Neonicotinoid Pesticides and Bees - The Food and Environment ...

Contents
1. Executive Summary ............................................................................................................. 3
2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 12
3 Methodology adopted .............................................................................................................. 13
4 Results .................................................................................................................................... 14
4.1 Mode of Action and Metabolism of Neonicotinoid Insecticides .............................. 14
4.1.1 Mode of Action ..................................................................................................... 14
4.1.2 Metabolism .......................................................................................................... 15
4.1.3 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Acute Toxicity of neonicotinoids ............................................................................ 18
4.2.1 Honeybees ........................................................................................................... 18
4.2.2 Other bee species ................................................................................................ 23
4.3 Multiple exposure to pesticides (including substances used in bee medication) and
potential additive and cumulative effects. ........................................................................ 35
4.3.1 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 38
4.4 Interactions between neonicotinoids and disease ................................................. 39
4.5 Exposure of bees to pesticides ............................................................................. 41
4.6 Sublethal and chronic effects of neonicotinoids..................................................... 44
4.6.1 Honeybees ........................................................................................................... 44
4.6.2 Bumblebees ......................................................................................................... 44
5. References ....................................................................................................................... 101
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