
none Commonly used for high drain and outdoor<br />
use i.e. digital camera, watches, portable<br />
power tools, portable video games, portable<br />
audio systems, pagers,, MP3 players,<br />
shavers, toothbrushes, appliances,<br />
flashlights, CB walkie-talkies, watches<br />
Contains<br />
small<br />
amounts of<br />
mercury<br />
Used for high energy density and flat voltage<br />
curve i.e. hearing aids, watches, radio<br />
pagers<br />
- limited use portable electronic devices<br />
requiring high drain requirements<br />
- since 1993, no longer contain mercury<br />
- not used as much any more, being phased out<br />
- not used as much any more, being phased out<br />
- represents majority of primary consumer<br />
battery sales<br />
- Since 1993, alkaline batteries manufactured in<br />
Canada,USA, Japan and Europe no longer<br />
contain mercury<br />
- some of market share being replaced by<br />
primary lithium and secondary NiMH batteries<br />
Experiencing increasing share of primary battery<br />
market<br />
Projected to account for 16% of consumer<br />
primary battery sales in 2009 (Freedonia Group,<br />
Sept 2005)<br />
Popular for hearing aids but limited use<br />
otherwise<br />
Market for hearing aids expected to grow as<br />
baby boomers age<br />
Page 6 May 2006
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Other names Toxic<br />
substances<br />
under CEPA<br />
1999<br />
Button Cell<br />
Batteries –<br />
silver oxide<br />
Button Cell<br />
Batteries –<br />
mercuric oxide<br />
ZnAgO2<br />
AgO<br />
ZnHgO<br />
HgO<br />
Wet Cell None<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Contains<br />
small<br />
amounts of<br />
mercury<br />
Contains<br />
small<br />
amounts of<br />
mercury<br />
3.2.2 Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
Uses Status<br />
Used for high energy density and flat voltage<br />
i.e. hearing aids, watches, photographic<br />
equipment, calculators, photoelectric<br />
exposure meters, instruments, pagers<br />
Used for high energy density and flat voltage<br />
i.e. hearing aids, watches, photographic<br />
equipment, electronic measuring<br />
instruments, intruder alarms, pacemakers,<br />
sensors, detectors, radio transmitters<br />
Not used as much due to mercury and silver<br />
content<br />
No longer available for sale in Canada since Jan<br />
1996 due to mercury content<br />
Dry Cells<br />
In general, secondary consumer batteries are dominated by single dry cell cylindrical units which are<br />
frequently combined to form “power packs”. The most common secondary consumer batteries used by<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> consumers include:<br />
• Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) – Nickel cadmium batteries comprise the largest segment of the<br />
secondary battery market and are good for equipment requiring high power but frequent charging.<br />
NiCd batteries are not good in applications requiring long storage times. They are commonly<br />
used for rechargeable appliances such as portable power tools, hand held vacuums, and<br />
cordless phones that need high power and frequent charging. A recent survey sponsored by the<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) found that 85% of cordless power tools are<br />
powered by Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) batteries. The other 15% of cordless power tools run on<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) and Small Sealed Lead (Pb) rechargeable batteries. 10<br />
• Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) – Nickel metal hydride batteries are longer lasting than nickel<br />
cadmium batteries but are more expensive; they are commonly used for cellular phones, video<br />
camera, and in some applications as a rechargeable replacement to alkaline batteries.<br />
• Lithium Ion (Li-ion) – Lithium ion batteries are lighter in weight and have a greater energy storage<br />
capacity than NiCd or NiMH batteries but are more expensive. These are commonly used for<br />
cellular phones, laptop computers and video cameras.<br />
• Lithium Polymer (Li-polymer) – Lithium polymer batteries are slightly lighter and lower in cost than<br />
lithium ion batteries 11 but are unable to provide power bursts required of electronic equipment<br />
(e.g. laptop computers). A hybrid form is used in cellular phones.<br />
Wet Cells<br />
Small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLA) are also referred to as Gel cell batteries. These batteries (gel<br />
cells and sealed lead-acid batteries) are commonly used to power industrial equipment, emergency<br />
lighting, and alarm systems. Other applications include uninterrupted power supply (UPS) devices and<br />
start lighting ignition (SLI) devices. Small sealed lead-acid batteries play a small role in certain consumer<br />
market segments like electric mowers, electric wheel chairs, electric bikes, some toys, some cordless<br />
power tools, UPS (uninterrupted power supply) and certain telecommunication applications.<br />
Table 3.2 presents the characteristics of secondary batteries and battery chemistries.<br />
10 Dewalt tools at http://www.dewalt.com/us/articles/article_cordless.asp?Site=cordless&ID=239<br />
11 Advanced Technology Program. June 2005. Factors Affecting the U.S. Production Decisions: Why are There No Volume<br />
Lithium-Ion <strong>Battery</strong> Manufacturers in the United States? ATP Working Paper Series<br />
Page 7 May 2006
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Other<br />
names<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
Dry Cell<br />
Nickel Cadmium NiCd<br />
Ni-Cad<br />
Nickel-Metal<br />
Hydride<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 3.2: Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Characteristics<br />
Toxic<br />
substances<br />
under CEPA<br />
1999<br />
Cadmium and<br />
nickel if found in<br />
oxidic, sulphidic<br />
or soluble<br />
inorganic nickel<br />
compounds<br />
NiMH Nickel if found in<br />
oxidic, sulphidic<br />
or soluble<br />
inorganic nickel<br />
compounds<br />
Uses Status<br />
- used for low/medium drain requirements i.e.<br />
lightweight portable power devices (cordless power<br />
tools, personal stereos, portable telephones, laptop<br />
computers, shavers, motorized toys, remote controls)<br />
portable radios and devices with a battery backup<br />
(answering machines, clocks/radios) and standby<br />
power devices (alarms, emergency lighting)<br />
-used for all discharge rates although commonly used<br />
in high drain devices i.e. digital cameras, portable<br />
power tools, flashlights, CB walkie-talkies, radios,<br />
portable televisions, video games, portable audio<br />
systems, CD players, MP3 players, appliances,<br />
shavers, toothbrushes, cell phones, camcorders,<br />
computers<br />
Lithium-Ion Li-Ion none - used for high energy density i.e. cellular phones,<br />
laptops camcorders and other mobile computing<br />
devices<br />
Lithium Ion<br />
Polymer<br />
Wet Cell<br />
SSLA (small<br />
sealed lead<br />
acid)<br />
Li-Polymer none - used for high energy density i.e. cellular phones,<br />
laptops camcorders and other mobile computing<br />
devices<br />
SSLA Lead Small niche in electric mowers, electric wheel chairs,<br />
electric bikes, some toys, camcorders, alarm<br />
systems, cordless/cellular phones<br />
Lead-Acid Lead Automobile and other vehicle SLI (starting, lighting,<br />
ignition)<br />
Power storage<br />
-losing market share due to cadmium<br />
content and memory loss problems<br />
- claiming greater market share, replacing<br />
NiCd and primary batteries<br />
- provides more energy than NiCd or NiMH<br />
batteries<br />
- projected to grow in market demand<br />
Use in portable market is low: main use is<br />
starter and drive applications and UPS<br />
(uninterrupted power supply)<br />
- estimated that 99.2% recycled in the<br />
United States in 2004 (<strong>Battery</strong> Council<br />
International, June 2005)<br />
- RIS 1994 report estimates over 90%<br />
recycled (RIS, 1994)<br />
3.3 Composition of Batteries<br />
Several sources were used to identify the metal and chemical composition of different battery types<br />
presented in Table 3.3. The table shows the composition of various battery types as the percentage of<br />
the total weight comprised of different metals, electrolytes, plastic and paper. As an example, primary<br />
zinc carbon batteries consist of: 20% zinc, 25% manganese, 20% ferrous metal, 5% zinc chloride, 10%<br />
water and 20% plastic, paper and carbon. Alkaline batteries have a similar composition for some<br />
materials, with a few differences. They consist of 20% zinc, 30% manganese, 20% ferrous metal, 5%<br />
potassium hydroxide, 10% water and 15% paper, plastic and carbon. Lithium primary batteries consist of<br />
50% ferrous metal, 30% manganese and 2% lithium, as well as other materials.<br />
Most of the batteries have a high ferrous metal content.<br />
Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries contain 20% nickel, 15% cadmium and 45% ferrous metal. Nickel metal<br />
hydride (NiMH) batteries contain a small amount of aluminum (5%), cobalt (10%), manganese (5%) and<br />
70% nickel. Small sealed lead acid batteries consist of 65% lead, 8% sulphuric acid, 17% water and 10%<br />
other non-metals materials.<br />
Page 8 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 3.3: Chemical Composition of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries by <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry<br />
(Percentage by weight)<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Metals Electolyte Non-Metal<br />
Toxic Substances under<br />
CEPA* 1999<br />
Other Metals<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Pb Hg Cd Ni** Zn Mn Ag Li Fe Al<br />
Primary<br />
Zinc Carbon<br />
(ZnC) 20 25 20<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 20 30 20<br />
Lithium Primary 30 2 50<br />
Primary Button<br />
Cell<br />
Zinc Air (ZnO2)<br />
Button Cell<br />
Silver Oxide<br />
(ZnAgO2) Button<br />
2 30 45<br />
Cell<br />
Secondary<br />
Nickel cadmium<br />
1 10 30 40<br />
(NiCd)<br />
Nickel metal<br />
15 20 45<br />
hydride (NiMH) 70 5 5<br />
Lithium 30 2 50<br />
Small sealed lead<br />
acid (SSLA) 65<br />
Co<br />
H2SO4 KOH<br />
Page 9 May 2006<br />
Na<br />
OH<br />
10 5 5<br />
NH4Cl/<br />
ZnCl2<br />
Organ<br />
Electrolyte<br />
H2O<br />
plastic,<br />
paper<br />
carbon<br />
5 10 20<br />
5 10 15<br />
10 10<br />
4 8 12<br />
3 6 10<br />
5 10 5<br />
Not<br />
available<br />
Not<br />
available<br />
10 10<br />
8 17 10<br />
*CEPA (<strong>Canadian</strong> Environmental Protection Act)<br />
** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds. (Personal communication with Bryan Leece, PhD, Dillon Consulting, Toxicologist)<br />
Sources: Fricke, Dr. J.L.,and N. Knudsen. May 2002. Disposal of Portable Batteries. Prepared for Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS)<br />
Duracell MSDS for NiMH batteries at http://www.duracell.com/oem/safety/pdf/2030 3C.pdf<br />
NiMH information from MSDS information provided by Duracell and Energizer @<br />
http://www.duracell.com/oem/safety/pdf/2030_3C.pdf<br />
http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/nickelmetalhydride_psds.pdf
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
3.4 Current Status of the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Market<br />
Primary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Market<br />
In 1995, alkaline batteries represented the largest segment in the US battery market, accounting for 95%<br />
of consumer battery sales 12 . Today, the alkaline market share has slowly eroded as it faces greater<br />
competition from new and improved primary and secondary batteries such as primary lithium and<br />
secondary NiMH batteries.<br />
Significant world battery manufacturers include companies such as: Matsushita/Panasonic, Duracell,<br />
PowerPak, Energizer, and Rayovac.<br />
In North America, the alkaline battery market is dominated by three US based multi-national companies,<br />
representing 84% of alkaline battery sales in North America:<br />
• Duracell (owned by Procter & Gamble) has a 37% market share;<br />
• Energizer (formally Eveready <strong>Battery</strong>) has a 26% market share;<br />
• Rayovac (Spectrum Brands as of May 2005) has a 21% market share. 13<br />
Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Market<br />
Most secondary batteries used for portable power devices (i.e. cell phones, laptop computers, portable<br />
games, etc.) are manufactured in Japan and, increasingly, China. Only a fraction of the manufacturing<br />
takes place in North America. All laptops, cellphones, etc. contain a secondary battery. This<br />
rechargeable battery is only replaced after its recharging cycles (e.g. 300, 500 or up to 1,500 recharging<br />
cycles) are spent. The recharging cycles vary depending on use and application. By the time the original<br />
product is spent, a new product has often entered the market and the whole product, rather than the<br />
battery is replaced.<br />
The global demand for secondary batteries grew 67% between 1998 and 2003 with 12% of the growth<br />
occurring from 2002 to 2003. 14 At the same time, Japan, which held 94% of the market share, saw its<br />
market share drop to about 65% in 2003 15 , with China taking a large portion of the lost market share.<br />
In 2001, Rayovac stated that its rechargeable nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery were replacing primary<br />
alkaline batteries. This trend is reportedly being driven by the very high demand for digital cameras. 16<br />
3.5 Current <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Management Programs in Canada<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> batteries are currently managed through voluntary programs such as RBRC and various<br />
cellphone collection programs. HHW (household hazardous waste) programs also provide drop off<br />
options for some consumer batteries. Legislation targeting WEEE (waste electrical and electronic<br />
equipment) which will be enacted by most provinces in the next few years will target the batteries<br />
contained in various products managed by these programs, in particular batteries in laptop computers,<br />
which are typically included in all WEEE programs.<br />
12 Kearney, A.T. 2003. Global Manufacturing Strategy: The Future of the Power Pack. A.T. Kearney Inc.<br />
13 Spectrum Brands. 2003. America’s <strong>Battery</strong> Overview<br />
14 Kearney, A.T. 2003. Global Manufacturing Strategy: The Future of the Power Pack. A.T. Kearney Inc.<br />
15 CMS Info. March 2004. <strong>Battery</strong> and EV Industry Review<br />
16 Rayovac. 2001. Annual <strong>Report</strong><br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 10 8 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
3.5.1 HHW (Household Hazardous Waste) Management Programs<br />
Many municipalities across Canada operate HHW (household hazardous waste) drop off programs where<br />
residents are permitted to drop off various materials such as paint, anti-freeze, etc. Many of these<br />
programs also collect batteries. In Ontario, which is the only province to conduct annual municipal<br />
program surveys, 83 HHW programs operate, representing 95% of the Ontario population. Most of these<br />
communities collect dry cell batteries as part of the HHW program. 17<br />
3.5.2 Rechargable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation<br />
The Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) program operates in both the United States<br />
and Canada. The NiCd battery manufacturing industry through the Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong><br />
Association (PRBA) established the Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RCRB) in 1994 in the<br />
United States to implement a voluntary take-back program. The voluntary program was established in<br />
response to pressure from state legislation on NiCd battery manufacturers to properly label and manage<br />
their NiCd batteries. The voluntary collection program was launched throughout 50 US states in 1995 and<br />
Canada in 1997, even though there was no immediate legislative threat in Canada. Initially the RBRC<br />
program focused on voluntary collection of NiCd batteries but in 2001/2002 RBRC expanded the program<br />
to accept all secondary batteries including NiMH, lithium-ion, lithium polymer and SSLA. The RBRC<br />
voluntary program is the only national battery recovery program available.<br />
In 2004, the “Call2Recycle” program was launched by RBRC to recover cell phones and their batteries.<br />
The Call2Recycle program (owned by RBRC) features over 6,100 collection locations across Canada<br />
where consumers can drop off used rechargeable batteries and old cell phones. Almost 400 communities<br />
and almost 140 public agencies participate in the program. Cell phones collected through the<br />
Call2Recycle program are recycled or refurbished and resold, with a portion of the proceeds benefiting<br />
national charities, such as Boys & Girls Clubs of America and the National Center for Missing & Exploited<br />
Children.<br />
The RBRC has developed easy to understand messages to encourage higher participation in the<br />
program, such as the slogan “If it is rechargeable, it is recyclable” and has actively promoted the program<br />
through such mechanisms as public service announcements, print advertising, and sponsorships.<br />
Collection of batteries is dependent on active program promotion by participating retailers and awareness<br />
of the program by consumers.<br />
Today RBRC is supported voluntarily by 300 battery manufacturers/brand owners and is not mandated<br />
under either <strong>Canadian</strong> or US legislation. The costs of operating the program are monitored and reviewed<br />
annually by RBRC members and any necessary fee adjustments are made accordingly. Costs of the<br />
RBRC program are borne by members who pay a levy on each battery sold. The current fee schedule for<br />
expanded chemistries (beyond NiCd batteries) is capped at $50,000 per year payable by any company,<br />
and includes:<br />
• Single cell batteries up to 1.5 volts: $.0025 per battery<br />
• Small battery packs 1.5 volts to 8 volts: $.01 per battery<br />
• Large battery packs 8.1 volts and greater: $.02 per battery<br />
There is no fee limit for NiCd batteries.<br />
RBRC reports that 90% of manufacturers/brand owners of batteries and battery operated products<br />
comply with the program. The remaining non-participating “free riders” are reportedly small and transient<br />
and mostly located and/or headquartered in Asia. Free ridership remains a concern among RBRC<br />
17 Waste Diversion Ontario. July 6, 2005. Highlights of the 2004 Tonnage Datacall Household Special Waste<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 11 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
members. 18 Other challenges facing the battery industry, include the issue of counterfeit batteries and its<br />
impact on the voluntary environmental efforts of primary battery manufacturers and the issue of mercurycontaining<br />
batteries being imported into Canada. The <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association (CHBA)<br />
has requested the Government of Canada to introduce legislation to control mercury containing batteries.<br />
All participants (retailers, communities, businesses, public agencies) receive the RBRC collection boxes<br />
free-of-charge. The shipping charges also paid for by the RBRC. The boxes are shipped to the central<br />
processing facility when full. Participants are not required to generate annual reports or other supporting<br />
documentation. The RBRC provides this information upon request and with the support of the federal and<br />
provincial governments has the necessary legal authority in place to enable the collection sites to<br />
operate and the spent batteries to be shipped. According to RBRC, there are an estimated 30,000<br />
retailers and hundreds of municipalities participating in the collection drop off programs across North<br />
America.<br />
RBRC does not publish a detailed breakdown of the amounts of batteries collected by battery types. All<br />
published information is aggregated. In 2005 RBRC reported that it had collected a total of 175,729<br />
kilograms (387,417 lbs) of rechargeable batteries 19 in Canada through their Call2Recycle program, an<br />
increase of 16.7% from 2004 (331,910 pounds or 150,551 kilograms). RBRC report that recovery<br />
tonnages in 2004 were up 53% from 2003 (283,193 pounds or 114,846 kilograms) and recovery<br />
tonnages in 2003 were up 125% from 2002 (172,307 pounds or 78,157 kilograms) 20 . Through personal<br />
contact between Environment Canada and RBRC staff, Environment Canada obtained a breakdown of<br />
the collected tonnage by battery chemistry, shown in Table 3.4.<br />
Table 3.4: Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation Breakdown of Collected Tonnage By <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry21 2003 - Canada 2004 - Canada<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type % Breakdown % Breakdown<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 92% 85%<br />
Nickel metal hydride<br />
(NiMH) 3% 6%<br />
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) 1% 3%<br />
Small sealed lead acid<br />
(SSLA) 4% 6%<br />
Total 100% 100%<br />
Although RBRC reports aggregate tonnages for batteries collected annually, it does not link these figures<br />
to annual battery discards. 22 . This makes it difficult to assess with complete assurance how many<br />
rechargeable batteries discarded each year in Canada are actually collected through its program.<br />
Estimates of recycling rates for NiCd batteries are not generally available. The State of Florida however<br />
estimates that NiCd batteries were being recycled at a rate of 13% in 2000 and between 20-30% in 2004<br />
primarily through the RBRC program. 23<br />
18<br />
Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. <strong>Battery</strong> Recovery Laws World-wide Update Edition.<br />
19<br />
This includes the whole cell phone according to RBRC – information provided by Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation<br />
(RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>. Presented to Environment Canada<br />
20<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong><br />
<strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>. Presented to Environment Canada.<br />
21<br />
Personal communications between RBRC and Environment Canada. February 8, 2005<br />
22<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong><br />
<strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>. Presented to Environment Canada.<br />
23<br />
Communication with Amy Roering, Environmental Services, Hennepin County, August 31, 2005<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 12 May 2006
3.5.3 Cell Phone Collection Programs<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
There are a number of cell phone collection programs operating throughout Canada which encourage<br />
recycling of end-of-life cell phones and their batteries. The most prominent cell phone recovery programs<br />
in Canada include:<br />
Reduce, Reuse and Redial - Launched in 2003, this is Bell Mobility’s recycling and reuse initiative which<br />
allows cell phone users to drop off any used cellular phones, batteries, pagers, accessories or cordless<br />
phones, whether purchased though Bell or not, at participating Bell World/Espace Bell locations across<br />
Canada. Drop off boxes are located in each participating store. Refurbished phones are resold in foreign<br />
countries or are donated to a local women’s shelter or children’s charity. The program is not widely<br />
advertised or promoted and relies on individuals donating their used cell phones at participating locations.<br />
Bell collected approximately 50,000 used cell phones during the first year of the program and 50,700 cell<br />
phones in 2004. Bell estimates that 96% of the more than 15 million used mobile phones in Canada are<br />
recyclable. The Reduce, Reuse, Redial program has diverted about 50,000 of 15 million cellphones<br />
discarded, or a small fraction (less than 1% )of available cell phones. 24<br />
Phones for Food Project - is Rogers Wireless’ national cell phone collection program. It was<br />
established in October 2004 to provide funds to food banks across Canada. Community groups, schools,<br />
municipalities or workplaces can set up a collection box for donated cell phones. When a collection box is<br />
full, it is sent to a central location where the cartridges and phones are sorted and sold to the<br />
remanufacturing industry. This industry turns them into refurbished products for consumers. Funds are<br />
raised for the local food banks through this process. 25<br />
The Wireless Source Canada - Through its Charitable Recycling Program, the Wireless Source Canada<br />
collects 40% of donated cell phones through donation drives set up by charities and community groups.<br />
These donation drives target individual donors who help the charity by donating their used cell phone and<br />
in turn, the charities receive financial compensation for each cell phone collected and brought to Wireless<br />
Source Canada. The remaining donations are acquired from manufacturers (10%), auctions/bids (20%)<br />
and dealers/brokers or special promotions (30%). Approximately 30% of donated cell phones originate<br />
from Ontario, with the remaining 70% coming from other provinces. All cell phones originating in the<br />
United States are collected through an affiliated program managed by The Wireless Foundation.<br />
Of the cell phones acquired by the Wireless Source Canada, approximately 50-70% can be refurbished<br />
for reuse. The remaining 30% are beyond economic repair and are recycled or have parts removed for<br />
reuse. All waste components are recycled including batteries, accessories (chargers, adaptors) and<br />
“beyond economic repair” handsets. 26<br />
3.6 <strong>Report</strong>ed <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Generation and Recovery Rates<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> batteries represent a small portion of the total solid waste stream. In a residential waste audit<br />
conducted in rural and urban locations in Manitoba in 2000, the household hazardous waste (HHW)<br />
stream accounted for less than one percent (0.63%) of the total residential waste stream. Batteries were<br />
counted as part of the HHW and made up almost one third (29%) of the HHW component. Extrapolating<br />
this to the entire residential waste stream, batteries accounted for estimated 0.17% of the residential<br />
waste stream. 27<br />
24<br />
Waste Diversion Ontario (WDO) June 2005. EEE Material Flow and WEEE Infrastructure<br />
25<br />
Waste Diversion Ontario (WDO) June 2005. EEE Material Flow and WEEE Infrastructure<br />
26<br />
Interview with Gord Weis, President. Wireless Canada. May 2005<br />
27<br />
Green Manitoba Eco Solutions. October 19, 2005. Discussion Paper: Household Hazardous Waste/HHW. Prepared for the<br />
Government of Manitoba<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 13 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 3.5 summarizes information collected from jurisdictions throughout the United States on consumer<br />
battery generation and recovery rates.<br />
Table 3.5: <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Consumption Rates for Selected North American Jurisdictions<br />
Location <strong>Report</strong>ed Consumption Rate Reference<br />
California Estimates that 14.7 units generated per capita in 2001 California Integrated Waste Management Board.<br />
August 2002. Household Universal Waste<br />
Generation in California<br />
US Almost 3 billion dry cell batteries annually (~10/capita) United States Environmental Protection Agency<br />
(USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management<br />
Legislation and Regulations at<br />
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/nonhw/muncpl/battery.htm<br />
US More than 350 million rechargeable batteries are purchased<br />
annually (1.2/capita)<br />
United States Environmental Protection Agency<br />
(USEPA). March 2002. The <strong>Battery</strong> Act,<br />
Enforcement Alert Newsletter<br />
US <strong>Consumer</strong>s purchase on average 10 batteries per year Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources,<br />
University of Nebraska, 1997<br />
US <strong>Consumer</strong>s discard an average of 8 primary batteries annually United States Environmental Protection Agency<br />
(USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management<br />
Legislation and Regulations at<br />
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/nonhw/muncpl/battery.htm<br />
The background to the estimates in the table is:<br />
• The California Integrated Waste Management Board estimated that approximately 507,259,000<br />
units of household batteries were sold in California in 2001, which averages 14.7 units per capita<br />
(34,600,463 population in 2001). 28<br />
• The USEPA estimates that Americans purchase on average almost three billion dry cell batteries<br />
annually, which averages almost ~10 units per capita (293,655,000 population in 2004) and<br />
discards eight dry-cell primary batteries per year. 29<br />
• The USEPA estimates that Americans purchased about 350 million rechargeable batteries in<br />
2001 which averages almost 1.2 units per capita (281, 422,000 population in 2001) 30<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Recovery Rates<br />
Limited information is available on reported recovery rates for consumer batteries. There is a general<br />
impression that the battery problem is under control in North America with the elimination of mercury in<br />
alkaline batteries, only trace amounts permitted in button cell batteries, and the voluntary collection of<br />
nickel cadmium batteries and other secondary batteries by industry through the Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong><br />
Recycling Corporation (RBRC). Information identified through the study research included:<br />
• The Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) reported collecting 172,307 pounds<br />
(78,157 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2002; 283,193 pounds (114,846<br />
kilograms) in 2003; 331,910 pounds (150,551 kilograms) in 2004 and 387,417 pounds (175,729<br />
kilograms) in 2005, but does not express this figure as a recovery rate (i.e. a ratio of batteries<br />
collected versus sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> marketplace) 31<br />
• Hennepin County, Minnesota has been collecting primary and secondary batteries since 1990<br />
and recording the quantities and types collected. Unfortunately, the County does not compare<br />
recovery rates with generation rates. In 2004, about 84% of batteries collected were alkaline and<br />
28<br />
California Integrated Waste Management Board. August 2002. Household Universal Waste Generation in California<br />
29<br />
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management Legislation and Regulations at<br />
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/battery.htm<br />
30<br />
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). March 2002. The <strong>Battery</strong> Act, Enforcement Alert Newsletter<br />
31 Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) website http://www.call2recycle.org/releases/PR_2_21_05.1.html<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 14 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
zinc carbon, less than 1% were button cell batteries, 6% were nickel cadmium, and less than 1 %<br />
were lithium ion and nickel metal hydride.<br />
3.7 <strong>Report</strong>ed European <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Generation and Recovery Rates<br />
The European Union <strong>Battery</strong> Directive (Directive 91/157/EEC) has been in place since 1991. The<br />
Directive specifies that batteries containing mercury, cadmium or lead should be collected separately.<br />
Austria was the first EU country to respond by mandating collection of all batteries in 1991, followed by<br />
the Netherlands in 1995, Belgium in 1997, and Germany in 1998. By 2003, an estimated 55% of the<br />
European Union battery market was managed through take-back regulations. 32<br />
Table 3.6 summarizes information on primary and secondary consumer battery generation and recovery<br />
rates for Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany, four European Countries that currently collect<br />
batteries, track data and maintain publicly available records. The generation and recovery rates address<br />
all portable batteries (primary and secondary) with the exception of lead-acid car batteries. The average<br />
European reportedly purchased 410 grams per capita per year of consumer batteries in 2002, with the<br />
consumer battery purchasing rate for individual countries ranging from 250 to 425 gram per capita per<br />
year. 33 This cannot be converted to the number of units because sufficient data on weight per unit for<br />
different battery sizes and chemistries is not available.<br />
Table 3.6: Average <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Generation and Recovery Rates In European Countries<br />
Country 2002<br />
Total Generation 32<br />
2000 34<br />
Recovery Rate<br />
2002 35<br />
Recovery Rate<br />
2003 36<br />
Recovery Rate<br />
Grams/capita Grams/capita Grams/capita Grams/capita<br />
Austria 405 177<br />
(43%)<br />
The Netherlands 365 116<br />
(32%)<br />
Belgium 384 205<br />
(53%)<br />
Germany 405 114<br />
(35%)<br />
32 th<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association. 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9 International<br />
Congress for <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling, June 2-4, 2004.<br />
33<br />
Bio Intelligence Service, July 2003. Impact Assessment on Selected Policy Options for Revision of the <strong>Battery</strong> Directive.<br />
Prepared for the European Commission by<br />
34<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association (EPBA) website at www.epbaeurope.net/Recycling_.html<br />
35<br />
European Commission. November 24, 2003. Commission Staff Working Paper: Directive of the European Parliament and of<br />
the Council on Batteries and Accumulators and Spendt Batteries and Accumulators, Extended Impact Assessment.<br />
36 th<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association. 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9 International<br />
Congress for <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling, June 2-4, 2004.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 15 May 2006<br />
179<br />
(44%)<br />
116<br />
(32%)<br />
228<br />
(59%)<br />
157<br />
(39%)<br />
179<br />
(44%)<br />
129<br />
(35%)<br />
239<br />
(62%)<br />
140<br />
(34%)
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
4. <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Sales and Model Assumptions<br />
In order to populate the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model (C2BFM) with data, a thorough search<br />
was conducted in Canada, the United States and Europe to identify the following relevant information:<br />
• Annual unit sales data by battery type;<br />
• Weight data by battery type;<br />
• Lifespan of different battery types;<br />
• The amount of time each battery type is likely to be held in storage (hoarded) before disposal;<br />
and<br />
• <strong>Report</strong>ed recycling rates for various jurisdictions.<br />
The research conducted for each information category is discussed in this section and summarized<br />
below.<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow (C2BFM) Model Assumptions<br />
Assumptions<br />
Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Weights Alkaline (ZnMnO2) - 28 grams<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) – 203 grams<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) - 27 grams<br />
Lithium- Ion (Li-ion) – 40 grams<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) – 33 grams<br />
Lithium-ion Polymer – 40 grams<br />
Lithium Primary -16 grams<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) – 93 grams<br />
Small Sealed Lead Acid (SSLA) – 1,045<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) – 1.2 grams<br />
Zinc air (ZNO2) – 0.9 grams<br />
grams<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> lifespan 3 year lifespan 5 year lifespan for NiCd, Li-ion and SSLA<br />
7 year lifespan for NiMH<br />
Hoarding of batteries before discard 30% hoarded for 5 years 60% hoarded for 5 years<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Reuse 0 reuse 0 reuse<br />
Recycling Rates 2% recycling rate after 1996 Recycling begins in 1997 with the launch of<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation<br />
(RBRC) in Canada. A recycling rate of 0% is<br />
used prior to 1997 and is assumed to have<br />
grown in a straight line from 1997 to 2003.<br />
Recovery tonnages identified by RBRC for<br />
2003 and 2004 weredivided by discarded<br />
tonnages estimated by the model to estimate<br />
the recycling rates for each of the secondary<br />
battery chemistries.<br />
An annual growth rate of 16.7% in the<br />
tonnage recovered (provided by RBRC for<br />
2005) is assumed from 2005 to 2010.<br />
4.1 Annual Sales of Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries<br />
In June 2004, Global Industry Analysts published a report titled “<strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries: A Global Strategic<br />
Business <strong>Report</strong>”. This report provided information on worldwide consumer battery markets, including a<br />
separate analysis for Canada. Global Industry Analysts, Inc. (GIA) was founded in 1987 and publishes<br />
off-the-shelf market research on most major industries. The company provides data and research to over<br />
5,000 companies including major battery brand owners and manufacturers. Information purchased from<br />
Global Industry Analysts is presented in Table 4.1.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 16 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 4.1: Annual Shipments of Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010<br />
(in Million Units) 37<br />
Global Industry Analysts (GIA)<br />
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 % CAGR 38<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 9.10 9.94 10.69 11.71 12.81 13.95 15.10 16.45 18.24 20.24 22.38 9.42<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 2.21 2.59 2.99 3.51 4.10 4.77 5.52 6.40 7.54 8.88 10.49 16.85<br />
Lithium Ion (LI-ion) 0.74 0.89 1.07 1.29 1.54 1.84 2.16 2.53 3.04 3.64 4.29 19.21<br />
Lithium Ion Polymer<br />
(Li-polymer)<br />
0.06 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.21 0.25 0.28 0.33 0.36 19.62<br />
Total 12.11 13.51 14.84 16.63 18.59 20.72 22.99 25.63 29.10 33.09 37.52 11.97<br />
2004 & 2005: GIA Estimates 2006-2010: GIA Projections (*) All figures are at the Manufacturer’s Level<br />
Annual sales figures for 2000 to 2003 were actual data collected by Global Industry Analysts (GIA) at the<br />
manufacturer level. Figures for 2004 and 2005 are GIA estimates. Figures for 2006 to 2010 are<br />
projections developed by GIA.<br />
GIA was unable to provide data for small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries. Instead, data from Japan<br />
and Germany on units of SSLA sold in 2004 were averaged on a per capita basis (0.355 units/capita in<br />
2003 and 0.34 units/capita in 2004) and extrapolated to the <strong>Canadian</strong> market as shown in Table 4.2. 39<br />
Since no relevant information could be found on future SSLA market trends, SSLA battery sales<br />
estimates from 2005 to 2010 were flat lined using 2004 data and battery sales estimates from 2000 to<br />
2003 were flat lined using 2003 data, see Table 4.2.<br />
Table 4.2: Estimated Annual Small Sealed Lead Acid <strong>Battery</strong> Sales in Canada for the Years 2000 through 2010<br />
(in million Units)<br />
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
SSLA 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09<br />
Note: SSLA battery sales were flatlined from 2000 to 2002 using 2003 sales estimates and from 2005 to 2010 using 2004 sales<br />
estimates<br />
Sources of SSLA data: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005. GRS Annual <strong>Report</strong>, Germany<br />
and <strong>Battery</strong> Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.html<br />
4.2 Primary <strong>Battery</strong> Sales Estimates<br />
No consolidated source of data on primary (non-rechargeable) consumer battery sales into the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
market was located during this study. A number of different sources of data (discussed in the following<br />
sections) were therefore used to develop primary consumer battery unit sales estimates for Canada and<br />
to project unit sales to 2010, presented in Table 4.3. Per capita sales of primary batteries from Japanese,<br />
French and German data were reviewed for applicability to the <strong>Canadian</strong> market. In the end, the German<br />
data was used due to the good availability of data and extrapolated to the <strong>Canadian</strong> population for<br />
different primary battery chemistries to estimate the number of units sold in Canada in 2004. 40 The<br />
37<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> units include individual batteries or battery packs of varying sizes and chemistries<br />
38<br />
CAGR = compound annual growth rate<br />
39<br />
Sources of SSLA data: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual <strong>Report</strong>, Germany<br />
and <strong>Battery</strong> Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.htm<br />
40<br />
Sources of data: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual <strong>Report</strong>, Germany<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.htm<br />
Agence do l’environnement et de la maitriese de l’Engerie. November 2003. Obserevatoire des piles et accumujlateurs: La<br />
situation en 2002.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 17 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
projected growth in battery unit sales was developed using the following information purchased from<br />
research houses:<br />
• Zinc carbon battery demand in Canada is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of<br />
2.31% to 2010 41<br />
• Alkaline primary battery demand in Canada is expected to grow at a compound annual growth<br />
rate of 7.26% to 2010 42<br />
• Zinc air primary battery sales are estimated at $US 135 million in 2004 and $US 185 million in<br />
2009 43<br />
• Silver oxide primary battery demand is expected to decrease from $US 68 million in 2004 to $US<br />
66 million in 2009 44<br />
• Primary lithium battery sales are expected to grow from $US 660 million in 2004 to $US 960<br />
million in 2009 45<br />
These sources only projected demand from 2004 onward and did not provide sales information prior to<br />
2004. For this reason, primary battery sales were provided from 2004 to 2010 only.<br />
Table 4.3: RIS International Estimates of Annual Primary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Sales in Canada By Chemistry Type<br />
2004 to 2010 (millions of units)<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
Cylindrical<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 81 83.0 84.9 86.9 89.0 91.3 93.8<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 310 331.7 355.8 381.9 410.1 440.7 473.9<br />
Zinc air (ZnO) 0.041 0.044 0.048 0.05 0.054 0.057 0.060<br />
Lithium primary 6 6.6 7.1 7.6 8.2 8.8 9.3<br />
Button Cell<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.5 10.4 10.4 10.3<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 23.0 24.7 26.4 28.1 29.9 31.6 33.2<br />
Total Units Sold<br />
430.5 456.7 484.9 515.1 547.7 582.8 620.7<br />
Sources of information: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual <strong>Report</strong><br />
Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries <strong>Report</strong><br />
Freedonia Group. May 2005. Batteries to 2009<br />
These estimates are approximate and can be updated at a future time if a source of primary consumer<br />
battery sales information is located.<br />
4.3 Comparison of <strong>Canadian</strong> Primary and Secondary <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Sales Estimates With<br />
Other Sources<br />
Per Capita Sales of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
The estimated unit sales of consumer batteries for Canada (presented in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3) are<br />
converted to per capita consumption rates in Table 4.4.<br />
41 Global Industry Analysts, June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
42 Global Industry Analysts, June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
43 Fredonia Group, May 2005, Batteries to 2009.<br />
44 Fredonia Group, May 2005, Batteries to 2009.<br />
45 Fredonia Group, May 2005, Batteries to 2009.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 18 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 4.4: Estimated Per Capita Consumption of Various Types of Primary and Secondary Batteries in Canada, 2004<br />
Estimated unit sales<br />
developed in this study<br />
for 2004<br />
(thousands of units)<br />
Estimated unit per<br />
capita<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 19 May 2006<br />
2004<br />
Average weight per<br />
unit<br />
(grams/unit)<br />
Average weight per<br />
capita<br />
(grams)<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 81,190 2.54 27 68.56<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 309,537 9.69 28 271.06<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 41 0.001 33 0.04<br />
Lithium Primary 6,049 0.19 16 3.03<br />
Button Cell<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 10,668 0.33 1 0.40<br />
Zinc air (ZNO2) 23,037 0.72 1 0.65<br />
Total Primary 430,522 13.48 343.74<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 12,810 0.4 203 81.33<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 4,100 0.1 93 11.93<br />
Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 1,540 0.05 40 1.93<br />
Lithium Ion Polymer<br />
(Li-polymer)<br />
140 0.004<br />
Small sealed lead acid (SSLA) 1,093 0.034 1045 35.72<br />
Total Secondary 19,683 0.59 131.08<br />
Total Batteries 450,205 14.07 474.81<br />
Information provided for various US jurisdictions indicates that Americans purchase between 10 – 15<br />
batteries per capita per year (see Table 4.5). The unit per capita estimate for Canada (at 14 units per<br />
capita) developed for this study is within the range identified for the United States.<br />
Table 4.5: Per Capita <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Consumption in the US<br />
Jurisdiction Annual <strong>Battery</strong> Demand in Units/capita Source<br />
California 14.7 units generated in 2001 California Integrated Waste Management<br />
Board. August 2002. Household Universal<br />
Waste Generation in California.<br />
US Almost 3 billion dry cell batteries annually (~10/capita) United States Environmental Protection Agency<br />
(USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management<br />
Legislation and Regulations at<br />
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/nonhw/muncpl/battery.htm<br />
US Over 350 million rechargeable batteries annually (~1.2/capita) United States Environmental Protection Agency<br />
(USEPA). March 2002. The <strong>Battery</strong> Act,<br />
Enforcement Alert Newsletter<br />
US <strong>Consumer</strong>s purchase on average 10 batteries per year Institute of Agriculture & Natural Resources,<br />
University of Nebraska, 1997<br />
40<br />
0.18
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Market Share of Different <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Types (By Chemistry)<br />
Table 4.6 presents a breakdown of estimated 2004 consumer battery sales in Canada by chemistry and<br />
type as a percentage, based on unit sales.<br />
Table 4.6: Breakdown of 2004 <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Sales Estimates As % of Primary and Secondary Segment<br />
and % of Total <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Market (expressed in thousands of units sold)<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type and Chemistry<br />
Primary<br />
Unit Sales<br />
(Thousands)<br />
% of Segment Unit Sales<br />
% of Total <strong>Battery</strong> Market<br />
Unit Sales<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 81,190 19% 18%<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 309,537 72% 69%<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 41 0.01% 0.01%<br />
Lithium Primary 6,049 1% 1%<br />
Button Cell-<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 10,668 2% 2%<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 23,037 5% 5%<br />
Primary Total 430,522 100% 96%<br />
Secondary 46<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 12,810 65% 3%<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 4,100 21% 1%<br />
Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 1,540 8% 0.34%<br />
Lithium Ion Polymer<br />
(Li-polymer)<br />
140 1% 0.03%<br />
Small sealed lead acid (SSLA) 1,093 6% 0.24%<br />
Secondary Total 19,683 100% 4%<br />
Total All <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries 450,205 100%<br />
The table shows that primary batteries dominate the sales of batteries (by units), accounting for 96% of<br />
the units sold in 2004. Alkaline batteries represent the largest number of units sold for an individual<br />
battery type, at 69% of all estimated consumer battery sales in 2004. Secondary batteries account for a<br />
small portion of the market share at only 4% of the total number of units sold in 2004, with sales of nickel<br />
cadmium batteries representing almost 70% of the secondary market share.<br />
No North American sources were identified for comparison, however the following data were located in<br />
UK and European references:<br />
• British Batteries Manufacturers Association reports that 89% of the batteries purchased in the UK<br />
in 2001 were general purpose batteries (primary) of which 69% of purchased batteries were<br />
alkaline and 24% were zinc carbon 47 ;<br />
46 Source: Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries <strong>Report</strong><br />
47 British <strong>Battery</strong> Manufacture’s Association. No date. <strong>Battery</strong> Storage at http://www. bbma.co.uk/introduction.htm<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 20 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
• The European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association reports that alkaline batteries represented 62% of unit<br />
sales in 2002, with zinc carbon representing 23%, rechargeables representing 8% and button<br />
cells representing 6% of unit sales in 2002. At 92% of unit sales primary batteries dominate the<br />
battery market. 48<br />
The estimates developed for this study and presented in Table 4.4 fall within the range of the reported<br />
European market share data.<br />
4.4 <strong>Battery</strong> Weight Data<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> weight data were needed to estimate the tonnage of batteries sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> market each<br />
year. While battery manufacturers provided detailed tables containing dimensional data (i.e. weight and<br />
height) for each manufactured battery size (e.g. AA, AAA, etc.) , very little information was found on the<br />
average weights for different battery chemistry groupings for which sales data were available (e.g. nickel<br />
cadmium, carbon zinc, etc) .<br />
Several reports and sources were identified which provided information on individual weights for different<br />
battery sizes:<br />
• “Environmental Impacts of Household <strong>Battery</strong> Use in Canada” developed by the Institute for Risk<br />
Research, University of Waterloo in 1997 provided information on average battery weight by<br />
primary and secondary battery type and size 49 ;<br />
• “Risk Assessment” prepared for the Belgium Federal Department of the Environment in May,<br />
2003 focused on assessing the risks of cadmium used in NiCd batteries over different life cycle<br />
stages such as manufacturing, recycling and disposal 50 ; and<br />
• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) on OEM websites.<br />
Weights from battery manufacturers were also used. The information is summarized in Table 4.7.<br />
48 th<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association. 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9 International<br />
Congress for <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling, June 2-4, 2004<br />
49<br />
Institute for Risk Research. January 1997. Environmental Impacts of Household <strong>Battery</strong> Use in Canada. <strong>Report</strong> 34. Prepared<br />
for the <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association.<br />
50<br />
Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment: Cadmium (oxide) as used in Batteries<br />
(response to final draft)<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 21 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 4.7: Available <strong>Battery</strong> Unit Weight Information By <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry<br />
Institute for Risk<br />
Research<br />
(January 1997)<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type<br />
Primary <strong>Battery</strong><br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Size Average Weight<br />
(grams)<br />
Belgium Federal<br />
Dept. of the<br />
Environment<br />
(May 2003)<br />
Average Weight<br />
(grams)<br />
Review of <strong>Battery</strong> MSDS<br />
for Energizer (E)<br />
Duracell (D)<br />
Rayovac (R)<br />
Average Weight<br />
(grams)<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) AAA 11.0 11.5 Energizer<br />
11 Duracell & Rayovac<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) and<br />
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl)<br />
AA 23.0 23 Energizer<br />
24 Duracell<br />
23 Rayovac<br />
C 68.0 66.2 Energizer<br />
65 Duracell<br />
70 Rayovac<br />
D 135.0 141.9 Energizer<br />
138 Duracell<br />
144 Rayovac<br />
9 volt 46.0 45.6 Energizer<br />
45 Duracell<br />
45.4 Rayovac<br />
AAA 8.7 9 Duracell<br />
9 Rayovac<br />
AA 16.5 19 Duracell<br />
18.4 Rayovac<br />
C 44.0 50.5 Duracell<br />
50 Rayovac<br />
D 91.5 104 Duracell<br />
97 Rayovac<br />
9 volt 36.0 37 Duracell<br />
42.5 Rayovac<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 33 Energizer<br />
Lithium Primary<br />
Button Cell<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2)<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2)<br />
Secondary <strong>Battery</strong><br />
17.2 3-40 Energizer<br />
3.3-17 Duracell<br />
1.2 0.12-2.55 Energizer<br />
0.23-2.3 Duracell<br />
0.9 0.2-1.9 Energizer<br />
0.17-1.8 Duracell<br />
Review of <strong>Battery</strong><br />
MSDS for Sanyo<br />
Panasonic<br />
Toshiba<br />
Average Weight<br />
(grams)<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) general 10-700<br />
AAA 9.4 12.0 11.0<br />
AA 23.5 22.0 23.0<br />
C 54.5 75.0 77.6<br />
D 67.5 145.0 150.8<br />
9 volt 40.0 35.0<br />
Power pack 20-450<br />
1800 mHh 280.0<br />
3000 mHh 322.5<br />
Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 11.5-46.5<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) general 163.7 9-178<br />
AA 24.75<br />
AAA 12.5<br />
C 80<br />
D 173.25<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 22 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Annual battery recovery reports from Germany and France provided tonnage and unit battery sales for<br />
different battery types. The data was used to generate average weights by battery type (see Tables 4.8<br />
and 4.9) by dividing total units recovered by total reported weights.<br />
Primary<br />
Secondary<br />
Table 4.8 : Average <strong>Battery</strong> Weight By Chemistry Calculated from French Data (2002)<br />
Units sold (2002) <strong>Report</strong>ed Weight (kg)<br />
Calculated<br />
g/unit<br />
Mercuric Oxide(HgO) 579,893 1,700 3<br />
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl) 119,404,269 5,720,000 48<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 416,987,943 13,462,000 32<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 24,345,121 487,000 20<br />
Lithium Primary 25,910,983 209,000 8<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 19,745,639 4,010,000 203<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 17,926,343 901,000 50<br />
Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 14,593,719 590,000 40<br />
Source: Agence do l’environnement et de la maitriese de l’Engerie. November 2003. Obserevatoire des piles et<br />
accumujlateurs: La situation en 2002.<br />
Table 4.9: Average <strong>Battery</strong> Weight Data By Chemistry Calculated Using German Data (2003 and 2004)<br />
Germany 2003 2004<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Units Sold<br />
Primary<br />
<strong>Report</strong>ed weight<br />
(kg)<br />
Calculated<br />
g/unit<br />
Units Sold<br />
<strong>Report</strong>ed weight<br />
(kg)<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 243,332,000 6,727,965 28 209,673,000 5,633,383 27<br />
Alkaline (AlMn)* 724,903,000 19,341,076 27 799,377,000 20,770,657 26<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 372,000 60,550 163 107,000 56,622 529<br />
Lithium Primary 17,207,000 286,023 17 15,624,000 250,585 16<br />
Button Cell<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 28,163,000 41,423 1.5 27,552,000 36,007 1.3<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 52,068,000 45,974 0.9 59,495,000 51,291 0.9<br />
Secondary<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 29,388,000 1,967,345 67 21,109,000 2,027,977 96<br />
Lithium Ion (Li-ion) 15,548,000 1,327,917 85 23,196,000 1,736,833 75<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 56,742,000 1,494,720 26 55,281,000 1,483,017 27<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 23 May 2006<br />
Calculated<br />
g/unit<br />
Small Sealed Lead Acid<br />
655,000 664,538 1,015 904,000 971,691 1,075<br />
(SSLA)<br />
* as reported in German documents<br />
Source: Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual <strong>Report</strong>, Germany
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
The various sources of data on battery weight were used to create average unit weights by battery<br />
chemistry. The values used in the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model are shown in Table 4.10.<br />
Where the reported battery unit weights from different sources varied considerably, the average weight<br />
was used. In several instances only one source of battery weight was identified, and this value was used<br />
until other sources of data are identified.<br />
Table 4.10<br />
Unit Weights Applied to All Units Within <strong>Battery</strong> Chemistry Groupings in the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Weight Range from<br />
Various Sources<br />
(grams)<br />
Average Weight Used<br />
in Model<br />
(grams)<br />
Source of Weight<br />
Used in Model<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 26-32 28 Average of France and Germany<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 27-28 27 Germany<br />
Zinc air (ZnO2) 33 33 One data source<br />
Lithium Primary 3-40 16 Mean of data<br />
Silver Oxide (ZnAgO2) 0.12-2.5 1.2 Averaging of data<br />
Zinc air (ZNO2) 0.9 Mean of data<br />
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) 11-450 203 Average of France (all)<br />
Lithium- Ion (LI-ion) 11-75 40 Average of France (all)<br />
Lithium-ion Polymer<br />
(Li-polymer)<br />
Nickel Metal Hydride<br />
(NiMH)<br />
Small Sealed Lead Acid<br />
(SSLA)<br />
* weights not available, therefore, used lithium ion weights<br />
11-75* 40 Average of France (all)<br />
9-178 93 Averaging of data<br />
1015-1075 1045 Average of Germany<br />
Sources: Institute for Risk Research. January 1997. Environmental Impacts of Household <strong>Battery</strong> Use in Canada. <strong>Report</strong> 34.<br />
Prepared for <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association<br />
Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual <strong>Report</strong>, Germany<br />
Agence do l’environnement et de la maitriese de l’Engerie. November 2003. Obserevatoire des piles et accumujlateurs: La<br />
situation en 2002.<br />
Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment: Cadmium (oxide) as used in Batteries<br />
Review of <strong>Battery</strong> MSDS for Energizer (E), Duracell (D), Rayovac (R), Sanyo, Panasonic, Toshiba<br />
4.5 <strong>Battery</strong> Lifespan<br />
The lifespan of all batteries is linked to the capacity of the battery (e.g. in Ampere hours) and the amount<br />
of current (Amperes) drawn from the battery by the device which it powers. Temperature, humidity and<br />
other environmental factors also have an impact on battery lifespan. Unlike secondary batteries, the<br />
capacity of primary batteries cannot be replenished (or recharged) after being drained and therefore they<br />
possess a longer useful lifespan than their primary battery counterparts. Secondary batteries can be<br />
recharged a variety of times depending on the battery chemistry. The recharging cycles vary depending<br />
on use and application. However, various battery charging behaviours (recharging a battery before it is<br />
full discharged) considerably shorten the battery life (depending on the battery).<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 24 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Various European reports have made the following assumptions about battery lifespans:<br />
• Three years for general purpose batteries (UK) 51 ;<br />
• 1 to 5 years for a nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery (Belgium) 52 ;<br />
• 4-5 years for a nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery (IEE) 53 ;<br />
• 3 years for zinc Air (ZnO2) batteries (Duracell). 54<br />
In a report prepared for the European Commission 55 the following lifespans were used for different battery<br />
types:<br />
• Three years for general purpose primary battery (i.e. alkaline, zinc carbon);<br />
• Three years for button cell batteries;<br />
• Three years for all other primary batteries;<br />
• Five years for nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries;<br />
• Seven years for nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries<br />
• Five years for lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries;<br />
• Five years for small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries.<br />
The following assumptions were used in the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model, and the lifespans<br />
for NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion batteries were confirmed by the <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association<br />
(CHBA) and the Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) during a review meeting held on 3<br />
February, 2006 with Environment Canada staff:<br />
• an average three year lifespan for primary batteries;<br />
• an average five years lifespan for NiCd and Li-ion batteries;<br />
• an average seven year lifespan for NiMH batteries;<br />
• an average five year lifespan for SSLA batteries.<br />
The <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model is designed so that it is easy to change lifespan<br />
assumptions as new information becomes available.<br />
4.6 <strong>Battery</strong> Reuse<br />
Although the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model accounts for reuse of a battery after its first life<br />
(when its first owner discards it), this value has been set at zero since the research carried out for this<br />
study did not identify any noteworthy reuse activities taking place at this time. This reuse term is not<br />
related to the number of recharges that may occur for secondary batteries. The recharging life of<br />
secondary batteries has been factored into the battery lifespan value (see section 4.5).<br />
It has been assumed for preliminary estimates that batteries are generally fully used or dead when<br />
discarded, and that reuse of batteries (by a second owner) is zero. This is different to the flow of<br />
electronics, where reuse of a TV or computer can provide the unit with a second useful life.<br />
The C2BFM model is structured so that this value can be changed at a future time if additional research<br />
comes to light which would alter the assumptions used. For example, in the future a process may<br />
become viable that would take spent batteries and re-manufacture them for reuse in which case the zero<br />
value would need to be altered to reflect the new reuse opportunities.<br />
51 UK Department of Trade and Industry, August 2002. Batteries<br />
52 Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment.<br />
53 Institution of Electrical Engineers. June 2004. Recycling of Batteries<br />
54 Duracell report that it is best to use zinc air batteries within 3 years of manufacture<br />
55 Bio Intelligence Service, July 2003. Impact Assessment on Selected Policy Options for Revision of the <strong>Battery</strong> Directive,<br />
Prepared for the European Commission, Directorate General Environment<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 25 May 2006
4.7 <strong>Battery</strong> Hoarding<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Hoarding (or storage) refers to the fact that consumers often store or hoard products (particularly<br />
electronics-related products) for a period of time before finally discarding them. Also referred to as<br />
hoarding and clearance rates, a number of reports attempted to estimate and identify hoarding rates for<br />
consumer batteries:<br />
• The hoarding rate for portable NiCd developed for the Belgium Federal Department of the<br />
Environment assumed a very slow clearance rate of only 5% after five years (after sale), 33%<br />
after 15 years with the remaining 62% being cleared by 25 years. 56<br />
• The NiCd industry in Europe claims that 65-95% of portable NiCd batteries sold over the last 10<br />
years are still being hoarded. 57<br />
• The hoarding rate assumption used for primary (non-rechargeable) batteries is 30% and 60% for<br />
secondary (rechargeable) batteries in a report prepared for the European Commission. 58<br />
In its report, the Belgium Federal Department of the Environment acknowledges that “since both battery<br />
lifetime and hoarding behaviour are difficult to assess, calculating the amount available for collection will<br />
thus be subject to an error proportional to the uncertainty over these parameters” (May 2003, pg 71).<br />
For the purpose of the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model, it has been assumed that 30% of<br />
primary batteries and 60% of secondary batteries are hoarded (stored) after the end of their operational<br />
life. In both cases it has been assumed that the batteries are hoarded for 5 years and are then discarded.<br />
4.8 Assumed Recycling Rates for Primary and Secondary Batteries<br />
Information on recycling rates for primary and secondary batteries vary considerably from country to<br />
country depending on the degree to which a recovery program has been implemented. In the case of<br />
Canada, the RBRC voluntary program is the only national battery recovery program available. With the<br />
exception of household hazardous waste (HHW) programs offered by municipalities, few public or private<br />
sector programs target consumer battery collection. Other programs in a similar situation as Canada (i.e.<br />
United Kingdom in 1999 and United States) reported low recovery rates:<br />
• The United Kingdom reported recycling rates for consumer secondary batteries of less than two<br />
percent in 1999 59 increasing to 5% for rechargeable batteries in 2001 60 ; and<br />
• Raymond Communications has sourced recycling rates of less one percent. 61<br />
For the purpose of the model a recycling rate of 2% was used for primary batteries, to reflect the current<br />
situation where virtually no recycling takes place.<br />
For secondary batteries, the recycling rate was calculated by dividing the weight of secondary batteries<br />
recovered for 2003 to 2005 (provided by RBRC) by the amount of secondary batteries discarded<br />
(calculated by C2BFM) in each of these years. Future recycling rates were calculated by dividing RBRC<br />
projected tonnages recovered for each year from 2006 to 2010 by the amounts of batteries to be<br />
discarded in each of these years (calculated by C2BFM).<br />
56 Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment<br />
57 Commission of the European Communities, November 2003. Draft Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council<br />
on Batteries and Accumulators and Spent Batteries and Accumulators (2003) 723<br />
58 Bio Intelligence Service. July 2003. Impact Assessment on Selected Policy Options for Revision of the <strong>Battery</strong> Directive.<br />
Prepared for the European Commission, Directorate General Environment<br />
59 Department of Trade and Industry, United Kingdom. August 2002. Batteries<br />
60 The Institution of Electrical Engineers. June 2004. Recycling of Batteries<br />
61 Raymond Communications. 2005. <strong>Battery</strong> Recovery Laws Worldwide – Update Edition<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 26 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
RBRC provided information on the tonnage by battery chemistry collected in Canada in 2003 and 2004,<br />
through personal contact between Environment Canada and RBRC in the US (refer to Table 3.4). Total<br />
recovered tonnages for 2002 to 2005 in Canada were provided by the <strong>Canadian</strong> RBRC representative.<br />
The Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) reported collecting:<br />
• 172,307 pounds (78,157 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2002;<br />
• 283,193 pounds (114,846 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2003;<br />
• 331,910 pounds (150,551 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2004; and<br />
• 387,417 pounds (175,729 kilograms) of rechargeable batteries in Canada in 2005. 62<br />
The average percentage breakdown for each secondary battery chemistries was applied to the 2002 to<br />
2005 total recovered tonnages to estimate annual tonnage recovered for different battery types.<br />
Table 4.11 presents the recycling rate estimates for each year and each secondary battery chemistry<br />
using the approach described above. Lithium ion and lithium polymer batteries are combined for the<br />
lithium battery category. The “discarded” tonnages were estimated by the C2BFM model using the sales<br />
data presented earlier in this section, in Table 4.1, and assumptions on battery lifespan, hoarding and unit<br />
weight presented throughout this section. Recycling rate is the recycled tonnage (RBRC) divided by<br />
discarded tonnage (C2BFM).<br />
The recycling rate for rechargeable batteries was assumed to be zero in 1996, before RBRC was<br />
established. It was assumed that it grew in a straight line from zero in 1996 to the recovery rate calculated<br />
for 2002 (weight recovered divided by weight discarded). The recycling tonnage for secondary batteries<br />
was assumed to grow by 16.7% annually from 2005 to 2010 (the reported increase from 2004 to 2005,<br />
reported by RBRC).<br />
2002<br />
discard<br />
2002<br />
recycled<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2002<br />
recycling<br />
rate<br />
(by<br />
weight)<br />
Table 4.11: Recycling Rate Estimates for Secondary Batteries<br />
2003<br />
discard<br />
2003<br />
recycled<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2003<br />
recycling<br />
rate<br />
(by<br />
weight)<br />
2004<br />
discard<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2004<br />
recycled<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2004<br />
recycling<br />
rate<br />
(by<br />
weight)<br />
2005<br />
discard<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2005<br />
recycled<br />
(tonnes)<br />
NiCd 1625 69 4.2% 1661 100.8 6.1% 1,697 132.2 7.8% 1,751 154.3 8.8%<br />
NiMH 74 4 5.2% 75 5.6 7.5% 112 7.4 6.6% 150 8.6 5.7%<br />
Lithium<br />
Ion &<br />
Lithium<br />
Polymer<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 27 May 2006<br />
2005<br />
recycling<br />
rate<br />
(by<br />
weight)<br />
12 2 13.6% 12 2.4 19.6% 18 3.2 17.3% 25 3.7 14.6%<br />
SSLA 712 4 0.6% 949 5.9 0.6% 1,186 7.8 0.7% 1,186 9.1 0.8%<br />
Total 2422 78 3.2% 2,697 114.8 4.3% 3,013 150.5 5.0% 3,112 175.7 5.6%<br />
* Sources of recycling tonnages provided by Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC)<br />
Output sheets from the C2BFM model are presented in Appendix B to this report<br />
62 Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) website http://www.call2recycle.org/releases/PR_2_21_05.1.html
5. <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Estimates<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
The assumptions used to develop consumer battery flow estimates were described in Section 4. This<br />
section describes the estimated flow of consumer batteries in Canada calculated by the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model (C2BFM) developed for this project.<br />
5.1 Batteries Sold in Canada<br />
Table 5.1 shows the estimated number of different types of consumer batteries sold (referred to as units)<br />
into the <strong>Canadian</strong> market for the years 2001 to 2010. The methodology used to develop these estimates<br />
is described in Section 4.<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
Table 5.1 <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Sold Into the <strong>Canadian</strong> Market, 2001 to 2010 (Thousands of Units)<br />
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
Zinc Carbon 75,290 77,204 79,139 81,190 82,961 84,860 86,880 89,034 91,340 93,789<br />
Alkaline 256,346 276,240 297,372 309,537 331,762 355,816 381,898 410,119 440,715 473,944<br />
Zinc Air 33 36 39 41 44 48 51 53 57 60<br />
Lithium 4,750 5,228 5,719 6,049 6,594 7,139 7,683 8,228 8,772 9,317<br />
Subtotal Primary Cylindrical Batteries 336,419 358,708 382,269 396,817 421,361 447,863 476,512 507,434 540,884 577,110<br />
Primary Button Cell Batteries<br />
Silver Oxide Button Cell 10,857 10,794 10,732 10,668 10,607 10,545 10,483 10,421 10,359 10,297<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 18,464 20,060 21,679 23,037 24,743 26,447 28,152 29,857 31,562 33,267<br />
Subtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 29,320 30,855 32,411 33,705 35,350 36,992 38,635 40,278 41,921 43,564<br />
Subtotal Primary Batteries 365,740 389,563 414,680 430,522 456,711 484,855 515,147 547,712 582,805 620,674<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 9,940 10,690 11,710 12,810 13,950 15,100 16,450 18,240 20,240 22,380<br />
NiMH 2,590 2,990 3,510 4,100 4,770 5,520 6,400 7,540 8,880 10,490<br />
Lithium Ion 890 1,070 1,290 1,540 1,840 2,160 2,530 3,040 3,640 4,290<br />
Lithium Polymer 90 90 120 140 160 210 250 280 330 360<br />
SSLA 1,135 1,135 1,135 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093 1,093<br />
Subtotal Secondary Batteries 14,645 15,975 17,765 19,683 21,813 24,083 26,723 30,193 34,183 38,613<br />
Total Primary Plus Secondary 380,385 405,538 432,445 450,205 478,524 508,938 541,870 577,905 616,988 659,287<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 28 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Number of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Sold Into <strong>Canadian</strong> Market, 2004<br />
The year 2004 is being used as the baseline in this study. In 2004, an estimated 450 million consumer<br />
batteries were sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> marketplace. Of this total, 430.5 million units were primary<br />
batteries, and 19.7 million were secondary batteries. Within the primary battery category, cylindrical<br />
batteries made up the bulk of the units sold, at 396.8 million units. Within the cylindrical category, alkaline<br />
(ZnMnO2) batteries made up the lion’s share, at 309.5 million units, followed by zinc carbon (ZnC)<br />
batteries at 81.2 million units.<br />
An estimated 33.7 million button cell primary batteries were sold in 2004. In the button cell category, zinc<br />
air (ZnO2) batteries accounted for 70% of sales (at 23 million units), with silver oxide (AgO) button cells<br />
making up about 30% of unit sales, at 10.7 million units sold in 2004.<br />
In the secondary consumer battery category, nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries account for 65% (12.8<br />
million of the 19.7 million) of units sold in 2004. An estimated 4.1 million nickel metal hydride (NiMH)<br />
batteries were sold in 2004. Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries made up a small percentage of the total at 1.54<br />
million units sold in 2004 as did small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries at 1.1 million units sold in 2004.<br />
Lithium polymer (Li-polymer) accounted for a very small fraction of the total at 140,000 units sold in 2004.<br />
Looking out to 2010, the breakdown of secondary battery sales is expected to change considerably.<br />
Total units sold are expected to increase to 38.6 million units by 2010, compared to 19.7 million units sold<br />
in 2004. While overall nickel cadmium (NiCd) sales will continue to increase, their share of the market will<br />
be considerably lower by 2010, when they will account for 58% of secondary battery sales (from current<br />
65%).<br />
Weight of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Sold Into <strong>Canadian</strong> Market in 2004<br />
The estimated weight of consumer batteries sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> market between 2001 and 2010 is<br />
presented in Table 5.2. The weight was estimated by applying average unit weights for battery chemistry<br />
groupings found in the literature (and described in Section 4) to the estimated total units in Table 5.1.<br />
For 2004, Table 5.2 shows that the 450 million consumer batteries sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> marketplace<br />
weighed an estimated 15,182 tonnes. Of this total, most (10,991 tonnes) were primary batteries and<br />
4,191 tonnes were secondary consumer batteries. Within the primary battery category, alkaline<br />
(ZnMnO2) batteries made up most of the weight, at 8,667 tonnes, followed by zinc carbon (ZnC) batteries,<br />
at 2,192 tonnes. In the secondary battery category, most of the battery weight sold into the market was<br />
nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries, at 2,600 tonnes.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 29 May 2006
Primary Batteries<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.2 Estimated Weight of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Sold Into the <strong>Canadian</strong> Market, 2001 to 2010 (tonnes)<br />
kg/unit 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 2,033 2,085 2,137 2,192 2,240 2,291 2,346 2,404 2,466 2,532<br />
Alkaline 0.028 7,178 7,735 8,326 8,667 9,289 9,963 10,693 11,483 12,340 13,270<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2<br />
Lithium 0.016 76 84 92 97 106 114 123 132 140 149<br />
Subtotal Primary Cylindrical Batteries 9,288 9,904 10,556 10,957 11,636 12,370 13,164 14,021 14,948 15,954<br />
Primary Button Cell Batteries<br />
Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 17 18 20 21 22 24 25 27 28 30<br />
Subtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 30 31 32 34 35 36 38 39 41 42<br />
Subtotal Primary Batteries 9,317 9,935 10,588 10,991 11,671 12,406 13,201 14,060 14,989 15,996<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 0.203 2,018 2,170 2,377 2,600 2,832 3,065 3,339 3,703 4,109 4,543<br />
NiMH 0.093 241 278 326 381 444 513 595 701 826 976<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 36 43 52 62 74 86 101 122 146 172<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 4 4 5 6 6 8 10 11 13 14<br />
SSLA 1.045 1,186 1,186 1,186 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142 1,142<br />
Subtotal Secondary Batteries 3,484 3,681 3,946 4,191 4,498 4,816 5,188 5,679 6,236 6,847<br />
Total Primary Plus Secondary 12,801 13,616 14,534 15,182 16,169 17,222 18,389 19,739 21,225 22,843<br />
5.2 Batteries Discarded Annually in Canada<br />
The <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model (C2BFM) was used to estimate the number and weight of<br />
batteries discarded (recycled and disposed) in Canada each year. The model combines the following<br />
information:<br />
• Annual sales (in units);<br />
• Estimated weight of batteries sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> market (units multiplied by assumed<br />
weights);<br />
• Average lifespan of different battery types (assumed to be three years for primary batteries and<br />
five or seven years for secondary batteries, depending on the chemistry);<br />
• Hoarding of batteries before being discarded;<br />
• Fate of batteries when discarded (recycled, disposed).<br />
It was assumed that:<br />
• no consumer batteries are reused after their first owner discards them (note that recharging<br />
rechargeable batteries is already counted as part of the service life of a secondary battery; reuse<br />
means use after first life);<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 30 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
• 30% of primary batteries are hoarded for 5 years, and are then discarded;<br />
• 60% of secondary batteries are hoarded for 5 years, and are then discarded.<br />
The C2BFM model combines all of these factors to estimate the amount of batteries recycled and<br />
discarded each year. Table 5.3 presents the estimated number of units discarded each year from 2001 to<br />
2010.<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
Table 5.3: <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal) in Canada 2001 to 2010 (thousands of units)<br />
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
Zinc Carbon 67,748 69,341 70,982 72,805 74,625 76,444 78,265 80,103 82,009 84,002<br />
Alkaline 189,699 202,783 217,473 233,945 251,769 268,032 285,356 303,962 326,520 350,788<br />
Zinc Air 22 24 26 29 32 35 37 40 43 46<br />
Lithium 3,013 3,346 3,712 4,151 4,605 5,020 5,453 5,904 6,423 6,947<br />
Subtotal Primary Cylindrical Batteries 260,482 275,494 292,194 310,930 331,031 349,530 369,111 390,008 414,995 441,784<br />
Primary Button Cell Batteries<br />
Silver Oxide Button Cell 7,098 8,134 9,104 9,423 9,666 10,104 10,441 10,699 10,637 10,575<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 12,264 13,482 14,805 16,322 17,868 19,341 20,850 22,389 24,053 25,724<br />
SubSubtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 19,362 21,616 23,909 25,745 27,534 29,445 31,291 33,088 34,690 36,299<br />
SubSubtotal Primary Batteries 279,844 297,110 316,103 336,675 358,565 378,974 400,403 423,097 449,685 478,084<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 7,828 8,004 8,181 8,358 8,625 8,971 9,432 9,928 10,475 11,171<br />
NiMH 776 793 811 1,209 1,615 2,030 2,118 2,255 2,455 2,684<br />
Lithium Ion 271 278 284 423 582 767 850 946 1,057 1,209<br />
Lithium Polymer 22 23 23 34 50 65 74 81 91 110<br />
SSLA 454 681 908 1,135 1,135 1,135 1,135 1,129 1,124 1,118<br />
Subtotal Secondary Batteries 9,351 9,778 10,206 11,158 12,007 12,968 13,608 14,338 15,203 16,292<br />
Total Primary Plus Secondary 289,195 306,889 326,310 347,833 370,571 391,942 414,011 437,435 464,888 494,376<br />
Table 5.3 shows that an estimated 348 million consumer batteries were discarded in 2004. Of this total,<br />
337 million units were primary consumer batteries and over 11.2 million units were secondary consumer<br />
batteries. Most of the primary batteries discarded were alkaline (ZnMnO2) batteries (about 234.0 million<br />
units discarded in 2004), followed by carbon zinc (ZnC) batteries (73 million units discarded). Button cell<br />
batteries accounted for 25.7 million units discarded in 2004. Most of the secondary consumer batteries<br />
discarded in 2004 were nickel cadmium (NiCd) (8.4 million units), followed by nickel metal hydride (NiMH)<br />
units (about 1.2 million units) and SSLA’s at 1.1 million units. The SSLA estimates are considered a soft<br />
number. No research could be identified on trends in SSLA sales over time, therefore a flatline sales<br />
assumption of 1.135 million units per year has been assumed, based on one year of data.<br />
Projections presented in Table 5.3 show that by 2010, the total annual consumer battery discards will<br />
have increased to 494 million units, of which most (478 million units) will still be primary consumer<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 31 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
batteries. The significant increase in primary consumer battery usage is attributed to the increased<br />
availability of toys and other products which will require portable power. By 2010, the number of<br />
secondary batteries discarded will increase from 11.1 million units discarded in 2004 to 16.3 million units<br />
discarded in 2010. Most of the discarded units in 2010 will be nickel cadmium (11.2 million units),<br />
followed by nickel metal hydride (NiMH) at 2.7 million units. Discards of lithium batteries (lithium ion and<br />
lithium polymer) will total about 1.2 million units, and an estimated 1.1 million units of SSLA’s.<br />
Table 5.4 presents estimates of the tonnage of consumer batteries discarded in Canada each year from<br />
2001 to 2010. Looking at 2004 as the baseline year for this study, an estimated 11,623 tonnes of<br />
consumer batteries were discarded. Most of this tonnage was primary batteries, at 8,610 tonnes. An<br />
estimated 3,013 tonnes were secondary consumer batteries, most of which were SSLA’s (1,186 tonnes)<br />
and nickel cadmium (NiCd) units (1,697 tonnes). By 2010, the tonnage discarded is expected to increase<br />
to 15,977 tonnes, of which 12,239 tonnes are primary consumer batteries and 3,736 tonnes are<br />
secondary consumer batteries. Within the secondary battery category, nickel cadmium batteries will<br />
account for most of the secondary rechargeable units discarded, at 2,268 tonnes of the 3,738 tonne total<br />
and small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries will remain second largest at 1,168 tonnes.<br />
Table 5.4: Estimated Weight of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Discarded (Available for Recycling and Disposal) in Canada 2001 to 2010<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
kg/unit 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 1,829 1,872 1,917 1,966 2,015 2,064 2,113 2,163 2,214 2,268<br />
Alkaline 0.028 5,312 5,678 6,089 6,550 7,050 7,505 7,990 8,511 9,143 9,822<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5<br />
Lithium 0.016 48 54 59 66 74 80 87 94 103 111<br />
Subtotal Primary Cylindrical Batteries 7,190 7,604 8,066 8,584 9,139 9,650 10,192 10,769 11,461 12,203<br />
Primary Button Cell Batteries<br />
Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 13<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 11 12 13 15 16 17 19 20 22 23<br />
Subtotal Primary Button Cell Batteries 20 22 24 26 28 30 31 33 34 36<br />
Subtotal Primary Batteries 7,209 7,626 8,090 8,610 9,167 9,680 10,223 10,802 11,495 12,239<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 0.203 1,589 1,625 1,661 1,697 1,751 1,821 1,915 2,015 2,126 2,268<br />
NiMH 0.093 72 74 75 112 150 189 197 210 228 250<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 11 11 11 17 23 31 34 38 42 48<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.2 3.6 4.4<br />
SSLA 1.045 474 712 949 1,186 1,186 1,186 1,186 1,180 1,174 1,168<br />
Subtotal Secondary Batteries 2,147 2,422 2,697 3,013 3,112 3,229 3,335 3,446 3,575 3,738<br />
Total Primary Plus Secondary 9,357 10,049 10,787 11,623 12,279 12,909 13,557 14,249 15,070 15,977<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 32 May 2006
5.3 Flow of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries in 2004<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.5 presents the estimated flows of consumer batteries through various parts of the battery supply<br />
chain in 2004. It should be noted that the batteries discarded in 2004 were sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> market<br />
a few years earlier, as discards always lag behind sales. Table 5.5 shows that in 2004, an estimated 348<br />
million consumer batteries were discarded (i.e. available for recycling and disposal). An estimated 337<br />
million units were primary batteries and 11.2 million secondary batteries were discarded. The discarded<br />
batteries weighed an estimated 11,623 tonnes (8,610 tonnes of primary consumer batteries and 3,013<br />
tonnes of secondary batteries).<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
kg/unit<br />
Table 5.5: Estimated Flow of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units in Canada, 2004<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
Sold Discarded Recycled Disposed<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 33 May 2006<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 81,190 2,192 72,805 1,966 1,456 39 71,349 1,926<br />
Alkaline 0.028 309,537 8,667 233,945 6,550 4,679 131 229,266 6,419<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 41 1 29 1.0 0.6 0.02 29 0.9<br />
Lithium 0.016 6,049 97 4,151 66 83 1 4,068 65<br />
Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 10,668 13 9,423 11 188 0.2 9,235 11<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 23,037 21 16,322 15 326 0.3 15,995 14<br />
Subtotal Primary 430,522 10,991 336,675 8,610 6,733 172 329,941 8,437<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
NiCd 0.203 12,810 2,600 8,358 1,697 651 132 7,706 1,564<br />
NiMH 0.093 4,100 381 1,209 112 80 7 1,129 105<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 1,540 62 423 17 73 3 350 14<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 140 6 34 1 6 0.2 28 1<br />
SSLA 1.045 1,093 1,142 1,135 1,186 7 8 1,127 1,178<br />
Subtotal Secondary 19,683 4,191 11,158 3,013 817 151 10,341 2,863<br />
Total 450,205 15,182 347,833 11,623 7,551 323 340,282 11,300<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Table 5.6 presents the estimated flows of consumer batteries through various parts of the battery supply<br />
chain in 2010. It shows that in 2010, an estimated 494 million consumer batteries will be discarded (i.e.<br />
available for recycling and disposal). An estimated 478 million units primary batteries and 16.3 million<br />
secondary batteries were discarded. The discarded batteries weighed an estimated 15,977 tonnes<br />
(12,239 tonnes of primary consumer batteries and 3,738 tonnes of secondary batteries).
Primary Batteries<br />
kg/unit<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.6: Estimated Flow of <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units in Canada, 2010<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
Sold Discarded Recycled Disposed<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 34 May 2006<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
Units<br />
(000s)<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 93,789 2,532 84,002 2,268 1,680 45 82,322 2,223<br />
Alkaline 0.028 473,944 13,270 350,788 9,822 7,016 196 343,773 9,626<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 60 2 46 1.5 0.9 0.03 45 1.5<br />
Lithium 0.016 9,317 149 6,947 111 139 2 6,808 109<br />
Silver Oxide Button Cell 0.001 10,297 12 10,575 13 212 0.3 10,364 12<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 33,267 30 25,724 23 514 0.5 25,210 23<br />
Subtotal Primary 620,674 15,996 478,084 12,239 9,562 245 468,522 11,994<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
(tonnes)<br />
NiCd 0.203 22,380 4,543 11,171 2,268 1,756 356 9,415 1,911<br />
NiMH 0.093 10,490 976 2,684 250 220 20 2,464 229<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 4,290 172 1,209 48 210 8 999 40<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 360 14 110 4 19 0.8 91 4<br />
SSLA 1.045 1,093 1,142 1,118 1,168 19 20 1,099 1,149<br />
Subtotal Secondary 38,613 6,847 16,292 3,738 2,224 406 14,068 3,333<br />
Total 659,287 22,843 494,376 15,977 11,786 650 482,590 15,327<br />
The allocation of the discarded batteries to different provinces in Canada (pro-rated by population) is<br />
shown in Table 5.7. Values in Table 5.7 are shown to one decimal place, because some of the numbers<br />
are relatively small. It should be noted that figures may not add exactly, due to this rounding, when<br />
comparing one table to another.
2004<br />
Population<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.7: <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Discarded in Canada by Province and Territory (2004)<br />
% of<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong><br />
Population<br />
Primary<br />
Batteries<br />
Discarded<br />
(Thousands of<br />
Units)<br />
Primary<br />
Batteries<br />
Discarded<br />
(Tonnes)<br />
Primary<br />
Batteries<br />
Discarded per<br />
Capital<br />
(Grams)<br />
Secondary<br />
Batteries<br />
Discarded<br />
(Thousands of<br />
Units)<br />
Secondary<br />
Batteries<br />
Discarded<br />
Tonnes)<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 35 May 2006<br />
Secondary<br />
Batteries<br />
Discarded per<br />
Capital<br />
(Grams)<br />
Nfld and Labrador 517,300 1.6% 5,447 139 269.26 181 49 94.24<br />
PEI 137,900 0.4% 1,452 37 269.26 48 13 94.24<br />
Nova Scotia 937,500 2.9% 9,871 252 269.26 327 88 94.24<br />
New Brunswick 752,100 2.4% 7,919 203 269.26 262 71 94.24<br />
Quebec 7,547,700 23.6% 79,474 2,032 269.26 2,634 711 94.24<br />
Ontario 12,407,300 38.8% 130,306 3,332 268.57 4,319 1,166 94.00<br />
Manitoba 1,170,200 3.7% 11,985 306 261.91 397 107 91.66<br />
Saskatchewan 994,300 3.1% 10,469 268 269.26 347 94 94.24<br />
Alberta 3,204,800 10.0% 33,745 863 269.26 1,118 302 94.24<br />
BC 4,201,900 13.1% 44,143 1,129 268.65 1,463 395 94.02<br />
Yukon 30,900 0.3% 1,090 28 901.90 36 10 315.65<br />
NWT 42,900 0.1% 325 8 193.95 11 3 67.88<br />
Nunavut 29,700 0.1% 452 12 388.94 15 4 136.12<br />
Total 31,974,500 100% 336,675 8,610 269.26 11,158 3,013 94.24<br />
The extent to which the discarded batteries are recycled varies by province and territory.<br />
5.4 Loading of Metals and Other Materials Contained in <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
The battery composition information provided in Table 3.3 was used to estimate the total metal loadings<br />
generated from the current use and disposal of different types of consumer batteries in Canada,<br />
presented in Table 5.8<br />
A composition could not be located for primary zinc air batteries, therefore the numbers in Table 5.9 add<br />
up to a somewhat smaller total than the values in Tables 5.2, 5.4 and 5.5.
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.8: Material Contained in <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Sold in Canada, 2004 (tonnes)<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Metals Electolyte Non-Metal<br />
Toxic Substances under<br />
CEPA* 1999<br />
Other Metals<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Pb Hg Cd Ni** Zn Mn Ag Li Fe Al<br />
Primary<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 36 May 2006<br />
Co<br />
H2SO4 KOH<br />
Na<br />
OH<br />
NH4Cl/<br />
ZnCl2<br />
Organ<br />
Electrolyte<br />
Zinc Carbon<br />
(ZnC) 438.4 548.0 438.4 109.6 219.2 438.4<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 1733.4 2600.1 1733.4 433.4 866.7 1300.1<br />
Lithium Primary 29.0 1.9 48.4 9.7 9.7<br />
Primary Button<br />
Cell<br />
Zinc Air (ZnO2)<br />
Button Cell<br />
Silver Oxide<br />
(ZnAgO2) Button<br />
0.3 3.8 5.8 0.5 1.0 1.5<br />
Cell<br />
Secondary<br />
0.2 2.1 6.2 8.3 0.6 1.2 2.1<br />
Nickel cadmium<br />
(NiCd)<br />
Nickel metal<br />
390.1 520.1 1170.2 130.0 260.0 130.0<br />
hydride (NiMH) 266.9 19.1 19.1 38.1 18.1 19.1 * *<br />
Lithium 20.2 1.3 33.6 6.7 6.7<br />
Small sealed lead<br />
acid (SSLA) 742.4 91.4 194.2 114.2<br />
TOTAL (tonnes) 742.4 0.5 390.1 787.0 2177.7 3216.4 6.2 3.3 3438.1 19.1 38.1 91.4 582.6 19.1 109.6 16.4 1542.4 2002.7<br />
*CEPA (<strong>Canadian</strong> Environmental Protection Act)<br />
** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds<br />
H2O<br />
plastic,<br />
paper<br />
carbon
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.9: Material Contained in <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Units Disposed in Canada, 2004 (tonnes)<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Metals Electolyte Non-Metal<br />
Toxic Substances under<br />
CEPA* 1999<br />
Other Metals<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Type Pb Hg Cd Ni** Zn Mn Ag Li Fe Al<br />
Primary<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 37 May 2006<br />
Co<br />
H2SO4 KOH<br />
Na<br />
OH<br />
NH4Cl/<br />
ZnCl2<br />
Organ<br />
Electrolyte<br />
Zinc Carbon (ZnC) 385.3 481.6 385.3 96.3 192.6 385.3<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 1283.9 1925.8 1283.9 321.0 641.9 962.9<br />
Lithium Primary 19.5 1.3 32.5 6.5 6.5<br />
Primary Button<br />
Cell<br />
Zinc Air (ZnO2)<br />
Button Cell<br />
Silver Oxide<br />
(ZnAgO2) Button<br />
Cell<br />
Secondary<br />
Nickel cadmium<br />
(NiCd)<br />
Nickel metal<br />
hydride (NiMH)<br />
0.2 3.3 5.0 0.4 0.9 1.3<br />
0.1 1.4 4.3 5.8 0.4 0.9 1.4<br />
234.7 312.9 704.0 78.2 156.4 78.2<br />
73.5 5.3 0.0 5.3 10.5 5.0 5.3 * *<br />
Lithium 4.5 0.0 0.3 7.6 1.5 1.5<br />
Small sealed lead<br />
acid (SSLA)<br />
765.8 94.3 200 118<br />
TOTAL (tonnes) 765.8 0.4 234.7 386.4 1673.9 2436.8 4.3 1.6 2424.0 5.3 10.5 94.3 405.1 5.3 96.3 8.0 1193.1 1555.0<br />
* CEPA (<strong>Canadian</strong> Environmental Protection Act)<br />
** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or soluble inorganic nickel compounds<br />
H2O<br />
plastic,<br />
paper<br />
carbon
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.8 presents the estimated amount of metals and other substances contained in consumer<br />
batteries sold into the <strong>Canadian</strong> market in 2004. However, this is of little consequence until the units are<br />
actually disposed. Table 5.10 presents the loading to the environment from disposed consumer batteries.<br />
In Table 5.9, SSLA’s account for all of the lead (766 tonnes) discharged into the environment from<br />
primary and secondary batteries. No lead content was identified for any of the other primary or<br />
secondary batteries on the table. Secondary batteries (NiCd and NiMH) account for all cadmium (235<br />
tonnes) and nickel (386 tonnes) disposed. Cadmium is a toxic substance under the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) 1999. Other metals discarded only from secondary batteries<br />
include aluminum (4.3 tonnes). Primary batteries are responsible for disposal of other metals such as<br />
zinc (1,674 tonnes) and manganese (2,437 tonnes). Iron is disposed by both primary and secondary<br />
batteries (2,424 tonnes) as well as lithium (1.6 tonnes).<br />
Table 5.9 presents estimates of the loading of metals and other substances contained in consumer<br />
batteries disposed in Canada in 2004 (the baseline year for the study).<br />
No information is provided for zinc air primary batteries in Table 5.9 as a full set of composition<br />
information could not be identified. Therefore, tonnages shown in Tables 5.8 and 5.9 are lower than totals<br />
in Table 5.4.<br />
5.5 Environmental and Health Risks Posed by <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Disposed in Canada (2004)<br />
Batteries can contain a number of different metals and other compounds that can be released to the<br />
environment when these products are disposed. Table 3.3 provides a list of the elements and compounds<br />
present in consumer/household batteries in Canada. Of the compounds listed in Table 3.3, cadmium,<br />
mercury, lead and nickel 63 are included on the CEPA 1999 Toxic Substances List (updated Schedule 1 as<br />
of November 30, 2005) and would be considered to represent potential concerns for human and<br />
ecological receptors if released to the environment.<br />
Soil, water quality and drinking water guidelines have been established for several of the metals listed in<br />
Table 3.3. These guidelines represent concentrations of the metals in soil, surface water and drinking<br />
water that would represent potential concerns for humans or the environment. A summary of the surface<br />
water, drinking water and soil quality guidelines are provided in Table 5.10.<br />
The health concerns associated with each of the metals is as follows:<br />
• Lead - Lead is a problem for both human and animals. It is a neurotoxin and is a particular<br />
concern for pregnant women and very young children where exposure can result in neurological<br />
impairment;<br />
• Cadmium - In humans, cadmium causes adverse effect in the kidney when ingested and can<br />
cause lung cancer when inhaled. Environmentally cadmium is a problem for aquatic and<br />
terrestrial receptors;<br />
• Nickel - Some forms of nickel are considered to be carcinogenic in humans, also dermal<br />
exposure can lead to a hypersensitivity reaction (skin rash). Nickel also can have an adverse<br />
effect on both aquatic and plant life.<br />
• Mercury – Mercury is a neurotoxin and accumulates through the food chain. There have been a<br />
number of high profile mercury poisoning episodes in industrialized countries in the last 30 to 40<br />
years; these lead to strict limits on mercury emissions, and significant efforts to eliminate mercury<br />
from products where possible.<br />
63 Only some compounds of nickel are toxic under CEPA<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 38 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 5.10: Surface Water, Drinking Water and Soil Quality Guidelines For Selected Metals and Other Substances Contained in<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Sold in Canada<br />
Compound<br />
Surface Water 1 Drinking Water 2 Soil 1<br />
µg/L µg/L Ecological 3 Human 4<br />
Aluminium 5 - 100 nv 5 nv nv<br />
Cadmium 0.017 5 3.8/10 6 1.4/14<br />
Iron 300 300 7 nv nv<br />
KOH nv nv nv nv<br />
Lead (Pb) 1-7 10<br />
70µg/g agriculture<br />
300 µg/g residential<br />
600 µg/g<br />
commercial or<br />
industrial<br />
140 µg/g<br />
residential<br />
260 µg/g<br />
commercial<br />
740 µg/g industrial<br />
Lithium nv nv nv nv<br />
Manganese nv 50 7 nv nv<br />
Mercury 0.1 1 12/12 6.6/6.6<br />
NaOH nv nv nv nv<br />
NH4Cl nv nv nv nv<br />
Nickel 25 - 150 nv 50/50 nv<br />
Silver 1 nv 20/20 20/20<br />
Zinc 30 5,000 7 200/200 nv<br />
ZnCl2 nv nv nv nv<br />
Sources:<br />
1: CCME, <strong>Canadian</strong> Environmental Quality Guidelines, 2002 update<br />
2: Health Canada Guidelines for <strong>Canadian</strong> Drinking Water Quality<br />
3: Guideline to protect ecological receptors<br />
4: Guideline to protect human health<br />
5: NV – no value established<br />
6: 3.8/10 – agricultural/residential land use<br />
7: Guideline based on drinking water aesthetics not human health.<br />
Given that CCME and Health Canada have established guidelines for some of these metals and other<br />
compounds present in consumer batteries, it is reasonable to conclude that their release to the<br />
environment could represent potential risks to ecological and/or human receptors if potential routes of<br />
exposure are found to be present. Environmental quality guidelines have not been established for lithium,<br />
potassium hydroxide (KOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) or zinc chloride<br />
(ZnCl2). Lithium is a common treatment for manic/depressive disorders and would not be expected to<br />
represent a potential concern for human or ecological receptors (lithium batteries, however, can be<br />
hazardous by virtue of being reactive when not fully discharged). Sodium and potassium hydroxide would<br />
not be expected to represent direct concerns for ecological or human receptors. However, these<br />
compounds could be a potential concern if they are present in sufficient quantity to alter the pH of soil<br />
and/ or landfill leachate and thereby increase the mobility of metals from landfill to groundwater.<br />
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Ammonium chloride and zinc chloride are readily soluble in water and could be expected to be present as<br />
ammonia, zinc and chloride.<br />
The evaluation of the potential concern should focus on the potential for humans and ecological receptors<br />
to be exposed to the metals and other compounds in batteries. Release of these battery-related<br />
contaminants to the environment would most likely occur through leaching to groundwater beneath<br />
landfill/disposal locations. Thus, potential exposure routes for ecological receptors would be limited to the<br />
migration of groundwater to surface water receiving bodies (lakes and rivers etc.). The release of batteryrelated<br />
contaminants to surface water, while undesirable, would only constitute a potential environmental<br />
concern if the levels in the receiving waters exceeded the CCME guidelines. A very small percentage<br />
(4%) of municipal waste is incinerated in Canada. Where batteries are in the feedstream to the<br />
incinerator, there is a concern regarding air emissions, which could result in direct contact with human<br />
receptors through air quality, through the food chain by direct precipitation on crops, or by ingestion by<br />
animals. Proper emission control from thermal processing facilities treating municipal solid waste would<br />
address this concern.<br />
With respect to human health, potential exposures would most likely occur in areas where groundwater is<br />
used as a source of potable water. The presence of battery-related contaminants in leachate would only<br />
constitute a potential concern if levels exceeded the <strong>Canadian</strong> Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality<br />
values listed in Table 5.10. For some of the metals listed in Table 5.10 the drinking water guidelines are<br />
based on aesthetic objectives, set to protect the palatability of the water source.<br />
Based on the currently available information, it is not possible to determine if metals and other<br />
contaminants are being released from batteries in landfills in sufficient quantities to be a potential<br />
environmental or human health concern. All of these metals can be toxic to both human and<br />
environmental receptors, and their presence in the environment only presents a problem when<br />
concentrations are sufficient to exceed established thresholds. The disposal tonnages presented in Table<br />
5.5 represent disposal across Canada in 2004. Disposal amounts at any one location will be much<br />
smaller than this total, and in fact, the amounts disposed will be widely dispersed in very small quantities<br />
through all provinces and territories. Environmentally sound treatment and/or recycling (versus general<br />
disposal) is recognized as a more prudent risk management approach for batteries that contain<br />
substances scheduled under CEPA 1999 and has been recognized as the appropriate waste<br />
management approach by RBRC with regard to NiCd batteries (source Environmental Impacts of<br />
Household <strong>Battery</strong> Use in Canada prepared for <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association, Institute for<br />
Risk Research, University of Waterloo January 1997, page 9).<br />
It should be noted that in most landfills, leachate is actively collected and treated. Therefore, batteryrelated<br />
contaminants would not be expected to be entering the environment from most landfills at levels<br />
that would constitute a potential concern for human health or for ecological receptors.<br />
Also, the <strong>Canadian</strong> Council of Ministers of Environment (CCME) has initiated a process to produce three<br />
Canada-wide standards for mercury targetting mercury emissions (i.e. from incinerators and smelters),<br />
mercury containing lamps and mercury in dental amalgam waste (June 2005). Batteries have not been<br />
targeted for development of standards for mercury although they may require management under the<br />
standards regulating mercury emissions from incinerators.<br />
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6. <strong>Battery</strong> Legislation, Policies and Management<br />
Legislative efforts to manage battery waste vary widely throughout North America, Europe and Asia.<br />
Europe, on the whole, is more proactive than North America in managing end-of-life primary and<br />
secondary batteries. Japan has introduced some legislation to manage secondary batteries while North<br />
America has primarily relied on the voluntary approach to manage end-of-life batteries. The legislation<br />
and management programs in each of these jurisdictions are discussed below.<br />
6.1 Canada<br />
To date, neither Canada nor its provinces or territories have initiated legislative or producer responsibility<br />
programs directly targeting primary or secondary consumer batteries, although these are included in<br />
HHW collection programs, and were specifically targeted in the HHW stewardship program recently<br />
announced by Ontario. Legislation in the US has been a driver for some developments in <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
provinces and there are a number of efforts underway that indirectly target proper management of<br />
batteries within <strong>Canadian</strong> jurisdictions.<br />
6.1.1 Content Restrictions<br />
Unlike the United States or Europe, Canada has not imposed substance content restrictions for batteries<br />
that can be marketed within the country. <strong>Canadian</strong> jurisdictions have benefited from legislation enacted in<br />
the United States, which has forced the elimination of intentionally introduced mercury in alkalinemanganese<br />
and zinc-carbon batteries, the discontinued manufacturing of button cell mercuric-oxide<br />
batteries, the low levels of mercury use in alkaline-manganese button cell batteries, and the voluntary<br />
collection of end-of-life secondary batteries. As a direct consequence of the United States 1996 <strong>Battery</strong><br />
Act, the manufacture of mercury oxide batteries was discontinued in Canada as of January 1996, and the<br />
battery OEMs voluntarily eliminated mercury from all alkaline, zinc carbon, and zinc chloride batteries.<br />
Manufacturers still use small amounts of mercury in button cell batteries but the maximum amount of<br />
mercury used button cell batteries does not exceed 25mg. There is a concern with counterfeit batteries<br />
which do not meet mercury limits, even though they are marketed as if they do. In addition, prior to the<br />
1996 <strong>Battery</strong> Act, battery labeling legislation in 13 U.S. states, and legislation establishing battery<br />
collection and recycling programs in 9 of those states, prompted the nickel cadmium battery OEMs to<br />
launch the Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) and its voluntary nickel cadmium (NiCd)<br />
and other secondary battery collection program throughout North America.<br />
6.1.2 Manifesting and Handling Requirements<br />
The export/import and interprovincial movement of battery waste is controlled under federal hazardous<br />
waste regulations such as the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act (TDGA) and the Export and Import<br />
of Hazardous Waste regulation under CEPA 1999, which mandate proper manifesting, shipping and<br />
handing requirements for dangerous goods and wastes. A number of provinces also have established<br />
hazardous waste management regulations that impact battery waste.<br />
6.1.3 Environmental Labelling<br />
Batteries sold in Canada should be labeled as required in the International Electrotechnical Commission<br />
Standard applicable to the model, when available, or with at least the following information: safety-related<br />
prohibitions: use-related instructions to prevent hazards, promote maximum battery life, and utility. The<br />
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the leading global organization that prepares and<br />
publishes international standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies. A number of<br />
examples of environmental labeling requirements for other jurisdictions are described later in this text (the<br />
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requirement for NiCd and SSLA battery labeling in the US 1996 <strong>Battery</strong> Act; State of Maine requirement<br />
for labeling of mercury containing batteries; EU requirements for labeling batteries containing lead,<br />
mercury or cadmium, Nokia plans to add a holographic label to combat counterfeit batteries, etc.).<br />
6.1.4 <strong>Canadian</strong> Municipal Collection and/or Disposal Bans<br />
Some <strong>Canadian</strong> jurisdictions have implemented collection and disposal bans targeting batteries:<br />
The Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) in British Columbia has placed a disposal ban on nickel<br />
cadmium batteries. This may be related to the fact that some of the GVRD municipal waste stream is<br />
incinerated at the Burns Bog EFW (Energy from Waste) facility, and cadmium would be a concern in<br />
incinerator emissions.<br />
Some communities indirectly target batteries through collection or disposal bans targeting the following<br />
categories of waste, all of which contain batteries:<br />
Household Hazardous Waste Collection and Disposal Bans:<br />
• City of Owen Sound, Ontario<br />
• Regional District of Central Okanogan, British Columbia<br />
• Greater Vancouver Regional District, British Columbia<br />
Waste Electronics and Electrical Equipment Disposal Bans:<br />
• Region of Waterloo, Ontario<br />
• City of Owen Sound, Ontario<br />
• City of Calgary, Alberta<br />
• Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD), British Columbia<br />
In addition, most <strong>Canadian</strong> municipalities offer household hazardous waste collection programs which<br />
enable residents to drop off primary and/or secondary batteries, free of charge, for proper management.<br />
6.1.5 Stewardship and Take Back Programs<br />
Since 1997, through RBRC, Canada has had a voluntary program to collect spent nickel cadmium (NiCd),<br />
nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium polymer (Li-polymer) and small sealed lead acid<br />
(SSLA) batteries. This is the only national battery recovery program in Canada and has received the<br />
support of all provinces. 64 See Section 3.6.2 for a more detailed description of the program.<br />
Recently, a number of provinces have begun to address proper management of spent primary and/or<br />
secondary batteries through a number of initiatives including Prince Edward Island’s Re-Store Your<br />
Batteries Program, Manitoba’s proposed Household Hazardous Waste Stewardship Regulation as well as<br />
through Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (WEEE) programs underway in a number of<br />
provinces.<br />
Prince Edward Island’s Re-Store Your Batteries Program<br />
The Island Waste Management Corporation, in partnership with two dozen participating PEI grocery<br />
retailers, introduced the “Re-Store Your Batteries” program in July 2005 enabling consumers to recycle<br />
their primary batteries at participating grocery stores. This service will allow consumers and visitors to<br />
return alkaline/lithium batteries (D, C, AA, AAA, 9-volt, 12-volt, etc.) as well as button type batteries<br />
64<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong><br />
<strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>. Presented to Environment Canada<br />
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(watch, hearing aid batteries, etc.) at no charge. The batteries will be shipped to the mainland to be<br />
broken down and recycled.<br />
Prince Edward Island’s Lead Acid Take Back Program<br />
Legislated in 1993, this program requires retailers to charge $5 on new battery purchases, unless an old<br />
battery is returned within 30 days. The regulation mandates that retailers must send old batteries to the<br />
appropriate facilities for recycling. This program focuses on lead acid batteries including all vehicle<br />
batteries (car, truck, snowmobile, motorcycle, off-road vehicle, ride-on lawnmower batteries).<br />
BC Used Lead-Acid <strong>Battery</strong> Collection Program<br />
British Columbia launched the first lead acid battery collection program in Canada in 1991. The Program<br />
is funded from revenue collected from a $5 levy collected from the consumer upon purchase of the<br />
battery. Companies (referred to as brokers) that collect the batteries from various generators can register<br />
with the <strong>Battery</strong> Program in order to receive the Program’s Transportation Incentive Payments (TIPs)<br />
which covers the cost of transportation of the batteries to a certified processor. The TIP rates vary<br />
depending on the location of the broker from the processor (the province is divided into 15 zones). The<br />
BC Government estimates that today virtually 100% of the used lead-acid batteries generated annually in<br />
the province are recovered given the right market conditions.<br />
Manitoba’s Proposed Household Hazardous Waste Stewardship Regulation<br />
The Province of Manitoba has proposed legislation that would establish collection and disposal systems<br />
for household hazardous wastes using a product stewardship approach which would place primary<br />
responsibility for managing the designated wastes on the manufacturers and sellers of those products.<br />
The province estimates that 276 tonnes of batteries were disposed by residents based on residential solid<br />
waste audits conducted in 2000 (see Table 6.1).<br />
Table 6.1: Estimate of Household Hazardous Waste in Residential Waste In Manitoba in 2000 65<br />
- Winnipeg Rural Total<br />
Material Tonnes % Tonnes % Tonnes %<br />
Batteries 226 35.3% 279 24.6% 506 28.5%<br />
Full Medicine 74 11.5% 37 3.2% 110 6.2%<br />
Fluorescent Tubes 33 5.1% 75 6.6% 107 6.0%<br />
Used Oil & Filters 45 7.1% 142 12.5% 187 10.5%<br />
Paint 54 8.4% 395 34.8% 449 25.3%<br />
Solvents 63 9.8% 207 18.3% 270 15.2%<br />
Other HHW 146 22.8% 0 0.0% 146 8.2%<br />
Total 641 - 1,135 - 1,176 -<br />
Percentage of<br />
Residential Waste<br />
0.52% 0.73% 0.63%<br />
The proposed regulation would permit the Province of Manitoba to implement product stewardship<br />
programs to deal with HHW. Industry has been asked to come up with a proposal to manage the<br />
designated materials. The regulation may require the establishment of new collection infrastructures for<br />
designated products including a "one-stop" approach to collection, where a single site would collect a<br />
number of HHW products (which could use existing depot network systems such as the Used Oil Depot<br />
system). Some products, such as pharmaceuticals and rechargeable batteries, could be returned<br />
primarily through return-to-retail systems. The regulation may approve existing collection programs, such<br />
as the Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) collection program to collect nickel-cadmium<br />
and other rechargeable batteries thereby avoiding the need to implement a new program. Program<br />
65 Manitoba Product Stewardship Corporation, October 19, 2005. Discussion Paper: Household Hazardous Waste/HHW<br />
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funding will be provided through industry contributions or advanced disposal surcharge (ADS). Industry<br />
will provide the program proposal including funding.<br />
In the case of batteries, the regulation defines stewardable batteries as:<br />
Batteries – Devices that convert chemical energy to electrical energy, but not including zinc-carbon or<br />
alkaline-type batteries. Lead acid (vehicle) batteries, small portable batteries and rechargeable batteries<br />
may be included in this group.<br />
Since 2006, the HHW Regulation has been grouped with three other stewardship regulations, including<br />
electronics, tires, printed paper and packaging. The HHW stewardship regulation remains essentially the<br />
same except for the removal of electronics from the regulation. Electronics are addressed in a separate<br />
regulation (see below).<br />
WEEE (Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment) Collection Programs<br />
Provincial Governments across Canada have been giving considerable attention to waste electronic and<br />
electrical equipment (WEEE) and the need for stewardship programs to manage these wastes. Currently,<br />
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Ontario have WEEE regulations in place. The remaining provinces and<br />
territories have announced plans to bring WEEE programs on-line within the next two to three years.<br />
These programs are discussed below.<br />
Alberta’s Electronic Recycling Program<br />
Alberta was the first province to enact legislation requiring take back of designated WEEE products.<br />
Alberta launched the first provincial electronics recycling program in Canada on October 1, 2004. The<br />
program is administered by ARMA (Alberta Recycling Management Authority) which has collected an<br />
advanced disposal surcharge (ADS) on designated electronics since February 1, 2005. The current list of<br />
designated WEEE products targets all computer products and televisions. The Alberta government has<br />
announced, however, that cell phones, stereos, VCRs, DVD players, electronic games and fax machines<br />
may be added to the program at a later date. Table 6.2 describes the structure of Alberta’s program.<br />
Table 6.2: Alberta’s WEEE Program<br />
Description<br />
Scope Alberta’s program targets all computer equipment including computer monitors and<br />
televisions including LCDs, CRTs and plasma screens<br />
Structure Alberta’s WEEE program is operated by the electronic industry under the auspices of the<br />
Alberta Recycling Management Authority, a non-profit organization<br />
Supporting Framework The program is mandatory and governed by provincial legislation<br />
Funding Mechanism Alberta’s WEEE program relies on advanced disposal surcharges (ADS) to fund the<br />
management of designated WEEE products<br />
The advance disposal surcharge charged on designated WEEE products in Alberta is visible<br />
to the consumer (although the retailer can choose to hide the fee and not show the<br />
consumer)<br />
Program Responsibilities Alberta’s program charges the brand-owner the applicable advanced disposal surcharge<br />
which is passed down through the economic chain to the consumer where it is up to the<br />
discretion of the retailer to make the fee visible or hidden<br />
Ontario’s Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (WEEE) Regulation<br />
On December 14, 2004, the Ontario Minister of the Environment filed the Waste Electronic and Electrical<br />
Equipment (WEEE) regulation under the Waste Diversion Act, 2002 (WDA). The regulation designates<br />
seven categories of electronic and electrical equipment as waste, and targets more than 200 items that<br />
could be designated, including computers, telephones, broadcast equipment, televisions and CD players,<br />
children's toys, power tools, lawn mowers and navigational and medical instruments. The stewardship<br />
program will take a staged approach to targeting all 200 products. Table 6.3 lists the products designated<br />
under the Ontario legislation. Some of these products within the IT equipment, telecommunications<br />
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equipment and AV equipment categories contain secondary batteries. Many of these products can also<br />
be powered by primary consumer batteries. All of these batteries would require proper end of life<br />
management under the new stewardship program.<br />
Priority Categories<br />
Table 6.3: Products Targetted Under Ontario WEEE Legislation<br />
Household Appliances • Air conditioners<br />
• Clothes dryers<br />
• Clothes washers<br />
• Dishwashing machines<br />
IT Equipment • CD-ROM and disk drives<br />
• Computers (desktop, handheld, laptop,<br />
notebook, notepad)<br />
• Monitors (CRT, LCD, plasma)<br />
Telecommunications equipment • Fax/telephone answering machine<br />
• Modems<br />
Audio-Visual Equipment • Sound equipment<br />
• Cameras<br />
List of WEEE Products<br />
• Freezers<br />
• Refrigerators<br />
• Stove<br />
• PDAs<br />
• Keyboard, mouse, terminals<br />
• Printers, copiers, typewriters<br />
• Pagers<br />
• Telephones (cell, cordless, wire)<br />
• Televisions<br />
• Video player, projector, recorder<br />
In the spring of 2005, an Ontario WEEE working group comprised of industry and consumer stakeholder<br />
groups worked with a consulting team to develop a <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong> on WEEE in Ontario. The study was<br />
submitted to the Minister of Environment on July 20, 2005. The WEEE program was announced in April<br />
2006, and will initially target computers and related equipment, as well as cellphones.<br />
Saskatchewan’s Waste Electronic Equipment Regulation<br />
The province of Saskatchewan passed a regulation requesting an industry-led product stewardship<br />
approach for end-of-life electronics on 21st October, 2005. The regulation designates electronic<br />
equipment including personal computers, laptops, computer monitors, peripherals, and televisions for<br />
collection and recycling. A schedule has been developed for the phased in management of designated<br />
electronics.<br />
The regulation requires that a product management program have the following elements before<br />
receiving Minister approval:<br />
(a) contains details of the management structure of the program;<br />
(b) provides details respecting:<br />
(i) the creation of an advisory committee to the operator of the product management program;<br />
(ii) the role of the advisory committee in relation to the operation of the program; and<br />
(iii) the manner in which Saskatchewan interests will be represented on the advisory<br />
committee; and<br />
(c) provides details respecting:<br />
(i) how waste electronic equipment will be collected in all areas of Saskatchewan;<br />
(ii) recycling options for waste electronic equipment, listed in descending order of preference;<br />
(iii) the policies and procedures to be followed by any person processing waste electronic<br />
equipment collected pursuant to the program;<br />
(iv) how the program will be funded;<br />
(v) the quality control and assurance aspects of the program, including tracking and auditing<br />
mechanisms; and<br />
(vi) the public education or public awareness and communication strategy for the program<br />
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Electronics Product Stewardship Canada (EPSC), which is taking the lead in developing a program, has<br />
established an advisory committee consisting of key stakeholders. The advisory committee has issued a<br />
bidder's request document for the management and administrative services for the proposed program<br />
and submitted a stewardship proposal as of February 1, 2006 as the regulation requires.<br />
British Columbia’s Recycling Regulation Targets Electronics<br />
In October 2005, BC Environment Minister Barry Penner released an Intentions Paper on the regulation<br />
of end-of-life electronics and the requirement for an industry-led stewardship approach. On February 16,<br />
2006, the province amended and released their Recycling Regulation, including the addition of a new<br />
schedule designating electronics for product stewardship. The BC government anticipates having a<br />
program in place by 2007.<br />
Manitoba Considers Electronic Waste Program<br />
Manitoba has created a new entity known as Green Manitoba to manage stewardship program<br />
development in the province. The Manitoba Government removed electronics from its Household<br />
Hazardous Waste Regulation and has established a separate stewardship regulation for managing<br />
electronic waste. The general principles governing the development of product stewardship plans states<br />
that the cost of managing designated wastes should be borne by the producers and users of the product<br />
or package and not the taxpayers. The province is in the very early stages of program planning and set<br />
up a consultation meeting with affected stakeholders in October 2005. It is still attempting to identify<br />
targeted electronic wastes.<br />
Quebec, Nova Scotia and other Maritime provinces are all exploring or developing similar stewardship<br />
programs for electronic products. The consumer batteries contained within these products<br />
(predominantly laptop computers) will be managed as part of the stewardship programs.<br />
6.2 United States<br />
In the United States, battery management is driven by the hazardous components in the batteries rather<br />
than the battery type. For this reason, this section is divided into three components: mercury, nickelcadmium<br />
and lithium.<br />
Mercury – Since the early 1990s, states and the federal government have taken steps to eliminate or<br />
significantly reduce mercury use in primary batteries. The threat of legislation restricting mercury use in<br />
primary batteries encouraged the battery industry to take early action to eliminate mercury in alkaline<br />
(ZnMnO2) (with the exception of alkaline manganese button cell batteries) and zinc carbon (ZnC)<br />
batteries. 66 Consequently, these batteries have been mercury free since 1993. The 1996 Mercury-<br />
Containing and Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Management Act (better known as the <strong>Battery</strong> Act), Title II,<br />
prohibited the sale of alkaline-manganese and zinc-carbon batteries containing intentionally introduced<br />
mercury and restricted the use of mercury in alkaline-manganese button cell batteries to concentrations of<br />
25 milligrams or less. Title II also prohibited the sale of button cell mercuric-oxide batteries and<br />
conditioned the sale of other mercuric-oxide batteries. 67<br />
According to an industry trade association, most batteries made and sold in the United States do not<br />
contain mercury and consequently the amount of mercury in the municipal waste stream attributed to<br />
batteries has decreased significantly. Since 1996, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association<br />
(NEMA) has tracked discarded alkaline batteries in three counties: Camden County, New Jersey;<br />
Hennepin County, Minnesota; and Lee County, Florida. Since 2002, the percentage of mercury free<br />
alkaline batteries discarded by consumers ranged from 93-98.7%. The number of mercury containing<br />
batteries continues to decline every year. NEMA estimates the average level of mercury from alkaline<br />
66<br />
The industry had been reducing the use of mercury through technological improvements already. This legislation was developed<br />
in cooperation with industry.<br />
67<br />
Since 1993, battery manufacturers in the US, Europe and Japan claim that they have manufactured only mercury free alkaline<br />
batteries.<br />
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batteries will continue to decline by about 50% every two years, with most out of the waste stream by<br />
2010. 68<br />
Most US States permit alkaline batteries (purchased after 1993) to be placed in the garbage and only a<br />
handful ban mercuric oxide (HgO) batteries from disposal (see Table 6.4). Mercury found in batteries is<br />
primarily limited to button cell batteries. Zinc air (ZnO2) button cell batteries account for 86% of mercury<br />
used in the manufacturing of batteries in the United States. Batteries represent an estimated 2% of<br />
mercury consumption in the manufacturing process in the United States 69 . No state currently bans the<br />
disposal of button cell batteries and there are no state sponsored programs to collect them. 70<br />
Table 6.4: Mercury Content of Button Batteries Sold By US Manufacturers In 2002<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Technology Average Mercury Content Total Amount of Mercury % of total<br />
Zinc Air (ZnO2) 8.5 4,540.3 86%<br />
Silver Oxide (AgO) 2.5 473.6 9%<br />
Alkaline (ZnMnO2) 10.8 269.6 5%<br />
Total 5,283.5 100%<br />
Source: Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005<br />
A handful of States have enacted legislation prohibiting the sale of novelty items (including toys)<br />
containing mercury including Connecticut, Illinois, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and<br />
Washington State. The State of Connecticut requires collection systems for the mercury containing<br />
products, including button cell batteries, to be in place as a prerequisite to selling these products in the<br />
State. Most States including the State of Indiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Rhode Island 71 , New York,<br />
Vermont, and Washington exempt button cell batteries from the definition of mercury containing novelty<br />
items.<br />
As a result of the reduced levels of mercury in batteries, many states have begun to redirect their interest<br />
away from batteries and toward other mercury containing devices such as thermostats and thermometers.<br />
In March 2006, the US battery industry announced an initiative to eliminate added mercury in button cell<br />
batteries by June 30, 2011 and “participating organizations will devote resources to resolve<br />
manufacturing challenges and to continue to advance emerging technologies”. 72<br />
Nickel-Cadmium - The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has identified nickel<br />
cadmium (NiCd) batteries as the largest source of cadmium in the municipal solid waste stream. To<br />
address these concerns, the 1996 <strong>Battery</strong> Act established national, uniform labeling requirements for<br />
nickel cadmium (NiCd) and other regulated batteries 73 to facilitate the increased collection and recycling<br />
of these batteries. State governments can not implement and enforce any labeling requirement that is<br />
less stringent than that in the <strong>Battery</strong> Act.<br />
About the same time, the EPA introduced the Universal Waste Rule in May 1995 to target deleterious<br />
hazardous wastes, including nickel cadmium (NiCd) and small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries, in the<br />
municipal waste stream and encourage recycling and proper management of targeted wastes. The<br />
Universal Waste Rule streamlined a number of RCRA hazardous waste collection, storage, and<br />
transportation requirements for designated materials, making it easier to collect and recycle them. For<br />
68<br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association. July 2004 Summary <strong>Report</strong> of Analyses of Mercury from <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
in the Waste Stream.<br />
69<br />
Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries.<br />
70<br />
Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries.<br />
71<br />
A bill has been introduced in Rhode Island to eliminate the exemption on the ban of mercury containing batteries from novelty<br />
products<br />
72<br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 2, 2006. NEMA Announces <strong>Battery</strong> Industry Commitment to<br />
Eliminate Mercury in Button Cells<br />
73<br />
“Other regulated batteries” refers to certain SSLA and, in the future, other rechargeable batteries or battery packs if US EPA<br />
decides to add them to the list.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 47 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
example, the rule extends the amount of time that businesses can accumulate these materials on site. It<br />
also allows companies to transport them with a common carrier, instead of a hazardous waste<br />
transporter, and no longer requires companies to obtain a manifest.<br />
In anticipation of pending legislation in the US, the nickel cadmium (NiCd) industry established the<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation in 1994 to implement a voluntary take-back program (see<br />
Section 3 for more details about the RBRC program). With the introduction of the Universal Waste Rule,<br />
the RBRC was able to launch its voluntary nickel cadmium (NiCd) and small sealed lead acid (SSLA)<br />
collection program throughout the United States and Canada.<br />
Most States rely on the voluntary collection program to manage nickel cadmium (NiCd) and other<br />
rechargeable batteries and have introduced no other legislation or program to manage these batteries.<br />
Eight States have introduced disposal bans on nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries: Florida, Iowa, Maine,<br />
Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, Vermont, and California<br />
Nickel metal hydride, Lithium and others - Other batteries, such as nickel metal hydride (NiMH),<br />
lithium-ion (Li-ion) or lithium polymer (Li-polymer), are not on the radar screen for State agencies (with the<br />
exception of the State of California and New Jersey) for two reasons. Firstly, they are generally not<br />
considered to be hazardous (toxic or reactive) under RCRA, although the lithium batteries can be<br />
hazardous by virtue of being reactive when not fully discharged. 74 Secondly, the high demand for cobalt<br />
in the lithium batteries and nickel in the nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries is acting as a strong<br />
economic driver for industry to maximize recovery. 75<br />
Table 6.5 summarizes legislation to manage battery waste in leading-edge US states.<br />
74 Input provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, February 2006<br />
75 Communications with John Price, Florida Bureau of Solid and Hazardous Waste, August 26, 2005<br />
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<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 6.5: Legislation Affecting <strong>Battery</strong> Management in US States<br />
State Mercury containing batteries NiCd Other<br />
California Banned from disposal Banned from disposal All batteries (primary and secondary) are<br />
considered hazardous waste when they<br />
are discarded.<br />
After February 8, 2006, all batteries<br />
must be recycled or taken to a<br />
household hazardous waste facility, a<br />
universal waste handler (e.g. storage<br />
facility or broker) or an authorized<br />
recycling facility<br />
Connecticut Requires collection of button cell<br />
batteries<br />
Florida Bans from disposal above set limit<br />
State approved collection program for<br />
mercuric oxide batteries required<br />
Municipalities to recycle NiCd within 3<br />
months of service becoming available at<br />
processing centre<br />
Bans from disposal<br />
State approved collection programs<br />
required<br />
Iowa Disposal ban and mandatory collection<br />
for NiCds<br />
Maine Sales ban on novelties with batteries<br />
containing mercury<br />
Ban on button cell batteries in 2007<br />
Disposal ban and mandatory collection<br />
requirements<br />
Maryland Disposal ban and requires NiCd industry<br />
to establish recycling plan<br />
Minnesota Disposal ban on mercury containing and<br />
silver oxide batteries<br />
Bill introduced to exempt button cell<br />
batteries from collection requirements<br />
Bans all rechargeable batteries from<br />
disposal<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong>s must be informed about<br />
recycling and battery must be labeled<br />
properly<br />
Disposal bans and mandatory collection<br />
for SSLAs<br />
Ban on disposal Responsibility of manufacturer to collect<br />
designated batteries<br />
New Hampshire Ban on disposal Requires incinerators to pre-sort<br />
products containing mercury<br />
New Jersey Ban on disposal Includes SSLA<br />
Requires counties to prepare HHW<br />
plans that include collection of batteries<br />
New York Ban on mercury containing products<br />
from incineration<br />
Rhode Island Ban on disposal Environmentally sound management<br />
recommended<br />
Vermont Collection and recycling of mercury<br />
containing batteries required<br />
Ban on disposal<br />
Sources: USEPA Safe Mercury Management Legislation and Regulations<br />
Raymond Communications Inc. 2005 <strong>Battery</strong> Recovery Laws World-wide, Update Edition.<br />
State Legislation sites<br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association: mercury - http://www.nema.org/gov/env_conscious_design/mercury/<br />
6.2.1 State Leaders in Legislation and/or Programs Targeting Batteries<br />
Maine<br />
Maine has enacted a ban on nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries and mandatory collection requirements.<br />
Maine also enacted legislation in 2004 requiring the review of the sale of mercury containing batteries,<br />
especially button cell batteries. The legislation directed Department of the Environmental Protection to<br />
assess:<br />
• the need for a collection program targeting button cell batteries;<br />
• labeling requirements;<br />
• whether button cell batteries should be prohibited in novelty items and other uses and<br />
• the availability of alternative non-mercury button cell batteries.<br />
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Since then, the State has introduced several bills that would ban products containing mercury batteries<br />
that are designed for children and require a disposal fee for batteries containing mercury.<br />
The bill - LD 1058 (SP 375)- An Act To Regulate the Use of Batteries Containing Mercury was enacted<br />
into Public Law March 27, 2006. Effective January 1, 2007, no person is permitted to dispose of button<br />
cell batteries in a solid waste disposal facility and the bill requires that such batteries be packaged with<br />
information regarding proper disposal. This bill also bans, after January 1, 2007, the sale of novelties that<br />
contain batteries that contain mercury, such as light-up games, cards and adornments. The wording of<br />
the Act is presented below:<br />
Sec. 1. 38 MRSA §1611 is enacted to read:<br />
§1611.__Button cell batteries<br />
LD 1058 (SP 375)-<br />
"An Act to Regulate the Use of Batteries Containing Mercury"<br />
1. Button cell battery defined.__For the purposes of this section, "button cell battery" means a tiny, circular battery that<br />
contains mercuric oxide and that is made for microelectronic applications, including, but not limited to, watches.<br />
2. Label required.__A button cell battery must bear an appropriate identification mark and must be packaged with<br />
information regarding proper disposal in accordance with this section.<br />
3. Disposal.__Beginning January 1, 2007, a person may not dispose of a button cell battery in a solid waste disposal<br />
facility or by burial, incineration, deposit or dumping so that the battery or any of its constituents may enter the<br />
environment or be emitted into the air or discharged into any waters.<br />
4. Button cell battery retailers._A person selling or offering for retail sale button cell batteries must accept, at the point of<br />
transfer, used button cell batteries in reasonably clean and unbroken condition from customers.<br />
5. Violations.__A person that violates this section commits a civil violation subject to section 349.<br />
Sec. 2. 38 MRSA §1661, sub-§1, D and E, as repealed and replaced by PL2001, c. 656, §1, are amended to read:<br />
D. An electric relay or other electrical device; and<br />
E. A lamp.; and<br />
Sec. 3. 38 MRSA §1661, sub-§1, F is enacted to read:<br />
F.__A novelty with a battery that contains mercury.<br />
Sec. 4. 38 MRSA §1661, sub-§6 is enacted to read:<br />
6. Novelty.__"Novelty" means a product intended mainly for personal or household enjoyment or adornment.__"Novelty"<br />
includes, but is not limited to, items intended for use as practical jokes, figurines, adornments, toys, games, cards,<br />
ornaments, yard statues and figures, candles, jewelry, holiday decorations and items of apparel.<br />
California<br />
California considers batteries hazardous and has listed them in its Universal Waste Rule (with the<br />
exception of lead-acid batteries) which prohibits all listed waste from being discarded into the municipal<br />
solid waste stream. Most batteries have failed California’s leachate/toxicity tests, which are more<br />
stringent than RCRA. Until February 8, 2006 households and conditionally exempt small quantity<br />
generators (SQG) were exempt from the Universal Rule. After this date, they were be prohibited from<br />
disposing batteries in the waste stream.<br />
In October 2005, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Bill 1125, referred as the<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Act of 2006 (written with the assistance of the household battery industry and<br />
specifically, the RBRC), requiring specific retailers who sell rechargeable batteries, including those used<br />
in power tools and laptop computers, to take back the battery at no cost to the consumer by July 1 st ,<br />
2006. The law exempts stores that primarily sell food and retailers with annual gross sales of less than $1<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 50 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
million. Retailers can use existing take-back programs such as the one the Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong><br />
Recycling Corp. offers. 76<br />
Furthermore, the legislation requires the Department of Toxic Substances Control to annually survey<br />
battery handling and recycling operations on or before July 1 of each year. The department will use the<br />
information to determine the estimated amount by weight of each type of rechargeable batteries returned.<br />
Florida<br />
Under Florida law, it is illegal to discard nickel cadmium (NiCd) or small sealed lead acid (SSLA) or other<br />
rechargeable batteries or products containing such rechargeable batteries in the municipal waste stream.<br />
The batteries must be recycled or sent to a facility permitted to dispose of those batteries. This prohibition<br />
applies to every resident as well as every business, institutional, government, industrial, commercial,<br />
communications or medical facility in the state. The state requires that manufacturers and marketers of<br />
designated rechargeable batteries provide recycling programs by establishing their own program or<br />
participating in RBRC’s collection program. As a result of this initiative, the State of Florida estimates that<br />
nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries were being recycled at a rate of 13% in 2000 and between 20-30% in<br />
2004 (primarily through the RBRC program). 77<br />
While mercury containing batteries were targeted as a high priority product in the early 1990s due to the<br />
mercury content, the State of Florida has decided that recent initiatives to eliminate mercury in batteries<br />
have made batteries safe for disposal. In its 2001-2002 Solid Waste Management <strong>Report</strong>, the State<br />
estimated that mercury in the Florida municipal solid waste stream has declined from an estimated 12<br />
tons in 1995 to 5.5 tons in 2000, with the biggest reduction resulting from batteries. The State of Florida is<br />
no longer focusing on mercury batteries as a hazardous material requiring management. It is now<br />
directing its attention toward fluorescent lamps, thermostats and thermometers.<br />
US Municipality <strong>Battery</strong> Initiatives<br />
City of San Francisco<br />
In June 2005, the City of San Francisco became the first city in the United States to adopt a green<br />
product procurement law. The city’s Precautionary Purchasing Ordinance (Ord. No. 115-05) requires city<br />
personnel to purchase environmentally preferred products including rechargeable batteries. The city will<br />
use full-cost accounting to evaluate alternative products. The section specifically dealing with batteries is<br />
provided below.<br />
76 Waste News, October 17, 2005. New Californian Law Requires Retailers to Take Back Rechargeable Batteries<br />
77 Communication with Amy Roering, Environmental Services, Hennepin County, August 31, 2005<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 51 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
San Francisco’s Precautionary Purchasing Ordinance (Ord. No. 115-05)<br />
C. BATTERIES (Formerly Environment Code §512)<br />
1. Definitions<br />
(a) “<strong>Battery</strong>” means two or more connected cells that produce a direct current by converting chemical energy to electrical energy. For<br />
purposes of this regulation, “battery” does not include automotive batteries.<br />
(b) “<strong>Battery</strong> charger” means a device that restores anew the active materials in a battery.<br />
(c) “<strong>Battery</strong> pack” means multiple batteries joined together in a single housing.<br />
2. A City department that purchases or contracts to purchase batteries or products that include or incorporate battery or battery packs,<br />
shall purchase and contract to purchase:<br />
(a) only the following types of batteries and battery packs which are deemed to be on the Approved Alternatives List for batteries and<br />
battery packs<br />
(i) Rechargeable alkaline batteries<br />
(ii) Rechargeable nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, or<br />
(iii) Another rechargeable battery type identified by the Director pursuant to regulations adopted under Section 203(d) of the Environment<br />
Code.<br />
(b) only from vendors that collect spent batteries and recycle them in accordance with applicable laws:<br />
3. At the request of the City department, a vendor must submit written certification and documentation that collected spent batteries were<br />
recycled in accordance with applicable laws.<br />
4. A City department that purchases or contracts to purchase battery chargers shall purchase and contract to purchase chargers that<br />
recharge NiMH batteries as well as other battery types.<br />
5. Each department that purchases batteries must require in the contract that the products be accompanied by detailed recycling<br />
instructions and any batteries containing cadmium, mercury, lead, or other hazardous materials include a written explanation of the toxic<br />
hazards of these substances in the waste stream.<br />
6. A City department that purchases or contracts to purchase products that include or incorporate battery packs shall purchase and<br />
contract to purchase such products in which the batteries are easily removable.<br />
Hennepin County<br />
The State of Minnesota prohibits nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries from being discarded in the waste<br />
stream. In response, Hennepin County provides collection containers at approximately 100 sites (i.e.<br />
retailers, libraries, municipal buildings) for citizens to recycle their batteries. The County also relies on<br />
RBRC to augment collection. Hennepin County also targets button cell batteries in its collection program.<br />
While the County keeps detailed records on the types and amounts of batteries collected, it does not<br />
keep track of the types and amounts sold for comparison.<br />
New York City<br />
The Mayor of New York City recently enacted legislation requiring stores to accept rechargeable batteries<br />
for recycling. The law (written with the assistance of the household battery industry and specifically, the<br />
RBRC) requires retailers selling rechargeable batteries in the city to accept them back from consumers<br />
even if they were not purchased at their store. Retailers also must post a sign at the store<br />
entrance notifying customers that they are required to recycle rechargeable batteries and that the store is<br />
a collection point. Rechargeable battery manufacturers must submit a plan to the city that identifies how<br />
they will collect the batteries from retailers and recycle them. 78<br />
78 Waste Age, Dec 5, 2005. NYC to require stores to accept rechargeable batteries for recycling<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 52 May 2006
6.3 Europe<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
For the past decade, Europe has assumed a leadership role in the management of primary and<br />
secondary batteries (referred to as portable batteries in Europe). <strong>Battery</strong> management is prescribed by<br />
the European Union through a series of directives beginning with the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on<br />
Batteries and Accumulators containing certain dangerous substances, adopted March 1991 and followed<br />
by two amended versions. The purpose of the directives is to establish measures for proper recovery,<br />
treatment and disposal of waste batteries and restrict the sale of designated batteries throughout the<br />
European Union.<br />
The requirements set out in the Council Directive 91/157/EEC on Batteries and Accumulators applies to<br />
batteries containing more than a specified amount of mercury, cadmium or lead and placed bans on the<br />
specific batteries containing mercury beginning January 1 st , 1993. It also stipulates the need for<br />
collection and recycling of hazardous batteries and markings indicating separate collection, heavy metal<br />
content and recycling where applicable. The Directive requires member states to prepare four year<br />
programs to gradually reduce household spent batteries. 79<br />
The 1991 <strong>Battery</strong> Directive was amended in October 1993 to provide specifics on a marking system<br />
required in the 1991 <strong>Battery</strong> Directive. The Council Directive 93/86/EEC requires that all batteries sold in<br />
the European Union after January 1, 1994 must be marked with a logo showing special collection<br />
requirements and heavy metal content. 80<br />
The 1991 <strong>Battery</strong> Directive was amended a second time in December 1998 to limit mercury content of<br />
batteries sold into the European market. The Council Directive 98/101/EEC required member states to<br />
ban by January 1, 2000 batteries and accumulators containing more than 5 ppm of mercury by weight<br />
(including batteries used in appliances) and button cell batteries containing more than 2% of mercury by<br />
weight. It exempts button cell batteries containing less than 2% of mercury by weight. Furthermore,<br />
member states were required to adopt and publish, before 1st January 2000, the provisions necessary to<br />
comply with the Directive.<br />
Member countries have been left with the responsibility to establish collection programs, resulting in the<br />
implementation of a wide array of different collection programs targeting different battery types, resulting<br />
in different recovery levels. For example, Austria, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden have<br />
introduced battery legislation that is more stringent than the EU Directive and twelve countries require<br />
retailers to take back batteries at the point of sale, with the collection costs funded by a fee on<br />
manufacturer battery sales. Table 6.6 summarizes the different battery collection programs implemented<br />
throughout Europe.<br />
79 Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. <strong>Battery</strong> Recovery Laws World-wide, Update Edition<br />
80 European Commission. October 4,1993. European Commission Directive 93/86/EEC on batteries and accumulators<br />
containing certain dangerous substances at http://www.epbaeurope.net/Legislation/9386EEC.htm<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 53 May 2006
Country Year of Legislation Recovery<br />
Target<br />
Austria 1991<br />
Federal Ordinance on<br />
Batteries<br />
Belgium 1996<br />
Royal Order on Batteries<br />
Denmark 1993<br />
Bill for Duty on Lead<br />
Accumulators and<br />
Hermetically Seals Nickel<br />
Cadmium Accumulators<br />
France 1999<br />
Decree Relating to the<br />
Marketing of Batteries and<br />
Accumulators and to Their<br />
Disposal<br />
Germany 1998<br />
German Ordinance on the<br />
Return and Disposal of Used<br />
Batteries and Accumulators<br />
Italy 1997<br />
Regulation Conveying the<br />
Rules for the Incorporation of<br />
Directives 91/157/EEC and<br />
93/68/EEC on Batteries and<br />
Accumulators Containing<br />
Dangerous Substances<br />
Netherlands 1995<br />
The <strong>Battery</strong> Disposal Decree<br />
Norway 1994<br />
Regulations Concerning<br />
Changes in the Regulation on<br />
Batteries<br />
Portugal 2001<br />
Legal Regime Governing<br />
Management of Batteries and<br />
Accumulators and<br />
Management of Used<br />
Batteries and Accumulators<br />
Sweden 1997<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Ordinance<br />
Switzerland 1996<br />
Order Regulating Materials<br />
Harmful to the Environment<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 6.6: European Member State National <strong>Battery</strong> Programs<br />
Batteries Targetted for Collection and<br />
Recycling<br />
All batteries<br />
(beyond EU <strong>Battery</strong><br />
Directive<br />
19/157/EEC<br />
requirements)<br />
Batteries required<br />
under EU <strong>Battery</strong><br />
Directive<br />
19/157/EEC<br />
(Hg, NiCd, Pb)<br />
Collection<br />
Responsibility<br />
none √ Municipalities &<br />
retailers<br />
Economic<br />
Instrument<br />
By weight<br />
75% √ Industry Levy per unit<br />
75% √ Municipalities Levy per unit<br />
none √ Retailers By weight and<br />
type<br />
none √ Municipalities &<br />
retailers<br />
By weight and<br />
type<br />
none √ varies Voluntary by<br />
weight<br />
95% √ Municipalities By weight and<br />
type<br />
80% + NiMH + Li-ion Industry and<br />
retailers<br />
25% √ Municipalities &<br />
retailers<br />
none √ Municipalities Levy<br />
80% √ Municipalities &<br />
retailers<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 54 May 2006<br />
Levy<br />
Deposit if<br />
recovery rates<br />
not met<br />
Sources: European Commission. April 2002. Importing Batteries in EU Member States, EU Commission’s Safety Awareness<br />
Facts and Tool (SAFT)<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association, June 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9 th<br />
International Congress for <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling, June 2-4, 2004<br />
Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. <strong>Battery</strong> Recovery Laws World-wide, Update Edition
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
It is estimated that the existing Batteries Directives cover an estimated 7% of all portable (primary and<br />
secondary) batteries placed on the EU market annually. Furthermore, the Commission estimates that in<br />
2002, 45.5% of all portable batteries sold in the EU went to final disposal, with significant environmental<br />
concern linked to the materials they contain, particularly mercury, cadmium and lead.<br />
In response to the fractured approach by member states to address the <strong>Battery</strong> Directive, the EU has<br />
proposed a more stringent <strong>Battery</strong> Directive, published March 18, 2005, which is currently under<br />
negotiation. The EU Government anticipates that the Directive will be adopted by mid 2006. If approved,<br />
the new Directive will replace the Directive 91/157/EEC. Member states will have 24 months to bring into<br />
force the laws, regulations and administrative provisions necessary to comply with the Directive. 81<br />
The new <strong>Battery</strong> Directive will aim to maximize the separate collection and recycling of spent batteries<br />
and accumulators, and to reduce the disposal of batteries and accumulators in the municipal waste<br />
stream. The directive proposes the following measures:<br />
• to ban the landfilling or incineration of all automotive and industrial batteries;<br />
• to set up national collection systems, allowing consumers to return their spent batteries free of<br />
charge;<br />
• to set a collection target for consumer batteries of 160g per inhabitant per year (corresponding to<br />
4-5 portable batteries per person per year);<br />
• to set a collection target of 80% for nickel cadmium (NiCd) consumer batteries (NiCd batteries<br />
used in power tools exempt and reviewed in four years, also emergency and medical equipment<br />
exempt);<br />
• to set recycling targets of 65% by weight for lead-acid batteries, 75% for nickel cadmium (NiCd)<br />
batteries and 55% for all other batteries;<br />
• producers to be made responsible for costs related to collection, treatment and recycling;<br />
• producers to be allowed to use a 'visible fee' for a maximum of five years after implementation.<br />
The battery industry ‘s response to the proposed recycling targets has varied. Responses include:<br />
• The European <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Association (EBRA) urges the Commission not to delay the<br />
legislation any longer. The EBRA warns of a "serious risk" of their know-how disappearing and<br />
investment in recycling capacity drying up without legislative backing. It wants mandatory targets<br />
of 75 percent for each type of portable battery, and 95 percent for industrial and automotive<br />
batteries, to be achieved within 5 years by each Member State. Targets should be expressed in<br />
terms of battery weight arising for disposal each year. 82<br />
• To minimize adverse environmental impacts the EBRA advocates collection of batteries with<br />
other recyclable wastes, such as WEEE, packaging or glass, where possible and feasible. 83<br />
• The European Environmental Bureau (EEB) and Greenpeace congratulated the Parliament for<br />
resisting industry pressure not to ban nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries. "Taking action at source<br />
to substitute the most dangerous chemicals, such as lead, mercury and cadmium, is by far the<br />
best way to protect our environment and health," the two said in a joint statement. 84<br />
• The U.S. power tool makers are in Europe, arguing that it will be impossible to maintain a<br />
recycling infrastructure on a battery that is slated for extinction. Experts on both sides are offering<br />
proof of whether the nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries can be effectively replaced by alternatives<br />
by 2008 - and there are rumours that the Commission is leaning towards giving up the ban if they<br />
can impose deposits on batteries to ensure high recovery targets. No country has been able to<br />
81<br />
United Kingdom Government website at http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/legislation/380525/389181/?lang=_e<br />
82<br />
EurActive. April 28, 2004. Environment. <strong>Battery</strong> Directive at http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-117445-<br />
16&type=LinksDossier<br />
83<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association. 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation to the 9th International<br />
Congress for <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling, June 2-4, 2004<br />
84<br />
EurActive. April 28, 2004. Environment. <strong>Battery</strong> Directive at t http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-117445-<br />
16&type=LinksDossier<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 55 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
recycle more than about half of its nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries in separate programs - and<br />
the cost can be high. 85<br />
• The American Chamber of Commerce in Belgium reacted to the Commission's proposals by<br />
saying that a ban on cadmium would infringe on free trade agreements with the US. It considers<br />
that the most appropriate end-of-life management solution is a coherent and efficient mandatory<br />
collection and recycling program for spent NiCd batteries. 86<br />
• In the UK, DEFRA – and its delivery organization WRAP – launched a trial involving local<br />
authorities and the community sector, to collect batteries from over 350,000 households. The trial<br />
was funded by the BREW (Business Resource Efficiency and Waste) initiative, which was<br />
established to help UK businesses cope with the increasing Landfill Tax. The Department has<br />
explained that although the trial will collect batteries from households, it will ultimately benefit<br />
businesses, because it will ease the transition towards producer responsibility for waste batteries,<br />
being brought in by the EU <strong>Battery</strong> Directive 87 .<br />
Members of the European Parliament have approved the first reading of the proposed <strong>Battery</strong> Directive<br />
and it is expected to be approved in the spring of 2006.<br />
6.3.1 WEEE and RoHS Directives<br />
Two Directives have been enacted in Europe to manage the manufacturing of electronic products (the<br />
RoHS Directive) and the discard of waste electronics (the WEEE Directive). The impact of these<br />
Directives on battery production and management is explored below.<br />
Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and<br />
Electronic Products (RoHS Directive)<br />
Enacted in February 2003, the RoHS Directive requires European Union member states to eliminate six<br />
hazardous substances from the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment by placing a ban on<br />
their incorporation in electronic and electrical equipement beginning July 1, 2006. The six specified<br />
substances include cadmium, hexavalent chromium, lead, mercury, poly-brominated biphenyls and<br />
polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Some exemptions apply.<br />
Despite the targeting of hazardous substances found in batteries (i.e. chromium, lead and mercury), the<br />
RoHS Directive does not apply to batteries but refers to the <strong>Battery</strong> Directive for management or use of<br />
these hazardous substances.<br />
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive)<br />
The WEEE Directive takes a stewardship approach by requiring manufacturers and importers<br />
("producers") of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) to provide collection opportunities to<br />
consumers and cover the costs of the collection, treatment and recovery of WEEE. Each member state is<br />
responsible for developing regulations to ensure recovery of WEEE. The EEE products covered under<br />
the WEEE Directive include:<br />
• Large household appliances<br />
• Small household appliances<br />
• IT and telecommunications equipment<br />
• <strong>Consumer</strong> equipment<br />
• Lighting equipment<br />
• Electrical and electronic tools (with the exception of large-scale stationary industrial tools)<br />
• Toys, leisure and sports equipment<br />
• Medical devices (with the exception of all implanted and infected products)<br />
85<br />
American Recycler. No date. <strong>Battery</strong> Makers Battle Over Cadmium at http://www.americanrecycler.com/08battery.html<br />
86<br />
EurActive. April 28, 2004. Environment. <strong>Battery</strong> Directive at t http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-117445-<br />
16&type=LinksDossier<br />
87<br />
URL: http://www.letsrecycle.com/legislation/news.jsp?story=5349<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 56 May 2006
• Monitoring and control instruments<br />
• Automatic dispensers<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
The WEEE Directive was to take effect August 13 2005 requiring member states to enact legislation<br />
ensuring that producers cover the costs of collection, treatment, recovery and sound disposal of<br />
designated WEEE. However, in some countries implementation has been delayed resulting in the WEEE<br />
deadline being extended until June 2006 (with the labeling requirement deadline still August 13, 2005).<br />
Both member states and producers must meet the recovery targets by December 31, 2006.<br />
The WEEE Directive requires that any WEEE product containing batteries must have the batteries<br />
removed prior to recycling of WEEE products and defers to the <strong>Battery</strong> Directive for proper management<br />
of the spent batteries stating:’<br />
“This Directive should cover all electrical and electronic equipment used by consumers and electrical and<br />
electronic equipment intended for professional use. This Directive should apply without prejudice to Community<br />
legislation on safety and health requirements protecting all actors in contact with WEEE as well as specific<br />
Community waste management legislation, in particular Council Directive 91/157/EEC of 18 March 1991 on<br />
batteries and accumulators containing certain dangerous substances (1).” 88<br />
6.4 Japan<br />
Japan has enacted two measures to manage rechargeable (secondary) batteries. In April 2001 the Law<br />
to Promote the Efficient Usage of Resources was enacted requiring all manufacturers and importers of<br />
rechargeable batteries and equipment using rechargeable batteries to establish collection and recycling<br />
systems for the batteries. The following recycling targets for designated batteries were established for<br />
2003:<br />
• Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries – 60% recycling target<br />
• Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries – 55% recycling target<br />
• Lithium-ion (Li-Ion) batteries – 30% recycling target<br />
• Small sealed lead acid (SSLA) batteries – 50% recycling target.<br />
The <strong>Battery</strong> Association of Japan's (BAJ) Center to Promote Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling promotes<br />
the collection and recycling of batteries. <strong>Consumer</strong>s can bring end of life rechargeable batteries, free of<br />
charge to retailers who sell batteries and cooperate in the recycling of rechargeable batteries. There are<br />
an estimated 30,000 sites in Japan. Industry is responsible for the collection and recycling costs.<br />
In addition to the collection and recycling requirements, the Japanese government established a stringent<br />
labeling system for rechargeable batteries using a colour coding and marking system to help facilitate<br />
recycling and sorting of the batteries. The labeling system being promoted by the <strong>Battery</strong> Association of<br />
Japan is shown below: 89<br />
88 European Commission. January 2003. DIRECTIVE 2002/96/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of<br />
27 January 2003 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)<br />
89 <strong>Battery</strong> Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.html<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 57 May 2006
6.5 Taiwan<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
The Taiwanese the Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) has announced that from September<br />
2006, the manufacture, importation and sale of zinc manganese and non-button cell alkaline manganese<br />
batteries with a mercury content exceeding 5 parts per million (ppm) is to be prohibited in Taiwan.<br />
Anyone found manufacturing or importing non-compliant batteries will be subject to fines ranging from<br />
NT$60,000 (US$1,847) to NT$300,000 (US$9,200). Tests carried out in 2005 by the Taiwanese EPA<br />
showed that the mercury levels of around 10 percent of dry cell batteries on the market exceeded 5 ppm,<br />
and that some batteries imported from China had mercury levels as high as 848 times that level. The EPA<br />
estimates that 1.47 percent of batteries on the market, or 117 tonnes annually, have an excessively high<br />
mercury content 90 .<br />
90 URL: http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2006/03/09/2003296466<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 58 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
7. Issues and Trends in Product and <strong>Battery</strong> Design<br />
7.1 Issues<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> manufacturers today face a number of challenging issues such as counterfeit battery<br />
manufacturing and increasing demand for longer lasting batteries.<br />
Demand for Longer Life Batteries<br />
As more products and devices require portable power and at the same time become more complex,<br />
offering more and more features, the demand for power increases. With every new feature added to a<br />
cell phone, laptop computer, digital music player, portable video game player, etc. more energy is<br />
required. The demand for energy from the new wireless generation of devices is insatiable. For example,<br />
with cell phones now offering additional wireless features that enable the user to take and send pictures,<br />
download music, send emails, search the internet, etc. the demand for longer lasting battery packs is<br />
significant. Under these high energy demand circumstances, a cell phone battery will last only a few<br />
hours.<br />
Since the first battery prototype developed in the late 19 th century, the basic battery design has not<br />
changed significantly; only the chemistries have evolved. Introduction of new chemistry composition,<br />
such as lithium ion, has improved battery life but has not solved the demand. In fact, for most batteries, it<br />
is believed that they have been optimized to reach their maximum output and lifespan. This especially<br />
applies to primary batteries and nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries. Conventional batteries are falling<br />
behind the demand for more battery “juice”. It does not appear, however, that the lithium-ion battery has<br />
reached its maximum charge limit. Recent announcements by Sony and Matsushita (which makes<br />
Panasonic batteries) claim to have improved the life of the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery by up to 30%. 91<br />
Other innovations to increase battery life are explored in Section 7.3 – Trends.<br />
Counterfeit <strong>Battery</strong> Concerns<br />
North American and Japanese multi-national battery manufacturers are facing an increasing prevalence<br />
of counterfeit batteries entering the marketplace, particularly in battery packs but also primary batteries.<br />
Counterfeit batteries pose human health and environmental concerns. National Electrical Manufacturers<br />
Association (NEMA) has stated that “Counterfeit products are products designed to mislead consumers<br />
into thinking they are purchasing a good quality branded product. When poorly constructed, these<br />
counterfeit products are prone to leakage of electrolyte. <strong>Battery</strong> electrolytes are potentially harmful to<br />
body tissues and reputable battery makers take great care to design products where leakage is<br />
essentially prevented. <strong>Battery</strong> electrolyte is also potentially harmful to the circuitry in devices”. 92<br />
Furthermore, some counterfeit primary batteries (i.e. alkaline and carbon zinc) have been found to<br />
contain mercury levels above the legislated thresholds in the US and Europe.<br />
In addition, if the counterfeit battery does not contain a venting system, there may be pressure build up<br />
which could result in an explosion. This situation is more of a concern with lithium-ion and lithium polymer<br />
batteries and has become the number one concern of battery manufacturers after a growing number of<br />
accidents were reported over the past couple of years. 93<br />
In response, some larger battery manufacturers have begun to introduce measurers to combat counterfeit<br />
batteries. In the case of Nokia, it announced plans to mark its batteries with a holographic label. In other<br />
91<br />
Toronto Star. Monday October 24, 2005. The Charge Towards Better Batteries<br />
92<br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association. May 2004. Dry <strong>Battery</strong> Anti-Counterfeit White Paper at<br />
http://www.nema.org/prod/elec/drybat/upload/dry-bat-anticounterfeit.doc<br />
93<br />
Shepard, Jeff. March 3, 2005. Batteries buffeted by demands for more safety. EDN Voice of Electrical Engineers. v50 i5<br />
pP17(3)<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 59 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
cases, product manufacturers, such as cell phone manufacturers, are programming the chips to<br />
recognize only legitimate battery packs. 94<br />
The <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association (CHBA) has an on-going request to the Government of<br />
Canada to provide assistance by developing appropriate legislation targeting counterfeit batteries.<br />
In March 2006, the US Government passed the Stop Counterfeiting in Manufactured Goods Act which<br />
amends the US criminal code prohibiting trafficking of counterfeit goods. The National Electrical<br />
Manufacturers Association spent the better part of three years pushing for the legislation. The bill,<br />
“recognizes that the import and export trade involving counterfeit products is criminally culpable conduct<br />
and that bartering or even free transactions in counterfeit goods can lead to liability”. 95<br />
7.2 Market Share Trends<br />
The demand for batteries is on an upward curve as the demand for new wireless devices and games<br />
increases. Global Strategic Analysts predict that overall <strong>Canadian</strong> battery market demand is expected to<br />
grow at a compounded annual rate of 7.63% to 2010. 96 Other analysts predict similar trends for the<br />
United States, with US overall battery demand increasing 5.9% through 2009 97 The demand for cell<br />
phones, digital camera and other portable electronic devices such as MP3 players will fuel much of this<br />
increased demand for batteries.<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
While primary batteries will continue to command the largest market share overall, their rate of market<br />
share growth will lag behind secondary batteries. Most of the attention of market share analysts is on the<br />
secondary batteries and power packs which are used in many electronic devices. A 2004 study by<br />
Freedonia predicts that most of the demand increase will be associated with secondary batteries with<br />
primary batteries growing “at a below-average pace since they are generally used in more mature<br />
markets and have less potential for technological upgrades”. 98 Among primary battery sales, Feedonia<br />
estimates that consumer applications will account for more than 70% of primary battery sales to 2009 of<br />
which 69% of sales are for alkaline batteries, 16% for primary lithium and 15% for others (i.e. button<br />
batteries – zinc air). Table 7.1 summarizes primary battery market share trends.<br />
The market share for batteries for hearing aids is expected to grow 16% between 2000 and 2006. One<br />
reason cited is that the Baby Boomers are getting to a stage where they need hearing aids. In general<br />
the sale of button cell batteries in the United States is on the rise. This trend has been observed by the<br />
State of Maine which reports a three fold increase in the sale of button cell batteries from 1990 to 2002. 99<br />
94 Shepard, Jeff. March 3, 2005. Batteries buffeted by demands for more safety. EDN Voice of Electrical Engineers. v50 i5<br />
pP17(3)<br />
95 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 7, 2006. NEMA Praises Congressional Passage of Legislation<br />
on Counterfeiting<br />
96 Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries <strong>Report</strong><br />
97 Freedonia Group, September 2005. <strong>Battery</strong> & Fuel Cell Materials to 2009<br />
98 Freedonia Group, November 2004, Power Supplies for Portable Products to 2008<br />
99 Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries<br />
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Table 7.1: Primary <strong>Battery</strong> Market Forecast<br />
Chemistry Forecast Source<br />
Primary Batteries<br />
Alkaline Projected to account for 69% of consumer primary battery<br />
sales in 2009<br />
The <strong>Canadian</strong> demand for alkaline batteries is projected to<br />
grow at a compounded annual<br />
rate of 7.26% to 2010<br />
Freedonia, May 2005<br />
Global Strategic Analysts, June 2004<br />
Primary lithium Sales are expected to grow 5.7% annually to 2009 Business Communications Company,<br />
Sept 2004<br />
Button Cell Zinc air are expected to grow from a $US 12 million market<br />
in 2004 to $US 26 million in 2009<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Power Products & Technology,<br />
January 2005<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
The demand for different types of secondary batteries over the next five years will increasingly shift away<br />
from nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries to lithium batteries, with demand for lithium ion (Li-ion), lithium<br />
polymer(Li-polymer) and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) experiencing the strongest rates of growth. Global<br />
Strategic Analysts predict that the market for lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries is likely grow at a compounded<br />
annual growth rate of over 32% to 2010. 100 Table 7.2 summarizes secondary battery market share<br />
trends.<br />
Also, the demand for "Second Packs" (or back-up packs) is expected to rise, as the new wireless<br />
technologies make the security of back-up power more important. Notebooks are expected to be the<br />
fastest growing power pack demand item. A recent study by the Darnell Group predicts that Li-ion<br />
batteries are expected to account for 70% of the market share for power packs by 2010. Li-polymer is<br />
expected to experience the highest growth rate at 19.3% but still remain a niche market (growth from 70<br />
million units in 2005 to 170 million units in 2010). The Darnell Group projects that Nickel cadmium (NiCd)<br />
will see sales fall 8% annually to 2010. 101 . However, data purchased for this study did not indicate this<br />
trend, and no confirmation of NiCd sales projections was received from the battery industry, although<br />
some battery OEMs have indicated that they no longer manufacture NiCd batteries. Efforts to improve<br />
the amount of power from the nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery will help it replace the nickel cadmium<br />
(NiCd) battery in power tools. 102<br />
Equipment<br />
Table 7.2: Power Pack Market Forecast<br />
Forecast Source<br />
Portable Power Packs Increase demand of 6.1% per year through 2008 Freedonia, Nov. 2004<br />
Growth in sales projected from 1.1 billion units in<br />
2005 to 1.6 billion unites in 2010<br />
Darnell Group, 2005<br />
Some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with different secondary batteries are explored in<br />
Table 7.3 below.<br />
100 Global Industry Analysts (GIA), June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries <strong>Report</strong><br />
101 The Darnell Group. 2005. Power Packs for Portable Electronics: Global Forecasts and Competitive Environment<br />
102 Portable Design. Jan 2003. Batteries Continue to Evolve at their own Pace. V9 i1 pg(5)<br />
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<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 7.3: Comparison of Portable Power Alternatives<br />
Nickel cadmium (NiCd) Can deliver high levels of power at a very low cost and<br />
recharges quickly.<br />
1,500 charge cycles<br />
Nickel metal hydride<br />
(NiMH)<br />
Advantages Disadvantages<br />
Supports high-discharge rates well; delivers more power for<br />
its size than NiCd; no memory-effect issues.<br />
Lithium ion (Li-ion) Combines high energy density and light weight. No memoryeffect<br />
issues. Same cycle life as NiMH.<br />
Lithium polymer (Lipolymer)<br />
Same characteristics as lithium ion but can be molded into<br />
very thin shapes.<br />
Reusable alkaline Discharge rate is low when not in use: 0.3% per month vs.<br />
10% for lithium ion and 30% for NiMH.<br />
Direct methanol fuel cells Long run times, which can be extended by refueling the<br />
device.<br />
Source: Cadex Electronics Inc., Richmond, British Columbia<br />
7.3 Trends In <strong>Battery</strong> Design<br />
Low energy density; suffers from memory effect that can cut<br />
battery life if battery isn’t maintained properly. Cadmium<br />
batteries are environmentally unfriendly and likely to be<br />
phased out.<br />
Lasts for 300 to 500 charge cycles vs. 1,500 for NiCd.<br />
Relatively expensive. Volatile chemistry requires special<br />
safety mechanisms and strict manufacturing controls.<br />
More expensive than traditional lithium ion.<br />
Limited to about 50 charge cycles vs. 300 to 500 for lithiumbased<br />
batteries.<br />
Still at prototype stage; mature products not expected before<br />
2010. Complex to build. Inefficient process generates waste<br />
heat; reacts too slowly to peak load demands.<br />
There are a number of recent advances in the chemistry and design of<br />
conventional batteries which will reduce toxicity and heavy metal concerns.<br />
For example, Energizer has developed a zero-mercury zinc air (ZnO2)battery,<br />
which has been introduced in Europe but not yet in North America. The<br />
company currently offers mercury free zinc air batteries in four models in the<br />
European market, but has given no timeline as to when these batteries will be<br />
commercially available outside Europe. In addition, Sony recently introduced<br />
10 models of mercury-free silver oxide button cell batteries which have been<br />
available in the market since 2005. Sony plans to eliminate mercury from its<br />
entire silver oxide (AgO) battery line in the near future and has developed a mercury free logo in support<br />
of its commitment. 103<br />
There are a number of advances in battery and product design which will improve battery life but cannot<br />
be considered revolutionary. For example, Matsushita (which makes Panasonic batteries) has worked<br />
with Intel to extend the operating time of a laptop computer by combining the design of a battery that<br />
allows the battery to be discharged down to a lower voltage with the re-design of a laptop platform that<br />
will take advantage of the lower discharge battery (which Intel refers to as the Napa platform). The lower<br />
discharge means that the battery can be run down to a lower voltage before it needs recharging. 104 In<br />
addition Intel has developed its Centrino chip to consume reduced power. 105 The ultimate goal is to<br />
enable a labtop to run for an eight hour day before needing to be recharged. According to Intel, the<br />
combination of the new Napa platform with improvements in LCD and battery technology, it may achieve<br />
the eight hour goal by 2008. 106<br />
In the area of primary batteries, Matsushita has developed an improved version of the alkaline battery<br />
which is calls the Oxyride battery which delivers 1.5 times the power of a regular alkaline battery and can<br />
last up to twice as long as alkaline batteries 107 . The battery was designed specifically for use in high<br />
power devices, such as digital cameras and MP3 players. The Oxyride battery improves on the alkaline<br />
103 Sony. September 29 2004. World's first commercialization of Mercury-Free Silver Oxide <strong>Battery</strong> - Realization of<br />
Environment-Conscious mercury-free battery (press release) at http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/200409/04-051E/<br />
104 Toronto Star. Monday October 24, 2005. The Charge Towards Better Batteries<br />
105 Computerworld. January 10, 2005. Mobile Computing’s Energy Crisis.<br />
106 PC Magazine. March 3, 2005. Intel’s Napa Could Boost Laptop <strong>Battery</strong> Life.<br />
107 Freedonia Group. May 2005. Batteries to 2009<br />
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<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
chemistry by using a finer grained graphite and manganese dioxide, allowing a denser fill of material.<br />
With an advanced substance for the cathode or negative (-) side (oxy nickel hydroxide) the batteries<br />
maintain higher voltage. Under the Panasonic name the Oxyride battery was introduced in the U.S. in<br />
June 2005. 108<br />
To date, there have been no revolutionary advancements in battery design, but this may soon change<br />
with the introduction of the micro fuel cell battery. In recent years there has been a flurry of activity as the<br />
battery industry focuses its research efforts on the micro fuel cell. The fuel cell shows promise in being<br />
able to deliver higher energies over a longer period of time. Instead of hoping for a laptop that stays<br />
charged for eight hours, fuel cell proponents are hoping that battery life can increase two to ten fold. It is<br />
estimated that more than 60 companies are competing to develop the micro fuel cell battery, including<br />
IBM, Motorola, Toshiba and NEC. 109<br />
Some companies are focusing on fuel cell recharging devices. For example, Medis Technologies, based<br />
in New York, has developed a disposal Power Pack that can be used to power or recharge high energy<br />
devices such as cell phones, digital music player or hand held video games. The company claims that<br />
the micro fuel cell power pack can power a cell phone for up to 20 hours or recharge it five or six times. 110<br />
Micro fuel cells are not expected to become widely available in the market place for another few years but<br />
when available they will experience wide scale adoption. The North Carolina Fuel Cell Alliance predicts<br />
that although the fuel cell market is currently valued at $1billion it is expected to grow to $13 billion over<br />
the next decade. 111<br />
108 Source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-oxyride-battery.htm<br />
109 San Francisco Chronicle. The Best <strong>Battery</strong>? Soon, it may be none at all.<br />
110 Wise Geek. 2005. What is an Oxyride <strong>Battery</strong>? at http://www.medistechnologies.com/products.asp?id=82<br />
111 <strong>Consumer</strong>s Electronics Association. 2006. Five Technologies to Watch<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 63 May 2006
8. Conclusions<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Amount of <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries Discarded In Canada<br />
Like consumer electrical and electronic equipment, consumer batteries account for a very small<br />
percentage of the <strong>Canadian</strong> municipal waste stream by tonnage. An estimated 348 million consumer<br />
batteries were discarded in 2004, representing a weight of 11,623 tonnes. Discards include batteries<br />
available for recycling and final disposal. Of this total, 337 million units (8,610 tonnes) were primary<br />
consumer batteries and 11.2 million units (3,013 tonnes) were secondary consumer batteries.<br />
The total number of discarded consumer batteries is expected to rise to 15,977 tonnes by 2010,<br />
representing the annual discard of 494 million consumer batteries of which most (478 million units) will<br />
still be primary consumer batteries. The significant increase in primary consumer battery usage is<br />
attributed to the increased availability of toys and other products which will require portable power.<br />
Secondary battery sales in 2010 are expected to increase to 38.6 million units by 2010, compared to 19.7<br />
million units sold in 2004. Most of the secondary batteries are NiCd (8.4 million units) followed by nickel<br />
metal hydride (1.2 million units). While overall nickel cadmium (NiCd) sales will continue to increase, their<br />
share of the market will be lower by 2010, when they will account for 58% of secondary battery sales<br />
(down from the current 65% market share).<br />
The number of consumer batteries discarded is increasing significantly, with an increased demand for<br />
consumer electronics which require portable power, and the rapid rate at which new electronic products<br />
which require batteries are being introduced into the market.<br />
Current Recycling Rates for <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
Recycling rates for alkaline and other primary (non-rechargeable )batteries are minimal. A value of 2%<br />
was used for this study, but the actual recovery may be lower.<br />
Recycling rates for rechargeable consumer batteries were estimated by dividing the tonnage of batteries<br />
recovered in 2003 and 2004 (provided by RBRC) by the estimated amount of batteries discarded in 2003<br />
and 2004 (from the C2BFM). Recycling rates for 2005 to 2010 were estimated by dividing the tonnage of<br />
batteries recovered (estimated using projected increases provided by RBRC) by the amount to be<br />
discarded (estimated by the C2BFM based on historical sales data). Table 8.1 presents estimated<br />
recycling rates for 2004 and 2010.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 64 May 2006
Primary Batteries<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Table 8.1: Comparison of Batteries Recycled in 2004 and 2010<br />
Units<br />
Recycled<br />
kg/unit (000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
2004 2010<br />
Weight Recycled<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
Units<br />
Recycled<br />
Weight Recycled<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 65 May 2006<br />
(000s)<br />
(tonnes)<br />
%<br />
(overall)<br />
Zinc Carbon 0.027 1,456 39 12.2% 1.23 1,680 45 7.0% 1.36<br />
Alkaline 0.028 4,679 131 40.6% 4.10 7,016 196 30.2% 5.88<br />
Zinc Air 0.033 1 0.02 0.01% 0.001 0.9 0.03 0.005% 0.00<br />
Lithium 0.016 83 1 0.4% 0.04 139 2 0.3% 0.07<br />
Silver Oxide Button<br />
Cell<br />
0.001 188 0.2 0.1% 0.01 212 0.3 0.004% 0.01<br />
Zinc Air Button Cell 0.001 326 0.3 0.1% 0.01 514 0.5 0.1% 0.01<br />
Subtotal Primary 6,733 172 53.4% 5.39 9,562 245 37.6% 7.33<br />
Secondary Batteries<br />
Per<br />
Capita<br />
(grams)<br />
NiCd 0.203 651 132 41.0% 4.13 1,756 356 54.8% 10.67<br />
NiMH 0.093 80 7 2.3% 0.23 220 20 3.1% 0.61<br />
Lithium Ion 0.040 73 3 0.9% 0.09 210 8 1.3% 0.25<br />
Lithium Polymer 0.040 6 0.2 0.1% 0.01 19 0.8 0.1% 0.02<br />
SSLA 1.045 7 8 2.4% 0.24 19 20 3.0% 0.59<br />
Subtotal Secondary 817 151 46.6% 4.71 2,224 406 62.4% 12.14<br />
Total 7,551 323 100% 10.09 11,786 650 100.0% 19.47<br />
While the tonnage of secondary batteries recycled will increase from 2004 to 2010, so too will the amount<br />
of secondary batteries discarded.<br />
The recycling rate for small sealed lead acid batteries (SSLA’s) is based on sales data which may be<br />
overestimated. Sales estimates for SSLA’s were based on very limited German and Japanese data<br />
which could have included SSLA’s from the commercial sector. It is therefore suggested that a more<br />
accurate sales estimate be requested from the <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Industry.
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Metals Discharged to the Environment from <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries<br />
The metals discharged into the environment as a result of disposal of consumer batteries in Canada in<br />
2004 are shown below:<br />
Metals Tonnes Disposed From<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries (2004)<br />
Toxic Substances underCEPA* 1999<br />
Lead (Pb) 765.8<br />
Mercury (Hg) 0.4<br />
Cadmium (Cd) 234.7<br />
Nickel (Ni)** 386.4<br />
Other Metals<br />
Lead, Cadmium and Mercury Issues<br />
Zinc (Zn) 1673.9<br />
Manganese (Mn) 2436.7<br />
Silver (Ag) 4.3<br />
Lithium (Li) 1.6<br />
Iron (Fe) 2,424.0<br />
Aluminum (Al) 5.3<br />
* CEPA (<strong>Canadian</strong> Environmental Protection Act)<br />
** Nickel is Toxic under CEPA 1999 if found in oxidic, sulphidic or<br />
soluble inorganic nickel compounds.<br />
This study estimated that almost 766 tonnes of lead from small sealed lead acid batteries could enter the<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> environment through disposal of these units. It is likely that most of these units are discarded<br />
into municipal waste streams, and would therefore be contained in <strong>Canadian</strong> landfills, with a very small<br />
amount possible disposed in municipal solid waste incineration facilties. The threat posed to the<br />
environment would depend on the design of the landfills where the MSW is disposed, but would be limited<br />
to groundwater contamination; the largest human exposure would be where the groundwater is used as a<br />
source of drinking water. The threat from incineration would be small (as only 4% of <strong>Canadian</strong> MSW is<br />
incinerated) and could be controlled by appropriate emission controls.<br />
An estimated 235 tonnes of cadmium entered the <strong>Canadian</strong> environment through disposal of consumer<br />
batteries in 2004. This number will increase significantly in future years, as NiCd batteries purchased in<br />
the last 10 years are discarded. NiCd batteries have been the subject of a number of legislative efforts in<br />
the US and Europe, because of a concern about cadmium content. Sales projections purchased for this<br />
study identified a trend towards higher sales for NiCd batteries in future years. This finding should be<br />
confirmed with the <strong>Canadian</strong> battery industry as various sources predict a decline, but no source of sales<br />
projections identifying this trend could be located during the study research. Companies such as Sony<br />
are introducing wireless/cordless products that use chemistries other than NiCd. 112<br />
There is a very small amount of mercury in batteries, and a mercury free zinc air battery has been<br />
introduced in Europe, but not in North America. There is a significant concern regarding the potential for<br />
counterfeit batteries to contain unacceptable levels of mercury.<br />
112 Communication with Nick Aubry, Environmental Manager, Sony of Canada Ltd., February 6 th , 2006.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 66 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 67 May 2006
9. Glossary of Acronyms<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
ADS – Advanced Disposal Surcharge<br />
ARMA – Alberta Recycling Management Authority<br />
CCME – <strong>Canadian</strong> Council of Ministers of the Environment<br />
C2BFM – <strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model<br />
CHBA - <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association<br />
EEB – European Environmental Bureau<br />
EIA – Electronics Industry Association (US)<br />
EPSC – Electronic Product Stewardship Canada<br />
EU – European Union<br />
GIA – Global Industry Analysts<br />
GVRD – Greater Vancouver Regional District<br />
HHW – Household hazardous waste<br />
IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission<br />
Li-ion – Lithium Ion<br />
Li-polymer – Lithium Polymer<br />
MSDS – Material Safety Data Sheet<br />
NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers Association<br />
NiCd – Nickel Cadmium battery<br />
NiMH – Nickel Metal Hydride battery<br />
OEM – Original equipment manufacturers<br />
PC – Personal computer<br />
PRBA – Portable Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Association<br />
RBRC – Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation<br />
SLI – Start, lighting, ignition<br />
SQG – Small quantity generator<br />
SSLA – small sealed lead acid batteries<br />
TDGA – Transportation of Dangerous Goods<br />
ULAB – Used lead acid battery<br />
UPS – Uninterrupted power supply<br />
USEPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency<br />
WDO – Waste Diversion Ontario<br />
WEEE – waste electrical and electronic equipment<br />
ZnAgO2 – Silver Oxide button cell battery<br />
ZnC – Zinc Carbon battery<br />
ZnMnO2 – Alkaline battery<br />
ZnO2 – Zinc Air button cell battery<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 68 May 2006
10. References<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Advanced Technology Program. June 2005. Factors Affecting the U.S. Production Decisions: Why<br />
are There No Volume Lithium-Ion <strong>Battery</strong> Manufacturers in the United States? ATP Working Paper<br />
Series<br />
Agence do l’environnement et de la maitriese de l’Engerie. November 2003. Obserevatoire des piles et<br />
accumujlateurs: La situation en 2002.<br />
American Recycler. No date. <strong>Battery</strong> Makers Battle Over Cadmium at<br />
http://www.americanrecycler.com/08battery.html<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Association of Japan website http://www.baj.or.jp/e/environment/index.html<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Council International. June 10, 2005. Lead-Acid Batteries Still Top the Nation’s Recycling List<br />
(news release) at http://www.batterycouncil.org/2005Recycling<strong>Study</strong>PressRelease.pdf<br />
<strong>Battery</strong> Council International. June 2005. National Recycling Rate <strong>Study</strong><br />
Belgium Federal Department of the Environment. May 2003. Risk Assessment: Cadmium (oxide) as<br />
used in Batteries (response to final draft)<br />
Bio Intelligence Service, July 2003. Impact Assessment on Selected Policy Options for Revision of<br />
the <strong>Battery</strong> Directive. Prepared for the European Commission, Directorate General Environment<br />
British <strong>Battery</strong> Manufacturers Association. No date. <strong>Battery</strong> Storage at<br />
http://www.bbma.co.uk/introduction.htm<br />
Cadex Electronics Inc. website at http://www.cadex.com/<br />
California Integrated Waste Management Board. August 2002. Household Universal Waste Generation<br />
in California.<br />
CMS Info. March 2004. <strong>Battery</strong> and EV Industry Review<br />
Commission of the European Communities, November 2003. Directive of the European Parliament and<br />
of the Council on Batteries and Accumulators and Spent Batteries and Accumulators<br />
Computerworld. January 10, 2005. Mobile Computing’s Energy Crisis<br />
<strong>Consumer</strong>s Electronics Association. 2005. Five Technologies to Watch - 2006<br />
Corrosion-Doctor Organization website at www.corrosion-doctors.org/PrimBatt/urry.htm<br />
The Darnell Group. 2005. Power Packs for Portable Electronics: Global Forecasts and Competitive<br />
Environment<br />
Dewalt tools at http://www.dewalt.com/us/articles/article_cordless.asp?Site=cordless&ID=239<br />
Duracell MSDS information on NiMH at http://www.duracell.com/oem/safety/pdf/2030_3C.pdf<br />
Energizer. 2004. Principal Dry <strong>Battery</strong> Systems – Typical Characteristics<br />
Energizer website at http://www.energizer.com/learning/historyofbatteries.asp?year=1798<br />
Energizer MSDS information on NiMH at http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/nickelmetalhydride_psds.pdf<br />
EurActive. April 28 2004. Environment: <strong>Battery</strong> Directive at<br />
http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-117445-16&type=LinksDossier<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 69 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
European Commission. October 4, 1993. European Commission Directive 93/86/EEC on batteries<br />
and accumulators containing certain dangerous substances at<br />
http://www.epbaeurope.net/Legislation/9386EEC.htm<br />
European Commission. April 2002. Importing Batteries in EU Member States, EU Commission’s<br />
Safety Awareness Facts and Tool (SAFT)<br />
European Commission. January 2003. DIRECTIVE 2002/96/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT<br />
AND OF THE COUNCIL of 27 January 2003 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)<br />
European Commission. November 2003. Draft Directive on Batteries and Accumulators and Spent<br />
Batteries and Accumulators COM (2003) 723<br />
European Commission. November 24, 2003. Commission Staff Working Paper: Directive of the<br />
European Parliament and of the Council on Batteries and Accumulators and Spendt Batteries and<br />
Accumulators, Extended Impact Assessment.<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association (EPBA) website at www.epbaeurope.net/Recycling_.html<br />
European Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Association. 2004. Collection of Portable Batteries in the EU. Presentation<br />
to the 9 th International Congress for <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling, June 2-4, 2004.<br />
European <strong>Report</strong>, April 17, 2004 Batteries: Portable <strong>Battery</strong> Makers say New Directive Could Have<br />
Dire Consequences. P. 311<br />
Freedonia Group. November 2004. Power Supplies for Portable Products to 2008<br />
Freedonia Group. May 2005. Batteries to 2009<br />
Freedonia Group. September 2005. <strong>Battery</strong> & Fuel Cell Materials to 2009<br />
Fricke, Dr. J.L.,and N. Knudsen. May 2002. Disposal of Portable Batteries. Prepared for Stifung<br />
Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS)<br />
Global Industry Analysts (GIA). June 2004. <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries <strong>Report</strong><br />
Green Manitoba Eco Solutions. October 19, 2005. Discussion Paper: Household Hazardous<br />
Waste/HHW. Prepared for the Government of Manitoba<br />
Institute for Risk Research. January 1997. Environmental Impacts of Household <strong>Battery</strong> Use in<br />
Canada. <strong>Report</strong> 34. Prepared for <strong>Canadian</strong> Household <strong>Battery</strong> Association<br />
Institution of Electrical Engineers. June 2004. Recycling of Batteries. United Kingdom<br />
Kearney, A.T. 2003. Global Manufacturing Strategy: The Future of the Power Pack. A.T. Kearney<br />
Inc.<br />
Maine Department of Environmental Protection, March 2005. Mercury Use in Button Batteries<br />
Maine, State of. 2005. Proposed Bill - LD 1058 (SP 375) - An Act To Regulate the Use of Batteries<br />
Containing Mercury<br />
Manitoba Product Stewardship Corporation, October 19, 2005. Discussion Paper: Household<br />
Hazardous Waste/HHW<br />
Medis Technologies. 2005. Disposable Power Pack (news release) at<br />
http://www.medistechnologies.com/products.asp?id=82<br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association. May 2004. Dry <strong>Battery</strong> Anti-Counterfeit White Paper at<br />
http://www.nema.org/prod/elec/drybat/upload/dry-bat-anticounterfeit.doc<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 70 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association. July 2004. Summary <strong>Report</strong> of Analyses of Mercury<br />
from <strong>Consumer</strong> Batteries in the Waste Stream<br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 2, 2006. NEMA Announces <strong>Battery</strong><br />
Industry Commitment to Eliminate Mercury in Button Cells<br />
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). March 7, 2006. NEMA Praises Congressional<br />
Passage of Legislation on Counterfeiting<br />
PC Magazine. March 3, 2005. Intel’s Napa Could Boost Laptop <strong>Battery</strong> Life. v24 i4 p7(1)<br />
Portable Design. Jan 2003. Batteries Continue to Evolve at their own Pace. v9 i1 p6(5)<br />
RadioShack. No date. RadioShack's On-line <strong>Battery</strong> Guidebook at<br />
http://support.radioshack.com/support_tutorials/batteries/batgd-c.htm<br />
Raymond Communications Inc. July 2001. San Francisco Passes Resolution Calling <strong>Battery</strong> EPR<br />
Inadequate<br />
Raymond Communications Inc. 2005. <strong>Battery</strong> Recovery Laws World-wide, Updated Edition<br />
Raymond Communications, July 29, 2005. State Recycling Laws Update<br />
Rayovac. 2001. Annual <strong>Report</strong><br />
Rayovac. No date. Primary Batteries- Alkaline, & Heavy Duty: Application Notes and Product Data<br />
Sheet<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC) website at<br />
http://www.call2recycle.org/releases/PR_2_21_05.1.html<br />
Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Recycling Corporation (RBRC). February 3, 2006. Response to the <strong>Canadian</strong><br />
<strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>. Presented to Environment Canada<br />
Resource Integration Systems (RIS) Ltd. 1994. Guidelines fro the Management of Used Lead-Acid<br />
Batteries in Canada. Prepared for Environment Canada.<br />
San Fransisco. June 2005. Precautionary Purchasing Ordinance (Ord. No. 115-05)<br />
Shepard, Jeff. March 3, 2005. Batteries buffeted by demands for more safety. EDN: Voice of Electrical<br />
Engineers. v50 i5 pP17(3)<br />
Sony. September 29 2004. World's first commercialization of Mercury-Free Silver Oxide <strong>Battery</strong> -<br />
Realization of Environment-Conscious mercury-free battery (press release) at<br />
http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/200409/04-051E/<br />
Spectrum Brands. 2003. America’s <strong>Battery</strong> Overview<br />
Statistics Canada. 2004. Waste Management Industry Survey: Business and Government Sectors.<br />
ISSN 1701-5677<br />
Stibat. 2004. Annual <strong>Report</strong>, Netherlands<br />
Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). May 2002.Germany GRS Batterien,<br />
Germany<br />
Stifung Gemeinsames Rucknahmesystem Batterien (GRS). March 2005.GRS Annual <strong>Report</strong>, Germany<br />
Toronto Star. Monday October 24, 2005. The Charge Towards Better Batteries<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 71 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
Ultra Life Batteries. December 1, 2005. Transportation Regulations for Lithium, Lithium Ion and<br />
Polymer Cells and Batteries<br />
United Kingdom Government website at<br />
http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/legislation/380525/389181/?lang=_e<br />
United Kingdom Department of Trade and Industry. August 2002. Batteries<br />
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). November 1997. Implementation of the<br />
Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable <strong>Battery</strong> Management Act<br />
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). March 2002. The <strong>Battery</strong> Act, Enforcement<br />
Alert Newsletter<br />
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2005. Safe Mercury Management Legislation<br />
and Regulations at http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/mercury/<br />
Waste Age. December 5 ,, 2005. NYC to require stores to accept rechargeable batteries for recycling<br />
Waste Diversion Ontario. July 6, 2005. Highlights of the 2004 Tonnage Datacall Household Special<br />
Waste<br />
Waste Diversion Ontario (WDO) June 2005. EEE Material Flow and WEEE Infrastructure<br />
Waste News. October 17, 2005. New Californian Law Requires Retailers to Take Back Rechargeable<br />
Batteries<br />
Wise Geek. 2005. What is an Oxyride <strong>Battery</strong>? at http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-oxyridebattery.htm<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 72 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
APPENDIX A<br />
BATTERY INDUSTRY SURVEY TEMPLATE<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 73 May 2006
24 TH November, 2005<br />
Dear Survey Participant,<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
RIS International Ltd has been contracted by Environment Canada to prepare a <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong><br />
<strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong> for Canada. The baseline study has developed estimates of the flow of consumer<br />
batteries in Canada, combining available annual sales information for different battery chemistries<br />
(primary and secondary) with the expected lifespan of each battery chemistry. The flow estimates<br />
account for the amount of time the battery is “hoarded” before it is discarded.<br />
We have assumed that all secondary battery recovery is carried out by RBRC, and that primary battery<br />
recovery is minimal, through household hazardous waste (HHW) collection days run by municipalities.<br />
We are surveying a number of battery OEMs and other companies directly involved in various aspects of<br />
the battery business in Canada and the US to collect additional information to add to the study, and also<br />
to confirm the assumptions we have used in the <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>.<br />
I hope that you can take a few minutes to answer the following questions (ignore those for which you do<br />
not have readily available information):<br />
1. Are unit sales of primary batteries in Canada proportionally comparable to unit sales of primary<br />
batteries (i.e. alkaline, zinc carbon, lithium primary, button cells) in the United States?<br />
2. Are there differences in per capita sales of primary batteries in Germany and Japan compared to<br />
Canada, and if so, can you provide some reasons for those differences?<br />
3. Are there differences that you know of in the per capita consumption of secondary batteries in<br />
the US, Germany and Japan, compared to Canada, and if so, can you provide us with one or<br />
more reasons for these differences?<br />
4. We have assumed that primary batteries have an average lifespan of three years and that<br />
secondary batteries have an average lifespan of five years before they are discarded. Can you<br />
confirm that these assumptions are reasonable, or provide figures that you think are more<br />
accurate?<br />
5. We have also assumed that 30% of primary batteries and 60% of secondary batteries are<br />
“hoarded” (stored in the basement) after their first use. In both cases it has been assumed that<br />
the batteries are hoarded for 5 years and are then discarded. We have found estimates up to 15<br />
years for hoarding in the literature. Have you carried out any research on hoarding of primary or<br />
secondary batteries before they are discarded?. Can you confirm or modify these assumptions?<br />
6. Can button cell batteries be manufactured without mercury? What are the impediments to<br />
manufacturing without mercury (what is the unique property of mercury which can not be<br />
replicated by other materials)?<br />
7. Are there trends in the design of button cell batteries which will change their composition, or is<br />
there any effort to replace them with a new battery chemistry? What is the future outlook for<br />
these batteries?. The sales data that we have identified indicate a trend to higher sales because<br />
baby boomers will use more hearing aids. Are there other factors which will also increase the use<br />
of button cell batteries?<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 74 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
8. What is the future for NiCd batteries? The sales projections we have purchased from Global<br />
Industry Analysts indicate that sales of NiCd batteries will continue to increase, although their<br />
market share is on the decline.<br />
9. Are there particular uses where NiCd batteries are the best power source, and a new design has<br />
not been identified (and therefore NiCd will be used for the foreseeable future?<br />
10. Does the industry feel that NiCd batteries could become obsolete in the next five to ten years,<br />
and if so, what would they be replaced with?<br />
11. What are future trends that will impact on battery market sales for alkaline, lithium ion, lithium<br />
polymer and NiMH batteries?<br />
12. Is there a new design approach or other trends that we should be aware of that will significantly<br />
change the landscape for the design and use of primary and secondary consumer batteries in the<br />
next 10 years (i.e. what is the status of the micro fuel cell battery?).<br />
Please feel free to call me at 416-482-7007, ext 21 if you would rather complete the survey by phone, if<br />
you would like more information on the <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>, or if you would like me to<br />
clarify the questions.<br />
Thank you for taking the time to provide us with information, which will be a valuable addition to the<br />
<strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong>.<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 75 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
APPENDIX B<br />
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> Flow Model<br />
Output Tables<br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 76 May 2006
<strong>Canadian</strong> <strong>Consumer</strong> <strong>Battery</strong> <strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
<strong>Final</strong> <strong>Report</strong> Page 77 May 2006