Artistic Ornateness in African Oral Poetry A Study of the Tiv Ibiamegh ...

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ARTISTIC ORNATENESS IN AFRICAN ORAL POETRY: A STUDY OF THE TIV IBIAMEGH
POEMS OF AMEE IJÔRPO
MOSES TERHEMBA TSENÔNGU
BA (Jos), MA (BSU,
PGA/UJ/14075/02
A thesis in the Department of ENGLISH, Faculty of Arts
Submitted to the School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Jos, in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the award of Doctor of
Philosophy (LITERATURE IN ENGLISH)
UNIVERSITY OF JOS
JUNE 2011

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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this work is the product of my own research efforts; undertaken under the
supervision of Professor Kanchana Ugbabe and has not been presented elsewhere for the award
of a degree or certificate. All sources have been duly distinguished and appropriately acknowledged.
Moses Terhemba Tsenôngu
PGA/UJ/14075/02
June 2011

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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that the research work for this thesis and the subsequent preparation of this thesis
by Moses Terhemba Tsenôngu (PGA/UJ/14075/02) were carried out under our supervision.
--------------------------
Prof. K. Ugbabe
Supervisor,
Department of English,
University of Jos.
---------------------------
Asso. Prof. Isaac B. Lar
Ag. Head,
Department of English,
University of Jos.
---------------------------
Prof. U.H.D. Danfulani
Dean,
Faculty of Arts,
University of Jos.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………………… …..ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………………………………iii
DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………………………….v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………..vi
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………………………..x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .…………………………………………………………….1
1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM …………………………………………………………….3
1.3. AIMS OF STUDY ………………………………………………………………………………….4
1.4. JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY …………………………………………………………………..7
1.5. DEFINITION OF TERMS………………………………………………………………………..8
1.6. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………………………12
1.6.1. Evolutionism …………………….………………………………………………………………...13
1.6.2. Diffusionism ………………………………………………………………………………………..15
1.6.3. Psychoanalysis………………………… ……………………………………………………….17
1.6.4. Functionalism ……………………………………………………………………………………..18
1.6.5. Formalism ………………………………………………………………………………………….19
1.6.6. Structuralism……………………………………………………………………………………….21
1.6.7. The Oral Formulaic Theory……………………………………………………………………22
1.6.8. The Afrocentric Approach ……………………………………………………………………25
1.7. THE TIV OF NIGERIA ………………………………………………………………………….39
1.7.1. The Tiv Name …………………………………………………………………………………....39
1.7.2. Tiv Origin …………………………………………………………………………………………..45
1.7.3. Geographical Position And Demographic Data ……………………....................49
1.7.4. Occupation ………………………………………………………………………………………..51
1.7.5. Tiv Language ……………………………………………………………………………………..52

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am most grateful to Professor Kanchana Ugbabe who supervised my undergraduate long
essay, who was my External Examiner at the MA level, and has supervised the present work. The
debt of appreciation that I owe her for her criticism and general encouragement is more than I can
ever repay. My appreciation also go to Dr. J. A. Adeiyongo, my internal examiner, who read this
thesis carefully but speedily at a time when most people would have preferred not to even see it. His
corrections and suggestions were invaluable. Also, Dr. U. E. Iwoketok supervised the work briefly
when Professor Ugbabe‟s left for her sabbatical; she was most supportive and accommodating.
Professor Macpherson Azuike, in whose tenure as Head of the Department this thesis passed
through the required formalities, deserves sufficient appreciation for the academic fatherliness that
he provided. Then, I must mention Dr. Isaac Lar whose response was always immediate any time I
ran to him for assistance. Indeed, I express my gratitude to all the members of the Postgraduate
Board of the Department of English, whose thorough criticism brought this work to its present shape.
I am, furthermore, grateful to all the staff members of the Department of Asian and African
Studies, Hamburg University, Hamburg, Germany where, soon after getting the admission for this
programme, I was lucky to be hosted as a resident scholar under the German Academic Exchange
Program (DAAD). During this residency, all the members of that department helped me to have the
initial framework for this work; I must, however, mention Professor Metchild Reh, Dr Joe McIntyre,
Dr Getie Gelaye, and Ms. Theda Schumann who were members of the small committee formed to
look at my work on a bi-weekly basis. I am, moreover, grateful to J. Gerhardt, an Emeritus Professor
of African Languages in the same University who offered me a copy of Charles Keil‟s Tiv Song as his
contribution to this work. Generous appreciations are also due to Professor Flora Veit-Wild, the Head
of the Department of African Studies, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany, who invited me for a
Research Seminar in the university to talk on “Figurative Manipulation in Tiv Oral Poetry”. That
seminar further equipped me for this work. Additionally, I am thankful to Kristina Bischoff, a dear
friend that I met during my stay in Germany and whose friendship made my stay in that country
very memorable.

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I must, lastly and most importantly, praise God, the only One capable of taking a poor
village boy and making him the author of a work of this nature. May my life be worthy of Your grace,
my Lord and Saviour.
DEDICATION
To four women who have made me: Mama Nyishor Tsenôngu, my biological mother whom I was not
privileged to know; Mama Nguvan Tako, my great maternal step-grandmother who took satisfactory
care of me for the first twelve years of my life; Mrs. Blessing Zanaria Tsenôngu, truly a conjugal
blessing; and Easter Tervengese Tsenôngu, my very dear daughter.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
DECLRATAION……………………………………………………………………………………………ii
CERTIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………………… …..ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………………………………iv
DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………………………….vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………..viii
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………………………..xi
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .…………………………………………………………….1
1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM …………………………………………………………….3
1.3. AIMS OF STUDY ………………………………………………………………………………….4
1.4. JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY …………………………………………………………………..7
1.5. DEFINITION OF TERMS………………………………………………………………………..8
1.6. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………………………12
1.6.1. Evolutionism …………………….………………………………………………………………...13
1.6.2. Diffusionism ………………………………………………………………………………………..15
1.6.3. Psychoanalysis………………………… ……………………………………………………….17
1.6.4. Functionalism ……………………………………………………………………………………..18
1.6.5. Formalism ………………………………………………………………………………………….19
1.6.6. Structuralism……………………………………………………………………………………….21
1.6.7. The Oral Formulaic Theory……………………………………………………………………22
1.6.8. The Afrocentric Approach ……………………………………………………………………25
1.7. THE TIV OF NIGERIA ………………………………………………………………………….39
1.7.1. The Tiv Name …………………………………………………………………………………....39
1.7.2. Tiv Origin …………………………………………………………………………………………..45
1.7.3. Geographical Position And Demographic Data ……………………....................49
1.7.4. Occupation ………………………………………………………………………………………..51
1.7.5. Tiv Language ……………………………………………………………………………………..52
1.7.6. Social Organization ……………………………………………………………………………..54
1.7.7. Tiv Religion ………………………………………………………………………………………..56
1.7.8. Tiv Oral Tradition ……………………………………………………………………………….63
1.7.9. Tiv Oral Poetry …………………………………………………………………………………..64
1.8. A BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF AMEE IJÔRPO ………………………………………………..75
1.8.1. Birth and Family Life ……………………………………………………………………………75
1.8.2. Initiation into Poetry Performance …………………………………………………………78
1.8.3. His Death and the Current State of His Songs ………………………………………..84

1.9. RESEARCH DESIGN …………………………………………………………………………….85
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP
2.1. EARLY WESTERN RESEARCH ON TIV ORAL POETRY ……………….……………..90
2.2. RECENT RESEARCH ON TIV ORAL POETRY …………………………….……………100
2.2.1. General Research Works on Tiv Oral Poetry ………………….……………………..103
2.2.2. Research Works on Specific Tiv Poets …………………………….……………………109
2.3. RESEARCH WORK ON AMEE IJÔRPO…. ……………………………………………….112
2.3. METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………………………………..........114
CHAPTER THREE
ASPECTS OF AMEE’S POETRY
3.1. THE SPEAKER IN THE POEMS ……………………………………………………………118
3.2. THE ADDRESSEE IN THE POEMS………………………………………………………..121
3.3. SETTING IN THE POEMS …………………………………………………………………..126
3.4. SUBJECTS AND THEMES IN THE POEMS …………………………………………….130
3.4.1. The Panegyric Subject ………………………………………………………………………134
3.4.2. The Subject of Privation ……………………………………………………………………143
3.4.3. The Elegiac Subject ………………………………………………………………………….155
3.4.4. The Didactic Subject ………………………………………………………………………..161
CHAPTER FOUR
A STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF AMEE’S NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES
4.1. THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE POEMS ……………………………………….171
4.1.1. The Introductory Part ……………………………………………………………………….173
4.1.2. The Body of the Poems …………………………………………………………………….174
4.1.3. The Ending Part of the Poems ……………………………………….....................179
4.1.4. Four-part Structure …………………………………………………………………………..181
4.2. SPECIFIC STRUCTURAL TECHNIQUES IN AMEE …………………………………..182
4.2.1. Linguistic Formula ……………………………………………………………………………..185
4.2.2. Non-Linguistic Formula ………………………………………………………………………193
4.3. CHRONOLOGY IN THE POEMS ……………………………………………………………196
CHAPTER FIVE
AMEE’S ORNATENESS: DICTION AND ONOMASTICS
5.1. DICTION ………………………………………………………………………………………….203
5.1.1. Archaic Words ………………………………………………………………………………….204
5.1.2. Manipulation of Registers ………………………………………………………………….208
5.1.3. Borrowings……………………………………………………………………………………….213
5.1.4. Created Diction…………………………………………………………………………………217

5.2. ONOMASTIC MANIPULATION ……………………………………………………………220
5.2.1. Eulogues …………………………………………………………………………………………224
5.2.2. Onomastic Manoeuvring…………………………………………………………………….226
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CHAPTER SIX
AMEE’S ORNATENESS: FIGURES OF SPEECH
6.1. IMAGERY…………………………………………………………………………………………..238
6.1.1. Imagery as Descriptive Language ……………………………………………………….241
6.1.2. Imagery as Figurative Language …………………………………………………………248
6.2. METAPHOR ……………………………………………………………………………………..260
6.3. SIMILE ……………………………………………………………………………………………266
6.4. PUN ………………………………………………………………………………………………..273
6.4.1. Homographic Pun ……………………………………………………………………………..274
6.4.2. Homophonic Pun ..…………………………………………………………………………….277
6.5. ALLUSION ………………………………………………………………………………………..278
6.5.1 Allusions to Tiv Oral Tradition ……………………………………………………………..278
6.5.2. Allusions to Tiv Religion …………………………………………………………………….282
6.5.4. Allusions to Tiv History ..…………………………………………………………………….284
6.6. HYPERBOLE ……………………………………………………………………………..........285
6.7. PROVERBS ……………………………………………………………………………… ………287
6.8. ALLITERATION ……………………………………………………………………….. ………291
6.9. AMBIGUITY ……………………………………………………………………………. ……….293
6.10. EUPHEMISM ……………………………………………………………………………………..297
CHAPTER SEVEN
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………….301
7.2. RECOMMENDATIONS ………………………………………………………………………303
7.3. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE……………………………………………………..310
NOTES TO CHAPTERS ……………………………………………………………………………….311
WORKS CITED ………………………………………………………………………………………….318
APPENDIX A THE TIV VERSIONS OF AMEE‟S POEMS ………………………….. …..329
APPENDIX B THE ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF AMEE ………………………………..541

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ABSTRACT
This research appreciates African oral poetry by dwelling on the art as practiced among the Tiv of Central
Nigeria where Amee Ijôrpo has been selected for study. The selection of this poet is due to his prominence as a
performer in Tiv land and his profundity as an artist. His choice is also based on the fact that he used to
perform what the Tiv refer to as ibiamegh poetry which is almost extinct now and needs to be documented.
Additionally, Amee has died and no other artist has taken over his career so his compositions are endangered; it
is thus significant to conserve them in research. By choosing a poet like this for critical attention, the study
draws attention to the several other African poets especially in the oral mode who have not received the
scholarly attention that their creative depths deserve.
The methodology employed for this study was field work which involved obtaining Amee’s available poems
from commercial dealers in the art as well as audio-recording some of his songs from an artist who used to
assist him. Through these two methods in the field, ninety-four of Amee’s poems were obtained which
represents a fair portion of his performance. These poems were transcribed and the transcriptions were
translated to English which then formed the data that was analyzed for this research. The tools for literary
appreciation were employed in analyzing the ornate nature of Amee Ijôrpo’s poetry. The research has studied
the poet in seven chapters. The first chapter is a general introduction; the second reviews scholarship on the
subject while the third appreciates ornateness in the poet by looking at aspects of his composition like speaker,
addressee, setting, and subject and themes. Chapter Four appreciates the shape of the poems by regarding their
general and specific structures. In the fifth chapter, Amee’s wealth as an artist is appreciated by considering his
diction and his manipulation of onomastics. Chapter Six appreciates the poet’s exhibition of figures of speech.
The seventh and last chapter has summarized the study and offered some recommendations.
The study has demonstrated the literary wealth of African poetry by dwelling on Amee’s profundity as a
composer and his general artistic significance. The implication of these findings is that there are invaluable
aesthetic benefits to be derived from a basically artistic investigation of the compositions of individual Tiv and
African oral poets. It is therefore needful to research on particularized composers and to focus on their
creativity; that way, the skills that distinguish them as artists can be appreciated better. Moreover, such studies

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can preserve the works of those poets whose deaths often mean the death of their performances as well.
Research of this nature is therefore one way to enhance glocalization.

1.1. BACKGROUND TO STUDY
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Poetry generally has a very significant place in human communication. Ralph
Emerson the American philosopher and writer was right when he declared that all of
“language is fossil poetry” (qtd. in Millar and Currie 61). That submission
demonstrates the pervasive presence of poetry in human speech. It is this fact that
Denys Thompson confirmed when he maintained that poetry manifests in human
communication as early as the speech-learning period (3). Then, when infants grow
into little children, it is common knowledge that rhymes and chants naturally form
their songs at play. In adulthood, the presence of poetry in human communication
is so ubiquitous that many scholars have dismissed the difference between prose
and poetry. An example of this dismissal is found in Brooks and Warren:
To the person who is not well acquainted with poetry the differences
between poetic speech and other forms may seem to be more
important than the similarities, but these differences should not be
allowed to obscure the fundamental resemblances. (xxxiii)
Denys Thompson was even more forward on his position concerning the matter
when he maintained that: “There is little point in trying to site a dividing line
between the territories of poetry and prose, for some of the corralled inmates will
reap over any barrier” (1). To further justify this, one more example, this time from
Thomas Hardy, will be cited:

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The shortest way to good prose is by the route of good verse. The
apparent paradox… that the best poetry is the best prose ceases on
examination to be a paradox and becomes a truism. Anybody may test
it for himself by taking any five lines in verse and, casting off the
fetters of metre and rhyme that seem to bind the poet, try to express
the idea more freely and accurately in prose. He will find that it cannot
be done: the words of the verse – fettered as he thought them – are
the only words that will convey the ideas that were intended to be
conveyed. (qtd. in Thompson 2)
Even though Hardy‟s approach to poetry was limited by the literary shortcomings of
his time 1 , he was able to state the fact being argued here – which is that, there is
no essential difference between the language of poetry and that of prose. This fact
is useful because it positions poetry closer to general human communication; thus,
exploding the often-held view of the art as being some dreadful literary genre
whose appreciation is the exclusive preserve of the initiated few.
Now, even though poetry is significant in human communication generally,
its influence is even more emphatic when the genre of oral literature is considered.
While prose and poetry may exist hand in hand on the written page as stated
above, Ruth Finnegan (Oral Poetry 16 – 24) has, to use Okpewho‟s words,
“question[ed] the validity of a demarcation between oral and literate poetics”
(“Faithful Record” 111) and thus, still in Okpewho‟s words, agreed with Dennis
Tedlock that “prose (as we now understand it) has no existence outside the written
page” (qtd. in Okpewho, “Faithful Record” 115). In other words, the spoken word is

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dominated by poetry. Thompson has corroborated this by stating that, “the further
we pursue inquiries into the origin of language, the more poetic we find it to be”
(80). P.B. Shelley also maintained the same position thus: “language itself is poetry”
(qtd. in Thompson 84) especially where language is used verbally.
The reason for the predominance of poetry in spoken words is because
poetic properties have an obvious mnemonic advantage. If the spoken word is not
poetically designed, it will not be able to hold fast in the hearer‟s mind and may be
forgotten as soon as it is heard. This is opposed to the written word which can
easily be re-read when forgotten. Due to their ephemeral nature, oral words need
mnemonic strategies to survive in the minds of the audience. Since poetry is one
such strategy, oral words, and by extension, oral literature generally is therefore
necessarily poetic.
1. 2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Even though oral literature is generally poetic as argued above, the concern
of this research is not with the general poetic properties of that literature. Rather,
the focus is on poetry as a genre. This s because even though it is recognized that
poetry is justifiably perverse in all the sub-genres of oral literature, it is also
indisputable that there is good ground that warrants the separation of a poetic
genre as distinct – however limited – from a prosaic. With Ruth Finnegan (Oral
Literature 111-299), I therefore consider songs as belonging to the category of oral
poetry. The pre-occupation here, as can be seen even in the title of the research, is
to examine the artistic skill in Tiv songs. For purposes of specificity, this study is
focused on the composition of Amee Ijôrpo, one of the most respected Tiv bards.

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The concern of the research is to investigate how, through the manipulation of
poetic properties, this composer demonstrated himself as a creator who knows how
to elicit desirable responses from members of his audience. The problem this
research is out to resolve is salvaging the endangered status of ibiamegh poetry
which Amee Ijôrpo performed. The religious ritual that birthed that poetry began to
die with the abolition of yamshe exchange marriage because it was essential for
ibiamegh initiates to be children of only this kind of marriage (Downes 59). It is this
endangerment that East was emphasizing when he stated that “the most
important… cults… received a blow from the abolition of exchange marriage in
1927 2 ; some of the public cults… such as the Biamegh-Poor (sic) … were partially
stamped out by the tsav investigation 3 of 1929 (Akiga‟s Story 418). With the demise
of ibiamegh religious ritual, the poetry that used to accompany it was gradually
secularized as discussed in 1.7.9 below. Eventually, however, even this secular
aspect of ibiamegh poetry, like several other aspects of Tiv culture, is dying out.
Almost all the composers who used to perform it have died and new composers are
hardly performing in the style. It is therefore needful to pay scholarly attention to
the art form so as to preserve as well as promote it.
1. 3. AIMS OF STUDY
This research has four aims. The first is to collect the poems of Amee Ijôrpo;
the second is to further the criticism of Tiv oral poetry; the third aim is to
demonstrate the poetic nature of oral poetry and so re-appreciate the artistic
integrity of oral literature generally. Finally, the study aims at calling attention to

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the several other Tiv poets who have not received the scholarly appreciation that
they deserve.
Of the first aim, it must be stated that even though oral literature does not
die with the emergence of civilization like the evolutionist theorists feared, its forms
do change from the earlier versions to new ones. The literature, especially among
the Tiv, has a survivalist tendency of shedding off its initial natures and reissuing
itself in fresh forms. The point, then, is that the old forms usually get lost in the
new ones. The situation is worse in cases where an oral poet‟s renditions, for
example, were not recorded; his performances become completely lost after a while
even when he himself is still living. This is due to the fact of the limited nature of
human memory which makes it difficult for the poets to remember their
compositions of, say, thirty or forty years ago. 4
The situation is usually worse in cases where the poet is no longer living. His
living assistants often forget his compositions; where they do not forget, they can
hardly interpret some portions of the renditions that need to be explained to an
inquirer. Even in cases where such compositions were recorded on audio tapes,
tracing the tapes is hardly a successful pursuit. The subject of this study, for
instance, died only in 1994; yet his songs, which were recorded on audio tapes, are
already extremely difficult to come by especially with the emergence of CDs and
DVDS when most people hardly use any other system of recorded materials. It is
therefore useful to collect oral literary materials at least in audio recorders (where
audiovisual collection is not possible as in the case of the poet of this study) as well

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as in writing; that is why the first aim of this study is to collect all the songs of
Amee Ijôrpo.
Of the second aim, furthering scholarly work on Tiv oral literature, it is a fact
that, with regards to the present study, most research works on Tiv oral poetry are
either too general or too thematic. Even though many of the researchers discuss
poetry somewhere in their works, such discussions are usually subordinated to the
scholars‟ main concerns which are usually with theme. This research therefore aims
at demonstrating that the poetry of Tiv bards deserves to be researched on its own
literary merits.
The third aim is to demonstrate the poetry of Tiv songs and so generally re-
emphasize the artistic integrity of oral literature. Unfortunately, my own experience
shows that the condescending attitude to oral literature is still surprisingly around 5 .
It is therefore appropriate to keep demonstrating the fact of the artistry of oral
literature over and over again.
Lastly, it is another objective of this study to challenge further research in Tiv
oral poetry especially with regards to poets who are yet to be studied. By studying
Amee Ijôrpo, a very profound artist who has hitherto not been attended to by
scholars, it is hoped that attention will be drawn – even if indirectly – to the
numerous other composers who are yet to receive any academic attention. Poets
like Atayo Koko, Agugu Igbyakumbur, Ajo Ugôr, Dagba Agbe, Hemen man Dondu,
Pevkyaa Zegi, Ayila Igbyue, Anyam Ayua, Anyam Kwaghmande, Anyam Ikyôhô,
Emmanuel Wade, and countless others are yet to be given the critical attention that
they deserve.

1. 4. JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
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A study like this is useful because it underscores the artistic worth of oral
literature with regards to an artist who has hardly been studied. It is common
knowledge that oral literature suffered from pejorative considerations from many
scholars 6 . The problem is that some oral literary critics have often blamed the
disdain for oral literature on Euro-American scholars. The contention in this work is
that it is not only Euro-American critics that used to regard oral literature with a
snobbish attitude. As mentioned earlier it is a fact that even in present times there
are some African scholars who feel oral literature is not serious literature 7 . Okot
p‟Bitek has presented an anecdote that demonstrates this fact:
When, recently, my friend Taban lo Liyong wept bitter tears over what
he called the literary desert in East Africa, he was suffering from acute
literary deafness, a disease which afflicts those who have been
brainwashed to believe that literature exists only in books. Taban and
his fast dwindling clan are victims of the class-ridden, dictionary
meaning of the term literature, which restricts literary activity and
enjoyment to the so-called literate peoples, and turns a deaf ear to
the songs and stories of the vast majority of our people in the
countryside. (ix)
As stated above, my experience has shown that Taban‟s “clan” is not as “fast
dwindling” as Okot has said here. Only in the 2004 conference of the International
Society for Oral Literatures of Africa (ISOLA) held in Banjul, the Gambia, Leif
Lorentzon found it necessary to present a well-accepted paper titled, “Is (African)

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Orature Literature? A Discussion of Literariness and African Oral Literature”. The
point is that there are some quarters where the literary reliability of oral literature is
still distrusted. So Taban‟s “clan” is still very much alive. The sad fact at present is
that African scholars, and not Euro-American critics, seem to form the majority of its
members. This study is therefore relevant in that, generally, it further validates a
point that seems to need repeated demonstration.
Moreover, of the several scholars who have been interested in Tiv songs,
none has deliberately set out to study their poeticness. Of course, the scholars do
comment on the poetry, but as mentioned earlier, such comments are often
subordinated to the usual thematic concerns of the oral texts studied. To the best of
my knowledge, this study is the first in which the artistry and skills of a Tiv oral poet
are the primary concern while thematic issues are only secondary.
1. 5. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Two terms in the title of this study deserve definitional clarification. These
are “artistic ornateness” and “oral poetry”. “Ornate” has two definitions in Merriam-
Webster‟s New Collegiate Dictionary; the first definition says: “marked by elaborate
rhetoric or florid style” while the second posits, “elaborately or excessively
decorated”. “Artistic ornateness” is therefore used in this work to denote the
imaginative skills that the poet deploys in his composition. The phrase refers to the
composer‟s inventiveness, resourcefulness and general creativity.
Regarding the term “oral poetry”, it is a well-known fact that this has been a
debated phrase due to the etymological problem with the idea of oral literature.
Finnegan has discussed this extensively in her Oral Literature in Africa (1 – 25) and

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later in her Oral Poetry (3 – 15); but a more recent discourse on the subject is by
John Miles Foley who has pointed out that:
The word literature describes works composed in letters by a lettered
person. To prefix the adjective “oral” to this core idea may be an
admirable and well-intentioned attempt to cancel out that etymology,
but the result is nonsensical. What “oral literature” really boils down
to is a name for “letterless verbal art in letters” or “letterless verbal art
composed by a lettered person.” You can see how even our
terminology reveals its bias. Down deep, we‟ve been scrambling
rather desperately to carve out a place for nonwritten forms within the
conventional world of literature. What we haven‟t been doing is
recognizing that our familiar world is actually only one part of an
immensely larger and – for many of us – largely unexplored universe
of verbal art. (27)
Foley continued that it is wrong to define the art of literature based on the literary
values of one culture – in this case, the West. That approach, he emphasised, could
make one to miss the point of literature altogether. Thus, he maintained:
For us poetry‟s etymological sense of something made or created
(from ancient Greek poiêsis) is a casualty of history; the default
designation of poetry has become written poetry. That‟s why we have
to prefix the adjective “oral,” because the unmodified noun no longer
covers anything but written poetry. That‟s also why we resort to other
unwieldy phrases to pigeonhole events and phenomena that our [that

10
is, Western] cultural proclivities have silently eliminated from
consideration. Thus a “poetry reading” describes a performance (from
a published text, of course) before a well-behaved, often academic
audience. Thus “spoken-word poetry” – so redundant from a
historical perspective – identifies voiced verbal art, verse that is lifted
off the page and into the world of presence and experience. (30)
That is the damage that the universalization of the literary values of Western
culture to define literature and poetry has caused. Foley is therefore, acceptably, of
the view that the correct definition of poetry is dependent on which society one is
considering. In a large sense, this agrees with Saleh Abdu‟s view that: “The best
answer to the question of what a poem is can only be sought and found in that
poem” (29). The import of these words is that even in written poetry (because Abdu
was refererring specifically to written poetry), universal definitions are hardly
satisfactory. That is why some scholars have regarded the art with the following
attitude presented by X. J. Kennedy:
The nature of poetry eludes simple definitions. (In this respect it is
rather like jazz. Asked after one of his concerts, “What is jazz?” Louis
Armstrong replied, “Man, if you gotta ask, you‟ll never know.”)
Definitions will be of little help….if we are to know poetry and respond
to it. (407)
It is not completely right to abandon the attempt to define poetry or oral poetry
since definitions are useful no matter their limitations, but if any definition of oral
poetry is going to be of any help, it must follow the advice by Foley and be limited

11
to what Ruth Finnegan has called “local classification” (Oral Poetry 26), that is a
society-based criterion. Indeed, this is the view that Finnegan too has held all
along. In the following words, she has further clarified and exemplified the issue:
Local [that is, society-based] classifications [and definitions] do not
necessarily coincide with the line we draw between „prose‟ and „verse‟,
but emphasise some other factor, like mode of delivery or social
function and setting, so that what at first sight may look like the
category equivalent to our „poetry‟ may turn out to include and
exclude unexpected cases. (Oral Poetry 26)
Her pointing out the differences between English poetic values and those of other
societies is a good illustration of the fact that what is poetry in one society is not it
in another. Thus, a proper definition of oral poetry needs be determined by the
society in question. Some of the parameters that various societies use to define
poetry have been listed in her words and it has been clearly stated that such
qualities do not necessarily fit those of the English society. The parameters she has
singled out are: mode of delivery, social function, and setting. There are more
parameters which anyone who is interested can find in her Oral Poetry (16 – 28)
and in Foley‟s How to Read an Oral Poem (22 – 53). My point in the preceding
paragraph has been to build a background that would warrant a definition of oral
poetry that is Tiv-based, that is, Tiv-society-based.
In Tiv society from which the composer of this study hailed, poetry is
regarded first and foremost as a sung art. Indeed, imo, the Tiv word that can be
regarded as the equivalent for the word poetry in English, means song. The poet is

12
seen as a word-worker who communicates by figures. Poetry among the Tiv is
therefore songs which teach, entertain, philosophise, inspire, abuse, rebuke, and
encourage. Indeed, it is not possible to list all the functions that songs perform in
Tivland. But these functions apart, the poet in Tiv society is, secondly, regarded as
someone who speaks in anzaakaa – the Tiv generic name for figures of speech.
Thus the Tiv define their composers by such composers‟ figurative language and
thematic relevance. These are the defining characteristics of poetry in the society
and that is the way this study is considering the art.
1. 6. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
As is commonly known, there are numerous approaches to the study of oral
literature. For instance, Adeiyongo has analyzed thirteen. Such approaches are:
psychoanalytical, structural analytical, oral formulaic, cross cultural, folk cultural,
mass cultural, hemispheric, polygenesis, historical-geographical, historical re-
constructional, ideological, functional, and contextual approaches (121–30).
Emenanjo has also appreciated all of the above leaving out only the polygenetic
approach (37 – 38). In this study however, only such approaches that are
considered as the most prominent will be discussed. These have been summarized
in African Oral Literature: Backgrounds, Character and Continuity Okpewho‟s latest
work on the subject. He has presented them evolutuionism, diffusionism,
psychoanalysis, functionalism, formalism and structuralism, (164-181). Each of
these shall now be briefly considered and the Afro-centric Approach/School which I
have identified shall be added to them.

1. 6. 1. Evolutionism
13
This oral literary theory flourished in the nineteenth century after Charles
Darwin published his Origin of Species and maintained that species evolve through
stages, from the less refined to the more civilized. According to Okpewho:
Darwin‟s views had a great impact on scholars of his time working in
the area of human culture [and of course literature]. In their efforts to
trace the origins of human civilizations and ideas – very much as
Darwin researched the origins of biological species – these cultural
historians set about trying to find out what were the earliest forms of
various aspects of human achievement in religious life (ritual, worship,
and so on). (African Literature165)
In a word, the evolutionist approach to oral literature was concerned with studying
the earliest forms of literature which is usually oral among folk societies. Their basic
assumption was that since societies evolve into new stages and shade off some of
its earlier practices, oral literature may be a casualty of the evolutional principle;
thus they advocated the need to collect oral literary materials with the fear that if
not collected, the materials will soon be lost as society evolved to more civilized
stages. Okpewho has divided the school into what he has called euhemerism,
solarism and naturalism (Myth 2) all of which were concerned with studying the
primitive stages of societal practices. Their interests spanned from culture to
religion and mythology (that is, oral literature). The main scholar of this approach
was Sir James George Frazer whose thirteen volume The Golden Bough published in
1911-36 was a monumental contribution to the evolutionist method. Other

14
prominent evolutionist scholars according to Okpewho were Max Muller and Jacob
and Wilheim Grimm (Myth 3).
One other aspect of evolutionism that needs to be mentioned was its
romanticist inclinations hence these scholars are sometimes grouped together as
“romantic and evolutionist” (Finnegan, Oral Poetry 30). The relationship between
them is that to the romanticists, the past (to which evolutionists was keenly
interested) was more appreciable because of its beautiful crudity that was
unaffected by the madness of industrialization and modernization – the later stages
in the evolution of humankind. Man was regarded as being closer to nature in the
earlier strata of society so romanticists, to whom nature was a god, glamorized that
past. Ideas about the noble savage who lived in the earlier stages of society
became favourably dominant. The artistic preoccupations of that noble savage,
thus, became a thing of great interest to the theorists of this school.
The shortcomings of this approach to oral literature were that the oral
literary collections that they influenced were conducted with assorted
misconceptions concerning the collected materials. The first of such misconceptions
was the view that the materials were “survivals” of the earlier stages of human
development. The problem with regarding these materials as “survivals” or “relics”
as done by the evolutionists and romanticists was that it meant that the materials
were created by the folks of much earlier times and handed down from mouth to
mouth over the generations to the present. In other words, there was no fresh
input into the existence of the materials. This attitude was certainly wrong because
there can never be such a word-perfect handing-down. It is an indisputable fact

15
that every performer contributes his or her creativity to flesh up the materials in his
performance even if the skeleton of such materials came from the earlier
generations.
Added to the above fault of the romanticist-evolutionists approach to oral
literature was their other shortcoming of regarding the materials they were
collecting so zealously as being of communal authorship. Since the materials
belonged to the distant past when society was yet to be plagued by individualism,
they certainly were composed communally. This view was not as true as they took it
to be. Finnegan‟s query concerning this is (Oral Poetry 37-39) is very convincing.
has queried it also wrong as many researchers in the field have for long now.
On the whole the evolutionist and romantic approach to oral literature was
guilty of a negatively condescending attitude towards the subject. The creativity of
the composer-performer was overlooked; so too was the originality of the genre.
The subject was thus, glamorized for the wrong reasons and the research works
carried out on it were therefore equally faulty.
1. 6. 2. Diffusionism
Okpewho has explained diffusionism by contrasting it with evolutionism in a
manner that is very enlightening. According to him:
Contrary to the evolutionists who believed that cultures at identical
though independent stages of development would show striking
similarities, the diffusionists...held that cultural similarities could only
be the result of historical contact and geographical contiguity between
peoples. Though diffusionists welcomed the efforts of comparative

16
mythologists like Frazer…and engaged in some comparatism
themselves, they employed the result of such scholarship in the
opposite direction of establishing – to borrow Malinowski‟s sneer –
„that culture can be contracted only by contagion and that man is
merely an imitative monkey (Myth 15)
This approach to oral literature concerned basically with establishing the travel
routes of materials from one point to another. Stith Thompson‟s six-volume Motif
Index of Folk Literature emerged as the bible of this school (Myth 15). Another
prominent scholars of diffusionism that deserves mentioning was Antti Aarne who
“reduced all the available folk tales of the world into a manageable (tale-type) index
(Okpewho African Oral Literature 175) and whose work was greater admired by
Propp the Russian formalist. The weakness of diffusionist approach is that its
leading scholars excluded other genres of oral literature in their method. Moreover,
the emphasis on the mere journey of a tale disregards more important issues
concerning oral literature. Performance, for example, is overlooked, as well as the
role that context and audience play in the life of a tale at any place and time. One
therefore wonders whether the mere knowledge that this tale travelled from A
through B and C to D is worth all the effort. There is hardly any use with merely
knowing the itinerary of a material; such knowledge even creates the false
impression that the material originally belongs to so and so place? In fact, every
performance of a tale is a new creation of that tale. It therefore seems of little use
dwelling so much on methods that focus on locating the native origins of a tale. For,

17
wherever the tale goes, it becomes native to that environment. This is the aspect of
diffusionism that was its main limitation.
1. 6. 3. Psychoanalysis
Just as evolutionism had its foundation in the conclusions of Charles Darwin in
the biological sciences, the psycho analytic approach to oral literature had its origins
from the psychological procedures of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. These
psychologists came up with methods of diagnosing psychological patients that
involved investigating their subconscious personalities where they talked about
themselves and their mental encounters freely. Freud who initiated the method
Preferred to allow [his patients] to engage in „free association‟ between
words and images as they occurred to the patient during their reminisces.
Freud interrupted them only minimally and afterward undertook the
careful job of linking together and interpreting the somewhat disordered
images in the account that they gave and thus identifying the source of
the mental derangement. (Okpewho, African Literature 170)
Okpewho has explained further regarding the psychoanalytical theory of Freud that:
The patients were encouraged to go as far back in their reminiscences
as they possibly could, even into childhood and the family
background; the accounts they gave also included dreams that they
had had. From his numerous sessions with these patients Freud came
to some quite radical conclusions. For instance the images or symbols
contained in the disordered accounts, even those going back to
childhood experiences had a sexual basis. Freud pressed this sexual

18
element into his reading not only the accounts by mental patients …
but also of the dreams of apparently sane people and finally of myths
or folktales of ancient and „primitive‟ peoples. (African Oral Literature
170)
The psychoanalytical approach to oral literature therefore tried to prove the
Freudian and Jungian psychoanalytical experiments in the interpretation of oral
literary materials. In fact, Freud himself read the Greek tale of King Oedipus (the
man who killed his father and married his mother) from this perspective and
through his psychoanalytical methodology concluded that the tale reveals wishes
deeply embedded in all of humanity. Psychoanalysis therefore uses oral literary
materials to investigate the psychoanalytical submissions of Freud and Jung.
According to Okpewho, one scholar who employed this theory was Melville
Heskovits who “once tested the Oedipus theory on a number of tales he collected
from Dahomey (present Republic of Benin) (African Oral Literature 172). This
approach to oral literature does not have much following possibly because of the
radical nature of Freud‟s psychoanalytical techniques and conclusions.
1. 6. 4. Functionalism
The leading scholars of this approach to oral literature were Bronislaw
Malinowski and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown and they were concerned with the functions
that oral literary materials play in their society. The approach is therefore
sociological in nature. It insisted on the utilitarian benefits of oral literary materials.
In explaining this theory, Okpewho has stated the focus of these theorists thus:

19
What is function? Malinowski defines the function of „anthropological
facts‟ as „the part which they play within the integral system of culture‟
and „the manner in which they are related to each other within the
system.‟ Radcliffe-Brown, his contemporary, has it that „the function of
any recurrent activity…is the part it plays in the social life as a whole
and therefore the contribution it makes to the maintenance of the
structural continuity‟. What this means is that everything a society
does (e.g. tale-telling, marriage, commerce) has a practical use for its
citizens and a specific place within the fabric of social norms. Such a
fabric – the sum-total of needs individually and collectively – is known
as the functional unity of the society…Functionalism is therefore a
theory which examines the peculiar network of needs in every society
and the way in which this network ensures the contentment and
survival of the social system. (Myth 21)
The emphasis of the functionalist oral literary approach is on the function of any art
form in the society. The major publication showcasing the convictions of this school
is Malinowski‟s Argonauts of the Western Pacific published in 1922 which presented
the results of field work in the Trobriand Islands. The functionalists have often been
faulted for their preoccupation with function to the neglect of artistic and aesthetic
matters.
1.6.5. Formalism
This approach to oral literature focused on the folktale and was committed to
breaking into pieces just to observe how it was pieced together. Okpewho has

20
shade valuable light on this school in his comments comparing it with diffusionism
whose scholars were also concerned with breaking a tale to pieces. According to
Okpewho,
These two approaches [diffusionism and formalism] to the study of
narratives are devoted primarily to breaking down the tale to discover
the constituent units from which it has been formed. But the aim of
the diffusionists was both too ambitious and too diffuse. The tale was
picked to pieces to isolate the motifs it used, to determine the tale
type to which it belonged, to trace the tale progressively so as to
discover its original home, and finally to construct the possible original
version of the tale. Formalists felt that all this was a waste of effort
because it led to needless hairsplitting controversy. It is far more
important, they argued, to observe how the units of a tale are
arranged progressively to make up the tale than to hunt for motifs
and types and then to speculate about origins and originals. (African
Oral Literature 175)
Okpewho has stated it so accurately that there is no need explaining formalism any
further. The major proponent of this approach was the Russian scholar Vladimir
Propp who authored The Morphology of the Tale (Russian edition in 1928 and
English translation 1968). The formalists‟ prominent shortcoming was their
preoccupation with folktales to the detriment of other forms of orature.

1.6.6. Structuralism
21
Even though structuralist thinking was said to have long ago dominated discourse in
several disciplines ranging from mathematics to the social sciences 8 , it was Claude
Levi-Strauss that introduced it to the study of orature. Levi-Strauss was encouraged
in this endeavour by his encounter with the structuralist movement in linguistics
when in 1914 he came across Roman Jakobson, a leading structuralist linguist.
Even though Levi-Strauss already had experiences that laid the background for his
eventual structuralism, it was his meeting Jakobson that opened up new vistas of
the subject to him. According to Okpewho, Levi-Strauss distinguished himself as a
scholar in three areas which demonstrated his structuralist convictions: his
interpretation of kinship relationships in which he leaned heavily on Mauss‟ The Gift
(Okpewho Myth 37), his study of the nature of human thinking which he
demonstrated in two books (Totemism and The Savage Mind), and his study of
myths which is documented in his paper entitled “The Structural Study of Myth”. It
is this third structural engagement of Levi-Strauss that concerns this study. This is
where the structuralist approach to orature came about. The position of this
approach is that
Myth [and by implication, orature] is like language: it is made up of
the constituent units which derive their meanings only in relation to
one another; whereas in linguistics these units are variously called
phonemes, morphemes and sememes, Levi-Strauss has proposed the
term mythemes for the units of myth. (Okpewho, Myth 39)

22
Levi-Strauss went ahead to recommend rules by which to analyse myths and the
rules all show his belief that the constituents parts must act together for the totality
of meaning. The Raw and the Cooked is one of Levi-Strauss‟ major works on the
structural study of myths. This was the basic submission of the structuralist
approach to oral literature. Again, it can be noticed that the approach has too
perverse emphasis on oral narratives.
1. 6. 7. The Oral Formulaic Theory
The oral formulaic theory is the most popular, the most specifically oral-
poetic, and the most recent of all the theories of oral poetry discussed so far.
Milman Parry, an American classical scholar, formulated the oral formulaic theory
specifically concerning formula in Homer‟s the Iliad and the Odyssey. Parry noticed
that there were formulaic phrases in Homer‟s epics. This fact had actually been
noticed earlier by other scholars but Parry distinguished himself because he took
“the further step of using this formulaic style to prove that the Homeric poems were
orally composed” (Finnegan, Oral Poetry 60). There had been a controversy over
the composition of the Homeric poems. “The main battle,” Finnegan submits,
was between the „unitarians‟ who posited a single author, and the
„separatists‟ who held that the poems were a composite construction
of different lays/or strata. There had always been difficulties about
either position. How could one decide questions about the composition
of poems written down in Greece two and a half millennia ago and
perhaps composed much earlier? How explain the composition of such
long poems (the Iliad 15, 000 lines, the Odyssey 12, 000 – surely too

23
long to be memorized?) in an age when most people were illiterate?
And what was the best explanation of the recurrent lines and phrases,
some repeated many times throughout the poem? (Oral Poetry 58)
This was where Parry‟s contribution proved very useful. He demonstrated that the
poems were orally composed. “It was the need of the oral poet”, he argued, “for
fluent and uninterrupted delivery throughout a lengthy performance that made the
formulaic style both necessary and suitable” (Finnegan, Oral Poetry 60).
Parry next decided to prove the correctness of his interpretation of Homer by
going to the field to collect materials to support his position. Accompanied by Albert
Lord, his student, they collected Yugoslavian epics which provided sufficient
evidence to Parry‟s position. Yugoslavian bards, whose renditions too run into
thousands of lines, also composed using the same formulaic strategies which Parry
had pointed out in Homer. Lord‟s The Singer of Tales which was the product of this
research, so capably demonstrated the veracity of Parry‟s position that the oral
formulaic theory is therefore usually accredited to both of them.
The specific emphasis of the theory was that oral poets have stock phrases,
sequences, subjects, themes and episodes which they formulaically employ in
building their poems. This helps them to produce long poems without relying on
rote memory. But every time they perform a poem, it is usually a new piece. Even
though the story is usually the same, the rendition differs because there is no set
text. That is to say, the poet composes in-performance.
The importance of Parry-Lord‟s work cannot be overemphasized. Scholars
have successfully employed the theory in the study the oral poetry of various

24
groups and confirmed what Parry and Lord found among the Yugoslav bards. Even
in Nigeria, Idi Zurmi has criticized Hausa praise poems oral-formulaically (96 – 117),
and Mowang F. Ganyi too has appreciated Bakor songs using the same approach
(144 – 59). Oludare Olajubu has made similar submissions about Iwi Egungun
chants from Oyo State (877 – 933). Indeed the Parry-Lord theory has been so
popular that many scholars tried it in the interpretation of all kinds of texts ranging
from the Old Testament to Beowulf, Song of Roland, early Greek poetry, the Hittite
epic, Tamil heroic poetry, medieval English, French and German poetry, English and
Scottish ballads, and early Hebrew poetry (Finnegan, Oral Poetry 67 – 8).
Nevertheless this otherwise useful theory also has its shortcomings. While it
has helped to explain the poetic composition techniques of certain people groups, it
has failed at the same time to take account of the many other societies where
poetic composition is not an in-performance art. Finnegan has demonstrated
convincingly that in many societies there is prior composition and rehearsal before
the performance (Oral Poetry 73 – 87). Isaac Yongo has also proved the same point
among the Tiv (“Oral-formulaic” 57 – 65). Tiv land is therefore one example of a
society that is not oral formulaic in nature. To conclude categorically that all oral
poetry is composed in-performance, as Parry and Lord did just because of Homer
and their Yugoslavian experiment, is not appropriate. Besides, formula is not
necessarily a preserve of the in-performance oral poetic composer. Indeed, some
amount of formula can be seen even in some poets in the writing tradition. It is
indeed formula that is usually appreciated as an author‟s style. Moreover, poets who
composed prior to performance like Amee Ijôrpo the artist of this research, use

25
formulaic strategies too because of their mnemonic potentials. These are the facts
that bypassed scholars of the oral formulaic school.
1. 6. 6. The Afrocentric School
When approaches to oral literature are discussed, there is hardly the mention
of any approach other than that by some Vladimir Propp or Sigmund Freud or
Arnold van Gennep or some other non-African theorists. Usually such scholars‟
theories are appreciated and their shortcomings stated as has been done above.
Thus, when I started this work, I was bothered about where to finally pitch my tent
theoretically. Was I simply going to assess the Milman Parrys, the Stith Thompsons
etc and point out the shortcomings of their approaches without stating which theory
was specifically and appropriately my guide? This was when it occurred to me that
there has actually been a silent but pervasive theory that has been guiding African
oral literary scholars all this while. Though this approach has been there, it has
hardly been named and given its proper place as a theory. Thus, it has scarcely
been recognized. The phrase Afro-centric approach or Afro-centric School has
therefore been coined here to refer to this approach. It has been called Afro-centric
rather than African because some of the researchers who are scholars of its
persuasion are non-Africans. This approach will now be discussed in some detail.
Background
Africa‟s contact with Europe was, in some areas, an unfortunate event that
left the continent variously short-changed as is commonly known. Not to mention
slave trade, there was colonialism which crippled the continent physically,
economically, socially and intellectually. It was the faith of the colonizer that he was

26
on a civilizing mission so he did his best within the comfort of his higher mission of
plunder, to educate the illiterate African.
Of course the African was not the only one colonized, but his lack of an
alphabet – in which to store his history, demonstrate his literariness and do a whole
lot of the other miracles that the alphabet is capable of – exposed him to the
peculiar disregard of the colonizer. As Ali Mazrui correctly observed:
Indians and Arabs, and others elsewhere in the Orient, had been
colonized subjects; but these were assigned higher places in the
gradation of human types partly because they had been capable of
committing their thoughts to writing independently of Western
influence. But the case of the African was different. (74)
There were, of course, many reasons for the relegation of Africa to the background
“especially insofar as the problem [of colonialism was] further complicated by
considerations of color and race” (Obiechina 68). But the issue of literacy was
particularly prominent. To the colonizers, the absence of literacy meant the absence
of all the indices of civilization that go with it. Thus, it was taken for granted that
the African had neither literature nor history – he had only his “tail”.
Concerning the colonizers‟ view of the absence of literature in Africa, Alain
Ricard has presented an interesting anecdote:
In 1882, the President of the Geographical Society in all sincerity
asked the explorer Alfred Bardy … if he had seen men with tails [the
then popular reference to Africans]. Such people could not produce
[literary] texts that were more complex than tales, or maybe proverbs;

27
a literature that was basically functional, far removed from the more
sophisticated literary works of our cultures. (emphasis added, 24 – 5)
This kind of view was based on the obvious conviction that the African was inferior
in reasoning. Ricard has gone on to quote a statement in the entry for the word
“Negro” in what he has called the then “bastion of common sense” (25), the Pierre
Larousse dictionary:
It is an indisputable fact that the Negro brain is smaller, lighter and
less voluminous than that of the White species, which is sufficient
proof of the White species‟ superiority over its Black counterpart. But
does this intellectual superiority give Whites the right to reduce the
inferior race to slavery? No, a thousand times no! Their intellectual
inferiority obliges us to protect them. (25)
Such patronizing concern only summarizes the fact that to the European, the
African was mentally inferior to his White counterpart and was therefore incapable
of serious literature (especially as he did not even have an alphabet of his own).
The same attitude was also entertained concerning African history.
Regarding this, Ngugi wa Thiong‟o has lamentingly quoted what Hegel said in the
introduction to his (Hegel‟s) Philosophy of History:
Africa proper, as far as history goes back, has remained for all
purposes of connection with the rest of the world, shut up. It is the
gold land compressed within itself, the land of childhood which lying
beyond the days of self-conscious history is undeveloped in the dark
mantle of night. The Negro, as already observed, exhibits the natural

28
man in his completely wild and untamed state. We must lay aside all
thought of reverence and morality, all that we call feeling, if we would
comprehend him. There is nothing harmonious with humanity to be
found in this type of character. At this point we leave Africa never to
mention it again for it has no historical part of the world. It has no
movement or development to exhibit. Historical movement in it, that is
in its Northern part, belongs to the Asiatic or European world. What
we properly understand by Africa is the unhistorical, undeveloped
spirit still involved in the condition of mere nature. The history of the
world travels from East to West, for Europe is absolutely the end of
history, Asia the beginning. (“The African Writer” 6)
This was the great Hegel writing in the nineteenth century. But even in modern
times, the same attitude has continued. An interesting illustration has been
provided by Ali Mazrui:
One distinguished exponent of this scepticism in the modern period is
the current Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, Professor
Hugh Trevor-Roper. In 1963 Trevor-Roper said in a television
broadcast in Britain: „Perhaps in the future there will be some African
history to teach. But at present there is none; there is only the history
of Europeans in Africa. The rest is darkness…and darkness is not a
subject of history (74).

29
The African, according to the Trevor-Ropers, therefore had no literature and no
history. It was thus the responsibility of the colonizers to civilize him, to teach him
how to read and write and so give him a history, a literature, a culture.
Of course the African was rather amused by this attitude from the colonizer.
As captured very capably by some early African novels especially those of Chinua
Achebe, the African knew that contrary to the colonizer‟s views, he had his
education, religion and culture. Yet he just decided to play along with the colonizer
for the fun of it as explained in Kofi Awoonor‟s poem, “The Weaver Bird” (in Nwoga
77). The African chose to play along basically because, after all, “the world is like a
Mask, dancing. If you want to see it well you do not stand in one place” (Achebe,
Arrow 45). So he sent his children to the colonizers‟ schools. Many African writers
have dwelt deservedly on the miseducation of the African by colonialists. Ngugi wa
Thiong‟o‟s Petals of Blood is just one example of emphasis on the subject in fiction.
In his essays too Ngugi has not relented in observing, among other facts, that, “The
colonial system produced the kind of education which nurtured subservience, self-
hatred, and mutual suspicion” (Homecoming 14). The education, he went on,
“encouraged a slave mentality, with a reverent awe for the achievements of
Europe” (Homecoming 14). In Awoonor‟s words, the education cast the African “in
the white man‟s image, a woeful caricature of this man, without focus or identity”
(The Breast 30).
Discovery, protest and the birth of an oral literary theory
There is really no use belabouring the point that the miseducating potentials
of colonial curricula notwithstanding, many African students, home and abroad,

30
emerged from these schools discovering that what they were taught was a lie.
Africa had a history and a literature and a culture. These educated Africans
therefore began to appreciate the assortedly rich heritage of their people and to
protest the misrepresentations to which Africa had been subjected. Achebe spoke
for most African writers when he made his submissions in his essays, especially
“The Novelist as Teacher” where this oft-quoted statement is worthy of
reproduction here: “I would be quite satisfied if my novels (especially the ones set
in the past) did no more than teach my readers that their past – with all its
imperfections – was not one long night of savagery from which the first Europeans
acting on God‟s behalf delivered them” (4). To Achebe, telling Africans “where the
rain began to beat them” was a fundamental theme that needed to be “disposed of”
(8). So, many African writers committed themselves to a correct reassessment of
African values and to protesting the lies of Europe against the continent. The
protest, which by the way was on all fronts (literature, history, anthropology etc),
expressed itself more passionately in the negritude movement. It was in the wake
of this consciousness that many scholars deliberately turned to oral literature to
appreciate Africa‟s ancestry of artistry.
The attention to oral literature by these scholars was thus, partly a reaction
against the earlier colonialist denials of literature in Africa. These scholars now
began to demonstrate that even though the African did not have an alphabet, they
manipulated the oral medium to its maximum use to create their literature and
record their history. Maintaining this position, Finnegan, in defence of the existence
of literature in Africa, stated that:

31
The concept of an oral literature is an unfamiliar one to most people
brought up in cultures which, like those in…Europe, lay stress on the
idea of literacy and written tradition. In the popular view it seems to
convey on the one hand, the idea of mystery, on the other that of
crude and artistically undeveloped formulations. In fact, neither of
these assumptions is generally valid. (Oral Literature 1)
Again, only recently, Ajadi re-phrased the above position on oral literature thus:
First, its oralness does not make it any less literary than the written
text, for even those who “lay stress on the idea of literacy and written
tradition” had to pass, as a matter of necessity, through the oral stage
to that of the literary stage. Homer‟s epics emanated from the oral
stage to the written…The oral stage is the foundation for the written.
Second, we must understand the fact that African Oral Literature is
not a signal of the “primitivity” of the Africans. In other words, our
possession of oral tradition is not an indication of African primitivism.
(234)
These words could have been written in the 1960s when the Afro-centric approach
to oral literature took shape; for they reflect the attitude of the scholars concerning
African oral literature.
The Afro-centric researchers therefore began to study the oral literatures of
the African peoples. In many cases, they embarked on this project as a reaction
against the poor work done by missionaries, colonial administrators or some other
foreign personnel trying to collect and comment, often condescendingly, on African

32
oral literary materials. Okpewho stated this poor handling of African oral literature
by Euro-American scholars in the following words:
[Western] scholars seldom tried to get to the root of the aesthetic
principles in which the art was executed; as a result they generally
devised blanket theories that had an exotic appeal but were incapable
of giving us an insight into the fundamental creative spirit that brought
such art to be. (The Epic 1)
Janheinz Jahn has put his own corroborating observations even more forcefully:
[Western] scholars continued to collect African poetry but did not
investigate it as poetry looking for its stylistic rules…it… remained a
treasure trough of all manners and customs, a storehouse of
vocabulary, a reservoir of archetypes, an inexhaustible source of the
histories, a training ground for the phonetician, a quarry for the
anthropologist, a paradise for myth collectors. But as literature, as
poetry, it has remained an unexplored territory. (qtd. in Yina 38)
Even harshier in his response to the poor work done on African oral literature by
some Western scholars is Okot p‟Bitek who has had to say:
Missionaries, anthropologists, musicologists and folklorists have shown
some professional interest in the oral literature of African peoples.
They have plucked songs, stories, proverbs, riddles etc. from their
social backgrounds and, after killing them by analysis, have buried
them in inaccessible and learned journals and in expensive technical
books. (ix)

33
It is not necessary to always regard the efforts of some of these colonial
researchers of African oral literature with such biting sarcasm. Their efforts –
however limited by their inexperience, utter bias or sincere oversight – have in
many cases become the foundation for oral literary studies among so many African
peoples – including p‟Bitek‟s own Acholi ethnic group. It is therefore not at all times
that their failure to make correct presentations need be considered with so much
vitriol. A case in focus is that of Ruth Finnegan who has done more for African oral
literature than can be quantified. Unfortunately, even Finnegan blundered in her
otherwise indispensable Oral Literature in Africa by asserting that the epic was not a
characteristic form of African oral tradition (108–10). Isidore Okpewho when
studying for his PhD in Comparative Literature at University of Denver, read this and
disagreed with it and “changed his dissertation topic from a comparative study of
Horace and Walt Whitman to what would become his first book – The Epic in Africa:
Toward a Poetics of the Oral Performance” 9 . Okpewho, reacting to Finnegan
(herself an Afro centric scholar), like many Afro-centric oral literary scholars were
reacting to Western scholars, has ended up becoming one of the giants in African
oral literary research.
The point being driven at here is that some of the research attention which
oral literature began receiving from the scholars that have been described here as
Afro-centric was often a reaction against Euro-centric scholarship. The general focus
of these Afro-centric scholars was to demonstrate the integrity of oral literature and
subsequently prove that Africa has always had it in rich measures. So Jan Knappert
in his poetically titled A Choice of Flowers: Swahili Songs of Love and Passion – was

34
nonetheless, buoyed enough to boastfully submit in the preface of the book that,
“Owing to the lack of published material, some have…believed that the Swahili do
not possess any lyric poetry”. Clearly, the collection was aimed at convincingly
proving the availability of literature in Africa. Similar works by Afro centric oral
literary scholars were carried out in several parts of Africa. S. A. Babalola‟s The
Form and Content of Yoruba Ijala, Kofi Awoonor‟s, The Breast of the Earth, Daniel
Kunene‟s Heroic Poetry of the Basotho, Francis Mading‟s The Dinka and Their
Songs, Egudu and Nwoga‟s Poetic Heritage: Igbo Traditional Verse, J. P. Clark‟s The
Ozidi Saga – are few examples of works which had their impetus from this Afro-
centric consciousness. Indeed, that impetus brought about greater and more in-
depth attention to African oral literature.
Three interesting developments resulted from the generated interest in
African oral literature. These were: the inclusion of oral literature in the curricula of
many African universities, the aggressive adoption of African oral literary forms into
written literature, and the formation of oral literary societies and associations.
Of the introduction of oral literature in the curricula of African universities,
the East African experience seems the most exemplary. In East Africa, because of
the peculiar nature of British colonialism (which, politically, led to the Mau Mau
revolt), the discovery of oral literature and the resulting restoration of the literary
pride of Africa, was received with understandable fanfare. Some Afro-centric
scholars like Austin Bukenya and Pio Zirimu even proceeded to give the discipline
the seemingly more dignified name of “orature”. Then, the p‟Biteks, the Ngugis, the
Liyongs and the Anyumbas happily introduced the course in the syllabuses of

35
universities of Nairobi and Makerere. Oral literature thus came in with that specific
relevance that was needed to uproot the bad image that colonialism published
about Africa. Thus p‟Bitek commenting on the introduction of oral literature in the
University of Nairobi, insisted that: “an African university cannot afford to indulge in
irrelevant research and teaching” (qtd. in Masinjila 7). Masinjila quotes Taban lo
Liyong as maintaining a similar stance:
Two colleagues of mine, Mr. Ngugi wa Thiong‟o and Henry Owuor
Anyumba and I realized that the old “English syllabus” in the old
“English Department” was not suited to the East African (or African)
situation. We decided that African oral literature must form the core of
a literature department in an East African [and African] university….
(6)
Indeed, Ngugi, Liyong and Anyumba were completely dedicated to the cause
of making departments of English in East African and African universities generally
more relevant. This is an instance of the passion with which the Afro-centric
approach to oral literature brought with regards to the introduction of the course in
African universities.
With respect to the deliberate manipulation of oral literary materials in
Africa‟s written literature which the Afro-centric approach triggered, what Okpewho
stated in his The Heritage of African Poetry concerning African poets could, to a
large extent, be regarded as tenable. He said:
African poets, anxious to return to their culture and show the world
that they come from a respectable cultural background, have used

36
ideas and techniques from the oral tradition in writing their works; and
in more recent times this form of literature has received nearly as
much serious study as the written one in institutions of higher learning
not only in Africa. (“Introduction” 3)
Even though the negritude writers and others like Achebe, Okara, p‟Bitek, Laye, and
several others were doing this earlier, the language question which occupied
discussions in African literature especially in the early 1960s, further encouraged a
more pervasive use of oral tradition in the writings of African artists. Berth Lindfors‟
Folklore in Nigerian Literature, for example, is a good documentation of the
deployment of oral literary materials in the written literature of Nigeria.
Lastly, some associations were formed as a result of the awareness the Afro-
centric approach to oral literature created. The aim of these associations was to
encourage (and sometimes even sponsor) research in African oral literatures and
oral traditions. Ruth Finnegan said oral literature helps “minority or despised
groups” to assert themselves by laying oral-literarily-supported claim to nationality
(Oral Poetry 36). She mentioned how this happened in nineteenth century Europe.
She also maintained that: “We can see a similar process in the twentieth-century
(sic) assertions of national identity: like the sponsorship of the Irish Folklore
Institute and Irish Folklore Commission by the Irish government in the period
following the establishment of the Irish Republic” (Oral Poetry 36). Some individuals
and governments in Africa, following the impact of the Afro-centric approach to oral
literature, took similar steps as the Irish government above. A good example is
Gambia. According to Alice Bellagamba, the Oral History and Antiquities Division

37
(OHAD) was created in Gambia in the 1970s and attached to the Vice President‟s
office. Its role was to ensure the “preservation and promotion of Gambian cultural
and historical heritage by collecting historical narratives and objects, folktales and
ethnographic information…” (7). In Nigeria, the Nigerian Folklore Society was
formed for the purpose of preserving Nigerian folklore. The journal Nigeria
Magazine was also established and dedicated to publishing Nigerian folklore
materials. Even though some of these societies and associations are moribund at
present, others are thriving very well. A good illustration is the Kenya Oral
Literature Association (KOLA), Nigerian Folklore Society (NFS) and the International
Society for Oral Literatures of Africa (ISOLA). The point being made is that all these
associations and societies came about as a result of the impact of the Afro-centric
approach to oral literature.
To briefly summarize the defining characteristics of the Afro-centric approach
to oral literature, the approach recognizes the integrity of the genre and respects it
as such. Oral literature research is therefore conducted with an academically
healthy frame of mind. Collections are not done based on the alarm raised by
evolutionist-romanticists. Analysis of materials is not undertaken with some fire-on-
the-mountain haste because of the fear that oral literature itself is near-extinction.
The materials are not regarded as “survivals” and “relics” that need to be stored
quickly before they disappear altogether. The utilitarian values of oral literature are
emphatically prized but not to the detriment of aesthetics. The past is greatly
valued yet it is not romanticized to a point where a condemnation of the present is
implied.

38
Afro-centric scholars approach oral literature in scientific detail because it
merits and, in fact rewards, such attention. The creativity of the performer is
recognized so much that even where he relies on past performers, the reliance is
seen as no more counter-creative than that by the writing artist when he leans on
his own heritage as expostulated by T. S. Eliot in his very topical “Tradition and the
Individual Talent” (1919). The context and its contribution to the overall
performance are amply appreciated as well as the significant role of the audience to
the success of the performance. This is the nature of the Afro-centric approach to
oral literature. In a word, oral literature is researched just like any other discipline.
No more the hitherto attendant suspicion and condescension fuelled by colonial
scholarship. Though they do not name it, this, to my mind, has been the theoretical
framework on which scholars like Babalola, Finnegan, Okpewho, p‟Bitek, Zirimu, and
numerous others have leaned on in their oral literature research. It is also the
guiding theoretical construct for the present study of the Tiv poems of Amee Ijôrpo.
1. 7. THE TIV OF CENTRAL NIGERIA
1. 7. 1. The Tiv Name
Members of this ethnic group used to be called the Munshi , a name which
Downes said "is almost certainly a Hausa corruption of the Jukun term for
them…Mbitse or Mbichi meaning stranger settlers" (Tribe 1). Unfortunately, Igirgi
has attributed the tracing of the Jukun origin of the word to Iyo. He said: “A varying
view on the origin of the word Munchi is held by Iyo who traced it etymologically to
the Jukun word, Mitsi, which is used to describe strangers” (Igirgi 55). The fact,
however, is that it is not Iyo that originally identified the word Munshi as being a

39
corruption of the Jukun Mbitse or Mbichi; R. M. Downes pointed this out several
decades before Joe Iyo was even born 10 .
Now, the Hausa-Fulani employed this corruption of the Jukun term for
various jokes with the Tiv. A story was created which said that in the course of their
migration, the Tiv came across the Fulani and the two groups became friends. As a
sign of friendship, the tale continues, the Fulani gave the Tiv a herd of cows as a
parting gift when the two groups had to go different ways. When they met again
much later and the Fulani asked the Tiv after the cow, the latter said mun chi which
is Hausa for “I‟ve eaten it”; the Tiv had slaughtered and consumed the cow. Like
several other wrong pieces of information circulated against the Tiv by some
colonialists and some less kind writers/scholars, this story of the Fulani cow given to
the Tiv and the latter‟s eating it and earning the name of Munchi for themselves has
sadly, continued to be popular.
Part of the reason that this story has continued to receive unfortunate
attention is because scholars (like Hembe (37) and Igirgi (54)) who should point out
its credibility limits prefer to present it with helpless, albeit comedic, resignation.
Such was the resignation that made J. S. Tarka, the earliest Tiv prominent politician
to, at a political function in Gboko in 1979, symbolically return two cows to Fulani
politicians as repayment for the cows the Tiv wasted. Many Tiv politicians did not
like Tarka‟s gesture which, even though it was done more for fun than as honest
recompense, was capable of promoting a story that was not true. It must be
pointed out here that available facts disprove the veracity of the Fulani cow story.
The Tiv actually

40
came into contact with Fulani herdsmen in the early days of their
spread over the Benue Valley. Fulani nomads known as Bororoje are
said to have moved into the area of the Nigeria-Cameroon border
sometime in the 16th century. It is therefore probable that it was at
this time that the Tiv first met the Fulani. (Igirgi 54)
It is also true that when they met, the relationship between the Tiv and the Fulani
was “friendly and trusting” (Igirgi 54). What is not realistic about the story of their
meeting is the parting gift of some cows that the Fulani gave Tiv people. The
following argument restricts the credibility scope of the tale.
First, the tale presents the Tiv as speaking the words mun chi, that is, as
speaking Hausa. This challenges believability because at this early time in history, it
is doubtful if the Tiv had come across the Hausa at all. I have not come across any
written or oral record about the Tiv having any contact with the Hausa as early as
this time. Perhaps it might be supposed that the Bororoje Fulani that the Tiv met
were Hausa-speaking so they taught the Tiv how to speak some Hausa, but even
this supposition is very unconvincing because the Bororoje were a small group of
nomads; so even if they were Hausa-speaking, their language is not the one to
dominate communication between them and the Tiv who were superior in numbers.
It is a linguistic dynamic that when two groups meet, the language of the majority
and thus more powerful group takes pre-eminence; not that of the minority. The
Tiv were coming into the Benue Valley as an occupying force that was strong and
conquering; there was therefore no way they could have been speaking the

41
language of a small nomadic group they had met – a language which, by the way,
was not even that group‟s first language.
But what questions the reliability of this story even more is the fact that if Tiv
people spoke Hausa so early in their history, the number of people speaking the
language in the ethnic group could have been more now. On the contrary, Tiv
people who speak Hausa today are quite few. In fact, the Tiv are the most un-
Hausa group in all the nineteen states of today‟s Northern Nigeria. Even their
attitude to Hausa language is very poor. Thus, it cannot even be argued that since
Mun chi is very simple Hausa, the Tiv may have learnt it easily and used as
presented in the story. Tiv attitude to Hausa language is so poor that those Tiv who
learn the language outside the land, forget it due to lack of use when they return to
Tivland. These facts show that the ethnic group has no history of a dominant use of
Hausa language; neither do they have a good attitude towards it that would have
made them speakers of the words the story purports. The story of the Fulani cow
given to the Tiv and the Munchi name resulting from it is therefore unsubstantiated.
Another factor which disproves the story is its implication that Tiv people
have no control over their appetite so they cannot keep a domestic animal. On the
contrary, members of the group have all along been known to rear domestic
animals like pigs and fowls. In discussing the domestic animals of the Tiv from the
earliest times, Akiga said, “The … domestic animals which the Tiv had at the
beginning were the dog, the cow, and the chicken” (97, emphasis added). If they
could so easily eat animals, how did they own cows and chickens from their earliest
times? In fact, they have their own species of cow which is called buativ – Tiv

42
native cow. This has been with them from time immemorial such that it has had a
significant place in their religion. This means the Tiv have the alimentary discipline
to own animals. They could not therefore have slaughtered a whole herd of cows
given to them.
What is more, it is not the habit of the Tiv to just wake up any day and
slaughter an animal only to satisfy the craving for meat. Discussing the Tiv and their
alimentary habits, Makar has maintained that:
Animals generally were not reared for family consumption, meat or
dairy. A person who slaughtered a domestic animal for normal family
meat would be said to have foreseen his death. Consequently his
people refused to partake of the meat cooked for him. They regarded
such meal as a [witchcraft] trap to get them into trouble. (15)
Even nowadays, traditional Tiv do not slay animals just for ordinary domestic
consumption; animals are generally only slaughtered for occasions. That is why an
old Tiv popular nuptial poem goes, A va ivaa se ya ivo/kwase a va ivaa se ya ivo ee
(She should come in marriage so that we will eat goat-meat/The woman should
come in marriage so that we will eat goat-meat ee). This is because only at
occasions like the celebration of a bride is it possible to slaughter an animal.
Members of the ethnic group could therefore not have, self-confessedly, butchered
some cow given them by the Fulani and eaten it. The Fulani cow story cannot thus
be true.
Furthermore, it is a Tiv cultural requirement to value gifts so much that when
such gifts are animals, the receiver usually insists on the animal‟s multiplication. He

43
thus waits for it to reproduce so that he could always see its offspring and
remember the person who gave him the gift. Why then would the Tiv in this
instance, only to satisfy their craving, leave their own cows and slaughter that
which was given to them?
Additionally, the Fulani are generally so symbiotically attached to their cattle
that it is practically impossible to imagine that they would just give one out so
easily. There is no record that they demonstrated such generosity to any other
group that they came across. It is indeed not in the character of the Fulani to give
away their cows except when the animals are sick or crippled in an accident. In
such situations, the Fulani would first slaughter it according to his religious rites
before giving it away to anybody. The Fulani of today cannot be so different from
the Fulani of yesterday. Offering a healthy cow to someone is not known to be the
way of life of the ethnic group; they could therefore not have given their cows to
the Tiv who indeed already had their own species of cows. In fact, if any cow
exchanged hands between the Fulani and the Tiv, it must be the Tiv that gave out
one of their own cows to this small group of nomads to whom cows seemed to
mean everything.
With the above facts, it is clear that Downes‟ explanation of Munshi or
Munchi as a corruption of the Jukun Mbiche is more acceptable. Indeed the Hausa-
Fulani‟s Munchi was not the only corruption of the Jukun Mbiche; there were many
others. For example, variations like Mitsi, Midsi, Mbidsi, and Muntschi are found all
over colonial and pre-colonial writings. This derogatory name (from both the Jukun
original and the Hausa corruption), with all its variations, was used for the Tiv even

44
in official communications till, according to Gundu and Jockers, "the turn of the
1930s" (xiv) when continued Tiv protests finally yielded the desired results and the
unacceptable name was officially replaced with the name Tiv. Laura and Paul
Bohannan have, however, submitted that Munshi was discarded in favour of Tiv in
the 1920s (9). What is important here is the fact that the derogatory name was
finally cancelled out of official literature.
Of course, all along, the Tiv always referred to themselves as Tiv as can be
seen in the instance of the two freed slaves interviewed in Freetown by Sigismund
Koelle in 1846. The freed slaves said they were Tiv (again, misspelled as Tiwi) and
went on to clarify that the Tiv were called the Mbidsi by the surrounding ethnic
groups (Gundu and Jockers xiii).
1. 7. 2. Tiv Origin
That the Tiv are of Bantu stock has been argued and settled convincingly in
the affirmative by scholars like Johnston and Talbot, the earliest researchers on the
subject who maintained that the ethnic group was at least a semi-Bantu group (qtd.
in Igirgi 43). Abraham also located them linguistically with the Bantu Nyanza of
Malawi (6 – 7) and was corroborated by both Guthurie and Greenberg (qtd. in Igirgi
44). Two recent and interesting substantiations of the Bantu origin of the Tiv have
been discussed by Igirgi. These are the studies by Excoffier and Blench which Igirgi
captured in the following words:
More recently, Excoffier and his colleagues studied African populations
using the approaches of genetics to measure the frequencies of the
varieties of gammaglobulin (sic) in the blood of different ethnic

45
groups, and found that this genetic identification also classifies Tiv
together with actual Bantu speaking populations. Also, Blench, in a
review of recent developments in African language classification,
confirmed the Tiv-Bantu relationship. (44)
The problem of the origin of the Tiv is therefore not concerning their
“Bantuness”, but the actual geographical location where they came from. Two areas
have been proposed and supported by various scholars. Some maintain that the Tiv
came from the Congo region in Central Africa while others submit that the ethnic
group migrated from “the hilly terrain in the central section of the Nigeria-Cameroon
border” (Igirgi 44). Supporting the second proposition, Igirgi has presented four
arguments that he believes “distinguish the candidacy of the Nigeria-Cameroon
borderland from that of the Central Africa region in the quest for Tiv origins” (46).
His first argument concerns the geographical link between Tivland and the area in
question. Moreover, he maintains, the place is currently inhabited by groups that
have linguistic resemblances with the Tiv. Igirgi‟s second argument in support of the
Nigeria-Cameroon border as the origin of the Tiv is that there are oral historical
testimonies which refer to the place as the ancestral homeland of the group. “In
fact,” he continues, “Swem, undoubtedly the last main adobe at which all Tiv lived
and interacted as one people and which signifies the take-off point for their
remembered history, is also believed to be located in this general area” (46). Igirgi‟s
third argument is that even at present the Tiv maintain ties with the people in this
area especially in their quest for “magico-religious powers, ancestor invocation as
well as celebration and consummation of cultural events of major significance” (46).

46
Igirgi‟s final reason for supporting the Nigeria-Cameroon border as the place of
origin of the Tiv people is that “ethno-archaeological investigations in the area…
have come up with significant findings, which to some extent have indicated a
cultural evolutionary sequence from the pre-historic times to the ethnographic
present” (47). This, as well as the fact that the section “has a higher concentration
of Bantu languages than any other place on the African continent” (47) has made
Igirgi to conclude that the Nigeria-Cameroon border is where Tiv people came from.
He dismisses the Congo thesis as ”weak and doubtful as it apparently does not have
any firm root in the oral testimonies of the Tiv, nor can it be substantiated on the
basis of other considerations in Tiv cultural history” (45). To Igirgi, the Congo
proposal is based only on the 67 words compiled by Abraham to show the similarity
of the Tiv and the Bantu of the Congo area.
Even though Igirgi has argued brilliantly, he has actually missed the point. In
the first place, those who propose a Congo origin for the group do not leave out the
Nigerian-Cameroon border thesis. They simply say that the Tiv came from the
Congo to that area of the Nigeria-Cameroon border. This seems to be the best
approach because it is impossible to completely dismiss the Congo links of the Tiv
due to the strong linguistic evidence provided by Abraham and discussed more
extensively under the section on Tiv language in 1.7.5. below.
Moreover, Igirgi has wrongly maintained that the Congo argument has “no
firm root in the oral testimonies of the Tiv” (47). One really wonders how he
managed to miss the most popular Ikyarem snake myth which maintains that in the
course of their migration, the Tiv were being pursued by their enemies and the

47
ikyarem snake helped them by providing its body as a bridge on which the group
crossed; when the pursuers too started crossing on the bridge, the snake turned
them into the river. According to the myth, this incident marked the beginning of
friendship between members of the group and the Ikyarem snake. To date, the Tiv
do not kill the snake as a result of the friendship they covenanted from that event.
This myth is known in all of Tivland and the taboo on killing that snake is binding on
all Tiv and observed faithfully. What else does Igirgi need as oral testimony?
Clearly, if the Tiv migrated from nearby Cameroon, there is no challenging river that
they would have needed to cross as found in this myth. Of course, the myth cannot
be regarded as mathematically accurate; yet its main symbols (the migration, the
river, the enemies) are significant and cannot be dismissed. If the main symbols of
migration, river and enemies are useful, how can they be accommodated in a
Nigeria-Cameroon border origin of the Tiv? The pan-Tiv interpretation of this myth
is that the ethnic group had this dilemma at the Congo River where the snake
intervened on their side. This is the interpretation available even in Terhemba
Wuam‟s Tiv Story, a long narrative poem based on the myth. Igirgi‟s submission is
therefore an example of persuasive but incorrect scholarship.
One therefore agrees with Torkula who has maintained that:
Although different views are held about the Tiv origin, the
version that commands popularity and currency is that which
traces their origin to the Bantu people who once inhabited the
Central African continent, in the Shaba area of the present
Democratic Republic of Congo. (1)

48
From the Congo, the ethnic group came to the Nigeria-Cameroon border where
they settled in several places, the best of which was Swem from where they
migrated to their present location in the Benue Valley. There is no record known to
me of the places the Tiv must have settled as they left Congo before coming to the
Nigeria-Cameroon area but Swem is the last place where they stayed before moving
to the Benue Valley.
that:
Concerning the debate over the location of Swem, Igirgi has summarised
Unfortunately, in spite of its prominence and pride of place in Tiv
history, the exact physical location of Swem has been shrouded in
uncertainty and controversy, as far as scholarly investigation is
concerned. At least six different opinions have been proffered on the
location of Swem. Akiga locates Swem amongst the Iyon clan of
southeastern Tivland while Bohannan (sic) suggests that Swem may
likely be the hill of Ngol Kedju in Bamenda highlands of northwestern
Cameroon. Ballard points to the Sokwalla hills as the probable
location, and Gbor opines that Swem is to be found in the Wum
District of Mamfe Division in Northwestern Cameroon, Iyo also makes
a strong case for the ranch area of the Obudu Plateau whereas for
Makar, Swem is a mountain top “about 36 miles southwest of the
compound of Yaro Gusa in the district of „Nyiev mba sha Ya‟. Doward
even trivializes the issue that Swem is not real but mythical, perhaps
like the „Biblical Garden of Eden‟. (48 – 47)

49
To my mind, there is no need dwelling like the six blind men of Hindustan on the
actual location of Swem; it is enough that the area is known to be around the
Nigeria-Cameroon border. What is important is the fact that this place was the last
where members of the group stayed and moved to the Benue Valley.
1. 7. 3. Geographical Location and Demographic Data
Tiv people occupy the central Nigerian States of Benue, Taraba, Nasarawa,
and Plateau. A negligible number of their population can also be found in Cross
River, one of the Eastern States that shares a boundary with Benue. Their present
geographical position, according to Laura and Paul Bohannan (9) and Rubingh (58),
is between 6° 30' and 8° 10' north latitude and 8° and 10° east longitude.
Neighbour-wise, the Chamba of Taraba State surround them to the Northeast; the
Igede (Benue), Iyala, Gakem and the Bette of Cross River State surround them to
the South-east; and the Idoma of Benue State to the South. There is also an
international boundary between the Tiv and the Republic of Cameroon at a South-
eastern angle of the ethnic group's location. Whoever is interested in the geology,
relief and drainage system, as well as climate and vegetation of the place will
benefit by consulting Igirgi (38 – 42).
Demographically, the 1991 national census in Nigeria, the most current data
on the subject, gave the number of members of the ethnic group as 3 million.
However, with the shoddy manner which that census was conducted in Tivland,
many Tiv believe that they number much more than that. Igirgi has opined that “a
more realistic estimation would put the figure above five million” (43) while Paul
Unongo maintained in a paper at the 2008 Tiv Day Celebration that members of the

50
group number up to ten million. Whatever the actual number, Igirgi has further
stated convincingly that the Tiv “are the fourth largest ethnic group in Nigeria, after
the Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo” (43). The headquarter town of the ethnic group
is Gboko, a town built specifically for that purpose in 1932. Gboko is located in
Benue State where the Tiv are the most numerous ethnic group and where there is
an indeed far greater concentration of their population than in all the other States
put together. The Tor Tiv, their Paramount Ruler whose office was created by
colonial powers in 1946, lives in Gboko. Ascendance to the Tor Tiv throne is not
hereditary; it rotates between Icôngu and Ipusu – the two major divisions of the
ethnic group. Icôngu and Ipusu were the sons of Tiv, the forebear to whom all the
members of this group trace their ancestry.
1. 7. 4. Occupation
Adeiyongo‟s “A Literary Study of Tiv Anzaakaa” contains the particulars of Tiv
occupations generally. Valuable information on Tiv farming can also be obtained in
Akiga (65 – 98). In this study, I am content to only mention that the Tiv are
basically subsistent farmers. Though they cultivate assorted crops, members of the
group are like the Igbo in Achebe‟s Things Fall Apart who regard yam as the king of
the crops (16). In fact, sule, the Tiv word for “farm” denotes a yam farm
exclusively. Thus, in traditional society, whoever owned no yam farm was never
taken seriously. In fact, before boys were even circumcised and ushered into
manhood in some parts of Tivland, they first had to demonstrate their manliness by
digging deci, the lead line of earth moulds on which yams were/are planted. It was

51
only after such a demonstration of manliness that they were circumcised. The Tiv
therefore regard yam most seriously and consider its farming as a necessity.
In fact, there is a myth which associates the Tiv ancestrally with yam
farming. It says when Takuruku Anyamazenga, the father of Tiv was about to die,
he asked Tiv to go and kill game and cook for him so that he could eat and give him
final blessings. But as Tiv went to do this, Uke, his jealous brother, who
eavesdropped on the conversation, quickly slaughtered an animal, cooked it and
presented it to the blind old man who ate and proceeded to bless him. Soon
afterwards, Tiv brought his food; only then did his old father realize his mistake. He
then took a hoe, the only implement left in his house, and symbolically gave to Tiv
his favourite son and told him that Uke would depend on him for food. This myth is
so similar to the biblical story of Isaac, Jacob and Esau (Genesis 27: 1 – 35) that
one feels some smart Tiv elder may have adapted the biblical story for members of
the ethnic group when he heard it from the missionaries who first came to the land
on 17th April 1911. Whatever its origin, the story proves the supreme importance
which the Tiv attach to their major occupation of yam farming.
1. 7. 5. Tiv Language
The classification of Tiv language, zwa Tiv, has generated a lot of linguistic
arguments. According to Gundu and Jockers, Needham Curst in 1883, classified Tiv
in a "Western Section of Niger Subgroups" (xvi). But the duo pointed out further
that Curst "relied more on geographic conditions than on linguistic" (xvi). The
language, as Gundu and Jockers have further shown, has, for whatever reason,

52
been classified as Semi-Bantu, as closer to the Sudanic Languages, as having more
affinity to Gur-languages, as a "Bantoid Language" etc (xvi – vii).
My feeling is that whatever resemblances Tiv language may have with any
other language group, its Bantu roots are undeniable. R. C. Abraham‟s famous
juxtaposing of 67 Tiv words with the words of Bantu Nyaza showing striking
similarities in terms of both phonetics and semantics (6 – 7) is evidence which is
hard to argue against. Based on this analysis, Abraham concluded that the Tiv are
"real Bantu, not a Semi-Bantu" (5). It is difficult to disagree with Abraham because
so many words from two different languages cannot just coincidentally match each
other. There is reason to believe that if further research is done along this line,
more of such discoveries could be made 11 . Linguistically there is strong evidence
that Tiv language has much to do with the Congo-Bantu languages.
Orthographically speaking, the zwa Tiv alphabet has 24 letters. If the 26
letters of the English alphabet are taken and the Q and X therein are removed, the
letters left are those in the Tiv alphabet. Then there is what the Germans call
umberum, the Ô, which makes the 25th letter but which is, however, usually seen
(to my mind, wrongly) as a category of the letter O. The Tiv orthography has, since
the 1950s, been useably developed though there are many of its aspects still
needing further attention.
Concerning phonology, the phonemes of Tiv language have not yet been
authoritatively collated and classified. It has, however, at least been established
that the language has six vowels: [a], [e], [i], [o], [ô], and [u]. All of these could be
short or long depending on the linguistic context; indeed, the Tiv prefer to duplicate

53
each of the six vowels in order to make them long e.g. kaa, tee, ii, poo, tôô, tuul.
There are also some 19 consonants and a great number of diphthongs and even
triphthongs still waiting more scientific appreciation.
Literary-wise, an appreciable volume of work has been written in Tiv
language. Dutch Christian missionaries from South Africa and other missionaries
from Europe and America did much in translating gospel materials to the language.
Their greatest achievement, with the help of early Tiv converts, was the 1964
presentation of a complete Tiv Bible to the Tiv Protestant Church. Indigenous
writers in the language have also made some use of the language. A few novels
have been written in it with Suemo Chia's Adan-Wade Kohol Ga being the most
popular. J. T. Orkar has a play titled Inya and Peter O. Buun has a slim but
noteworthy collection of Tiv Poems unfortunately titled in English though written in
Tiv. But most of written literature in Tiv language is truly what Gundu and Jockers
call, "hidden literature" (xix). It is unpublished 12 .
1. 7. 6. Social Organization
Traditional Tiv society is known for its classlessness and scholars have been
agreed about that for some time now – the most recent example being Igirgi (58 –
65). The society is exactly like the Igbo as painted by Chinua Achebe's Things Fall
Apart. Before the coming of colonialism, the people had no centralised leadership.
They relied on gerontocratic parameters to administer their society. The details of
this arrangement are available in Hembe (51 – 58); I am therefore only going to
summarise here that Tiv social organization was based on administration by elders.
The eldest person of a compound, the iya council, took decisions that were binding

54
on everybody in that compound. It was the same system at the clan, district, and
section levels. The mutual agreement between elders of the various levels was
binding on all the members. If a matter was at the level of the compound, the elder
or elders in that compound took a decision concerning it. If it involved a district, the
elders of the district took responsibility over it. Elders were therefore the be-all and
end-all of Tiv traditional society.
There were two reasons for the authority of elders in Tiv tradition. The first
was that, in an oral society like theirs, the eldest person was the most learned; he
had lived for so long and had heard and seen more than those who were younger.
It is indeed true that in oral societies, elders are encyclopaedias. Thus, Uchendu, in
Achebe's classic Things Fall Apart, talking to his umuada, the Igbo equivalent of iya
council among the Tiv, says: “'I am an old man... I know more about the world than
any of you. If there is anyone among you who thinks he knows more let him speak
up.' He paused, but no one spoke" (93). Due to their vast knowledge and
experience, elders were held in high esteem in Tiv society. The other reason that
accounted for their authority was religious. This shall be discussed in section 1.7.7,
Tiv religion, below.
Another important aspect of Tiv social organization is the philosophy of ya na
anigbian, eat and give your sibling. Nobody was allowed to enjoy anything alone.
Whether it was game from their hunting, or yams from their farms, or the benefits
of their imbyorvyungu religious treasures (explained in the section on Tiv religion),
or anything at all was shared according to households, compounds, clans, sub-
clans, sub-districts, districts etc. This is the principle even in present day political

55
appointments. It is for this reason that Martin Dent, the last colonial District Officer
in Gboko maintained that:
1. 7. 7. Tiv Religion
Long before Karl Marx ever wrote a word, some unknown thinker in
the land of Tiv had concentrated the collective classless ethos of Tiv
society into the normative aphorism „Eat and give your brother‟.
Everything – food, money, jobs and chieftaincy – must not be hoarded
or made hereditary but must be shared out among the people, lineage
by lineage. Some modern thinkers, in America as well as in Africa,
have been fascinated by Tiv political culture as „the last classless
society‟ resisting the stratification and class formation of modern
capitalism. (24 -5)
Tiv religion has been amply discussed by R. M. Downes in his Tiv Religion, by
Torkula in The Cosmology in Tiv Worldview and by Moti and Wegh in An Encounter
between Tiv Religion and Christianity. For further details, those books could be
consulted because at present, only a few key facts shall be mentioned concerning
the religion. Like many other peoples, the Tiv believe in a supreme God whom they
call Aôndu (also spelt as Aôndo). Aôndu is seen as the all-powerful personification
of Good. The religion also recognizes an evil power, the opposite of good, but this
evil force has no designated name like Satan in Christianity and Islam. Often, it is
generally called iyuhe, that is jealousy, or ifer, evil, or tar-gban, spoiling the world.
Then, unlike many other peoples, the Tiv do not have gods and goddesses. And
they worship none. Strictly speaking, no divine essence is worshipped in traditional

56
Tiv religion. Their religious world recognizes and respects the Supreme God; then
there are the akombu forces; and finally, there is tsav witchcraft.
Ancestors are known and appreciated in one ritual or another but emphasis
on them is, in comparison to that on other aspects of Tiv religion, quite limited. The
ancestors‟ most popular role is when someone dies and the indyer jumbo slit-log
drum, in its announcement of the death, calls on Takuruku, the greatest ancestor,
to tile jighjigh keghen aningyô, that is, stand in readiness to welcome a relation to
the great beyond. Takuruku is told this message in the manner of a friend talking to
a friend, not a supplicant to a divine superior.
Moreover, the concept of worship in traditional Tiv society is very different
from that in other people groups. Nothing is bowed to, nor offered sacrifices to, just
for the sake of it. If sacrifices are offered, it is because someone has gone against
the taboos of some of the akombu forces. Akombu has been defined by East as
“magico-religious practices” (176) but it is useful to add that akombu are not just
mere practices; the Tiv believe that certain spiritual forces inhabit these essences.
But even the forces are not seen as spirits per se, they are more like personified
spiritual laws regarding various aspects of life and existence, which once broken,
bring about disequilibrium in various areas of the individual‟s or society‟s life. It is in
trying to put right the life of that individual or society that sacrifices are offered to
propitiate the forces. The other times that these forces are approached are when
their assistance is needed in endeavours like hunting, or when somebody is to be
initiated into a particular akombu.

57
There are numerous kinds of akombu as many writers, particularly Akiga
(176 - 230), have exhaustively shown. Each of these akombu relates to an aspect of
human life and has a master (orakombu, literally, akombu man) who is the
equivalent of a priest. The Chief Priest of the akombu order is an ortumbun, who
has mastered all the akombu of the Tiv including even ibiamegh, the greatest
akombu of all. His job is to handle problems that defy the lesser masters. For a
man, usually a man, to occupy this office, he must be chosen by his ityô.
Tiv traditional religion also has the concept of tsav, witchcraft. The mbatsav
witches and wizards are the only ones that clearly people the Tiv religious
worldview – not spirits or gods. It is not as if spirits are totally unrecognized in the
religion; there are of course the adzôv sprites but they are not as generally
established in the religious world of the society as the mbatsav witches and wizards.
The sprites do not even live everywhere: they are known to prefer certain places
(some rivers, hills, mountains and forests) and do not interfere with human beings
except when such humans interfere with them. (On few occasions, however, they
are said to intervene positively when negative circumstances besiege a good
person.) The Tiv, especially those living in places considered as hosting those
spirits, strive not to disturb their world. Actions which might meddle with the adzôv-
sprites‟ world include the careless throwing of water or rubbish outside one‟s house
at night (where one might splash water on a member of the sprites‟ society),
fetching water from a well at night (where one‟s bucket might hit a member of the
sprites‟ society), whistling at night (where one might also attract their attention)
etc. People who live in places considered as hosting the sprites thus avoid doing

58
these things. Keeping away from doing these things is done more as a courtesy
extended to the spirits; not a worshipful gesture. Those who deliberately worship
the spirits are actually regarded as cultists in Tivland. This cult is anti-witchcraft in
nature and Akiga has discussed it as such to a satisfactory length (266 – 73). With
the cultic limitations of the adzôv sprites, their religious significance in Tivland is
also limited. Thus, it is tsav witchcraft that is a pan-Tiv religious concept. Yet, even
though the mbatsav witches and wizards are so recognized, they are not, and
cannot be, seen with the physical eyes when they are operating except they choose
to make themselves visible. If someone does not have tsav, he cannot see others
who have it. Thus, religiously, Tiv society is divided between men and women. The
men are those who have tsav; the women are those who are vangergbirin, that is,
“empty-chested”: they have no tsav.
Tsav, according to Downes, “is at the base of Tiv magic [religion] and colours
the whole outlook of the Tiv” (Tribe 39.) Tsav, to still follow Downes, “may be
described as a sense, or occult perception, the possession of which enables unusual
success to be obtained through the aid of personal beings, spirits or ancestors”
(Tribe 39). Simply put, tsav is witchcraft. And among the Tiv too, as elsewhere,
there is good witchcraft and there is bad witchcraft. Good tsav blesses people as
well as the land; bad tsav seeks to destroy both. Then there is also individual tsav
and collective tsav. Collective tsav is more powerful than individual tsav and those
who make up the collective tsav are the elders of a clan, sub-clan, district etc. If
those elders, for example, see that their domain is not doing well, they gather in

59
their secret sacred mbatsav meetings at night and renew the fortunes of the
district. This is the council that is otherwise called the ityô.
The Tiv word of ityô, which is often used as a synonym for tar, specifically
refers to the collective power of members of the society at the various levels. One
of the duties of collective tsav at whatever level (sub-clan, clan, sub-district, district
etc) is to eliminate bad tsav from the land. If there is anyone with bad tsav, he is
usually killed by the magico-religious powers of the collective tsav. This is one of
the reasons that elders in traditional Tiv society are greatly respected and given a
pride of place. For, when a person lives long, he is safely presumed to be good;
otherwise he would not have been allowed to live that long. If he is the eldest man
at whatever level, he is consequently the one who has custody of all the ikyav, that
is the witchcraft paraphernalia, in his domain. The Tiv witchcraft practice has
assorted spiritual paraphernalia which various compounds, clans, districts and
sections etc gather to enrich themselves. One of such properties is the
imbyorvyungu cult-emblem which, according to myths surrounding it, is usually
nourished by human blood to make it potent. Once its forces are directed on
anyone, the Tiv believe that such a person is prosperous in all that he or she does.
It is thus, the mbatsav, that is the ityô, who determine whatever goes on in
the society. They decide who dies and who lives, who prospers and who fails, who
has many children and who has none at all. In the Tiv worldview, they decide
literally everything in the society. So, Tiv religion rests on these three pillars: Aôndu,
Akombu and Tsav. But the most dreaded of these is tsav because it is the nearest
to the people.

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It needs to be reiterated here that tsav and ityô go hand in hand. The ityô,
to further explain, is the patrilineal relations of a person. It is a very powerful
council because it is made up of all the important mbatsav people within the
domain. Even though the members meet in the day time, it is believed that the
relevant members also have secret nocturnal cult meetings where they take every
important decision concerning the land. Such decisions include who to kill for what
purpose (perhaps as sacrifice to cleanse the land from some ill or as punishment for
wrongdoing etc), who to promote, who to demote – they decide everything in the
land but they are especially feared, understandably, for their role in people‟s
deaths.
To the traditional Tiv, importantly, death does not just occur; it is witches
and wizards that cause it. When anybody dies, there is usually an inquest into why
he was killed by his ityô, for it is the patriclan that selects witches and wizards from
among them to magically execute anyone agreed upon for sacrifice or for whatever
purpose. If someone does not die because of his ityô, it could be because he got
himself entangled in some spiritual debt that requires that he should repay with his
life. Even then his ityô could help him out if he is valuable to them. So the ityô is a
much feared council in Tiv traditional society because of its witchcraft potentials. In
earlier times, the ityô used to operate strictly on the principles of justice and fair
play. But many a Tiv can be heard complaining of the predominance of jealousy and
envy in the ityô council nowadays as exhibited in Suemo Chia‟s famous Tiv
language novel Adan-Wade Kohol Ga. In many of Amee‟s poems, there are many
such complaints regarding the poet or his patrons.

61
Besides the ityô, there is also the igbya, a person‟s maternal kinsmen whose
role in his life is only second to that of the ityô. Indeed, the igbya is so strong that
one who is in trouble in his father‟s land could run to his mother‟s place and be
safe. Alternatively, he could invite his mother‟s kinsmen for an intervention visit to
his father‟s people. When the mother‟s kinsmen come for such invitations, they
strongly warn the paternal clan concerning their sister‟s son. They threaten to take
away their sister and her children if the paternal relations do not value them. In
fact, even when someone dies, the matriclan takes a prominent place in the inquest
and must be satisfied over the cause of the death. If they are not convinced, they
are known, especially in earlier times, to take away the corpse to their place and
bury it. That way, the patriclan is denied the corpse and cannot have access to it for
the necessary witchcraft rituals later in the night. Indeed the matriclan serves to
check and balance the ityô paternal relations of an individual. This power of the
matriclan is not a matter of their physical powers but of principles. It is an
established Tiv principle that the matriclan should intervene when a person is
maltreated in his patriclan and this has been accepted. Whoever interferes with the
order will be guilty of interfering with ancestrally laid down principles and is
extremely vulnerable to whatever form of retaliation the matriclan initiates. It is for
this reason that the Tiv also sometimes name their children as Ngôhemba – mother
is supreme. As said earlier, the situation is exactly as among the Igbo as presented
in Achebe‟s Things Fall Apart (93 – 95). The igbya therefore have a major hand in
the Tiv religious arrangement.

62
There is no way that discourse on Tiv religion can be exhausted within the
very limited space of this research. The words of Moti and Wegh will now be used
to conclude the ongoing comments:
In Tiv worldview, it is the sacred character that unifies human
experience and homogenizes Tiv cultural institutions. Economic life
cannot be separated from religion, neither can legal injunctions be
divorced from morality…The dichotomy between the sacred and the
profane, the supernatural and the natural which is so characteristic of
Western worldview is strikingly absent in Tiv worldview. (101)
Indeed, when Mbiti said, “It is as if the African peoples do not know how to live
without religion” (194), he seemed to be specifically referring to the Tiv.
1. 7. 8. Tiv Oral Tradition
Tiv oral tradition is divided along the lines similar to those of other peoples.
Its aspects include oral narratives, oral poetry, and folk speech. Oral narratives are
made up of folktales known as kwaghalôm (ukwaghalôm for plural), legends,
(kwaghumbayiase or akaambayiase for plural), parables, fables, anecdotes – which
are all given the name injakwagh or anzaakaa for plural. This same word is also
given for proverbs. Since oral poetry, the domain of this research is going to be
dwelt on in greater detail in the next section, I will skip it at present and focus on
the literary kinds under folk speech. Here, proverbs have already been mentioned;
to them can be added riddles (ukikya; kikya for singular) tongue-twisters
(atiataveryilan, or ititaveryilan for singular). The Tiv also have idioms which are also
known by the same word as proverbs and legends.

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Now, a word about the Tiv folktale, which is the most dominant oral
narrative. Alôm the Hare is the Tiv trickster hero. In fact, the sub-genre bears his
name: kwaghalôm: literally, "hare's thing" meaning, "hare's story". Of course Alôm
does not feature alone in the tales. Other characters include his family: Anjieke his
wife, Anabyaausu and Antyôndu his children – generally, he is said to have between
six to fifteen children according to Keil (65) and Hagher (Metaphor 56). The tales
also feature other animals like Nor Ikyôr the elephant, Yar Ikyôr the Deer, Begha
Ikyôr the lion, Dwem Ikyôr the Hyena – Ikyôr being the fictional name for the
ancestor of all wild animals. In short, the tales feature any animal selected by the
performer. Ankujyôugh the fairy is also seen in the tales sometimes performing very
negative roles but at other times, performing redemptive ones. Then, there is
Jongul the fearsome monster, and snakes and birds and humanized elements like
winds, water etc. Indeed, there are no limits of characters in the tales. Lastly, it
must be mentioned that due to modernization these days, Tiv traditional tale-telling
sessions are not as available as those of oral poetry.
1. 7. 9. Tiv Oral Poetry
Oral poetry is so significant in Tiv society that when Dennis Osadebey said:
“We sing when we fight, we sing when we work, we sing when we love, we sing
when we hate, we sing when a child is born, we sing when death takes a toll” (qtd.
in Miruka 87), it seemed to be the situation in Tivland that he was describing. Oral
poetry is indeed so pervasive in the society that Hagher was right when he reported
that: “Most Tiv men [and women] compose a song or two that they sing to
themselves in moment (sic) of solitude...such a song might not be heard by anyone

64
else but closest relatives” (“Performance” 45). Clarification must, however, be made
here that personal compositions of the type Hagher has mentioned above are not a
formal form like the mwoc among the Acholi of Uganda as highlighted by Okot
p'Bitek (168-75). Among the Tiv, such personal songs exist only because of the
general predominance of poetry in the psyche of the people and they are not
regarded with any professional seriousness.
Song professionalism
In Tivland, song composition is a preserve of men. Women compose too, but
their compositions are limited to work songs; they do not become professional
composers. Of course, for obvious reasons, the situation is different with Christian
compositions where many women have distinguished themselves. In Tiv traditional
society, however, only men are administered the jiagba composition medicine.
Four factors determine song professionalism among the Tiv. These are,
professional initiation, song numbers, acquisition of patrons, and most importantly,
artistic skills. The easily explainable of all these factors are the ones that have to do
with song numbers and song patrons. A composer must have a respectable amount
of songs to be regarded as a professional. He must also have patrons whom he
addresses in his songs and who could either host him to an imomirin song-party or
an imônguteman relaxation session.
Of song-initiation, there are various forms. The first has to do specifically
with an individual's ityô patriclan. Generally, as implied earlier, the Tiv strongly
believe that nobody can do anything, song composition inclusive, except his/her ityô
has anointed him/her for that purpose. So whatever one does, his/her ityô must

65
give their consent before that individual's endeavour would be successful. Thus,
whatever initiation any prospective composer gets from anywhere is subject to the
final approval of his ityô.
Apart from the ityô‟s simple approval that a desiring poet should proceed to
perform, in some instances they are known to specifically give one of their citizens
the gift of composition so that that individual could be advising and entertaining
their society. The manner the ityô give this gift to the chosen is through tsav
witchcraft. The greatest Tiv oral poet of all times, Aginde Agena, for instance, is
said to have been given the gift while sleeping 13 . Amee Ijôrpo, the legendary poet
of this study was said to have been given his composition in a moment of great
emotional exertion as detailed under his brief biography below. There are numerous
other composers in Tivland whose ityô gave them the song art in more assorted
ways than I need to dwell on here.
Besides the initiation by ityô, anyone who wants to compose can take a
specified fee to a practicing poet whose songs he admires. The practicing poet now
gives the would-be poet the jiagba concoction. Jiagba is composition medicine
made up of the roots of a jiagba tree (pericopsis laxiflora), a weaverbird's tongue
and assorted other ingredients. These are all ground and given to the prospective
singer. Once he takes it, he is said to begin composing. It is believed that the jiagba
medicine has the spiritual power to inspire composition, to retain the song in the
composer's memory, and to win favour for the composer from his patrons and
members of his audience.

66
I have supervised over three hundred fieldwork projects on various
composers and most of them confessed that they owe their composition success to
their jiagba 14 . There are, however, some who dismiss composition medicine as mere
superstition and insist that they are naturally endowed and have nothing to do with
medicines. Perhaps they are right. But these are fast-changing times when it is
sometimes a pride to show that one does not subscribe to traditional religious
beliefs so the claims of such poets need to be appreciated with this understanding
at the back of the critic's mind. The fact remains, though, that the traditional Tiv
believes that there is no other composition than that inspired primarily by the ityô
or the jiagba. In fact, even the inspiration from the ityô is usually regarded as ityô's
jiagba. The word jiagba has thus, come to connote the general formula for
composition.
Then, song professionalism has to do with creative skills. The poet must
demonstrate enough composition creativity to receive any attention. This factor is
what this thesis is all about so there is no need dwelling too much on it at present.
One final note about poetic professionalism among the Tiv is that though poets
receive rewards from their patrons, they always have their personal means of
livelihood. It was maintained in the discourse on Tiv occupation above that
members of the ethnic group consider farming as a birthright so anybody lackig in
farming ability enjoys little regard among the people no matter what else he does.
Professional poets are therefore also farmers and may engage in any other
occupation of their choice.

Song classification
67
There are almost as many song types among the Tiv as there are poets. For
instance, there is the ibiamegh song type, which is one of the most ancient and
most respected of all. Then, there is ikyôndu, nyipa, soya, gbanyi, ange, genyi,
ataan-imo, kwasekuhan, icegher, ingye and so on. The confusing aspect of this is
that if any of these song classifications is observed, it is difficult to find out what
exactly distinguishes it from another or what binds some of the songs together
under its umbrella; since the focal point of this research is not taxonomical criticism
of Tiv oral poetry, this aspect will not be pursued beyond merely pointing it out with
the hope that future researchers working closer to it will investigate it. To point it
out more clearly, it is good to exemplify the problem: take ibiamegh, the most
prestigious song type for example, there is nothing either thematically or stylistically
common in the performances of Maza Nomhwange, Jiagwei Adamgbe, Gbaseghera
Dajoh, Amee Ijôrpo, Dagba Agbe, Anche Igbyaaze and Akile Bende – its most
legendary performers. There are actually no watertight differences in the
performances of the artists under this classification compared to those of the other
poets that see themselves as performing in the other categories. Aginde Agena was
an ikyôndu performer but Ada Adi's songs are very similar to his; yet Ada referred
to his performance as kwasekuhan. Interestingly, his songs are a far cry stylistically
and thematically from the kwasekuhan songs of Emmanuel Wade. Thus, whether
one takes Ajo Ugôr's ataan-imo, or Atayo Koko's aluabiam, or Hemen man Dondu‟s
gbande songs, there is very little taxonomical distinctiveness between the
categories. This indeed is the situation in all of Tiv oral poetry.

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One is therefore inclined to conclude that Tiv composers just name their
compositions more for external coloration than actual structural differentiation. That
is why scholars who have tried to classify these songs have sometimes
demonstrated their inability very pitiably. Nyitse, for instance, has classified the
poems based on the same nomenclatorial parameters of genyi, ibiamegh, ange,
girinya (of course not a song type by any parameters whatsoever, girinya is rather,
a dance type), iyol-gbeer, and swange – which the poets have adopted for
themselves (7). This is less useful effort. Perhaps it is more rewarding to follow
Hagher (“Performance” 45 – 55) and Jenkwe (A Study 3 –11) by using subject and
thematic parameters and classifying the songs into philosophical, heroic, religio-
medicinal, didactic, elegiac, privation and love categories. If the panegyric form is
added to these, the thematic circumference of Tiv oral poetry would, to my mind,
be covered. At that point, even though all Tiv poets would defy categorization
(since there is hardly any of them who does not have songs under any of these
thematic groups), at least it would be possible to inventory the predominant theme
in a particular poet and decide to label him according to that most pervasive
subject. In a word therefore, Tiv oral poetry may only be classified by the various
themes in it; not by the nomenclatorial tags which the performers use for
themselves.
Ibiamegh as religious ritual, as poetry, and as dance
Amee, the subject of this research, performed the ibiamegh song type, the
most respected song style in Tivland. It is therefore needful to focus on ibiamegh
poetry a bit more extensively. As mentioned in discussing Tiv religion above,

69
ibiamegh was actually the greatest akombu magico-religious ritual of the Tiv whose
ceremony was hosted by only prestigious men. Anybody who underwent the ritual
was seen as having achieved a major status in the Tiv magico-religious world; he
was, according to Downes, consequently “entitled to be called shagba or (important
man)” (Tiv Religion 64). Usually, such people were not many in the land because
the requirements for hosting the ritual demanded more sacrifices than could be
afforded by anybody; so only the asagbaior prestigious people could host it. In Tiv
traditional society, such people were also usually spiritually strong, that is, they
acquired sufficient witchcraft powers and prowess. No weakling, it was maintained,
could come out unhurt from the ate-biam venue of the great ibiamegh rituals –
most of which took place, expectably, at night. Whenever the ritual processes were
over, Akiga has submitted that: “The initiate goes home and bathes. Then he
dresses himself up, breaks into song, and comes out into the village [arena],
dancing the Biamegh (sic) dances, and throwing taunts at those who have not been
initiated. He is now a Master of the Biamegh (sic)” (199). Akiga has stated it well
but it needs to be clarified that the initiate did not always sing by himself. Most of
the times he commissioned a poet who composed for him; sometimes, the
composer taught him the song so that he sang it himself while coming out to the
compound arena, the venue of the closing ceremony of the ritual; but most of the
time, the bard performed the poem for the initiate who danced to its music on his
way into the arena. The composition particularly praised the initiate‟s strength and
courage as demonstrated in his ability to afford the great ibiamegh rite. This poetry
was therefore basically panegyric, albeit dignifiedly so. The poet did not employ

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ultra-exaggerative devices to achieve his praise of the host and other participants at
the ceremony. There was always a religious fear overshadowing the composition;
so the composer usually handled his creative freedom with caution. His business
was therefore a very delicate one. This was why it was not every composer that
was allowed to compose ibiamegh poems; the composer was himself an initiate
who knew the religious implications of performing at the occasion.
However, over time, the style of ibiamegh began to attract other composers
so they started composing their secular poems in it. This secular aspect of the
poetry was initiated by Maza Nomhwange, a World War II veteran whose Second
World War exposure seemed to have afforded him the boldness to secularize what
was hitherto regarded with the utmost religious dread. Even though Nomhwange
called his secularized compositions as ibiamegh, many other composers who began
to imitate this style preferred to refer to it as either aluabiam or wanbiam, that is,
“the non-initiate ibiamegh” or “the child of ibiamegh” respectively 15 (Keil 98).
Still, with the passage of time, composers who were not members of the
ibiamegh order and who were not composing for ibiamegh rituals became bold
enough to refer to their own compositions as ibiamegh songs. The first composer to
do this was Maza Nomhwange as stated above. He was closely followed by Jiagwei
Adamgbe who used to compose in the Ishen style; that is why these two are usually
regarded as the fathers of secular ibiamegh poetry. This was how this style of
performance came about.
Another aspect of ibiamegh religious ritual that became secularized was the
dance form. As noted by Akiga, the initiate of ibiamegh rite usually came out in the

71
arena not only singing but also “dancing the Biamegh (sic) dances” (199). There
was therefore a definite style of ibiamegh religious dance which was also eventually
entered into the Tiv secular dance styles and retained its ibiamegh name. The
dance featured in the “Festival of 200 Traditional Dances of the Benue-Plateau
State” sponsored by the Federal Ministry of Information in Jos in 1973. Good
enough, Igoil has preserved the programme of the event as well as the list of the
dances presented there (“Cultural Aspects” 548 – 71). Also preserved by Igoil are
the brief explanatory notes on the dances at the 1973 event 16 .
So ibiamegh was principally a religious ritual which involved songs and
dances. Secular versions of these songs and dances were eventually developed and
many Tiv poets and dancers who were not initiates of the ritual performed the
secular styles of these poems and dances. Amee Ijôrpo whose poems are the
subject of this study performed the secular ibiamegh poetry.
Poetic composition and performance in Tivland
How do Tiv poets compose? Then, when and where do they perform? These
questions are very important because of the predominance of Parry and Lord's oral
formulaic theory on the scene of oral poetic criticism. It needs be repeated that the
oral formulaic theory does not apply to Tiv composition. Tiv performers do not
compose in-performance. Song composition in the society is done prior to the
occasion of performance. The poet first composes the song(s), then he calls his
assistant(s) and teaches him/them the song(s). If the assistant(s) has/have
suggestions, he/they make them and the song(s) is further edited and re-worked;
this is how its final version comes out. Thus, among the Tiv, one can go to a poet

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and request him to perform a song that he performed at a particular occasion and
he could sing it exactly the way he did it before with the same words and tune.
Anybody else is free to sing that song but anyone hearing the singing knows that
the song belongs to so and so poet who authored it. For example, Aginde Agena
has died for more than fifty years now, yet his songs are known as his songs. This
is the situation with every other Tiv poet. And this is the nature of Tiv song
composition generally. The question of song authorship is thus, not debatable at all.
Every song has its composer and every composer has his songs. Of course there are
a limited number of compositions whose authors have been forgotten but these are
exceptional cases. On a general note, Keil‟s submission concerning song authorship
in Tiv poems is a fact:
In Tivland … any song can be attributed to a composer, an or dughun
imo. So far as I can determine, the songs for which an individual
creator is not necessarily assumed are lullabies and the songs that
animal characters are likely to sing in the midst of a tale. Some Tiv
would even insist that these simple song forms have their composers
but that they were not known. (97)
The point being highlighted is that every Tiv song has an author and that song texts
are fixed. Every poet must distinguish himself in his composition to deserve that
name. In a word, the situation in Tivland is against all that the oral formulaic
theorists said.
Then, occasions of song performance are either formal or informal. Formal
poetry occasions include the ibiamegh religious ritual celebrations (almost

73
completely extinct now), the imo-mirin song-party, nuptial celebrations, funeral
ceremonies etc. In short, formal occasions pertain to situations whereby the poet is
formally invited and for which he has specifically composed pieces for rendition.
Informal occasions are those where the poet has found himself and is pressed by
either his audience or his muse to perform. It could be a market place, or even a
funeral ceremony, or even the launching of any project. What differentiates formal
and informal occasions is the fact that in the one, the poet is usually specifically
invited and he specifically composes for; in the other, he is not usually specifically
invited and so does not specifically compose for the event. In such informal
situations, he performs songs which he composed for general performance or which
he composed for other occasions. And it must be stated here that apart from
ibiamegh and imo-mirin which are always formal, almost every other occasion could
be either formal or informal depending on the criterion given above.
An aspect which needs to be stressed from the above presentation is the
imo-mirin song-party. Tiv composers value this occasion more than any other
because to them, it is the confirmation of their artistic achievement (Keil 98). Imo-
mirin literally means exactly what Keil has said: “brewing the song” (164) and the
nearest construction to it in English is “song-party”. Usually, it is a great event
hosted by one of the poet's patrons. When a patron is hosting a song-party, the
poet composes songs specifically for the occasion. He also does not just go there
with only his assistant(s), the relevant elders among his ityô patriclan also
accompany him so that they would collect even witchcraft paraphernalia, should the
host decide to reward his poet with any. The elders' presence is also for the poet's

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protection. For, sometimes patrons hosting such occasions are said to be so
intoxicated by the poet's songs that, after rewarding him with all they have, they
become so song-possessed that they may attempt to kill the poet (ecstatic killing?)
either physically or through witchcraft (Keil 137-38). So the poet's ityô usually
accompany him for his protection during such occasions.
An imo-mirin song-party is a mark of ishagba (prestige) by the patron and a
great honour to the poet. Once a poet is hosted this way, his other patrons attend
the occasion in a show of solidarity to both the poet and the host. In many cases,
the many other patrons that come for the event end up competing among
themselves over who would give the composer the biggest reward. The imo-mirin
occasion is therefore very prized among Tiv poets. In fact, singers do not feel
fulfilled if a patron is yet to host them to such a party. Thus, in Tiv poetry generally,
the subject of imo-mirin is understandably prominent. Indeed, poets boast of the
number of such parties that they have had. The implication is that if a poet has not
been hosted this way, he is not good enough. But this is only partly true. Some
poets are legendary in their composing abilities, yet nobody hosted them to this
kind of party. This was especially true in the age of Aginde Agena when poets were
not composing for rewards but to proudly declare their assets and then educate
their people. A more recent example of a skilful poet who, unfortunately, was not
hosted to any song-party is Iyough Ute. Amee Ijôrpo the poet of this study was,
however, hosted to several of such occasions.

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1. 8. A BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF AMEE IJÔRPO
1. 8. 1. Birth and Family Life
Ijôrpo Biam Ala of Mbagar in Ingyenev clan of Ukum district took a wife from
Tse Aminde in Mbalagh clan of Tômbu district named Ku-ngu Ajaga. Together they
gave birth to three girls and six boys: nine children altogether. Amee was the third
born. Unfortunately, most of the nine children died in early adulthood. (Amee has
lamented this bitterly in some of his songs especially Amee 51: 17 – 24). As at the
time of the field research for this thesis in 2004, only Adelunga the last born, was
alive. When Amee was alive, it was only he and this last born that were the
surviving of all the nine children.
Concerning the time of his birth, the earliest 1920s seems to be the most
probable date. I arrived at this date based on Adelunga‟s submission that the poet
was born slightly over ten years after the coming of the Protestant missionaries to
Tivland. The missionaries arrived in Sai, the Tiv village where they first settled, in
1911. So going by his brother‟s submission, the poet must have been born between
1922 and 1924. His early life is said not to be different from that of the Tiv youths
of his time. They did not enjoy formal education because it was not common at the
time Instead, they farmed, hunted, and danced whatever dance was available.
Of his appearance, Amee has described himself correctly in one of his songs
as somebody who is not tall (Amee 90: 26). He was, however, at least tall enough
to be enrolled into the colonial army during the Second World War and fought in
Burma; he also joined the Nigerian Army in the 1960s and fought during the
Nigerian Civil War. In complexion, he was dark. He was always clean-shaven and

76
every respondent to interviews conducted for this study was of the opinion that the
artist was generally neat.
Amee did not marry early in his life – another fact that appears repeatedly in
his songs, viz, Amee 3: 22 – 25, 30 – 32; 25: 7; 31: 12 – 14. But he ended up
marrying four wives. The first was Katsina Zer whom it seems they parted ways on
bad terms as can be seen in the poet‟s lamentation about her in one song (Amee
33: 40 – 44). Then there was Mnguanyi Kpan Adi, Mbasen Maagbe and Wan Tor
Biliji. His surviving children during the fieldwork for this research numbered twelve.
It must also be added here that apart from his wives, there was Mbanengen
Aveil whom the poet loved very much and mentioned quite often in his songs.
Sometimes, he referred to her in the songs as Adoonyumbe (meaning the one that
is good to play with) or Adooyavenami (the one that is good to sleep with).
Mbanengen was not formally married to Amee. The poet actually proposed to her
but she rejected marrying him (as Amee can be heard lamenting in Amee 31: 20 –
23) on grounds of her physical handicap. One of her hands was not fully functional
so she said she would not want to marry and become a burden to a husband. She
therefore chose to be on her own – a very bold step for a Tiv woman of her time.
Mbanengen therefore accepted only to be Amee‟s ingbiankwase friend.
Some parts of traditional Tiv society, including Amee‟s section, had a system
of friendship between men and women called ingbiankwase (which could be
translated as sister-friend) to the man and ingbiannomsu (brother-friend) to the
lady. This relationship – actually extinct now because of Christianity and modernity
– was usually between a man and a woman (of course a previously married

77
woman) from a sister clan that was, however, distant enough to forestall incest.
The man and the woman would publicly agree to be friends. Their families would
agree to it and accept the friendship. They therefore lived like husband and wife
except that the woman never actually left her parental family completely. She still
lived among her people and still owned things there. Once a while she came over to
her ingbiannomsu and stayed for sometime before going back to her home; he too
went to her place once a while.
The respect that those who practised this form of man-woman friendship
attached to it can hardly be overemphasized. The men hosted dance ceremonies for
such women and even bought noble gifts like horses and native cows for them. It
was a thing of pride. If the men were poets, they invoked such women repeatedly
in their songs. Maza Nomhwange and Jiagwei Adamgbe, for instance, each had
such a woman. Nomhwange had Ikyôce Wannune while Jiagwei had Ikyôce Aganyi.
(The Ikyôce names coincide here by accident). Their songs often celebrated these
women. Amee had Mbanengen. And the poet so loved this woman that she became
the most frequently mentioned female in his poems.
Apart from the Second World War which took him to Burma and the Nigerian
Civil War which took him to parts of Eastern Nigeria, the poet lived most of his life
in Zaki-Biam, his ancestral town. Here, he farmed and performed his poems. Of
course, he travelled (around Benue State or to Taraba State where a sizeable Tiv
population is found) for song-parties or song occasions hosted for him there. But
such journeys were limited. Also, on few occasions, he travelled to Enugu to record

78
his songs on Long Play recorders. Most of his life was, however, spent in his
hometown of Zaki-Biam.
1. 8. 2. Initiation into Poetry Performance
In about the very early 1940s, Amee began to gamble. It should be known
here that gambling at that time was a fashionable thing to do. It did not have the
negative import it carries among the Tiv at present. At least, this is what Jiagwei
Adamgbe, one of the fathers of ibiamegh poetry in Tivland and a contemporary of
Amee, and a gambler-turned-poet, told me in an interview. Jiagwei maintained that
most youths then were gamblers because it was thought a manly thing to do. One
has to agree with this because most of the people of that age in Tivland confess,
with some pride, their gambling exploits then. Even Iorrumun Ankya, another great
Tiv bard, became a poet because of circumstances occasioned by his gambling. So
gambling was rather a fashionable practice in Tivland at that time. Amee was also a
self-confessed notorious gambler. Even his composition was occasioned by
frustration at the gambling floor.
In his own account, the poet gave a detailed description of his gambling and
how it led to his becoming a composer:
I was fond of going about in the company of friends to gamble. My
closest friend was Atôndo Tiôn. Wherever we heard that there was a
party of gamblers we would go there to participate in the gambling.
On one such party Atôndo Tiôn left me in one village and went to the
next one to see his girl friend. Before he could come back, however, I
was particularly unfortunate in the gambling and had gambled off all

79
my money and clothes and was sitting stark naked at the gambling
arena. All the people had dispersed leaving me there naked and
unable to walk off. After some time, however, I heard the voice of
Atôndo, in a conversation far off the place I was sitting. In a bid to call
Atôndo…I started singing something like this: “Atôndo, va tsa u nenge
er kwagh a tser aingô yô,” (…“Atôndo, come here so that you can see
what has befallen your brother”). Atôndo came to me but,
unfortunately, he, too, had gambled off all his money and clothes. The
only thing he had on him was a loincloth which we tore off into two,
he taking one part and me the other. I sang that sequence repeatedly
and later found out that I could add other sequences to it even after
we had walked off the arena. That was how I started composing and
singing songs. (Igoil, “Cultural Aspects” 329 - 30)
Some respondents to Igoil‟s interviews offered information that differs from
the poet‟s own account above. They maintained that it was Amee‟s ityô that,
through their collective tsav, anointed him for the role of poetic composition. These
respondents were, however, hardly agreed about how the poet actually started
composing. Of the ityô connection to his performance, the poet did not confirm
when Igoil interviewed him. Igoil has said that: Amee could not “confirm that he
was made a song composer by his ityô” (“Cultural Aspects” 329). But one feels that
the poet‟s inability to confirm that could just be the usual reluctance of elders to
talk about such serious matters of the land in the open. Besides, in Tiv tradition,
even when the ityô choose somebody to be a composer, there is usually a

80
methodology that is used to pass the gift to such a one. In Amee‟s case, the
methodology was to visit him at the time of his abject emotional vulnerability due to
gambling misfortune. This is where there is a discrepancy.
The discrepancy is that while the poet maintained that it was on hearing
Atôndu Tiôn‟s voice that he, in an effort to call him to bring a piece of cloth for him,
started composing; some respondents who seemed to have especial knowledge of
the poet,
claimed that it was a woman who took a loincloth to him in the house
[and not Atôndu Tiôn as the poet said]. It is claimed that although he
locked himself up in the house, the woman was able to enter it and
give him the cloth. It is not clear how the cloth was handed over to
him. It is also not clear what transpired between him and the woman
but the following morning, Amee started singing songs that he had
composed. People who maintain this version of how Amee started his
career as a composer are, however, unable to identify the first song
that he composed and sang. (Igoil, “Cultural Aspects” 330).
To my thinking, Amee‟s submission is more authentic. In the first place,
nobody can tell how the poet started composing better than the poet himself. And
he said that he started composing when he wanted to communicate with Atôndu
Tiôn his friend. This is hearing from the horse‟s mouth; there is therefore little point
challenging it.
Moreover, when I asked Adelunga, the poet‟s surviving younger brother, if he
remembered what song his brother first composed, he said he only remembered a

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small portion of the song. But the portion corroborated Amee‟s submission to Igoil
concerning how he started singing. The portion that Adelunga remembered said:
Atôndu Tiôn aoo Atôndu Tiôn, Atôndu Tiôn aoo Atôndu Tiôn,
Mo kpa M ban cado ga ishor yam a ya aa. I too lacked no cado loincloth; it‟s gambling that
has denied me of it.
This confirms that Amee started composing when he wanted to address his friend.
Besides, anyone who has listened to the poet will note that Atôndu is the most
frequently addressed patron in the compositions. This goes to further prove the
correctness of the poet‟s explanation concerning the starting point of his career.
As for when he started composing, 1938 seems a likely date. This is because,
according to Adelunga his only surviving brother, Amee started performing just
before the Second World War. In 1942, Amee joined the colonial army. It could be
comfortably taken for granted that he continued with his performance during his
military career. This is because some Tiv soldiers who had composed before going
to Burma started doing so when they were there. The need to entertain their fellow
Tiv soldiers when they had spare time, as well as the rigours of war (which elicited
poems from Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon during World War I) pushed them
into composition. A good example of this is Maza Nomhwange, Anyam Ayua and
Nungwa Cagh. Amee must have therefore continued to perform even when he was
in Burma.
Back from the war, he stayed in Zaki-Biam, his hometown and continued
composing and performing till 1967 when he, again, joined the Nigerian Army to
fight in the Nigerian Civil War. This time, Amee was not able to stay in the army
right to the end of the war because he started having problems with his eyes. The

82
pain in his eyes and the resulting inability forced him to disengage honourably from
the army. My guess is that this must have been in 1969 because respondents to
interviews conducted agree that the poet disengaged from the army a year before
the war was over. It also needs to be quickly added here that the problem with his
eyes continued to trouble the poet for the rest of his life. Indeed, he lamented
about it repeatedly in some of his poems (Amee 23: 11, 28: 36, 42: 22, 44:9). He
never went blind, but he was not comfortable with his eyes for the remaining part
of his life. Indeed, he always used prescribed glasses.
Of the content of Amee‟s songs, it can be hinted here that, as said earlier, he
began singing because of his plight at the gambling arena. From lamenting his
gambling misfortune, he moved on to lamenting over his other personal problems
like the death of his siblings especially Mko his immediate younger brother whom he
seemed to have been very much attached to. His performances during the earliest
stage were basically lamentations about these things. His late marriage also worried
him so much that he complained to his clansmen over and over about it (Amee 3:
22 – 25, 30 – 32; 25: 7; 31: 12 – 14). But as he matured in the art, his songs
became, more and more committed to praising the great men of his world so as to
lift them up as paragons to be emulated. Then he performed elegies. Whatever
subject he was handling, he made sure that there was general didactic substance in
his rendition. This is one of the indispensable characteristics of his poetry.
Amee‟s reputation as a poet was enormous. Sometimes in the early 1980s,
the Nigerian Television Authority station in Makurdi invited him for a live
performance on air. This was a gesture reserved only for the very best of

83
performers. To further show his popularity, many of his patrons, like Hil Agule, Nor
Adiôgô, Beba Unzô Konjo, Cieve Tsavbee Muri and so on and so forth hosted him to
numerous imo-mirin song-parties and imôngu-teman relaxation sessions. In Tiv
society, as Keil has noted, gestures of this nature by poets‟ patrons often mean that
“the composer in question is good enough” (98). When Amee was invited for such
occasions, he always went with his whole troupe. He had a very large troupe with a
membership ranging between three and fifteen people. Sometimes his troupe used
musical instruments to accompany the performance 17 . Even when Cieve Tsavbee
hosted him to a song-party, he performed with musical accompaniment. His musical
ensemble included some genga drums, gbande drums, a kunkun drum, a kakaki
woodwind, and a kwen metal gong. His main song assistants were Kaorze Igboko
(late), Tsegba Bede, Bokyaa Anenga (also dead), Torkôr Ashaver and Unumbe Ajo.
Then there were the instrumentalists.
1. 8. 3. His Death and the Current State of His Songs
Amee died in 1994 at Mkar Christian Hospital in Gboko after a brief illness.
He was buried in the courtyard of his compound in Zaki-Biam. His burial is said to
have been attended by many of his fellow poets and by his song patrons.
Respondents to the interviews conducted described the poet‟s burial as that of a
truly great man. One is prone to agree with this because even the shape of the
grave shows that the late poet was respected even in death.
After Amee‟s death, his son, Iorwashima took over his father‟s art; but
Iorwashima too died shortly after and too suddenly. It became clear to the poet‟s
family that Amee‟s performance was not an ordinary inheritance. His surviving sons

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whom I spoke with did not even want to hear the mentioning of their taking over
their father‟s song performance. Generally, the understanding, as mentioned earlier,
is that it is the poet‟s ityô patriclan that chose him to compose songs; now that he
is dead, it is the same ityô that would again choose another person to replace him.
Thus, whoever chooses himself for the role is certain to die because he has gone
where the ityô have not sent him. So far, nobody is performing the poet‟s songs;
and no one knows when the ityô would choose Amee‟s successor. (The choice is
said to take decades sometimes.) No one knows if any one finally chosen would be
performing Amee‟s songs or he would be composing his own. If the choice comes
from Amee‟s family, the replacement would be composing his own songs in Amee‟s
tone and also performing some of Amee‟s as well. But the replacement is almost
certainly not to come from the poet‟s family. That would mean another poet may
never again revive Amee‟s performance. The inevitable course for the songs (just as
has been the case with the songs of other great Tiv poets like Aginde Agena, Bam
Ginde, Yatsav Ugôh, Maza Nomhwange, Gbaseghera Dajoh etc) would therefore be
subsequent extinction – except efforts such as the present are made.
1. 9. RESEARCH DESIGN
The research has been divided into seven chapters. Chapter One, the current
chapter, is he introduction. Here, the background has been laid, the problem stated,
key terms defined, the aims and objectives as well as the significance of the
research have been put down just as the theoretical framework of the research. A
brief history of the Tiv too is provided as well as a brief biography of the artist. The
place of poetry in Tiv traditional society has also been focused on.

85
In Chapter Two, the literature related to the subject has been reviewed.
Chapters Three, Four, and Six are dedicated to an investigation of the artistic
strategies of the poet with a view to identifying the potential successes of his
artistic methods with the audience. The third chapter, “Aspects of Amee‟s Poetry”
dwells on issues like the speaking voice in the poems, the addressees in the poems,
the setting, and the subjects and themes in the poems. Then the narrative
techniques of the poet have been discussed in Chapter Four. Here the general
structure of narration is observed; then specific structural techniques are discussed
before the chapter is concluded with a focus on chronology in the poems. The
discussion is all along aimed at appreciating the efficacy of the poet‟s artistic
choices.
Chapter Five is where aspects of Amee‟s artistic skills have been analyzed.
His diction is appreciated and his skill in onomastic manoeuvring criticized. The sixth
chapter dwells on appreciating the poet‟s figures of speech. The following figures
have been considered: imagery, metaphor, simile, pun, allusion, hyperbole,
proverbs, alliteration, ambiguity, and euphemism. Then, Chapter Seven, the last,
concludes that from the available evidence, Amee is actually a skilful bard in his
effective deployment of his artistic tools. Some suggestions and recommendations
are finally, made.
Then, there is “Appendix A” containing the Tiv transcriptions of the poems
while “Appendix B” has the English translations. It must be stated that each of the
songs in the appendices is numbered with AI (that is a short form adopted for Amee
Ijôrpo‟s name) preceding the Arabic number. In citing the songs in the body of the

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thesis, however, the name of Amee is used in referring to each of the songs; if song
12 is referred to, it is cited as Amee 12. The number of the song is written followed
by a full colon (for example Amee 40 :), then the number of the cited line(s) is next
put down (for example Amee 40: 5, or Amee 40: 5 – 10). This method ensures
specificity of reference.

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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP
The Tiv have had a good reputation for artistic creativity for a very long time
and many scholars and writers have paid due attention to this fact. Leo Frobenius,
the German traveller will always be quoted for remarking in 1912 when he came
across members of the ethnic group that they were "the best storytellers he has
encountered in Africa" (Keil 57). Laura Bohannan too has, under the pseudonym of
Elenore Smith Bowen, often been deservedly referred to for her admiring
description of a Tiv tale telling session in her autobiographical novel, Return to
Laughter. Commenting on Bohannan‟s book, Frances Harding has said that:
So important does Bohannan consider storytelling in Tiv life that not
only is its performance the occasion of the laughter which gives the
novel its title, but it is recognized as a healing, binding force in the
community. (156)
Indeed Keil was right in his submission that “qualitatively, all visitors to Tivland
agree that storytelling can be a very dramatic event” (emphasis added 57). But it is
not just tales that the Tiv perform so appreciably. Adeiyongo‟s “A Literary Study of
Tiv Anzaakaa” is an exhaustive demonstration of the proverbial skills of members of
the ethnic group. That is how there has been ample testimony concerning the Tiv‟s
verbal dexterity in oral narratives and folk speech generally.
Regarding poetry, its ubiquitous presence in Tiv society has already been
captured in the background laid above under the subsection, “Tiv Oral Poetry”. The
pervasive presence of poetry in the life of the ethnic group has been considered

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there. It only needs to be added here, by way of review, that just as the fact of the
Tiv skills in oral narratives has, according to Keil, impressed “all visitors to Tivland”
(57), oral poetry too has performed a similar function even on a more emphatic
basis. There is hardly anybody who has been interested in the Tiv that has not
noticed the place of poetry and dance in their life. Martin Brennan, a colonial
administrator, was inspired by this fact and wrote “Tribal Dance”, a poem included
in Woogler and Ogungbesan‟s Rhymes and Rhythms (55 – 6). This is how the whole
piece goes:
They sat in their shade of cotton-silk tree
Drinking palm wine
And beating the drums
They danced from noon
Till half past three
Drinking palm wine
And beating the drums.
And they slept in the shadows
Till the moon rose high
Like a silver florin
In a starry sky
And they danced once again
By the cotton-silk tree
Drinking palm wine

And beating the drums.
Drinking palm wine
And beating the drums
They sang the songs of the race
And an old Tiv chieftain
Raised his head
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And the moonlight shone on his face.
The moonlight shone
On the old chief‟s face
On the moon white gleam of his eyes
As they sang with pride
The songs of their race
And saw the silver moon rise.
They sat in the shade of a cotton-silk tree
Drinking palm wine
And beating the drums
They danced from noon
Till half past three
Drinking palm wine
And beating the drums.

And they slept in the shadows
Till the moon rose high
Like silver florin
In the starry sky
And they danced once again
By the cotton-silk tree
Drinking palm wine
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And beating the drums (emphasis added).
This poem perhaps fails factually speaking since it leaves one with the impression
that the traditional Tiv did nothing other than sleep, wake, drink, beat drums, sing,
and danced themselves weary and went back to sleep again – only to rise for
further drinking, singing, drumming and dancing. Whatever its failures, the piece
bears witness to the significant place of songs in the Tiv world. Unfortunately, most
of Tiv oral poetry is yet to be researched. I have, however, identified two stages in
the scanty scholarship of Tiv oral poetry. These are: the EARLY Western research
and the modern stage. Attention shall now be briefly focused on either of these;
then I shall proceed to focus on scholarship specifically on the poetry of Amee
Ijôrpo.
2. 1. EARLY WESTERN RESEARCH ON TIV ORAL POETRY
The interest in Tiv oral poetry which has been termed here as colonial was
marked by the fact that the oral poetry was studied not in itself but because it
provided information on some other matter that the researcher was primarily
interested in. Usually the researcher was out for something else but approached the

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poems because they helped him to achieve his main purpose. The earliest of such
attention known to me was that by R.C. Abraham in The Tiv People (81 – 83).
Abraham‟s main business was to provide an ethnographical criticism of the group.
To do this, there was the need to include Tiv poetry in the discussion because the
songs contained the data he was after. He thus went on and collected four Tiv
songs and made some comments on especially one of them. I shall return to
Abraham‟s comments on the songs shortly; at present, it is needful to look at his
general grasp of the song art among the Tiv.
Before Abraham presented the songs he collected, he first of all tried to
etymologically explain the Tiv terminology for the song art. This effort is largely
unsuccessful. For, he has wrongly linked ndera (the Tiv verb whose noun form is
mnder – the word the group use for the opening part of their songs) with the
domain of roofing a house in Tivland. In his words:
To the Tiv mind the composition of [a song] suggests a roof built over
the head of the one eulogized and this simile [that is, the word ndera,
actually not a simile in the context but a metaphor] is kept up in the
phraseology, for he speaks of intoning the first words of the icham
[song] in the same way as he speaks of beginning the roof-frame and
the eulogy is raised up as it gets into its stride, just as the finished
frame is raised on to the walls and benefits the house-owner. (82)
The situation is not what Abraham has so ambitiously explained. If it were so, the
next part of Tiv songs after the mnder should, logically, have been called mkuva
(which means, the roofing proper). For, in roofing, after the ndera stage, the next is

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the mkuva. But the word mkuva is nowhere to be found in the Tiv song
terminology. Are we to suppose that the Tiv just adopted only part of the register of
roofing for their song terminology? This is not so; it is Abraham that got it wrong.
Moreover, Abraham's fantastic explanation is resting on the obviously
unfounded assumption that all Tiv songs are eulogies to someone. In fact, this is
not the case at all. It is common knowledge that words seldom have logical
explanations to what they refer to. Mnder does not necessarily need to be
etymologically explainable before its denotation would be acceptable. It is therefore
more helpful to abandon the hunt for wise explanations of the word and to just
accept it as simply referring to the first part of a Tiv song.
But Abraham has an even more serious failure. His effort to criticize some of
the songs exposed him to many, almost unforgivable blunders. One of the songs
went as follows:
See what has befallen me, tell me what I have done to deserve this.
In days gone by, I farmed for my mother and when I was tired, I
rested; if I had anything to say, I said it, and when I felt hungry, ate.
Then there was nobody to beat me and I never had to work as I am
working today. Work! Work! Work! My taskmasters grind me down;
they throw stones at me when I stop work and when I have finished, I
get no pay. What a life! (197 – 8)
Reacting to this song, he abandoned the poet and decided to generalize his
comments on the Tiv as a whole by saying:

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It is fair to say that this gloomy picture has no foundation in fact; the
Tiv is disinclined to any effort physical or mental if he can avoid it and
is paid good wages when required for manual labour on the roads.
(198)
Here, it can be seen that Abraham has completely turned his back to the poem on
ground and proceeded to defend colonialism. The fairness he proclaims is obviously
fairness to colonial powers. In reacting to these words by Abraham, Iyortyange Igoil
has quoted the submission of Syed Hussein Alatas on some strategies of the
colonial administrator. Alatas‟ words explain Abraham‟s attitude adequately:
The image of the indolent native was the product of colonial
domination generally…when the domination of the colonies reached a
high peak and when colonial capitalist exploitation required extensive
control of the area. The image of the native had a function in the
exploitation complex of colonial times. This was the time when the
capitalist conception of labour gained supremacy. Any type of labour
which did not conform to this conception was rejected as a deviation.
A community which did not enthusiastically and willingly adopt this
conception of labour was regarded as indolent. (qtd. in Igoil, “Cultural
Aspects” 130)
There is no doubt that it was the above consciousness that informed Abraham‟s
reaction to that song. This fact is demonstrated by the enthusiasm and generosity
he exhibits in presenting another song which seems to hail the colonial system. So,
in talking about this particular song, he triumphantly says,

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We find the other side of the picture [that is, a contrary view to that
presented in the first song] in the following [song]: The Tiv are
shouting in unison „there is no fighting any more. The white man has
come and forbidden affrays, so we fight no more‟. (198)
Now, if there was another side of the story as Abraham himself has said, it means
there were at least some Tiv people “good” enough to present that “other side” of
colonialism. Why then did Abraham fail to recognize these “good” Tiv in his earlier
condemnation of the ethnic group‟s general physical and mental indolence? Clearly,
this lapse of judgment is an indication that bad conscience had made the man to
become so blindly defensive that he found himself into the fallacy of cross-
statements. Thus, of Abraham‟s likeness for the second song, Harding has further
pointed out that he “much prefers” this other song because of its praise of
colonialists (152). In fact, Igoil is of the opinion that Abraham may have composed
this other song himself:
It is…possible that Abraham simply made it up since his linguistic
capabilities could easily enable him generate the sequence in answer
to the accusations contained in the first song. (“Cultural Aspects” 131)
Disagreeing with Igoil here is somewhat difficult because if the second song was
truly there, Abraham would not have ignored it so comfortably while passing the
very negative blanket judgment on the Tiv in response to the first one? Thus,
Harding, justifiably, very strongly blames Abraham for the above and several other
misrepresentations of the Tiv. In her words,

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It was Abraham‟s own fear of a radical change in relationships of
power which compelled him to deny, even to himself, the intellectual
and conceptual ability of the Tiv people. (147)
What is more, Abraham did not provide the Tiv language originals of the songs – a
fact which in oral literary research is very counterproductive. This shortcoming is
further made worse by the prosaic rendering of the songs he collected. The
transcription and translation of songs should have been done in verse, not in the
prose form that Abraham presented them. No wonder, Frances Harding decided, in
her quotations of the songs, to present them in verse form (152 – 3).
Another early Western writer who touched Tiv oral poetry was R. M. Downes.
Unlike Abraham, Downes did not go into elaborate commentaries on the songs.
Most of the times, he only quoted them as they related to his topics of discourse. So
in Tiv Religion, songs are quoted repeatedly as they are used at various stages in
certain religious practices. Examples for discussion here are, however, drawn from
his The Tiv Tribe. In this 101-page book, Downes has either quoted or referred to
songs for at least twenty-one times by my count. It is pointless to cite all the
references so a representative instance will hereby be provided for illustration on
how he handled the songs. In The Tiv Tribe, the reception of a newborn baby is
described this way:
The birth of a child is a time for rejoicing, and drumming and singing
almost always take place. A common birth song, the words of which
are adapted to local names, is as follows: – (this was sung in Niongov
(sic) sub-clan of Turan) “Akul o Akul o o i nyi a hemba se, semba uha

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tso el Aondo ve a inya. Hu o Hu o Anya o (names of all local ancestors
and present elders) Adeba a ungwa ma ikul i a hembe se dze o o o o.
(Brothers, Brothers, who surpasses us, we two (referring to another
family group). It is Aondo and the earth. Adeber is listening, no one
surpasses us). (15)
It is to Downes‟ credit that, unlike Abraham, he always provided the Tiv language
versions of the songs before giving his translation. The appropriateness of this
gesture can be seen in the following comment by Ruth Finnegan:
When only translations are given, there are …difficulties. The
problems involved in any translation, let alone from an unfamiliar
culture, are of course notorious…When none of the original texts is
provided it is not possible even for someone who knows the language
to check the basic trustworthiness of the translation in the most literal
sense. It is often quite impossible to assess how close these
translations are to the original text…. (Oral Literature 336)
Because Downes has provided the Tiv originals of the above song for
instance, any researcher approaching the work has the opportunity to test his own
knowledge of the Tiv language against Downes‟. A few facts are observable in
Downes and can be noticed in the above quotation. The first is the Anglicization of
Tiv language which was pervasive in colonial times – so much that some of the
Anglicizations (and Dutchifications) have survived to the present. In the quoted
passage, proof of the Anglicization of Tiv language in Downes and early Western
scholars can also be seen in the name “Adeba” which belongs to a Tiv man in the

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quotation. It can be observed that in the Tiv version of the song, the name ends
with an “a” but in the English translation, “Adeba” becomes “Adeber”! The er-
ending of this name in the English translation is a clear case of mother tongue
interference; Downes has written a Tiv name in English language. And this is what
was generally happening to Tiv language in the hands of colonial writers.
Unfortunately, many of such errors have survived to this day and have become part
of the orthography of Tiv language.
Another shortcoming in Downes‟ handling of Tiv songs is his limited
comprehension. Often, he did not grasp what a song was saying. His interpretation
of the present song is wrong and this can be seen in my following reissuing of both
the song and its translation:
Akul oo! [Fellow] clans oo!
Akul oo! [Fellow] clans oo!
Nyi a hemba se? What shall overcome us?
Se mba uhar tsô er Aôndu vea inya. We are two like God and the earth.
Huoo! Huoo! Anya oo! Huoo! Huoo! Anya oo!
Adeba ungwa ma ikyur i a hemba se Adeba hear: no other people would overcome us
ze ooo ooo.
What is happening in this song is that the occasion of the newborn is being used for
boasting by the persona. The baby has added to the number of the particular group
and since numerical strength was very appreciated in traditional times (Achebe,
Things 143), the present group is celebrating this addition to their number. So the
song calls on the other clans in the same district and indulgently asks exultingly,
"What would overcome us?” This is actually a rhetorical question pointing out that
nothing can overcome the addressees since newborns are frequently added to their

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number. This district would thus be unconquerable. Then a Tiv saying is
manipulated in line 4. The saying is, “Aôndu hemba Inya i cir”, which means, “God
is the greatest; next to Him is the Earth”. These words are usually sung in a dirge
and mean that it is God that gives life and it is God that decides when life should
end; after God‟s decision that life should end, the earth then receives the lifeless
body of the individual. Thus, God is the greatest; next to Him is the Earth. And
since the persona in the song is talking about their district being unconquerable, he
hyperbolically equates their greatness to that of God and the earth. But there is a
numerical hiccup in the metaphorical transfer because God and the Earth are two
while the clans of this district are more than that number. To solve the problem, the
poet-persona circles all the other clans of his district into one beside his particular
clan where the child is born. So the two-ness is achieved and the figure comes
through successfully. This is what is going on in the poem. And when this
explanation is taken into account and Downes‟ interpretation is considered, it would
be seen how little the colonial administrator understood the meaning of the song.
Another scholar who touched Tiv songs in what is regarded here as early
Western research was Rupert East who translated Akiga Sai‟s ethnological account
of the Tiv. Akiga was the first Tiv person to receive Western education. He worked
for the missionaries for quite some time and later participated in politics when it
came up in the 1950s. East translated his (Akiga‟s) manuscript into English as
Akiga‟s Story: The Tiv Tribe as Seen by One of Its Members. In translating the
book, he added a lot of his own commentary and annotations to it. Chapters are
frequently preceded with lengthy commentaries that are often very insightful but

99
sometimes unnecessary and erroneous. But few colonial writers, to my mind, have
demonstrated better understanding of the Tiv than East. Nor is there any that is
more academically exact in his commentary on the group. In the process of writing,
Akiga inevitably, repeatedly, put down some songs according to their relevance in
the aspect of Tiv life being discussed. Akiga‟s manuscript did not put these songs in
the verse form that should be the case but East rectified this in his translation. This
can be seen in the following example:
There have been four great men of this kind in Tivland: Gbayange of
Nongov, Ityevajir of Kunav, Ikeratar of Tombo, and Abaverijuwa of
Ukum. These four are the greatest that the Tiv have had…. They were
known as “The Masters of the Land who called upon Aondo [God]”.
Aondo hearkened to their voice…What they did was to set right the
land. When the land was becoming spoilt and no rain fell, the chief
brewed beer, all his group assembled, and there came also one of
these men who set right the land. He was clothed in the skin of a red-
flanked duiker…He stood up…Then he began to speak. As he spoke he
uttered the names of many things, and when he finished he sang:
“The Drum of the Dance I clasp to my breast”,
(Answer) “Hie!”
“From the Drum of Death I drew aside, that it may pass
by me, go down, and fall into the water.”
(Answer) “Hie!”
(East 232).

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On some occasions, East goes on to make some comments in a footnote on some
of the songs. The footnote for the song above says, “The dance drum is symbolic of
happiness. For the idea of evil flowing away on water, see p. 32”. Then, on that
page 32, there is an elaborate explanation of how Tiv rites of cleansing and healing
are performed beside the river so that the cleansed evil would flow away. This is
how detailed East is. The only problem is that even he is sometimes limited in his
understanding and explanation. For example, rather than explain that the drum of
dance in the above song is symbolic of happiness, he should have simply said the
song itself is symbolic of happiness. His explanation is somewhat less specific and
leaves the impression that only the drum of dance in the song bears the symbols of
happiness. Then what about the whole song itself? What is its symbolic import?
Well, East was just co-opted into discussing Tiv song by the dictates of the
ethnographical nature of what he was translating. It is therefore not too surprising
that he sometimes disregarded specificity in explaining some of the songs.
To draw the curtains on my review of the colonial scholarship on Tiv oral
poetry, it needs to be stated that while it is appreciable that these colonialists
collected Tiv poetry at all, it is a fact that their interpretations were inhibited by
both their inadequate knowledge of Tiv language and culture and their loyalty to
the colonial mission. Moreover, it is not that they set out to study Tiv oral poetry,
the research was therefore incidental to their other interests. This made it look as if
the oral poetry on its own did not merit research. What is more, since these
colonialists were hardly trained as oral literary researchers, the presentation of the
songs they collected was often prosaic rather than versified.

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2. 2. RECENT RESEARCH ON TIV ORAL POETRY
By recent research here is meant scholarly works that were done
immediately after that by earl Western scholars. It is not as if at this stage,
periodically speaking, Tiv oral poetry was no longer being studied due to interest in
some other aspect of Tiv life. That kind of research has its value and it will continue
to be undertaken by political scientists, historians, sociologists, ethnologists and
various other scholars. So Tyu Abeghe, while discussing the Tiv riots of the early
1960s found it necessary to briefly mention that:
If there was an inter-tribal war the Tiv sang a war song and fought to
the last man. This traditional war song “Nyian alu iku iyor a bam seo!
Hoon se kpe! hon se kpe” [sic] (should foreign aggressors attack us
today, we will all die[fighting]!) is forbidden to be sung when there is
only a mild clash and in our present time it is believed that this song
has been sung only twice, during the Makurdi chieftaincy riot of 1947
and during the Tiv riot of 1964. (15)
In addition, M. J. Dent, in his “Senator J. S. Tarka” has the following presentation:
This Tiv universalism, is enshrined in the words of the great song:
Hama tar hamma tar kpa ka tar wama
Orvana va kpa-a kpe
Or ya kpa-a kpe
Everywhere everywhere is my country;
dies the stranger, who comes to visit;

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and the householder he dies as well.
(i.e. since there is no difference in their deaths why should there be in
their lives?). (26)
And, only recently, Hembe referred to a number of Tiv songs in his J. S. Tarka: The
Dilemma of Ethnic Minority Politics in Nigeria. While discussing the Aliade battle
during the Tiv riots of the early 1960s, for example, he described the following
confrontation between the rioters and the police:
In this way, the police were made to exhaust their bullets. When
Tondo Agede [a rioting war General] became convinced that sufficient
shooting had taken place to deplete the bullets issued to the police, he
ordered his men to advance. As soon as the order was given, Agire
Hom started the “Chinchinba” song, and the Tondo Agede side started
charging; the police shot the remaining bullets they had….The Tondo
Agede forces pressed on and several policemen were killed, while the
rest were thrown into confusion. (emphasis added, 229)
That is to say that there will always be references to songs in the non-literary
research work on the Tiv. It is not even wise to continue pointing out the
professional shortcomings of such non-literary straying into Tiv oral poetry. What is
important is the fact that at a certain point in time, this kind of research stopped
being the only one carried out on the poetry as was the case in earlier times. In
modern time, researchers were out in the field working exclusively on Tiv oral
poetry.

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Two developments can be noticed at this stage of Tiv oral poetic scholarship.
First, Tiv oral poetry (and related topics like music, dance, folk theatre etc) is
generally approached with a view to investigating particular issues in it; and
secondly, some scholars take up specific Tiv poets and study their artistry and
themes. These two approaches shall now be more expansively considered one after
another.
2.2.1. General Research Works on Tiv Oral Poetry
Charles Keil is one of the earliest modern researchers on Tiv song who can
be categorized under this group. Keil read about the Tiv in the works of the
Bohannans and decided to come from America to carry out fieldwork on the group
for his ethno-musicological dissertation. This was in 1965. The research resulted in
his publication of Tiv Song, the book which became the earliest complete work on
the subject of Tiv oral poetry. Even though Keil‟s attention was basically on ethno-
musicology, at least two of the chapters in the book pay sufficient attention to Tiv
oral poetry. These are, Chapters two (entitled “Song in the Tiv Imagination”) and
three (entitled “Tiv Composers”). Chapter one (“Tiv Music Terminology”) is also
often relevant to the discussion of Tiv oral poetry 1 . But apart from discussing
prominent Tiv poets of the 1960s and earlier times (which is the focus of his
chapter three), Keil has also paid satisfactory attention to the place of songs in the
life of the Tiv in Chapter Two. A researcher of his background working on such a
distant culture within such a limited period of time (the Nigerian Civil War disrupted
his fieldwork) could hardly have done better.

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Of course the work has its weaknesses but these do not destroy its overall
significance. Besides, some of the shortcomings are necessitated by the focus of the
researcher; he was not out for a literary study of Tiv songs. Moreover, his focus was
not just Tiv poetry but the song art generally (that is, instrumental music inclusive).
Due to this focus, there is hardly any detailed analysis of any of the many songs
contained in the book. Other deficiencies in Keil‟s work result from the wrong
information supplied to him by his respondents. One such piece of misinformation is
the presentation of Ikyaater Uge (whose name he spelt without the initial “I”), the
great Nyipa poet, as an indigene of Ukan district (122). Ikyaater is from Mbayiôn;
Ukan was only his maternal home where he stayed for a certain period. Another
example of a wrong piece of information in Keil is in the reference to Aindigh Cur
Benga as “once a prominent policeman in Gboko” (132). In fact, Aindigh was a civil
servant and later a schoolteacher in Gboko. But these defects are not serious at all
compared to the strengths of the book. More research work like the present one,
however, need to be done on Tiv oral poetry; research that focuses attention on
more Tiv composers and not the, comparatively, few numbers found in Keil.
Additionally, it is very necessary that other aspects of Tiv oral poetry be
investigated – aspects like the literary appropriateness of the renditions which is the
concern of this study.
A recent researcher on general Tiv oral poetry is Iyorwuese Hagher. His
earliest work, “Performance in Tiv Oral Poetry” (37 – 56), promises much with its
title but the promises are not satisfactorily fulfilled by the content. In the first place,
Hagher‟s definition of oral poetry seems too broad. It includes riddles and proverbs!

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Of course, there are certain poetic properties in some proverbs and some riddles,
but to classify these forms categorically as poetry is like classifying prose as poetry
just because some portions of prose contain the poetic. The taxonomic confusion in
this essay is further compounded by the discussion of tongue-twisters as riddles.
Besides these deficiencies, however, Hagher must be appreciated for the properly
versified presentation of the song texts he has quoted.
The other commentary by Hagher on Tiv songs is in his curiously titled The
Kwagh-hir Theatre (A Metaphor of Resistance) which is actually an updated version
of his The Tiv Kwagh-hir: A Popular Nigerian Puppet Theatre. His obvious concern in
this book is to comment on the Kwagh-hir Puppet Theatre of the Tiv. But to do this,
he must necessarily, discuss songs because of their integral function in that theatre.
The discussion of songs here is different from that done by colonial researchers
because poetry is an integral part of the discourse, not just an appendage. Thus, it
is impossible to discuss the Puppet Theatre without considering the role of songs
therein; for, without songs, the theatre itself would be nonexistent. So it was
inevitable for Hagher not to include songs as a necessary aspect of his discourse.
In appreciating the songs, Hagher has paid attention to their generally
functional role among the Tiv. He has picked on the subject of resistance and
demonstrated how a Tiv oral poet responded to
a contemporary historical crisis in the Tiv political life, when the Tiv
became victims of near-genocide which climaxed on 20 – 23rd (sic)
October 2001, when the Nigerian army, invaded Tivland in the
Sankera-East Tiv area and burnt down Zaki-Biam town (Metaphor 87).

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Then, he has also shown the prominence of songs in dance generally before
centring on the role of songs in the Kwagh-hir Puppet Theatre. His discourse is
useful even though it is bedevilled by what looks like carelessness and unnecessary
haste. For example, what makes certain songs to be given the big name of “sung
epics” is said to be simply “convenience” (Metaphor 86). The several questions this
nomenclatorial venture raises seem not to bother Hagher at all. What is more, in
some places, the authorial background of some songs is not only forgotten, the
songs are, additionally, presented as though they have no authors. A painful case is
that of Yanmuel Yashi‟s very appropriately popular song, part of which Hagher
mutilates (the first line should read, “Ngueren Tiôn Ala”, not Hagher‟s “Wanter”)
before quoting the whole song and making it seem as if the song is just one of
“hundreds of funeral dances with their [anonymous] songs” (Metaphor 75).
Yanmuel, though dead, is not such an obscure poet whose songs could be
presented in such a short time after his death only in 1991 without due
acknowledgement. Moreover, Jenkwe has collected and documented the songs
(including the one quoted by Hagher) in two very useful books: Yanmoel Yashi: A
Study of Tiv Oral Poetry and Yanmoel Yashi‟s Songs in Translation. The authorship
of the song Hagher quoted is, thus, not a hidden fact; it is therefore improper that
he used the song as though it was of unknown authorship.
Peter Atuu appears more careful in his, albeit, general study of Tiv oral
poetry. His “Folk Music and Politics among the Tiv” meticulously documents selected
pieces from the corpus of Bam Ginde, one of the most influential Tiv bards.
Selections include the songs that Bam performed relating to the Makurdi war of

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1947 and the Tiv riots of the early 1960s. The scholar has also referred to songs
attached to particular dances like ceegh (sic) (44) as well as songs of a specific
classification like koloso (43). He has also quoted some anonymous songs too;
there is clear evidence that anonymous presentation of songs here is not due to
carelessness but due to genuine authorial anonymity. On the whole, the aim is to
demonstrate the utility of songs in Tiv politics, especially between the 1940s and
1960s. This limitation of topic, time and space ends up being the major shortcoming
of Atuu.
Mbaiver Nyitse and Godwin Yina had more space and time but their research
works suffered from that generality that is the main problem of all the scholars of
Tiv oral poetry being discussed under this heading. Nyitse‟s “An Analysis of Songs
as Aspects of Tiv Music” is a work that would have been better appreciated if it was
based on a particular Tiv poet. The assessment of Tiv oral poetry based on a
random selection of song texts from assorted poets yields a general rather than
concentrated satisfaction. Yina‟s “Poetry as Discourse: A Semiotic Analysis of Tiv
Oral Poetry” ventures into a virgin aspect of Tiv oral poetic research and for this he
deserves to be commended. But again, rather than focus his study on a
representative poet and thus achieve greater particularity, he generalized the study
to all of Tiv poetry.
There are several other scholars who have taken this general route in their
approach to Tiv oral poetry. Akosu Adeiyongo‟s otherwise invaluable “The Form
and Content of Tiv Panegyric and Elegiac Poetry”, for instance, has the panegyric
and elegiac as the specific kinds of poetry researched on but as to the poets

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studied, the specificity slackens such that anonymous poets are considered along
with Youghul (sic) Ute, Tarker Golozo, Kuje Iyum, Anula Gyado and Obadiah Orkor.
But Isaac Yongo‟s on-going research on “An Investigation of Rhetorical Devices in
Tiv Song” is an even more surprising example – more surprising because of its
recentness. Perhaps in earlier times (like 1983 when Adeiyongo carried out his
study), it was understandable to embrace some form of generality since it was the
pioneering stage of research on Tiv oral poetry. But Tiv oral poetic studies should
mature beyond such a generalizing complacent approach. 2 If a census of Tiv oral
poets is conducted, it would be discovered that they are so numerous that scholarly
justice will not be done to them if they continue to be discussed generally.
No census has ever been done of Tiv oral poets, but Charles Keil has
provided useful estimates based on his experience in the field. He submitted that at
the time of his research, “probably well over 1, 000” composers were living in
Tivland (100). Though his stay was brief and his fieldwork self-confessedly less
thorough (1), he has maintained that he had “well over 450 composers in my field
notes” (100). In his estimation, there was “roughly 1 composer to every 750 to 1,
000 Tiv”. The Tiv were about a million at that time; now that the 1991 population
census placed their population at an arguable 2.5 million, going by Keil‟s estimate of
a poet per 750 – 1000 people, there should be about 2, 500 poets living in Tivland.
Yet, those are just the ones living. How about those who are already dead but
whose poems very much deserve research attention? The dead composers from
Aginde Agena to Bosua Uga to Anande Amende and numerous others number in
more thousands. It would therefore not be thorough research to just leave all these

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poets at one‟s disposal when carrying out research. That is why it is more
academically proper for scholars of Tiv oral poetry nowadays to narrow the scope of
their research works to particular poets or regions or periods or even classifications.
There are several other works which fall under this category of Tiv oral
literary scholarship. For example, there is Gbilekaa‟s “Tiv Popular Music and Dance:
Myth and Reality”, Igoil‟s “Tiv Music and Social Control”, Shoja and Ukeli‟s “The
Contributions of Tiv Oral Poetry to National Development”. But there is no need
discussing all of these since the point of the works‟ limitations has already been
made.
2.2.2. Research Works on Specific Tiv Poets
Of the scholars who have appropriately narrowed their studies down to
specific Tiv poets, Hyacinth Kyaagba is the earliest known instance. His “The Tiv
Popular Song: Two Case Studies” studies Tarker Golozo and Iyough Ute. As
expected, the work is thorough in its focus on these two poets. The biographical
data of the composers is carefully provided and has proven quite useful in
understanding some renditions by the artists. Helpfully detailed biographical entries
of this nature are unavailable in the works of scholars who took the general route to
the study of Tiv oral poetry discussed above, hence my observation about their lack
of desirable details. Kyaagba also conducted very informative interviews with the
poets and included these in the appendices to his work.
It is, however, in the discussion of these poets‟ renderings that Kyaagba
deserves the warmest appreciation. The literary devices at work in the poems are
well discussed with due attention given to their cultural significance. This is the best

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way to approach Tiv oral poetry. Even though thematic considerations predominate
the work, the present research could hardly have been necessary if Amee Ijôrpo
was among the poets of Kyaagba‟s study.
Next to Kyaagba is Apegba Ker‟s Tiv Poetry and Politics: A Study of Tarker
Golozo. Ker has also not only narrowed his research down to a particular artist but
has also narrowed it further to a particular subject in that artist. Thus the subject of
politics is investigated in the poems and some amount of appreciation is also done
on the poet‟s artistry. The biographical information on the artist and some words on
the culture in which he performed are very useful contextual background. The
researcher could, however, have dwelt more on Golozo‟s artistry.
There is also Toryima Jenkwe. This scholar too has appropriately hinged his
research on a particular Tiv poet. Moreover, he always gives both the Tiv and the
English versions of the songs of his study. This is very helpful in understanding the
artist. But Jenkwe‟s Yanmoel Yashi: A Study of Tiv Oral Poetry could have been
better titled as Yanmoel Yashi: A Thematic Study of Tiv Oral Poetry. For, that is
exactly what Jenkwe has done in the book. Even though his choice of narrowing
down his research on a particular Tiv poet is appropriate, his concentration on
themes has left out something desirable. Jenkwe has, for example, provided no
biography of Yanmuel so nobody knows where Yanmoel comes from. Biographical
information is generally important but especially in oral literature; this is because it
often helps to construct the context of the artist‟s performance which is useful in
comprehending his lays. Atuu‟s prefatory tribute to the poet in the book has helped
solve some of the problems the absence of biographical data has created. Still, not

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all the problems are solved. Moreover, Jenkwe has hardly paid any attention to
Yanmuel‟s artistic wealth. So in the end, the reader seems to have a very slim book
(38 pages altogether) with even slimmer contents. For, even the themes that it
appears the scholar has set out to discuss are too few for comfort, and too
inexhaustive. This research is also blameable on grounds of carelessness. There are
alarming spelling inconsistencies in the Tiv versions of the songs studied. These
same spelling inconsistencies manifest even in Yanmoel Yashi‟s Songs in
Translation, the other book that Jenkwe authored on this poet.
Another scholar who worked on a specific Tiv oral artist is Za-Ayem Agye. In
“Tone and Emotional Instigation in Singing: Obadia Kehemen Orkor‟s Laments”,
Agye draws attention to the emotive contents of Obadiah‟s poetry while
commenting at the same time on the composer‟s place in the Tiv oral poetic matrix.
This study too is too thematically based; moreover its thesis is established on too
few songs (only four).
There are also other works (like Shirga‟s “The Lament Motif in Obadia
Kehemen Orkor‟s Songs”) that fall under the category of specific work on Tiv oral
poets but I will not discuss them here because the point has been made with the
instances already considered. What, it is hoped, has been achieved is the sufficient
accumulation of illustrations to demonstrate that the research carried out on specific
poets among the Tiv so far has been mostly thematic in nature. That is to say, the
criticism has been functionally tilted. Nyitse has corroborated this thus: “Among
[the] various approaches …the functionalist is the one most favoured by scholars of
Tiv orature” (3). Isaac Yongo has made a similar observation: “A few studies …that

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have come to our attention have concerned themselves mainly with thematic
analysis of selected singers/composers” (“Rhetorical Devices” 2). Also, Izevbaye,
discussing this kind of criticism generally, regarded it as the referential approach
(29) and went ahead to rightly point out that African literature would lose greatly if
we “let the referential nature of literary works becloud critical judgment” (30). The
obsession with themes is understandable because themes are actually important
especially in Tiv oral pieces. However, to keep circling around thematics will
certainly lead to critical sterility. Of course, often, even these thematically biased
studies veer into a discussion of artistry, but since this is usually hardly their main
focus, such veering inevitably ends up not being thorough enough.
The artistry of Tiv oral poetry has thus continued to receive undeservedly
poor attention. Even where some scholars dwell specifically on it in a poet, it is
usually within a space too limited to be satisfactory. There is therefore the need to
not only dwell specifically on individual poets, but also to move away from purely
thematic considerations to matters of artistry in spatially more advantageous
research works like the present one.
2. 3. RESEARCH WORK ON AMEE IJÔRPO
Amee Ijôrpo, the poet of this study provides a good illustration of a common
fact among the Tiv where profoundly artistic literary creations have not been given
the scholarly attention they deserve. For all the quality and quantity of Amee‟s
poems, it is only lyortyange Igoil that has researched on him. Even Igoil‟s attention,
a basically sociological one, was aimed at observing just the cultural contents of the
poet‟s renditions. Moreover, this has been done while considering seven other Tiv

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poets and thirty-two Tiv dances at the same time. In such a crowded study, Igoil‟s
good intentions have not been as fulfilled as they would have been, had he dwelt
on Amee Ijôrpo alone.
Despite Igoil‟s obvious limitations, he was able to do a work on the poet that
was good enough within his boundaries. He started by trying to observe the various
views on how Amee began to compose. About this, he interviewed the poet and
quoted him concerning the beginning of his career. Igoil then briefly assessed the
views of others about the genesis of the poet‟s composing profession, but he finally
stopped short of drawing a conclusion about the issue. In his words:
At this level of the present study, this writer is not interested in
attempting to propose theories about the process of the composition
of songs so as to offer possible explanations of what happened to
Amee. The main interest is to state the facts about the beginning of
his career as conceived and perceived by him and by other people
within his community. (“Cultural Aspects” 330 – 31)
Thus, Igoil abandoned pursuing how Amee came to be a composer and proceeded
to rather investigate what he called “the dominant symbolism” (331) in the poet‟s
composition – cultural symbolism of course. This direction of discussion was more
relevant to Igoil whose research was “The Cultural Aspects of Tiv Music: A
Perspective of the Musical Activity as a Ritual Behaviour”. It was therefore proper
for him to prefer dwelling on cultural symbolism in Amee because that way, he
could pick out the necessary cultural indices to establish his thesis.

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In discussing symbolism in Amee, Igoil first of all, creatively went into
commenting on the poet‟s poetics generally. He said, “He sings entirely through an
arrangement of well-thought-out images laboriously assembled together and knit
into a very special pattern” (“Cultural Aspects” 331). Then he appreciated Amee‟s
diction very briefly noting a few foreign borrowings and archaisms therein. Igoil
next focused extensively on the manipulation of Tiv folklore materials by the poet.
Some of the popular folktales Amee has used in his songs, as well as popular
sayings and belief systems, are analyzed. The Tiv religious system is specifically
dwelt on with attention paid to the poet‟s reference and concern with tsav and ityô
in his poems. This way, Igoil comments abundantly on the cultural relevance of
Amee‟s symbols and imagery. Beside this, no other researcher has considered the
poetry of Amee.
Of the suitability of the present research, it must be hereby submitted that
apart from being based on a particular Tiv poet (and so certain to be more
thorough), the study‟s purely literary approach diametrically differs from the
basically thematic concerns of some of the scholars who, though they also studied
particular artists, hardly explored extra-thematic poetics in their studies. Even Igoil
who dwelt on Amee was hampered by space as maintained above. What is more,
his concerns with the poet were only with the cultural relevance of his imagery.
That is very different from the present focus on this composer. This study is
investigating basically the poet‟s literary abilities as they showed in various aspects
of his art.

2.3. METHODOLOGY
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The general methodology of oral literary research is fieldwork collections and
interviews followed by transcription, translation; then, the analysis of collected data
based on the interest of the researcher. That is the same methodology adopted for
the present study. The field work I carried out was to go in quest of his recorded
performance. The collection of Amee‟s audio recording was embarked upon because
since he was no longer alive I could not observe him in performance. What then
served as my fieldwork on him and his songs was the quest I made of his recorded
performance. Getting the surviving tapes and records was not as easy as I had
envisaged; I went from one dealer in oral literary tapes to another without success
till I was directed to Mr. Gbahakon Ikyaabo, a Gboko-based collector of the records
of Tiv oral poets. Ikyaabo accepted to help me and gave me a date when to come. I
paid him the amount of money we agreed upon and returned on the appointed day
and he handed the tapes to me. To make up slightly for not meeting Amee, I
recorded the performance of Tsegba Bede, the only surviving assistant of the poet,
who accepted to perform for me some of the songs that he remembered. I then
transcribed and translated all the songs I obtained so that they could generally be
preserved in print. The Tiv transcriptions are in Appendix A while the English
translations are in Appendix B. Each new song is designated in its numerical
chronology; and each of the numbers is preceded with the initials AI which stand
for Amee Ijôrpo. Even though many of the songs are given title according to its
predominant theme, some songs are simply entitled after their first lines. The song
number (for instance AI 23) is provided directly under which the title is provided

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(for instance “Elegy for Many Patrons”). Altogether, ninety-four poems have been
collected, transcribed, translated and analyzed 3 . The transcriptions and translations
are presented in verse form using the pause-points of the poet as line divisions.
Also the translation of the songs has been deliberately aimed at forcing the
English language to follow the linguistic habits of Tiv language in which the poems
were originally composed. The translations are therefore not rendered in “pure”
English. I have been encouraged to do so by the submissions of African writers on
the English language and the need to domesticate it. It is common knowledge that
writers of Africa (especially Achebe, Okara in The Voice, Mazisi Kunene, Okot
p‟Bitek, etc) have no interest in deploying the English language as done by native
speakers and writers. They believe in using the language in such a way that it
behaves like their African languages; this means they sometimes resort to
transliterations to achieve their goal – only making sure that the language is not
pushed to a point where it loses its international mutual intelligibility. In the
translations here transliteration has often been deliberately indulged. The intention
all along is to ensure that the poet‟s Tiv authenticity of thought and speech patterns
is safeguarded. What has particularly encouraged this approach is Cyprian Ekwensi‟s
criticism of Egudu‟s The Calabash of Wisdom as quoted by Ukala:
What is missing is…the authentic ring of the Igbo coming through the
English. Foreign symbols and imagery abound. “Gentlemen” is the
word used on page 37 by Tortoise when addressing the animals,
which are really Ibeanyi – i. e. “My colleagues” or “My friends” or
simply “Fellow animals”. “He had a real problem” (P. 139) is American,

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not Igbo. And would the Dog present God with a “memorandum” of
death? (P. 5). A memorandum is a short note written as a reminder,
usually in a business office, and has no place in Igbo traditional life.
(288)
I have thus strived in the translation to avoid English expressions that are too
distant to Tiv culture on the one hand, and to employ English words and phrases
that clearly demonstrate Tiv indebtedness. This “Tivification” of the English
language is my own suggestion of how the colonial language may itself be
colonized. What needs to also be mentioned is the fact that Amee‟s narrative style
was often very cryptic; to help lessen the difficulty of this cryptic style, the
translations have often been sandwiched with comments or pieces of information
that are capable of shedding some light on the lines. Such comments and additional
pieces of information are usually placed in square brackets.
As a last word on methodology, interviews were conducted in the field with
Amee Ijôrpo‟s song patrons, contemporaries, friends and family members. These
interviews form the oral critical materials that have helped this researcher in the
interpretation of the poems.

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CHAPTER THREE
ASPECTS OF AMEE'S POETRY
The word “aspects” has bee used in this study to denote the major
components of a poem – whether oral or written. An early understanding of these
components is necessary for a better comprehension of the artistry of Amee Ijôrpo,
the subject of this research.
The aspects of a poem are: the speaker, the addressee, the setting, and the
subject(s) and theme(s) in the poem. It is these aspects that critics usually consider
when appreciating a poem. Of course, there are various other issues to consider in
approaching a poem. Vivion Smith for example, regards these aspects as "parts of a
poem" and lists them as follows: "speaker, audience, subject, tone, theme, diction,
imagery, figures of speech, sound [and] rhythm" (3). Some of these components
such as diction, imagery, and figures of speech have been discussed in chapters five
and six. At present, only the five components of speaker, addressee, setting, and
subject(s) and theme(s) shall be considered. As stated above, the comprehension of
these aspects in the poems of Amee would form a good foundation for a more
rewarding discussion of his artistry, which is the main subject of this thesis.
Moreover, it is a fact that even in the creation and utilization of these aspects, the
composer has exhibited his tact as an artist.
3.1. THE SPEAKER IN THE POEMS
This is the created narrative voice of a poem. The speaker is the person that,
in Vivion Smith's words, "the reader is supposed to imagine is talking" (3). With
written poetry, however, the speaker of the poem is not necessarily the poet. In

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other words, the "I" in the poem is not always autobiographical; it is usually only an
artistic mask. For instance, according to Kerry Durrill, Robert Frost's poetry "is so
commonly misinterpreted because he is mistaken for the speaker, or rather, his
peaceful, nature-loving persona is mistaken for the speaker" (3). In fact, Frost was
very frustrated about this regarding his readers. To William G. O'Donnell, the poet is
reported to have once said concerning one of his poems that, "When I say 'I', I may
mean 'he', and when I say 'he', I may mean 'I'" (emphasis added, Durrill 3). Indeed,
written poetry generally can easily be misinterpreted when the poet is automatically
taken as the speaker in the renditions.
Pertaining oral poetry, however, the situation is slightly different especially
among the Tiv. In this society, many poets can often be heard quoting their songs
in discussions to buttress their points just like someone quoting from his earlier
essays to support his present position. That is to say, the artistic "I" is,
comparatively, not formally recognized in Tiv oral poetry; and perhaps in the poetry
of other oral societies as well. This, however, does not mean that Tiv composers
allow their poems to be limited by biographical facts. On the contrary, the poets,
more often than not, use their creative imagination to conjure scenes and images in
their pieces that are not factually true in the artist‟s life. In the poet chosen for this
study for instance, most of the scenes and images which he paints with himself as
the speaker in the poems are not biographical, but artistic facts. One good example
among the many in his poetry is when, in "Money Goes with Death" (Amee 65), the
speaker talks of his headway to death:
M saa ve ooo! I am lost ooo!

Ishima Zaki kpa ungwa ga M yemen ne; Even Ishima Zaki has not heard of it; see me going
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Me za kohol Mko shin inya. To meet Mko in the earth. Atôndu Tiôn
Atôndu Tiôn,
Nenge a mo hen gbenda kpaa kavem ga Saw me on the road but could not recognize me;
M wuha iyol kuugh M bee cica cii. [I] was already completely garbed in death's
gear (Lines 7 – 12).
The information presented here is not scientifically factual; it is only artistic. The
poet was not literally dying as stated in the quotation. Thus, the "I" of the
narration, just like the "I" of the poet in the writing tradition, is not biographical.
There are many of such examples in Amee's poetry. To consider just one more
instance, Amee 19: 1- 5 says:
Imo hingir kpenga mba mase gberen aagar Song has become business! See how they sing
aagar oo! it in every village oo!
M vôr a imo ve ee; I am tired of singing ee
Imo kpa mba we ka kwaghfan Igyohia, Song is composed in accordance with wisdom,
Butu Ikyamgba Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
Ande Kwagh aoo! Ande Kwagh aoo!
M va kpa M ngu sha gbenda; I have come but am at the precincts of the
compound;
Ior mba fe iyou ki dion sha mende. People recognise the good yam by its tendril.
In actual fact, Amee the man was not at any point a guest at any song-feast event
where the arena was so filled with performers that he had to hang out at the
precincts of the venue of the occasion. The “I” used by the poet here is therefore
artistic. The point being emphasised is that although there is no purely artistic
speaker in Amee‟s poetry, the speaker is not necessarily completely biographical
either, thus he often resorts to the employment of artistic facts in his renderings.

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Indeed, sometimes, the “I” in the poems even refers to the society as a whole. It is
necessary to be aware of this because it does not just increase the appreciation of
the artistry of Tiv poetry especially that of Amee, it also demonstrates the fact that
the gap between oral and written poetries is not as abysmal as some would want it
to be. Indeed, according to Finnegan, such a gap is actually non-existent (Oral
Poetry 2).
3.2. THE ADDRESSEE IN THE POEMS
Traditional African poetry is often addressed to someone. Thus, in his
introduction to p'Bitek's Song of Lawino, G.A. Heron says, "Lawino addresses herself
to someone, for example, 'Husband'...'my clansmen'...'Brother'...This form of
address is a rhetorical device taken from Acoli oral literature" (6). Tiv oral literature
too employs this device and the poet of this study always addresses himself to
people. It needs to be stated that generally Tiv composers address themselves to
the whole ethnic group. In Amee, this pan-Tiv gesture is found in Amee 1 (lines 1-
4) where the poet said:
Mo lu van oo, I will be coming oo!
Zenda Agagu a kaa Wan u Mbatyula, Zenda Agagu should tell Daughter of Mbatyula,
M va ve Doowuan Nyajo I have come Doowuan Nyajo.
Tiv mba kohol aya; The Tiv are gathering their aya tried yam
tendrils [in readiness for rainy season];
Here, the poet has addressed himself to Tiv land as clearly shown in line 4. The
same address in found in Amee 9: 3- 7 which say:
Ka M ôr kwagh, I do jest [for]
Ior i ma amine kpa orti kôr venda; People [to] drink amine millet beer [and laugh over it] but
the man has refused it

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now;
Ka M ôr kwagh, I do make fun,
Tiv ve ger ahan he‟ tashi beel kpa The Tiv burst into laughter at drinking joints but the
orti kôr venda: man has refused it now.
Or kera se he‟ tashi ga ee. Nobody laughs at drinking joints again ee.
Line 6 in the above instance again demonstrates Amee‟s pan-Tiv address. More of
such instances are available in Amee 12, 14, 20, 21, 22, 28, 32, 34, 60, 94 and so
on and so forth. In these songs, he, at certain points, specifically directs his address
to the whole ethnic group. But even those poets who do not make explicit mention
of their addressees actually have the whole ethnic group in mind when they
compose and perform their songs. The pan-Tiv address is usually implied. That fact
notwithstanding, poets like Amee often go on and specifically call the ethnic group
by name.
It is, however, not just the Tiv that this bard and indeed Tiv bards generally,
address. Their main aim is to address the whole world by addressing that part of
the world that is within their reach. For instance, when Amee says in one of his
poems that: "Kina Shondu is no more; Adega of Orbiam too [is not around]/This is
how they would have seen the world at Ikyuravtiev [district]" (Amee 67:1 and 2),
he is demonstrating that universal vision of Tiv oral poets that is being argued here.
Amee‟s poems are replete with such references. It would therefore be incorrect to
suppose that Tiv poets limit themselves to their immediate environment of Tivland.
In fact, at certain points, the composer of this study actually mentions "Benue"
(Amee 28) and "Nigeria" (Amee 11). This shows that he was not blind to the world
outside his ethnic group.

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It is needful, additionally, to point out that while this poet has such a
universal view of his audience, he also needs individuals who would be his specific
patrons. There need be people that he, as a professional, can rely on for his
sustenance. Thus, he also addresses himself to these patrons. He addresses them
even more often than he does the world around him. In his renditions, the names
of such patrons are almost always used to open the poems. Thus, many of the
poems open with Kwaghbula Azege (sometimes shortened as 'Bula Azege, or
Kwa'bula Azege), Kina Shondu, Dajo Pav, Ishima Tsofo, Ande Kwagh (sometimes
simply called Kwagh). Even if a poem opens with a patron‟s name or it does not, all
through the poem, patrons' names form an important aspect of its framework. The
interesting usage of patrons‟ names in Amee is discussed more extensively in the
section on onomastics in Chapter Five. It is therefore sufficient at this point to just
state that apart from addressing the world and his ethnic group, the poet also
addresses himself to individual patrons.
Concerning his address to individual patrons, an inventory of the poems
collected here shows that the poet has major and minor addressees. This is usual;
every Tiv poet has all-time patrons and part-time ones which is what is meant by
the major and minor patrons. In other words, there are consistent patrons and
occasional ones. What determines the poet‟s consistent address of a patron is the
patron's commitment. If he /she does not show sufficient interest, the poet drops
him. Interest is shown through rewards; but where a patron has no rewards,
respectful treatment of the poet is sometimes enough to sustain the bard's
continuous address. Amee summarised this when he said, "money finishes, it is man

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that does not finish" (Amee 1:76; 67: 10). That means material rewards are
transient; it is mutual respect and regard that last. In fact, there are other instances
that this poet, with admirable artistry, actually downplays money and material gifts.
Illustration: "I have therefore come to let you know, Zaki; it is not a money matter
that I have come for/[But] if the Chief gives it to me, I would nonetheless collect"
(Amee 78: 9 and 10, Amee 1: 7 and 8). Tiv poets therefore do not insist on material
rewards as a sine qua non for their patronage. What they hate is a situation where
some of their patrons, thinking otherwise, begin to keep away from them because
they (the patrons) have no material rewards. Amee for instance, told one of his
patrons who seemed to be avoiding the composer for this reason that:
Ican ka angev ga; Poverty is not a disease;
A lu u nenge a mo de sena yeren ga; If you see me do not hide;
Va ikyua vea mo Do come near me
Man a saan se iyol ye oo... And we will both be excited oo... (Amee 15: 31 – 34).
The poet is telling the patron in question, albeit in a mock-peaceful fashion, not to
be keeping away from him just because he (the poet) is a poor person. His
argument is that poverty is not a communicable disease that can be transmitted to
another person by interaction. The lines stress the inherent value of poets and
patrons relating with each other even when rewards are not available. This is in
keeping with the Tiv philosophy that, much as material gifts have their place,
human relationship is more important.
On the whole, every Amee poem has its main patrons and its minor ones.
But here too, there is a clarification that needs to be made. Some of the people who
are major addressees in some of the songs, are actually minor ones when the whole
corpus is considered. For instance, Angwe Asen Ahura is an important patron in

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Amee 82 and 84, yet these are the only places that he has been mentioned in all
the 94 poems studied here. Nenger Utim too is the main addressee in Amee 45,
still, he appears only twice in all 94 poems – in that poem and in Amee 91.
Conversely, Julius Gbabo (sometimes shortened as J. Gbabo or Gbabo) is not a
major patron in any poem but is mentioned quite frequently. His name has been
mentioned for 38 times, which places him second to Atôndu Tiôn who appears 39
times in the poems. Of course, it is not at all times that a patron is mentioned in a
song that the mention is an address. Yet frequency of mention sometimes gives an
idea about frequency of address; where this is not so, the patron in question is
usually not a major patron.
In Amee, however, frequency of mention alone is not enough to determine
the status of an addressee. A patron like Julius Gbabo is mentioned often but it is
for artistic purposes. His name is suitable as a filler to use where the poet seems to
have a rhythmic space. To know the true status of a patron therefore, there is the
need to consider not just the number of times he or she is mentioned but also in
what capacity – that is, whether he is actually addressed or merely mentioned as
the poet proceeds to discuss other matters. Though Julius Gbabo appears 38 times
in the poems, he is not a major addressee above people like Kwaghbula Azege
(mentioned 28 times), Ande Kwagh (mentioned 28 times), Tyôver Ninga
(mentioned 27 times) and many other patrons in the poems. This is because while
these other patrons are actually addressed, Gbabo is usually only mentioned in
passing. Going by this logic, it can be said that the patron who emerges as the main
addressee in Amee's poetry is Atôndu Tiôn. He is followed by Kwaghbula Azege and

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Ande Kwagh; there is Tyôver Ninga in the third position and Gôn Duku, Veunô Alya,
and Iorpande Caha – who are each mentioned 26 times 1 . As for Julius Gbabo, he is
only on the list of the minor addressees which, for purposes of convenience, I have
considered as containing people who have not been addressed or mentioned for up
to ten times in the renditions.
In a word therefore, if one is talking about individual poems, the issue of the
addressee would be dependent on the particular poem; when looking at all of
Amee's poetry, however, the people presented above occupy the addressee status
demonstrated. It should, however, not be forgotten that the poet, and Tiv poets
generally, have the whole world as their audience and addressee.
3.3. SETTING IN THE POEMS
Often, setting appears to be regarded as if it is a preserve of prose fiction
and drama. It may be true that setting is often discussed more with regard to prose
and drama than to poetry but it is certainly wrong to suppose that this element of
literature does not apply to poetry. Vivion Smith has, for instance, wrongly excluded
it in her list of "parts of a poem" (3). This is not right. As has been anonymously
submitted in a website of AMLit On-Line, "poetry shares many elements with its
sister genre, fiction...Often poetic elements of characterization, point of view, plot,
and setting are very similar to those of fiction" (emphasis added 1). It is therefore
wrong to suppose that setting does not have relevance in poetry. For illustration,
the role that setting plays in the beauty of poems like Matthew Arnold's "Dover
Beach" (Chace and Collier 413), Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess" (DiYanni 688
– 89) and Thomas Hardy's "Channel Firing" (Chace and Collier 436) is indisputable.

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There are indeed countless poems in which setting is the procedure by which
meaning is achieved. In oral literature, the importance of setting has been correctly
dwelt on by C. M. Bowra who dedicated a chapter of his seminal Heroic Poetry to
demonstrating the attention given to setting by poets of the heroic sub-genre (132
– 78). It must be quickly pointed out that it is not just heroic poetry that has such a
prominent place for setting, oral poetry generally often employs setting to achieve
its purposes 2 . In oral literary criticism, the setting is usually discussed as part of the
context of performance. Context has been agreed upon as indispensable in
appreciating oral poetry. Bronislaw Malinowski said it well when he submitted that:
"text, of course, is extremely important, but without the context, it remains lifeless"
(qtd. in Okpewho, Oral Performance 1). Malinowski was therefore of the correct
conviction that to understand the oral literature of any group, it was better to
understand their culture, their environment, their worldview. He continued that,
The performance...has to be placed in its time-setting – the hour of
the day, and the season, with the background of the sprouting
gardens awaiting future work...We must also bear in mind the
sociological context...the sociable function and the cultural role...All
these elements are equally relevant; all must be studied as well as the
text. The [oral literary] materials live in native life and not on paper,
and when a scholar jots them down without being able to evoke the
atmosphere in which they flourish he has given us but a mutilated bit
of reality. (qtd. in Okpewho, Oral Performance 1)

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That is the fact about the place of setting (context) in oral literary studies. That is
why no matter how hard any researcher strives, there is no way that the setting of
an oral literary piece can totally be captured on paper. This is one area that is
commonly known to be the common problem of oral literary study. The relevance of
setting in oral poetry is, however, not in doubt at all.
In other words, the best way to fully appreciate oral poetry is not by looking
at its text reproduced on paper. It is by being present at the actual performance,
and by fully understanding the cultural, linguistic, religious and sociological
background of the performance. Since this is, however, usually not possible, it is
therefore often necessary to try to make the best use of the available option of
putting the context down on paper. The section in Chapter One dealing with the Tiv
generally is meant to serve this purpose. At least it summarizes the background of
the Tiv in a manner that should aid the comprehension of these poems.
Apart from the general setting which has more to do with the context of
performance, there is, moreover, specific setting which has to do with the
immediate locale of the action in each poem. For example, the general setting, that
is, the context of Amee's poetry is Tivland; but the action in individual poems may
take place in different locations of that general context. Some of the poems, for
instance, contain actions that are presented as taking place in the compounds of
the poet's patrons. Even in such compounds, the actions take place specifically in
the tembe courtyards of the compounds. In "Kwaor Akosho's Song-party" (Amee
67), for example, even though there are a lot of other sandwiched pieces of
information in the poem (which is vintage Amee), it is understandable in lines 3, 4,

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13 and 14 as well as 31 and 32 that the poem is set in the compound of Chief
Kwaor Akosho.
There are many other poems (like Amee 68) which are set in the compounds
of patrons. Sometimes, the occasion is a song-party (which may just be contrived
by the poet, and not in fact); at other times, the occasion is a mourning ceremony,
or just an imôngu-teman socialization visit. Apart from Amee 67, other poems that
fall in this setting category (of patrons‟ compounds) are Amee 1, 2, 3, 5, 9. 11, 12,
20, 21, 22, 24, 26,27, 37, 39, 41, 45, 46, 47, 53, 59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69, 72, 75,
79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 90, 91, and 94. Of course, sometimes, the setting begins in one
place but moves to another. In Amee 20, for illustration, the setting is initially in
Iordyem's compound (Line 8). But in line 13, the poet-persona leaves the
compound and is on his way; from here, the setting is no longer identifiable. This
particular song thus illustrates two facts about immediate setting in Amee‟s songs.
First, it demonstrates the fact that some songs have multiple settings (Amee 8, 21,
30, 34, 40, 44, 48, 60 etc); and second, it shows that setting is unspecified in some
of the songs (Amee 4, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 42, 43, 49, 50,
51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 63, 65, 70, 76, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, and 93).
Then some of the poems, additionally, are set in the compound of the poet –
persona himself. Amee 6, 7, 10, 13, 18, 33, 38, 57, 71, 73, 77, 78 are some of the
examples. A few of the songs, however, have scenes that take place on the road
(Amee 45 and 36 for example), or even in the market (Amee 52 and 78). Indeed,
there is no limitation to setting in Amee's poems. There are often no clear-cut
distinctions either. Any effort at distinguishing setting here is therefore only aimed

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at providing an idea of the element in the compositions. The distinctions are thus,
not watertight at all. Often, what determines the placement of a particular song
under a particular kind of setting is the fact that elements of that particular kind of
setting predominates in the poem. Strictly speaking, it is difficult to find any Amee
poem confining itself to one setting from the beginning to the end. An acquaintance
with this eclecticism of setting at this point is helpful for a good understanding of
his art generally.
In summary, the setting in Amee is, generally Tivland; then specifically, it is
often either the compounds of patrons, at the poet‟s compound, markets, or even
the road. Most of the poems, additionally, have multiple setting covering all of the
contexts mentioned.
3.4. SUBJECTS AND THEMES IN THE POEMS
These two terms denote indispensable elements in the appreciation of
literature generally. Unfortunately, they are often confused. Philip V. Allingham said
that:
Junior secondary English students often tend to think of the theme of
a literary work as a single word, such as 'War,' 'Friendship,' or (at
best) a phrase such as the 'The anxieties of romantic love'. (1)
Really, it is not just junior secondary school students who make this mistake; these
terms are often listed carelessly as synonyms in many dictionaries. The web
dictionary, Dictionary.com is the nearest example of this that can be mentioned.
Obviously, there is a lay sense in which theme, subject, subject matter, and topic all

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share the same denotation. However, it is wrong to import that lay sense into
professional criticism. Theme and subject are not exactly the same.
A subject refers to the motif in a work and a theme is the general view of life
which that particular motif portrays. The differentiating marker is often correctly
given that: a subject can be stated in just a word or a phrase but to state a theme,
a complete sentence is needed. Illustration: Kwesi Brew's "The Mesh" (in Vincent
and Senanu 76) is clearly a poem on love. “Love” is thus the poem's subject. But
when the question of what the poem has said about the love subject is asked, the
answer becomes the theme of the poem. Thus, in "The Mesh", it can be further
observed on the subject of love that the poem says, “Continuous love does win over
every hurdle in its way” – that statement thus becomes the theme of the poem. So
to get the subject, the question to answer is: What is the poem about? To get the
theme, the question to answer is: what has the poem said concerning its subject?
Allingham thus quotes Laurence Perrine as defining theme as “the controlling idea
or its central insight. It is the unifying generalization about life stated or implied...To
derive the theme...we must ask what its central purpose is: what view of life it
supports or what insight into life it reveals” (2). Perrine, Allingham further quotes,
illustrates the concept of theme in this interesting joke: "Daughter, your young man
stays until a very late hour. Hasn't your mother said anything to you about this
habit of his?" "Yes, father. Mother says men haven't altered a bit" (2). Now,
Allingham commented that:

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Consider how many themes (or more properly, how many statements
of theme) we might generate if we each wrote down what we thought
the joke-teller was driving at:
A. As men grow older, they tend to grow more conservative.
B. Fathers of daughters are apprehensive about the kinds of young
men their daughters date.
C. Fathers tend to scold their children for doing the very things they
once did.
D. Women see men more clearly than men see themselves, and judge
them more accurately.
It is impossible to determine which of those remarks most accurately
reflects the intention...of the joke... [but] we recognize that all of the
above share certain features. (2)
Based on the above examples of themes, Allingham, then, goes on to provide the
features of a theme as follows:
i. Each is a statement, a complete sentence with subject and
predicate.
ii. Each accounts for the principal elements in the joke, the censorious
tone of the father and the witty rejoinder of the daughter.
iii. Each is less amusing and far more dry than the joke itself.
iv. Each statement is implied by the final line of the joke.
v. No details within the joke contradict any of the statements.

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vi. None of the statements relies upon details not furnished by the
joke itself.
vii. None of these statements is some familiar adage, proverb, or
gnomic remark.
viii. Each statement ratifies the opinions of teenage daughters about
their fathers! (2)
Looking at the foregoing, it is wrong to present the two terms of subject and
theme as if they were synonyms.
I have identified four subjects that run prominently throughout the corpus of
Amee‟s poetry for closer attention here. The four subjects are chosen basically for
my convenience. These are:
1. Praise of people (that is, his patrons; in other words, a panegyric subject.)
2. Lamentations and plea about the poet-persona's poverty (which is closely related
to the panegyric function; the patrons are often praised for their capability to save
the poet-persona from the distress of privation).
3. Elegiac subject (mourning for his patrons' deaths or the deaths of people related
to his patrons or important people in the society).
4. Didactic subject (which has to do with his role as societal adviser and educator).
Actually, none of these subjects is mutually exclusive. Most of the songs begin with
a particular subject, but soon change to another and another, and yet another –
sometimes, not returning to the initial subject at all. In fact, almost none of Amee's
poems depicts one subject from the beginning to the end. Thus in most of the
poems, all the four above-listed subjects could be present at the same time. But

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that is not what needs to be dwelt on here. This research therefore concerns itself
with picking each of those subjects and observing some of the themes emanating
from it in the pieces. The phrase "some of the themes" has been used because
even though it may be possible, it is not necessary to exhaust all the themes in
each subject within the limited space and time here; so only two themes shall be
observed under each subject.
3.4.1. The Panegyric Subject
Amee praises his patrons by painting pictures of the greatness such patrons
demonstrated in rewarding him when he met them. Such meetings are often on
purpose like in imôngu-teman socialization visits, or imo-mirin song-parties. But
some patrons are praised for meeting the poet-persona accidentally yet still treating
him well. In praising Mnder Cagh for instance, the poet-persona says, "Even when it
is on the road that he meets me, he spends a twenty on me" (Amee 36: 30); the
same is said of Gbamwuan Chief Kpen in Amee 84: 3. Twenty is the Tiv traditional
integer so saying somebody spends a twenty means he has given his best either
monetarily or materially. Of Anula Gbande Abege, the poet-persona says that the
patron "saw me passing at the road / [He] blocked the road that I will not pass..."
(Amee 45:14-18). That is, the patron happens to see the poet-persona heading to a
different destination and has blocked the way so that the bard would first come to
his (the patron‟s) house. The same picture is painted of Ioryem Ikyaave and
Michael Shazwa (Amee 78: 23 and 24, and Amee 93: 48 and 49) etc.
It is, however, for imo-mirin song-parties that the poet's panegyrics are most
creatively exhibited. This is the situation, for example, in Amee 1, 61, 62, 66, 67,

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68, 81, 89 etc. The artistry and rhetorical appeal of the poet's panegyrics shall be
discussed in greater detail in Chapter Five so at present, only some of the themes
that accrue from this subject need to be appreciated. Indeed there are various
themes concerning the subject of praise but as stated above, only two shall be
discussed. These are:
A. There are some people in whose presence we feel secure.
B. Whenever worthwhile people arrive anywhere, they cause respectful commotion.
There are some people in whose presence we feel secure
This theme is in keeping with the Tiv philosophy of life and is also pervasive
in Amee‟s poems. Indeed, it forms the pivot on which a good amount of his
panegyrics oscillate. The poet-persona often talks in glowing terms of his comfort in
the presence of some of his patrons. In Amee 1: 60 and 61 for example, he tells
Iorkyaa Aye that, "Since I have seen you, it is now time for me to sing my song".
That is to say, he is now secure to perform without fear of either harassment or
lack of rewards at the end of the rendition. The same attitude is found in Amee 2:1
– 6 where the persona declares that he is going to see "a young man at
Mbakumba", Cieve Tsavbee Muri whose abilities are enumerated to show the
security of performing in his presence. There are various kinds of securities that the
poet-persona treats in this regard but for purposes of convenience, only two shall
be dwelt upon. These are emotional security and security from physical needs.
Regarding emotional security, lines 14 and 15 of Amee 28 provide a fit
example: "Chief Beba Unzô Konjo Aku Chief when I see you/I no longer imagine
that death exists..." The poet-persona here shows that the security he finds in Beba

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Unzô Konjo is such that even death does not mean anything to him again. He
repeats this, in other words regarding Ishima Tsofo, a different patron: "Tsofo,
since I have seen you, I do not care about the world..." (Amee 63: 1). That is to
say, the world can be whatever it wants to be so long as this particular patron is
around, everything is all right for the poet-persona. To another patron, he says,
"Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku!/Whenever I see you, I feel like killing myself [in
my performance]" (Amee 75: 21 and 22). That is, he feels like stretching himself to
suicidal points in his performance. Then, "Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô
oo!/Whenever I see you, I become like the horse that has drank akase beer-chaff"
(Amee 15: 52 and 53). And "Judge Aciniya Norum has arrived/With Daughter of
Hambe, Dajo Mue, it is unmistakable!" (Amee 61: 42 and 43). And "Angol Ikyenge
has arrived oo Angol Ikyenge has arrived with Daughter of Damagudu;/[He] arrived
and was doing kumbul-aga-tar moves [that do not waste time on calculating
details]" (Amee 62: 6 and 7). That is, this patron provides gifts without calculation;
in the Tiv sense, this denotes extreme generosity. There are many other
inexhaustible illustrations of the poet-persona's demonstration of emotional security
under the panegyric subject of his poems.
Then, some poems also show the poet-persona panegyrically revelling in the
security from material needs that some of his patrons provide. Amee 20 exemplifies
this in lines 6 and 7: "This akumecii senior beast has arrived ee/Dajo Mue, people
should stop pleading their poverty with me". The "beast" referred to here is Nule
Makyur Aca who is one of the poet‟s patrons. Then, the poet has painted the picture
of some people pleading their poverty and not being able to reward his song, but

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since Nule has arrived, such pleas would no longer be the case; Nule would be able
to reward him handsomely. Later in the same poem, the poet-persona asks
Orhemba Cia and his wife Laraba: "Since I have seen you people, what will I cry of
again?" (Line 45). That is to say since this couple has come, all of the poet-
persona's needs are taken care of. To further demonstrate this security concerning
Gbamwuan Kpen, another patron, the poet-persona, on meeting this patron,
declares in Amee 83: "Even if I die [now] I will no longer be unhappy for I have
seen Jesus with my own eyes;/Look at him over there" (Lines 4 and 5). The security
this patron provides is such that the persona does not bother about death. After all,
this patron is his own “Jesus” who would save him from his needs even in death. In
another poem, the poet-persona says:
Or a verem me za sha WanAkuundu Someone escort me to go to Daughter-of-Akuundu,
WanMbasaa hingir kontamen Daughter-of-Mbasaa has become a kontamen big tree:
Me za mem ayaa hen a na i kundum I will go and rest under her [shade] and experience
iyol ee. some peace ee (Amee 68: 9 – 11).
Here, material security is demonstrated, this time, in the symbol of the "kontamen
big tree" under whose shade the poet-persona can recline and rest. There are many
more examples of this theme in Amee's poems.
It is partly because of such emotional and material securities that often, the
poet sounds bitter when the people whose presence provides the security seem
either unavailable or inactive. Thus, he asks blamingly, "Gbenger Kur, what is this
ee? With you present the lion has still caught your brother,/How it is dragging him
away..." (Amee 73: 10 and 11). When it is death that snatches such people away,

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the poet-persona's lamentations, as illustrated in the following example, are usually
very bitter:
[M] ungwa kwelegh ke‟ Mbayenge I heard a lamentation at Mbayenge
M pine me ka an nan kpe ve… And asked who it was that died...
Er ka Tor Musa Agbe Cafa aoo… They said it is Chief Musa Agbe Cafa aoo...
Aye!...an a wa ior kwagh a? Aye!...who would be our adviser again?
Er yange M ôsu M za ke‟ na a za ôrum akaa a How I used to sneak and go to him and he
ityô yam a would tell me the things of my clansmen!
Kera ngu her‟ ga yô ka an nan a yimam a? Now that he is no longer here who would be
saving me?"
Dajo Mue ee ior I bee ve ee. Dajo Mue ee, [true] men are no more available
ee! (Amee 40: 1– 11).
This kind of lamentation occurs in all the elegies found in this collection. Clearly it
demonstrates the poet-persona‟s worry about how he would survive now that those
who provided material and emotional security for him are no longer alive.
To summarize the consideration of the theme of security in some people‟s
presence, it needs to be re-stated that this theme dominates most of Amee's
panegyrics. In most of the places where he praises people, there is often a hint of
some form of security such people have provided for him. Although I may not have
exhausted instances in Amee‟s songs in which this theme has been exhibited, I
hope that the instances provided here have made the point.
Whenever worthwhile people arrive anywhere, they cause respectful
commotion
Often, Amee‟s poetry praises its patrons by painting a picture of their
prestigious arrival either at song-parties hosted for him or at the venue of his
performances generally or at any occasion at all. The focus on patrons' arrival at
venues is a panegyric strategy to attribute honour to them. The Tiv conceive that

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the physical environment, even where other human beings are absent, recognizes a
person of worth. They also believe that that environment is usually affected by
anything that happens to such a person. Thus even if it is an incidence of death,
the Tiv would say, Via kpe ku tar huan, meaning, "So and so person has died and
made the whole world to go quiet". Sometimes, they may say, Via kpe ku inyon kaa
imo ga, "So and so person has died and caused even the birds to stop their
chirping." What this generally means is that even birds (and other animals) are
aware of things concerning a person of substance. Suemo Chia has demonstrated
this in Adan-Wade Kohol Ga, his very interesting Tiv language novel. In describing
the legendary beauty of Shido Agena, the narrator says that even birds of the air
and other animals looked appreciatively at her (55). In other words, her attraction
physically charmed them. Of course exaggeration is at work in these words, but the
hyperbole is in keeping with the Tiv worldview. In Tiv parlance then, the behaviour
of bush animals is used to describe serious situations. But as mentioned earlier, it is
not only animals that, in Tiv thinking, respond to the presence of people of
substance, the elements (the earth, air, water, fire, etc) also respond concerning
anything that has to do with such people. There is therefore no way a worthwhile
person can arrive anywhere and it would not be known. Amee has therefore built
many of his panegyric frameworks on this Tiv concept. Thus, when he keeps saying
that some of his patrons' arrival is "unmistakable" (Amee 45: 40; 57: 23; 61: 43
etc), there is an obvious panegyric import in the statement.
This theme therefore runs throughout the corpus of the poems. Amee paints
the arrivals of his patrons in a manner that depicts commotional respect, first, from

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humans, and second, from the animal world and the elements. These two aspects
of his depiction shall now be briefly considered in turns.
Sometimes, when men who matter in the poet‟s panegyric portraiture arrive
anywhere in the poems, they arouse celebrative commotion; other times the
commotion they cause is dreadful silence. The commotional celebration of the
arrival of a patron is evident in the first poem: lines 39 and 40 say, "Iortyer Chief
Musa Agbe Cafa oo!/Has the Chief arrived that I am hearing [rushing footsteps]
gudugudu?" This demonstrates that this patron is such a prestigious man that
whenever he arrives anywhere, people rush out to pay their homage or at least
catch a glimpse of him. In "Nenger Utim Gile Gesa has Arrived..." (Amee 45), the
opening lines describe the following scene:
Nenger Utim Gile Gesa ar ve oo! Nenger Utim Gile Gesa has arrived oo!
Ior mba kperan u nengen a na ee, People are scrambling to see him ee,
Gema mba ndyaren ayolave. So much that they are even stepping on one another.
U lu a tahav iyol ga u nenge a na ga. If you have no strength in your body you won't see him
(Lines 1 – 4).
These lines accord with the activity at the arrival of Chief Musa Agbe in the example
before this one. As for Terna Akpagher, it is "[hilarious] cries" (Amee 17: 47 and
48) that welcome him. Then, in "Of a Truth I Fell, let Me Miss..." (Amee 70),
Mbanan nyôr shin tembe; Mbanan arrived in the square;
Lu vea nom na aa. She was with her husband aa.
Tiv ger ikyuuu! How the Tiv are shouting ikyuuu…! (Lines 12 – 14).
The welcome here is evidently similar to that of Terna Akpagher in the preceding
example. All these show how the poet panegyrizes by strongly asserting the arrival
of his patrons.

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At other times, however, when great people arrive, rather than welcome
them with shouts and ululations as in the examples just cited above, it is musical
instruments that interrupt proceedings. So in Amee 94, it is said that "Alya Tyôba's
scion has arrived so the he-drum reached its climax" (line 38). In another poem, it
is "the indyer jumbo slit-log drum [that] kept vigil..." at Veunô's arrival (Amee 57:
42). For Nahanga Bede's presence, "the kwen metal gong keeps calling [non-stop]"
(Amee 88: 22). And in the case of Angwe Asen Ahura, it is not even a musical
instrument that has announced his coming, but the firing of a gun (Amee 84: 13).
Then, as mentioned above, sometimes, the arrival of certain patrons is
welcomed by respectful confusion. This is witnessed in the arrival of Mvaaga
Ashaver at the marketplace in Amee 52:
Mvaaga Ashaver har Mvaaga Ashaver hung
Jenjen nyôr kasua yô, A jenjen muffler and emerged in the market-place;
Kasua hembe kpugh! The market square exploded with commotion kpugh!
Or kera za hwange a anigbian ga … Nobody followed a sibling's path... (Lines 19 --22).
The commotion here is not one of celebration but of dread; yet this dread is not
negative. It is the kind of dread accorded to a sacred masquerade: dreaded but
respected, not despised. The panegyric content of the lines is therefore obvious.
The last line portraying siblings fleeing in different directions underscores the
severity of the stampede Mvaaga‟s arrival has caused. Ordinarily, siblings should
take the same direction because they are heading for the same home, but because
the threat at hand is too dangerous, they have not remembered this so they are
fleeing in different directions. This further adds to the seriousness of the stampede
which has, in turn, increased the panegyric weight of the picture.

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Additionally, there are many portions in the poems where people are
informed to warn their children at the presence of certain persons (Amee 38: 51;
59: 44 – 45; 20: 59 etc). The idea of people warning their children is generated
from the traditional context where adults warn their wards of any danger by the
corner. The import here is that the patron who has just arrived is regarded as
dangerous so children have to be warned. It merits repeating that the danger
implied in this kind of presentation is not negative at all; it is given a seemingly
negative veneer just for the artistic reasons of massaging the ego of the people so
portrayed.
Now, to examples of respectful silence at the arrival of certain patrons: "Has
Doctor Azeaze Lim arrived that rumours have stopped?" (Amee 36: 21); and in
Amee 51, while mentioning Mnder Cagh, the poet-persona says, "the noble man of
Ukum has arrived/People should stop their comcocom chatter..." (Lines 56 and 57).
The persona in Amee 64, also, inquires, "Has Ageewua.../Arrived that people have
stopped their camcam chattering?" (47). Examples of this treatment of the arrival of
some patrons abound in Amee‟s poems; it is not possible to consider all of them in
this study.
But as observed earlier, the recognition of the arrival of worthy people is not
done by human beings alone; the animal world and the elements also celebrate like
when the "ingyuran bird announced" the arrival of Daughter-of-Abaandyar in lines
83 and 84 of Amee 12. In Amee 85, it is the "kwamen-hir high-harmattan winds"
that display in announcing the arrival of Daughter-of-Ikyume (Lines 10 and 11).
Amee 64 says, the sun "got lost [in the sky]" (line 19) when Hindan Gbôhô arrived

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accompanied by his people at a song-party hosted by Cieve Tsavbee. A few lines
later in the same song, the poet-persona wonders, "Has Ishima Zaki shaken his
body? That...the sun has emerged zaratata?" (Lines 28 – 29). Thus, some people
arrive and cause the sun to disappear in the sky (Amee 74: 60; Amee 53: 33; Amee
62: 45) and others arrive and cause it to re-appear (Amee 81: 48; Amee 67: 18). It
is rather a different scene in the case of Mnder Cagh, where, in honour, "the
Sun...[rather] held the Moon and they were drumming [and dancing] away" (Amee
52: 28). This is saying that the arrival of Mnder Cagh caused a solar eclipse. In
"Kwaor Akosho's Song-party" (Amee 67), however, the persona resumes the kind of
wondering noted above: "Has Daughter-of-the-Mbatinyam come for this dance
ceremony/That the hiar whirlwind has kept sweeping the square?" (Lines 26 and
27). At other times, it is raindrops that fall when a patron like Yarkpindi Dye arrives
(Amee 64: 45). So the elements are panegyrically employed by the poet in his
theme on the pleasurable commotion great people cause when they arrive in any
gathering. Presenting the patrons‟ arrival at occasions this way is a praise strategy
that inflates their ego.
Those are the two themes that are prominently noticeable in Amee Ijôrpo's
panegyric subject. There are many more that are observable under this subject but
I hope that what has been presented here has justified the claims made therein.
3. 4. 2. The Subject of Privation
Though oral poetry is respected among the Tiv, it is at the same time often
associated with begging. However, contemptuous names often come to be accepted
by those who are given them. In boldly accepting such names, such people

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immediately turn the contemptuous impact towards those who originated the
names. Thus, Americans came to accept the name of Yankees and the name is now
employed with pride by either group. Tiv poets too have accepted the name of
beggars given to them by some members of the Tiv society. Thus, song
composition and performance in Tivland circle very much around the subject of
privation. In fact, one of the names Tiv poets often use for their art is ican-zamber,
meaning, pleas about their poverty. Amee too has used this name (Amee 32: 32;
36: 13; 42: 28; 47: 50; 57: 31; 86: 15; 89: 12 etc). Someone who is not acquainted
with the society might be tempted to think these poets sing about nothing else, but
such a conclusion would be far from the truth. The name is used just as a mask to
qualify the performer for the rewards from his patrons; the usage is also a strategy
to gain access to the ears of those highly placed in the society who are often so
arrogant that they can only listen when pleaded with. These facts apart, Tiv poets
also use their art to actually talk about their needs with hopes of the mentioned
needs being provided for by members of their audience – especially their patrons.
In Amee Ijôrpo, however, the needs projected as mentioned much earlier, go
beyond material needs to emotional ones. Of material needs, he asks for money,
clothes, bicycles, motorcycles, motor cars, television sets, cows, goats, pigs etc. Of
emotional needs, he mourns for the absence of a wife and children in his house –
which was the case in the earlier period of his career as mentioned. Really, his late
marriage caused him a lot of emotional stress as evident in many of his songs
(Amee 3: 23 & 24; 25: 7; 30: 1 & 2; 31: 12 & 13, 20 – 24; 33: 40 – 44; 54: 4 & 5;
67: 34 etc). Apart from the absence of a family, Amee also complains bitterly of the

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absence of the company of brothers and friends. So he calls on Mko, his late
brother, for at least 12 times in the poems collected here. Yet, it is not brothers and
friends only that he misses and complains about, the focus of a good number of his
elegies is about patrons who, since he lost his father early in life, were father
figures to him. A significant portion of his elegies, therefore, strictly speaking,
belongs to the subject of emotional privation. It is therefore not just material needs
that feature under this subject, emotional ones sometimes seem to preoccupy the
composer more than anything else.
There are many themes that appear under the subject of privation. But as is
the habit adopted here for purposes of convenience, only two shall be investigated.
These are:
A. Poverty brings shame on its victims.
B. Poverty brings about stinging loneliness.
Poverty brings shame on its victims
There is a very popular tale among the Tiv that long ago when mounds of
faeces could talk, Chief and Hare had a disagreement over what was more painful –
a machete-cut or a lie told against someone. Chief chose a machete-cut but Hare
insisted that being lied against was more painful – which Chief found rather
amusing. The disagreement turned into a bet between the two: either of them was
to inflict what he believed was more painful on the other so that they would know
between them who experienced greater pain. Chief thus inflicted a very deep
machete-wound on Hare which actually kept the victim indoors for many markets.
When it was Hare's turn, he went out at night and defecated in the waterhole that

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the village survived on. He then drilled the faeces to say, upon inquiry, that Chief
was the one who stooled it. Chief was not deposed by the angry villagers the
following morning but, temperamentally, he never recovered from this scandal. This
story illustrates the Tiv attitude to kunya, that is, shame. They actually have a
saying that Kunya vihi hemba ku, that is, Shame is worse than death. It is useful to
know this Tiv attitude because the knowledge can aid in the understanding of this
theme in Amee's privation compositions. Privation exposes its victims to shame; the
poet has demonstrated this from time to time.
One of the most emphatic portrayals of this theme is in Amee 28: 31 – 34:
Ma M za lam a ngôm Wantor u Kyado kpa I would have gone to have a word with my
Jee Gbabo oo! J. Gbabo oo!
mother, Daughter of Chief Kyado but
Iwa ngim gbehen kpa ka icaver ikyondu i M Dogs are barking at me but it is due to the rags
i zer ne ee. that I have on me ee.
The poet-persona is forced by poverty to appear in rags which have attracted dogs'
attention. The idea of dogs barking at one not because he is necessarily a stranger
but because he is dressed in rags beyond the recognition of the dogs is appalling
and shameful indeed. Ordinarily, a person dressed like that would not want
attention to be focused on him; in this case, however, the dogs, with their barking,
have made the poet-persona the focus of everybody around. The shame in this
scene is thus very severe.
The same picture of rags and their attendant embarrassment is painted again
in line 45 of Amee 78 where the poet-persona says he is "going about with azemba
[rags] on my body in the land of the Mbatsavazun". If this attire is compared with
that of people who wear clothes, "flaming fire on and off" (Amee 68: 21), then the

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extent of the poet-persona‟s predicament as a result of his poverty would be better
appreciated. In yet another piece, the persona says: "I am dressed in the manner
of an ancanakopa ragged-dance performer" (Amee 37: 31). This is a clear symbol
of his privation and dogs are certain to bark at him. Ancanakopa dancers dress in
rags but the rags are costumes; the poet-persona's rags are not. No wonder, people
are looking at him with contempt (Amee 80: 12). Thankfully, he himself is aware of
the shame to which his poverty has exposed him. Therefore in some songs he
correctly uses the metaphor of his being afflicted with diseases that have caused
people to run away from him. In Amee 44: 30, the disease is agina smallpox while
in Amee 60, it is akpev scabies (line 32). The poet-persona's comparison of his poor
state to these diseases is a clear statement of his shameful plight resultant from his
privation. For these are communicable diseases whose victims are often avoided.
In Amee 8, the poet-persona says:
Senegh bundem or oo, Pleading-to-be-given-things has hindered my manliness,
Ka M hemba or iyol M kua ishima I am often bigger than certain persons in both body and
heart
Kpa nan côvul mo ijime ee. Yet they would be dirtying up my back ee (lines 8 – 10).
The association of song composition among the Tiv with poverty has already been
highlighted so there is no need repeating that point. Indeed, it has also already
been stated that composers themselves have accepted their being associated with
begging since after all, they end up receiving rewards for their art. They thus see
themselves to some extent as "pleaders-to-be-given-things". In other words, they
see themselves as poor people. It is against this background that the poem above is
relevant to the theme under consideration. The poet-persona is complaining that
since he is a composer, and by extension a poor beggar, his manliness has been

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compromised; even people whose status is ordinarily lower than his now say untidy
things against him. Line 10 is actually a euphemism for the bad words spoken
against the poet-persona behind his back. Were he not poor, that is, were he not a
song-composer, they would not be subjecting him to such ignominy.
In Amee 69, the persona presents an even more passionate situation of
opprobrium caused by his profession which has been designated (wrongly though)
as belonging to poor people. He says, "Whenever Daughter-of-Azande sees me, she
spits away jang" (line 13). Daughter-of-Azande, the character in this line, is the wife
of one of the poet's patrons and the situation in the rendition is that whenever the
poet-persona comes to see this patron, the wife despises him. Her act of spitting on
seeing the composer is a demonstration of how nauseating she finds him and the
only reason she should consider him this way is because she hates it when her
husband rewards the bard. In fact, earlier in this particular poem, the persona
actually said that this patron caught a pig to give him but let go of the pig again.
Obviously, he noticed some form of protest in his wife and decided not to go on
with the intended reward. This is one further instance of the kind of disgrace
poverty brings to its victims.
There are more examples but just one more instance would be presented.
This is the embarrassment the poet-persona gets from certain persons who deceive
him that they would reward him. In complaining over one such deceit, the poet tells
the patron: "A promise is a debt oo/Daughter-of-Aganyi, has the issue turned to
dôgôri nonsense?" (Amee 7: 14 and 15). The issue mentioned here is the promise
that this particular patron made to the poet. Time has bypassed its fulfilment so the

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composer is asking if those fine words of promise have all amounted to nonsense.
In Amee 18 which portrays a similar situation, the persona‟s bitterness is even
clearer:
Or ngue ma tashi u buter gbing When certain persons gulp the white man's
alcohol plentifully,
Gbing yô nan tema a gema a bumem Plentifully, they begin to deceive me that they
would declare a song-party for Ijôrpo‟s son,
Kpa M kav ze oo. Yet, I do not see a sign [of fulfilment] oo.
I tserem a ior ve ee. How I am in trouble with people ee (Lines 4
and 7).
The poet-persona's complaint over fake promises is due to the shameful
implications of such situations to him. Promising a composer that one would host a
song-party for him and failing to do so (not because something understandable has
interfered with the plan but because the poet has been seen as someone to whom
promises could just be made and wishfully broken) is very embarrassing. So Amee
tells another of his patrons:
Ishima Zaki oo kaa ityô you Ishima Zaki oo tell your clansmen
Yô ve wuam kera ve de u eren mo ican; That they should kill me rather than tormenting
Gaze M ya kunya ke‟ tar juu For I have experienced too much shame in the
me;
land really,
Kwagh u M lu zenden ior shi yô M fa ze ee. The reason I am still going about before people
is not known to me ee (Amee 31: 8 – 11).
In other words, the poet-persona prefers death other than the shame to which he is
being subjected as a result of his poverty. I said earlier that the Tiv have a saying
that death is better than shame; the lines above have just confirmed that saying.
Poverty brings about stinging loneliness
As maintained while introducing the subject of privation earlier, it is not just
the penury of material things that the persona in Amee's poems laments about; he

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is also afflicted with the penury of emotional needs. And the theme that results
from this presentation is that, privation is capable of causing very deep loneliness.
To some extent, emotional privation is caused by the material one. The poet-
persona shows this when he says to Katsina Ge, (in real life, his first wife who had
left him): "You rejected me because I am not a rich man" (Amee 33: 40, 44). This
is the extent to which material poverty afflicts its victims: even their spouses
abandon them. Thus, when the poet-persona confesses to Ishima Zaki that: "It is
not possible to get used to poverty/Even when I sleep, my heart does not sleep,
[poverty] is usually more painful at night" (Amee 91: 15 & 16), it is immediately
understood that the combination of material and emotional poverties is what the
poet is lamenting about. Certainly if he has company in his bed at night, he would
not be spending sleepless nights tormented by unfriendly thoughts. Even if he
generally has someone by his side at all (and not necessarily at night), he would
have found his situation more tolerable. Unoka, quotably, tells his son in Achebe's
Things Fall Apart that, "It is more difficult and more bitter when a man fails alone"
(18). The poet-persona is facing all his problems alone and this ends up increasing,
and at the same time aggravating, his emotional needs. In a word therefore,
poverty brings about loneliness and all the agonies that go with it.
Concerning this theme on the agony of loneliness, more observations shall
now be made in three directions: loneliness as regards conjugal company,
loneliness arising from lack of siblings, and loneliness due to scarcity of genuine
friends. Of course all three are sometimes related and often demonstrated in the
same lines. They have been separated here just for the sake of convenience.

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Now, the first angle, loneliness as regards conjugal company: There is a lot
of attention in Amee's compositions given to the absence of a wife to keep the
poet-persona company. It is clearly demonstrated that he craves for the emotional
balance that marriage is believed to ensure in a person in traditional Tiv society. Its
absence has really affected him; thus, in Amee 36, he tells one of his patrons: "I
would have come but I am yet to get a woman who, to my pleas about poverty,
would/Be listening..." (Lines 66 and 67). Line 66 here repeats what has already
been maintained that Tiv poets often refer to their song art as "pleas about
poverty". What the poet is saying is that he has not been able to compose songs to
come and perform for the patron because he is not emotionally challenged to do so.
He has no wife whose attention would ginger him to create. That is to say, he lacks
inspiration; loneliness has made his Muse to desert him.
To further buttress this point, he says in another poem:
Mbanengen bunde kwase a mo sha shie ga Mbanengen rejected being my wife at the wrong
time.
Kunya kôr kwase a mo ga yum ka „pe ma The woman had no pity on me else she would
a nenge a Gbamwuan have seen Gbamwuan
Tor Kpen Ashar oo Chief Kpen Ashar oo,
Vea WanMbagen With Daughter-of-Mbagen,
Ma a sôughun je ne ee; How I would have been so proud ee;
Tar-yan karem ve ee! Indeed enjoyment has bypassed me ee!
(Amee 30: 1 – 6)
These lines demonstrate a situation whereby the poet-persona has seen one of his
patrons (the patron is with his wife, line 4) but does not have new songs that would
challenge this patron to give him rewards (the enjoyment in line 6). He has not
composed new songs because the woman of his love rejected marrying him. The
absence of feminine company is therefore stalling the poet's creativity.

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But even apart from the negative effect on his creativity, the poet-persona
finds his loneliness generally unbearable and laments about it over and over: "I am
so unlucky that even women reject me as though I have a handicap" (Amee 36:
46), and "But what I find lacking is that I have not seen my wife Mbanengen Aveil"
(Amee 75: 7) etc. Even though this last example is from a song dealing almost
exclusively with inter-ethnic wars, it also serves to illustrate that no matter what he
is discussing, the poet-persona finds the loneliness consequent from the absence of
a conjugal partner always appropriate to deviate into and lament about. It is thus
clarifying to note that he mentions Mbanengen Aveil, his woman friend, 19 times in
the poems and mentions Adoonyumbe, his other name for the same woman, 10
times. Indeed, this lady is one of the most frequently mentioned people in the
poems. Even though it is not every time that Mbanengen is mentioned for
lamentative purposes, it is a fact that the focus on her generally demonstrates the
poet-persona's concentrated depiction of the pain of his loneliness resulting from
the absence of a female partner.
Besides the loneliness resulting from absence of a matrimonial partner, the
poet also bewails emotional privation caused by the absence of beloved siblings.
Here, he is always lamenting that he has virtually no sibling as mentioned in his
brief biography earlier. Of these siblings, Mko Ijôrpo is a fit symbol. Mko was the
poet's immediate younger brother and he died rather too early in life – died, as the
poet-persona puts it, "with his offspring...he left no picture of his behind" (Amee
42: 3). That line means Mko died without leaving a child. Tiv people have a special
term for such a death; they refer to it as kpe a tseen, that is dying with one's

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offspring, or without giving birth to anyone. This is regarded as a very painful kind
of death in Tiv society as can be seen specifically in Amee 42. But it is not Mko
alone that the poet lost. Of his five brothers including Mko, only Adelunga, the
youngest was alive, but his company was too inadequate for a man who was
brought up with many other siblings and who was far older. In a paternalistic
society like Tiv, the poet‟s sisters did not mean much to him since they were
married and raising their own families in their own homes. The poet was therefore
plagued with a lot of emotional emptiness consequent from lack of siblings as he
complains in Amee 51:
Terem mar se je er se lu pue-kar; My father gave birth to almost more than ten of
Kpe tsatsa – ihyevyou sange ya tsatsa They all died – the domestic mouse [witches]
us;
picked them all and ate –
Mase tsean mo; I am the only remnant;
Ior i gbidim asa ye ee. That is why people beat me about freely ee.
Animônguv tativ ka ve a zua ikyaa ve When those who have siblings gather for their
things [occasions],
Ve kenger mo hileoo They just look at me with hileoo disregard;
Ve kenger mo hileoo Gôn Duku They just look at me with hileoo disregard, Gôn
Duku,
Kwagh wam kpa gbe kwagh ga… Even my things do not amount to anything...
(17– 24).
Of course, it is not all his siblings that were dead but as said earlier, oral poetry, like
the written, is not confined to factual data. Poets use their creative license to
present situations in manners they deem best for their purpose; that is exactly what
Amee has done. The lines show the agony of a lonely man who has no siblings with
whom to commune and is therefore condemned to the excluding and downgrading
looks of sibling-groups. Thus, in another poem, the persona justifiably concludes

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that "loneliness is a handicap;/Ande, loneliness is the most painful handicap in the
world" (Amee 49: 14 & 15). He further defines this loneliness in another piece:
Icôvul vihi juu! How orphanhood is so bad!
Yange me kpe Some day when I die
Or a ta nguhar sha akwati wam er saa i Someone would put his foot on my coffin that it
kimbi man a iim ye. should be paid for before I'm buried.
Ku wam ngu a ter ga; My death has no chief-mourner;
M fa er M lu uma ne je… I know it right now that I am still alive…
(Amee 55: 7– 11)
What the poet-persona is saying in the above lines is that he is so lonely sibling-
wise that when he dies, there would be no sibling to pay for his coffin as is usual in
Tiv culture; the coffin seller would therefore refuse to let the coffin be taken away
until he sees cash. This is how the poet has painted a picture of his lack of
relations.
Then, Amee‟s compositions also bemoan his emotional privation caused by
the absence of friend-patrons. Atôndu Tiôn, the poet‟s closest friend-patron is the
most frequently mentioned person in the songs. Indeed, more than half of these
mentions are in lamentation for this friend's demise. In one poem for illustration,
the poet-persona says, "Atôndu Tiôn died, my song too died" (Amee 21: 4 and 5).
To another dead friend-patron, the poet-persona is so touched by his absence that
he shouts:
Kwaghbula Azege M ngu yilan we shin ku; Kwaghbula Azege I am calling you from death;
Shi due va M nenge a we oo! Do come out that I may see you oo!
Ishima vihim ayange ne ker je M ule zuzu. Else my heart is raging within me these days
that I have become downcast. (Amee 78:
1 – 3).
In still another song, he repeats this theme more elaborately:
Uer Ajio oo! Uer Ajio oo!

Ajio Bunde kwagh erem Ajio Bunde, a thing has happened to me:
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Mbaamoov av mba timin been All my song-patrons are dying;
Adega u Orbiam shin Ugondu kpa kpe; Adega of Orbiam at Ugondu too have died; Kinabo
Kinabo u of
Shondu kpa kpe M ngorun mliam ye. Shondu too has died for which I burst out in
tears.
Zaki Tor Amishi Ugô Gbyudu kpa kpe, Zaki Chief Amishi Ugô Gbyudu too has died,
Kpe vea WanAtakya. Died with Daughter-of-Atakya [his wife].
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa oo, Kurakwaghga-the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa oo,
Orya Anyakpa, Orya Anyakpa,
Atôndu Tiôn kpe je M ngu keer ga Since Atôndu Tiôn‟s death, I am not sleeping
one bit
Vanger ngu nôngun u paven mo oo Mue My chest is almost bursting oo Mue Ager
Ager Nortema… Nortema ... (Amee 23: lines 16 – 26)
But the poet-persona has not just lamented about dead friends, he also
complains at certain points about the loneliness he experiences when living friends
abscond in their responsibilities to him. Perhaps this avoidance of him by such
friends is because he is a composer known for his habitual begging; this much he
suggests self-accusingly in the following lines:
Ka M doo a or I do become friends with some people,
Ica i gba ga shi se vihi But before long we break up,
Ishimaior u Tsofo, alaghga Ishimaior of Tsofo, perhaps,
Alaghga ahoo! Shin a lu inja yam shi ii; Perhaps, it is due to my character;
Kpa mo M fa ga. But I am not sure.
Shin ka er, M cihi senegh yum ior i aam… Or is it because I am too full of requests that
people have abandoned me... (Amee 11: 5 – 10)?
In another song, he even blames fate for selecting his friends for evil: "Whenever I
befriend anybody evil befalls him or her necessarily/It is my ill luck..." (Amee 17: 28
and 29).
The above examples could easily be multiplied. It is my conviction that they
have demonstrated that Amee Ijôrpo did not just perform on the panegyric subject

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alone; he also decried privation, and not just material privation but emotional one
as well.
3. 4. 3. The Elegiac Subject
Kwagh kohol mo ve oo! I am besieged by trouble oo!
Yange i me se imiôm ngi lun shawon ga There is never ever a single day for me to laugh.
Ka M shi vaan ikyu I keep mourning over deaths,
Zenden er ka gbensôôr ôô. And going about like gbensôôr the cicada ôô.
(Amee 35: 1 – 4)
The words above demonstrate one of the subjects in which Amee's talent
was most beautifully exhibited. He lost so many patrons and friends and relations
that at a point, he even declared in another poem, "As for me, I am left only for
mourning over deaths" (Amee 42: 22) and "I have mourned for people till my eyes
are blinded [with tears]" (Amee 23: 11). So in the corpus of his poems, elegies
occur more frequently as the singular subject in certain songs than any other
subject does. An example of that is found in Amee 14, 39, 48, 56, and 73. He has
indeed regarded elegies as an aspect of his divinely given role as a poet: "The Lord
God apportioned...mourning for me..." (Amee 23: 10 & 11). So when a father of
one of his patrons died, the persona tells the bereaved, "stop mourning; let me
mourn on your behalf" (Amee 40: 12). Due to their therapeutic value, elegies
feature very distinctively in Amee's art. And there are many themes that this subject
also depicts but for purposes of convenience, attention shall be given to just two.
These are:
A. Death is everybody's fate.
B. Death is a welcome relief from the negative pressures of existence.

Death is everybody's fate
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The Tiv have a favourite saying that Ku ka kôm gbenda; uma a za cii, Death
is a highway that all beings must tread. The saying is very prized because of its
potential to help bereaved people bear their loss. The idea of this fate belonging to
everybody makes the immediate victims more able to handle their grief. They
understand that whatever has happened to them would eventually happen to
everybody. The theme under discussion here is therefore significant because it is an
important philosophy like this that it exploits. One of the major functions of elegiac
poems is to comfort the mourners and a theme like this has the capability of doing
just that.
Amee's songs portray this theme by consolingly explaining death as God's
decree for everybody. Yanmuel Yashi, a productively thin but artistically robust
poet, did the same thing. In one of his songs, Yanmuel said, "death is a pillow" on
which everybody's head must rest. That means anytime you doze off thereon, you
are in deathland. Then in another poem, Yanmuel declared that "death is God's tax,
when it is time, you pay it". Jenkwe (Tiv Oral Poetry 24 – 36) has done an
interesting research especially on Yashi's thematics generally and the subject of
death in particular; so it is enough to only quote that poet here as support to the
fact that the theme under discussion is a favourite one among the Tiv and their oral
poetry.
Back to Amee, the poet-persona could be found specifically telling a
deceased patron‟s wife to "rest from her mourning/Death is a thing ordained by
God" (Amee 73: 19 & 20). That is to say death is for everybody as lines 26 and 27

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of Amee 35 also state: "Once God created the earth, He also created Death.../Wet
things do not last for ever..." The phrase "wet things” refers to the animal kingdom
generally. The poet-persona is universalizing the fact of death to make the loss
more bearable to the bereaved. After all, it is God that ordained this fate for
everybody, so the sufferers should be comforted; besides, it is not the misfortune of
a selected few; it is everybody‟s final fate. The Tiv, in connection with this
submission, have a proverb that Ku imôngu ngu nyion ga, which literally means,
group death does not pain. What this connotes is that when misfortune affects
more than one person, it is no longer as painful as it would have been if it was only
one person alone suffering it. The use of this theme is therefore to correctly
universalize death and make it easier for the mourners to contain their grief. Thus,
in Amee 40, the poet-persona passionately encourages a mourner: "stop
weeping.../What God has given you, collect...please, just collect it and let your
heart be at peace" (Lines 41 – 43). But it is in this next example that the poet-
persona handles this theme best:
Ageva Nyaku oo! Ageva Nyaku oo!
Nyaku Agba tema imôngu a Likici u Agbe; Nyaku Agba have a word with Likici of Agbe;
A de mliam ma vaan a. Let him stop weeping.
Or pie a pie ga Beings do not get weevil-infested [they die].
Gbayange Atô kpa kpe oo! Even Gbayange Atô died oo!
Cia Cile Tali kpa kpe ee ; Cia Cile Tali too died ee;
Aba Kume kpa kpe ee: Aba Kume also died as well ee:
Ka iyan‟ yase i u-uma cica. Death has an appointment with all of us humans
(Amee 18: 50 – 57).
The poet-persona has here, generalized the fact of death by referring to Tiv
legendary figures that died all the same. If death were avoidable, such people
would not have been its victims, so its occurrence is a foregone conclusion. Likici

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Agbe is therefore encouraged to remember these facts and stop weeping; after all,
the cliché is true: there is no need crying over spilt milk.
One other way Amee has treated this theme is by focusing on the Mbatsav
witches and wizards who, the Tiv believe, are the cause of every death. Amee 58
thus says that: "the mbatsav witches and wizards are beyond conquering but they
are not beyond death ee” (Line 26). In other words, though the witches and
wizards are strong and have killed the deceased, they too would soon be victims of
the same fate. And perhaps, the death of such witches and wizards may even be a
very shameful one as lines 45 and 46 of Amee 40 show:
Hide va kuram anigbianev aa. Do come back and look after my siblings [your
other children] aa.
Yange or u gen‟ a kpe yô hungwaja kpa ngu Some day when some other person would die,
a dugh i doo kenger ee. even a cricket's hole would be a better
sight [compared to his grave] ee.
The first line is addressed to the wife of a dead patron who is hereby advised to
stop weeping and come back to take care of her children who the poet-persona
sympathetically refers to as his siblings. Then the next line concentrates on the way
some of the people responsible for the present deaths may, during their death, be
buried shamefully. He compares their graves to the holes crickets dig for their
abode and says even such holes would be better than the graves the evil people
responsible for the current deaths would be buried in. This abusive comparison is
aimed at consoling the mourners so that they would be somewhat placated that the
person who caused their relation's death would also die some day and would
perhaps face shame in death – a fate dreaded by the Tiv people generally. The Tiv
believe in respecting someone especially in death and one of the ways this is done

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is by burying the deceased in a well-designed grave. But the pith of the argument
here is that the poet-persona is saying everybody is going to die. The foregoing
discussion exemplifies Amee‟s treatment of the theme of the universality of death in
his elegiac renderings.
Death is a welcome relief from the negative pressures of existence
Part of the thematic quinine that Amee administers to calm the fever of grief
in his mourning audience is that death is a fit rest for the deceased. And in this, he
is very close to John Donne, the English poet who took the same stand in his
deservedly often-anthologized "Death be not Proud" (Chace and Collier 520).
However, as is commonly known about after-life in traditional African religions,
there is neither Heaven to be hoped for nor Hell to be feared. There is therefore no
Heaven in Tiv religion which would afford the poet the materials with which to paint
his supposed rest for the deceased. He therefore often resorts to borrowing
materials from Christianity to present the desirable picture under this theme. So in
"Elegy for Tor Tiv Gondu", the poet-persona has declared that, "The man left us
and has gone/To Heaven oo" (Amee 14: 41 and 42). This demonstrates that the
deceased paramount ruler has just been relieved of mundane troubles and has
gone to rest in a well-deserved Heaven. The linguistic skill here is very striking.
Heaven is known in Tiv as Tartor, literally “King‟s land”; and the office of the Tiv
paramount ruler is called Tor Tiv, literally, “King or Chief of Tiv”: thus Tor Tiv and
Tartor fit both rhythmically and semantically thus providing a linguistic harmony
that articulates what the poet-persona has said. But an examination of such
linguistic skills shall be focused on more extensively in Chapter Five.

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In "Elegy for Ayagwa's Mother", the poet-persona is more generous in his
borrowing from Christianity to further pursue the above theme:
…Sha ku u ngô u Ayagwa Cia: ...The death of the mother of Ayagwa Cia:
Aôndu amimi la jo kpa sen Even the true God came down
Sha wo u ken Mkar On the Mkar mountain,
Lu ôrun kwagh a Tyoor Tor Takema er a ii He was saying to Tyoor the Chief Takema that
kwase na leghleghlegh he should bury his wife peacefully,
peacefully.
Ôn mba Nev ger ikyuu! The children of Nev shouted ikyuu in applause!
Er ve a nande naagh sha min man a ii kwase [They decided] that they would build an altar
ve ye, Gyohia Butu Ikyamgba and burn an offering thereon before their
woman would be buried, Gyohia
Butu Ikyamgba! (Amee 90: 13 – 19).
The linguistic merits of this portion would be more properly discussed in Chapter
Five where the poet‟s allusions shall be considered in greater detail. For now, it can
only be pointed out that the ideas of the deceased resting in death are enhanced by
generous borrowings from the Bible. The picture of God coming to attend the burial
of the deceased is indicative that the dead person certainly belongs to God in the
other world. The poet repeats a similar picture in Amee 80: "his mother [too] died
and left the child – God took [her]/And went with him to paradise oo/And showed
him everything: she talks with the Lord God herself..." (Lines 19 – 21). In this last
example, the poet adds a realistic detail of the deceased being taken, in one way or
another, to Heaven by God who has proceeded to show her the things in Heaven.
She and God discuss face to face in the poet-persona‟s narration. Thus in "Elegy for
Indyer" (Amee 76), the poet-persona states this theme categorically that " death is
[even] a salvation" (Line 21). One aspect of the poet‟s elegiac subject is thus to
point out to the mourners that the deceased has only gone to rest; they should stop
mourning.

3. 4. 4. The Didactic Subject
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The pedagogical role of the literary creator in Africa has already been
beautifully demonstrated by Chinua Achebe in his brief but loaded essay, "The
Novelist as Teacher" (1 – 4). In the same vein, Emenyonu has maintained that "the
African writer cannot afford the luxury of art for art's sake" (Introduction, v). Thus,
it is not only the novelist, the artist generally, whether in the oral or the written
tradition, is a teacher. Particularly in Tiv society, poets' didactic relevance is so
paramount that if any poet does not perform his pedagogical role well, no matter
his skills, nobody will really regard him seriously. Thus, when appreciating a poet's
skills, his didactic abilities usually go hand in hand with his artistic potentials in
determining his status in Tivland. As for Amee, he excelled in both of these aspects.
While his poems are artistic treasure chests, they are also robust with themes of
great didactic value. Two such themes are:
A. Jealousy does not bring progress to any group of people.
B. Destructive witchcraft results in retrogression.
Jealousy does not bring progress to any group of people
Mvendaga Jibo has captured the unfortunate predominance of jealousy in Tiv
society with the following bitter appropriateness:
Though the...political differences in the ranks of the Tiv elites are
quite serious, the ultimate threat to Tiv political, social and economic
well-being...lies in an aspect ...which we shall now analyze. This is
iyuhe. This phenomenon, which threatens Tiv welfare, is so pervasive
among the people that it needs to be properly understood...Put

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simply, iyuhe is jealousy or envy. Even though it exists in all human
societies, its prevalence in Tiv society seems to be unprecedented...
Because of the iyuhe on the average Tiv's mind, he or she does not
wish to have another Tiv to excel. This iyuhe is only applicable to
fellow Tiv. Anything will be done to block a fellow Tiv from achieving
fame, wealth, position, invention, prestige, etc. (196)
Some people have tried to explain this unfortunate phenomenon. Igoil, for instance,
is quoted by Jibo as saying, with some level of believability, that the phenomenon is
as a result of the Tiv man's "strenuous effort to portray himself as a detribalized
Nigerian who has alienated himself from his kith and kin" (qtd in Jibo 197). Even
though Jibo has dismissed this with some conviction, I still feel that there is a
measure of truth in Igoil's argument. But there can hardly be found a clear-cut,
single-factor explanation for the acute iyuhe phenomenon among the Tiv. One other
contributory reason to it, to my thinking, is the fact that the Tiv traditionally
believed in equality; this belief so dominated their worldview that the rise of classes
was a societal threat that was viciously resisted, albeit indirectly through the
insidious schemes of iyuhe. It is indeed very difficult to specifically explain the
reasons for the predominance of iyuhe in the Tiv person‟s dealings with his fellow
Tiv. What is certain is the negative effect of this phenomenon in the society. In
Suemo Chia's Adan-Wade Kohol Ga, a deservedly popular indigenous language
novel, the connivance and conspiracy of his relations who are full of iyuhe
concerning his general success bring about all the woes of Adan-Wade, the main

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character. Such is the tragic level of jealousy and envy in Tiv society. It is therefore
not surprising that Amee dwelt so much on this theme in his poetry.
Indeed the composer wasted no time in condemning the iyuhe phenomenon.
He did this in two ways: by focusing condemningly on the iyuhe he was facing
himself and by speaking generally against the phenomenon. Of the first focus, the
persona in Amee 59 lamenting about the hatred that seems bent on destroying him,
says:
Ma M lu teen ikyon If I were selling [mere] firewood
Ma M doo ishima hen ôn mba Garaka ye ee; I would have been beloved among the
children of Garaka ee;
Ma M lu dughun ugbace teen If I were digging up gbace rootstocks and
selling,
Ma M doo ishima hen ôn mba Garaka ye ee. I would have been a beloved one to the children
of Garaka. (Lines 30 – 33).
The issue in these lines is that, the poet-persona is pointing out that the hatred that
he is facing from people is because of the success of his song art. Some of his
clansmen (the children of Garaka) would have preferred him to be inconsequential –
not a man whose songs are respected all over Tivland. They would have been more
comfortable if he was a commoner selling firewood around and performing other
such inconsequential roles. In other words, they are jealous of his success; they
envy him; and this iyuhe manifests in hatred. So severe is the hatred that he says in
another poem: "Jealousy is chasing me that I should go into the earth, and I am
going" (Amee 65: 17). They want him to die, and want it so much that they even
want to bury him alive as the persona in Amee 15 submits:
M vihi ityô yam asema er a hile nune a min! How my clansmen‟s hearts abhor me as if they
would use me to ferment nune locust
beans!

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Ka me a ngule karen ior ve shim tômun inyam a. When I am passing, people keep wishing for my
meat.
Kighir heela tsegher ga mba soon sha u iin mo It does not just stop there; they are desiring to
uma… bury me alive... (Lines 14 – 16).
All this hatred, the poems explain, is because of his success as an artist. In other
words, the hatred is as a result of iyuhe. The poet-persona, personifying this
phenomenon in yet another poem, presents it as the cause of even his conjugal
misfortunes. In his words:
Ka me a er kwase Whenever I marry,
Iyuhe i yôô angwe i va vande karen nyôrun Jealousy is the first to arrive there with the
angwe nuptial proclamation –
Kwase la nan due keng. That woman, ends up divorcing me (Amee 21: 19-
So gross is this jealousy that its perpetrators are almost suffocating themselves to
death with it. For example, the persona, in praising one patron, says, "The man
called me and gave me a thing,/When I spread it, the chests of the Tiv seem to
want to burst [with envy]" (Amee 32: 9 & 10).
But the poet-persona does not portray how the iyuhe phenomenon affects
him as a person alone; he points at it in the lives of some of his patrons too. For
example:
Nahanga u Bede u Tarkywe! Nahanga of Bede of Tarkywe!
Ngula kpa ityô na ver a na „pe wuan keng That one too his clansmen are poised to kill
anyam unde sha wan kpa cia ngi ga necessarily: an anyam lion climbed on
the scion but there was no cia
invocation;
Mbashamhira ndiir a na za yer. The mbashamhira people caused him to
disappear to safety (Amee 78: 37 – 39).
The lion in these lines is symbolic of the fact that Nahanga's clansmen want to kill
him – of course through witchcraft. The man is, however, innocent so they have no
21).

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cia invocation to destroy him. In traditional Tiv society, there must be a good cia
invocation before anybody can be harmed by witchcraft. That is, the target must be
guilty of an offence which would then be the opening to hold on and invoke evil
against him. In the lines above, Nahanga is innocent; it is mere jealousy that has
turned his clansmen against him.
With such predominance of jealousy, the poet-persona also makes general
statements against the phenomenon. In one such statement, he uses a very
popular Tiv proverb concerning iyuhe:
Iyuhe ka kwagh eren ga; Jealousy is not a thing to indulge;
Or u mimi er iyuhe ze eee. A true man does not engage in jealous acts eee.
Iyuhe ka mtwem; Jealousy is ashes;
Yange i a hide sha a we keng-keng bunde ga Someday it must turn back on the perpetrator, it
yange ga ee. must turn back on him without fail ee.
(Amee 60: 10 – 13).
The proverb in line 12 above is that whenever you throw ashes away, its dust rises
up quickly and settles on even you who threw it. The Tiv therefore say – but hardly
observe it themselves – that jealousy is ashes: when you throw it at anybody, it
follows you back. It boomerangs. And this is no way for the society to progress. So
the poet-persona, as my final illustration, praises:
Tyôver u Ninga! Tyôver of Ninga!
Wanmimin lu sôrun tar je er The truthful scion was repairing the land as if
Ka organden yô ôô. He is an adult ôô.
Orti tôô iyuhe a kende mnger ee; He threw jealousy away in water ee;
Lu wan tar inya tine… He was putting sand for the world‟s roots...
(Amee 29: 19 – 23).
Thus brilliantly has the poet taught his audience about the danger of jealousy.

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Destructive witchcraft results in retrogression
In considering Tiv religion earlier, it was maintained that tsav witchcraft has
a central place in the religion. It was also mentioned that in traditional Tiv society,
there is positive witchcraft and negative one, and that the elders try to ensure that
only those who possess positive witchcraft survive. The art of wizardry, especially in
earlier times when traditional beliefs were strongly adhered to, was therefore for
the good of the land. It must, however, be added here that as early as the late
1900s, the impact of the so-called positive witchcraft was as absent as the impact
of the negative one was present. Anti-tsav movements began to emerge. Some Tiv
felt too threatened by tsav practice and cults arose with the aim of protecting
members. Akiga has documented these cults better than any one else that I have
read (264 – 95). The most popular of these movements was the Haakaa which was
actually initiated by the colonialists to rid Tivland of what they felt was destroying
the society and subsequently their administration. If nothing else, the fear of
witchcraft among the Tiv alone was costing the colonizers a lot of political capital.
Haakaa thus started in 1929 and even though it was very much abused, the fact
remains that it was primarily an anti-witchcraft movement.
This brief history is necessary to provide a background of the stubborn
persistence of tsav in Tivland and to also point out that the positive aspect of it, if it
ever really existed, seems to have diminished to near-zero level for, at least, about
a century now. Many Tiv therefore hate tsav witchcraft which up till now still has a
very negative impact in the society. With the same attitude of hatred, Amee has
asked:

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Tsav mbu er nyi? What does witchcraft do?
Mbatsav mba er kwagh ga ee. Witches and wizards do not achieve anything.
Yange or u gen‟ a kpe a tsav vanger a Someday some person would die with his chest
full of wizardry,
Kpa mayange nan a hide ga. Yet he would not come back. (Amee 33: 21 – 24)
In another song, the poet-persona further condemns the practise, "How the
mbatsav witches-and-wizards are bad!" (Amee 56: 20). The same condemnation is
repeated in Amee 58 (line 14). The lines quoted above notwithstanding, the poet-
persona, like every traditional Tiv, believes in positive tsav as can be seen in his
handling of the elegies discussed earlier; what he is against is witchcraft that does
not follow the traditional route of seeking to manipulate spiritual forces for the good
of the land. So, on his way to a song-party organised by Aerga Gum, the poet-
persona declares:
M ngu zan kpa hômum ga: Tyungu Gum Anar I am going but I do not find it pleasurable:
ngu ke‟ iyou Tyungu Gum Anar is indoors
Kua idyondun na cii Together with his immediate younger brother
[because of sickness].
Ka nyi imbya tar ne ee? What type of world is this [that you people have
brought about] ee?
Ôn mba Mena oo ka nyi imbya tar ne ee? Oh, the children-of-Mena oo, what type of world
is this ee? (Amee 53: 17 –20).
As a believer in tsav, an important aspect of Tiv traditional religion, the poet-
persona has concluded logically that his patron‟s two brothers are rendered sick by
the witchcraft of their immediate clansmen, the children-of-Mena. He therefore
questions them condemningly concerning what type of world they want to bring
about. The same kind of attitude is found in Amee 77 where it occurs with even
greater fieriness:
Ne hee ve ooo! Shame is on you ooo!
Ityô yam ôn mba Gar aee! My clansmen the children-of-Gar aee!

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Ne hee ve ee ityô yam ôn mba Garaka Shame is on you ee, my clansmen, the children-
of-Garaka.
Ne mba sombun avaan a ityô i shindi, a akera You people are, with jovial abandon, breaking kpa
sha mi, the arrows that the [greater] clan has
preserved,
Ityav a gba ne er nena ee? When a war breaks out, what will you people do
Ne gber nyinya u fan ityav ishôm ngu he‟ inya, You people have matchetted a battle-ready
Hil Agule horse and it is flat on the ground, Hil Agule
Tor kwagh a num tar a doo ga, Gbabo oo. Chief, if this thing disrupts the land, it won't be
ee?
good, Gbabo oo (Lines 1 – 7).
In these lines, there is evidence of not only the poet-persona's faith in tsav
witchcraft but also his condemnation of the destructive kind. The words quoted
concern the death of one of the poet‟s patrons and to the poet-persona, it is the
conspiracy in the collective witchcraft of the deceased's immediate clan of the
children-of-Garaka that has killed this patron. The poet-persona thus tells the
witches responsible for the death that it is to their shame that they have killed this
man. He goes on to tell them that the man they killed was an arrow preserved by
the greater clan for future use. This is a metaphor denoting the deceased's
significant place in the society. The persona wonders what they would do when a
need arises that requires the deceased‟s skills. This same point is repeated
concerning yet another patron killed by destructive witchcraft:
A lu ne tee ikyondu i amaregh ne mba If you people take the amar ceremonial dress and are
yaren sua a min yô engaging in sua fishing with it,
Amar a gba ne zer nyi? Ne sôngu Acusa When a ceremony comes up, what would you use as
wan dress? You people have slaughtered Acusa‟s son
Sha nomyange zaratata. In the zaratata fresh rising of the sun.
Shagbaor kuma u kpen ku-swendegh. A noble man does not deserve to die a swende
ga. accidental death (Amee 58: 4 – 7).

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The deceased in the above poem is compared to a ceremonial cloth which,
ordinarily, the Tiv preserved with especial care so that whenever there was an
occasion, they would not be found wanting clothes-wise. The poet-persona's
figurative rebuke that the addressees are using a ceremonial cloth for sua fishing is
therefore a strong condemnation. Fishing by sua fashion is a particularly dirty
business involving a lot of physical interaction with mud. Ordinarily, when people
wanted to fish this way, they put on work clothes for the purpose.
This, somewhat, long scholarly trip has been undertaken to demonstrate the
thematic artistry of Amee. But one is more aware of the much that time and space
have constrained this survey to leave out. I only hope that some other researcher
will some day decide to base his research specifically on this poet's subjects and
themes. Indeed it is imagined that such a researcher would find it interesting to go
beyond panegyric, privation, elegiac, and didactic subjects. It is also supposed that
he would occupy himself with much more than the two themes that the present
effort has all along limited itself to under each of the subjects.

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CHAPTER FOUR
A STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF AMEE’S NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES
I am aware of the loud echo of structuralism that part of the title of this
chapter evokes. It therefore needs to be clarified from the onset that the structural
discussion of a work must not be informed by the submissions of structuralism as a
school of criticism. Thus, it is not the tools of structuralism that have been used in
this discussion. Interest here is only in the form of the poems. In other words, by
structure here, I mean “the organisation or overall design or form” (Abrams 94) of
the poems. Holman‟s words of explanation on this subject are useful at this
juncture: “Though such external matters as kind of language used…are sometimes
referred to as “structural features”, the term usually is applied to the general plan
or outline” (513). The structural elements of these poems have been discussed with
a view to observing how certain strategies of shape and form characterize the poet.
The intention is to demonstrate that even in these matters of organisation and
outline, Amee has manifested striking artistic skills.
The chapter is divided into, (1) the general structure of Amee's poems, (2)
specific structural techniques of narrative at work in the general structure of the
poems, and (3) chronology in the poems. All these have been helpful in
understanding and appreciating the physical architecture of Amee‟s compositions.
4.1. THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE POEMS
Amee's poems are usually divided into three parts. It is better to refer to the
divisions as parts because the professional sense of the word stanza, with its
English import, does not really apply to Tiv songs. But to follow Daniel Kunene and

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regard the song-parts as paragraphs (Introduction xv) seems too negatively prosaic
to me. So these divisions are called parts in this study. It is very safe to regard the
three parts as introduction, body and conclusion – provided these terms are not
conceived of in a too strict sense.
It needs clarifying that the idea of dividing songs into parts is not peculiar to
Amee; Tiv songs generally are usually divided into two parts: the mnder and
mrumun. Mnder is the first part of the song and can be translated as the call. R. C.
Abraham tried explaining this word with some ambition (82) but as has already
been demonstrated in the review of related literature, his explanation is not
supported by fact or reason. Another name for this part is called Mtee, which means
raising (like when something is being raised in the air). In the transcriptions here, it
is this word, Mtee, that has been adopted since, to my mind, its metaphorical
import harmonizes better with Mrumun, the name of the second part of a Tiv song.
Mrumun means response (particularly to a call); this second part has no other name
designated for it. The point being stressed therefore is that Tiv poetry is generally
divided into those two major parts – Mnder/Mtee (Call) and Mrumun (Response).
This call and response is not necessarily antiphonal. The call generally
introduces the song; then the response elaborates on that which was introduced.
Individual poets, however, differ in how they manipulate these parts to suit their
creative idiosyncrasies. For instance, Amee, the poet of discourse decided, as
observed above, to have three parts which corresponded with introduction, body,
and ending. In the transcription, each of the parts is set off from the others with

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three asterisks. Each part, moreover, is clearly set out from the other by
performance poetics which shall now be considered in some detail.
4.1.1. The Introductory Part
It has already been stated that in the collection here, this part is referred to
as Mtee for the Tiv language versions of the poems and as Call, in the English
translations. The part was usually first given solo performance by Amee; then, an
appointed member of the troupe also performed it solo. This appointed member's
job was to always help the poet to raise the songs, that is, to perform this call part
of the poems. The other members of the troupe, that is the chorus, usually waited
till the piece had been raised by Amee and this appointee. Then all members of the
troupe performed the chorus together.
Quantitatively, this introductory part is usually, logically, by far shorter than
the body and sometimes, even the conclusion. But there are instances, rare though,
especially in the shorter poems (Amee 4 for example), when the call is, curiously,
longer than the response. However, the length of any part of any of the songs, to
the best of my knowledge, is not determined by anything other than the poet's
convenience. When I put the question of what determines the length of parts of
songs to Amee's assistant, he was, surprisingly, not even aware of the three distinct
parts in the poems. For him, the songs were just divided into the call and response
that is usual to all Tiv performances. When, on explanation they recognized the
third part, they were, equally, not aware of any reason for the length of each part. I
too have not seen any reason other than the composer‟s convenience. But the

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poet‟s convenience need not be overlooked because it aided him to effectively carry
his audience along.
Functionally, the introductory parts of Amee's songs usually lay a background
on which the poems are built. The parts, as expected, work closely with the body. If
a particular introductory part is composed of a question, the body answers the
question; if it states a cause, the body enumerates the effects. More often than not,
the song is directed at a patron whose name and credentials are hinted at in this
part. That is not to say the song belongs to that particular patron exclusively
though; in the course of the performance, many other patrons are brought in.
Indeed, right from this part, many patrons are sometimes mentioned. Once this
introductory part has been performed, the body parts of the poems come next. In a
word, in Amee‟s songs and subsequently Tiv oral poems generally, the introduction
sets the mood. It performs the function of the opening glee in tale telling sessions;
like an appetizer, it helps to whet the appetite of the audience.
4. 1. 2. The Body of the Poems
All the members of the troupe, as stated above, perform this section. After
both Amee and his appointed assistant performed the call/introduction, the whole
troupe altogether performed the response. This response is divided into the body
and the conclusion. The body is marked out from the conclusion by the fact that it
is performed twice by the whole troupe while the conclusion is performed for only
once by them. If the parts of Amee‟s poems are to be captured in a table-like
representation indicating their distinguishing performatic poetics, the following
would be that representation:

The Introduction: solo performance by the poet as well as by his assistant.
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The Body: repeated performance by the whole troupe.
The Ending: singular performance by the whole troupe.
Usually, once the song was raised by Amee and by his assistant, the whole troupe
responded. In singing the response, they took a break at a point to repeat the
performance. This repeated portion was thus the body of the poem. Once they
reached where they stopped earlier, they now proceeded to the singular
performance of the concluding part.
Understandably, the body of the poems is usually the longest part. As stated
above, it builds itself on what was raised in the introduction. This build-up is done
either by expanding on the issues raised, or by answering questions posed or by
starting a new topic completely different from what was mentioned in the
introduction. Indeed, Amee built his poems by more methods than can be discussed
here because the bodywork of his poems is not the main concern of this study. At
other times, the call/introductory part of the poem poses a puzzle or a riddle which
the body explains as particularly found in Amee 93. In some cases, the introduction
paints a picture which the body ends up painting a contrast of as in Amee 89. The
two methods that predominate in building the bodies of the poems are development
by expansion and development by contrast. Instances of either of these shall now
be briefly provided beginning with where the poet announced the subject of his
song in the introductory section and expanded on it in the body. This is in Amee 8
where there are the following lines introducing the poem:
Kwagh aoo! Kwagh aoo!
I lu ku kpa pe ma M lu vaan Aye-wan ne ee; Even if it were death, this is how I would have

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been mourning for Aye‟s scion ee;
Er a lu ken purusu tsegher Now that he has only been imprisoned,
Kpa M ngu yan ambi WanShangev. I am already eating feces, Daughter-of-Shangev.
Ka me sôn or kwagh, When I request for anything from anyone,
Nan kenger mo gbononono He looks at me with gbononono disregard,
Er M za Aye-wan a nam. That I should go and get it from Aye‟s scion.
Senegh bundem or oo: Pleading-for-things has hindered my manliness:
Ka M hemba or iyol M kua ishima, I am often above certain fellows in both body
and heart,
Kpa nan côvur mo ijime ee. Yet they would be dirtying my back ee.
The background of the above poem is that Iorkyaa Aye, one of the composer‟s
patrons, was imprisoned. The poet-persona has therefore called Kwagh, another
patron, and is reporting how in Aye‟s absence, he no longer has anyone who would
take care of him. To him, Aye‟s imprisonment is like death since other people are
already treating him (the poet-persona) with ignominy. In fact, he equates his
experiences in Iorkyaa Aye‟s absence with “eating feces” since even the people that
he is ordinarily better than are taking advantage of him because of his poor
circumstances resulting from Iorkyaa‟s imprisonment. This is the background and
that is how the poet has laid it in the introduction.
The body of the poem is expanded on the poet-persona‟s sorry situation. It
shows him roaming all over Ukumland in vain search for succour (line 10). He,
however, refuses to be ashamed and chooses to continue looking for help by going
to more people (line 11). He therefore proceeds with his wandering to Tyôkuha
Wanza and Wantyôu Aguu – both of whom are, unfortunately, dead (lines 15 and
17) – aggravating his frustration. From there, he called on Orya Anyakpa (lines 18

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and 19), another patron to come to his help, but soon realizes that this patron too
has a lot of tragedies surrounding him as indicated in the moodiness of his wives –
Ngueku and Daughter-of-Gbagir Zer (lines 20 – 22). Luckily for the poet-persona,
he has found Kwaghnzughul Naakyo Kidam Agoho (line 23 – 24) who has taken
care of his problems by rewarding him with a horse (line 26 and 27). Other people
whom he has come across and received help from are: Cieve Tsavbee Muri Nyaga
and his wife Adetor (lines 29 – 31), Vaa of Ngyeke and his wife “rough-and-rugged-
Daughter-of-Ato Mdenga” (lines 32 – 34), Mlanga Adiko and his wife Daughter-of-
Mbabookyo (lines 41 – 3). But just before getting to Mlanga Adiko, the poet invokes
the names of four of his patrons: Gôn Buruku Duku, Judge Aciniya Norum and his
wife Daughter of Hyande, and Adoo Daughter-of-Aveil who was Amee‟s woman
friend (lines 36 – 40). After this, the body of the poem ends with Mlanga Adiko.
What we have seen about the body of Amee‟s poems in the above illustration
is a situation where the body has expanded what the introduction initiated. In the
introduction, the persona complained of his difficulties due to the imprisonment of
one of his valuable patrons, the body of the poem has expanded on the persona‟s
difficulties but shown his eventual deliverance. This approach to building the body
of his poems is very appropriate because it shows satisfactory artistic development.
The other method that Amee used frequently in building the body of his
poems was contrast. This was where the composer constructed the body of the
poem by a complete abandonment of the issues raised in the introductory part. In
Amee 19 for instance, the five-line introductory part is based on the subject of how
song performance has negatively become an exclusively economic enterprise:

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Imo hingir kpenga mba mase gberen agar agar Song has become business! See how they sing it
oo! M vôr a imo ve ee. in every village oo! I am tired of singing
Imo kpa mba we ka kwaghfan Igyohia Butu Song is composed in accordance with wisdom,
Ikyamgba, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
Ande Kwagh aoo! Ande Kwagh aoo!
M va kpa M ngu shin hua; I have come but am yet at the precincts of the
ee.
compound;
Ior mba fe iyou ki dion sha mende. People recognize the good yam by its tendril.
The poet-persona is here accusing composers who have turned their art primarily
into merchandise. He is indeed worried that every village has a composer and most
of these composers are not worthy of the name; they are just businessmen
composing primarily for money. Such commercialization is against Tiv traditional
composition ethics. Of course composers ask for rewards, but traditionally, such
rewards should not stop them from telling the truth even to their patrons when
such patrons go wrong anywhere. But artists who are fake in the sense of the poet-
persona's rebuke here, would sing praises to even a rogue if he rewards them.
These are the kind of performers the poet-persona is attacking in those opening
lines. Line 3 shows that their compositions are devoid of wisdom. And the
implication of the fourth line is that, those hireling composers are so ubiquitous that
they have taken every available space in the arena at the contrived song occasion in
those introductory lines. The poet-persona therefore says he has come but has no
place to perform in the arena so he is waiting at the precincts of the compound. He
hopes that someone would discover the petty nature of the hireling poets in the
arena and show them the way out, clearing the square for him to come and
perform – hence the proverb in line 5. This is the background that the introductory

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part has laid. Ordinarily, one expects that the body of the poem would continue on
this motif. But the poet-persona rather announces in the very first line of the body
(line 6) that he "will not pursue that matter further" and moves on to another topic.
This exemplifies the fact that even though the body of Amee‟s poems is often
an expansion of what was introduced in its call part, there are times when the body
abandons the introductory topic completely and picks on a different subject. More
examples of this can be seen in Amee 33, 43, 65 etc. The value of these two
methods of building the body of the poems is the variety they each bring into a
poem and their general artistic engagingness.
4.1.3. The Ending Part of the Poems
This part is also performed by all the members of the troupe but only once;
not twice as done for the body and not solo performances as for the introductory
part. When they have repeated the body of the song for the second time as
mentioned above, the troupe now proceeds onto the ending.
Length-wise, the ending is most of the times shorter than the body;
occasionally it is even shorter than the introduction. In fact, sometimes, the ending
is just a single line (as in Amee 39 & 54). But there are few instances in which the
ending is longer than both the body and the introduction (Amee 11, 27, & 92).
These should, however, be regarded as exceptions rather than the rule.
The function of the ending is obvious. It brings the song to an end. This is
done by two strategies; the first is the voice-based strategy, the second is a voice-
based and summary technique. Of the first technique, it needs to be pointed out
that Tiv songs generally end by slowing down the speed of the voice to a stop. This

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is what has been termed here as voice-based ending strategy. The voice is
manipulated in a manner that indicates the ending at hand. To illustrate this in
Amee‟s performance, the voice, which was certainly high-pitched all along, began to
drag some four or even five lines before the final stop – depending on the length of
the ending part. Anyone listening who is acquainted with the poet or with Tiv
performance generally knows that the poem is heading to an end. Unfortunately,
this voice manipulation is untranslatable even with ethnopoetic methods. Thus,
critics only reading the songs and not hearing it are likely to be unaware of the
voice-based ending strategy of the poet and may be tempted to mistake the ending
of such songs as being loose.
Then, there is the ending by summary. There are some instances when
Amee has ended by summarizing the discussion in the body of the song. One such
example is Amee 8 which was considered when commenting on the body of the
poems above. The introduction of the poem talks about the poet-persona's grief
over the imprisonment of Iorkyaa Aye, one of his patrons. Since this patron has
been imprisoned, the poet-persona laments that there is no one to give him
rewards any longer. The persona tells of his woe whenever he requests anything
from anyone. Even the people that are below him in all senses of the word have
decided to look down on him as a result of his plight in Iorkyaa Aye's absence. The
introduction of the song thus lays a background of the poet-persona's
discouragement and disillusionment. The body of the poem, then, begins with the
poet-persona's determination not to give up even though he has gone round all of
Ukumland searching in vain for a patron to fill the gap the imprisoned patron has

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left vacant. Ordinarily, the poet-persona should be ashamed of going about for so
long with no results, "but I will not be ashamed", he says in the second line of the
body of the poem (line 12). He thus decides to forge ahead in his hunt for a
generous patron to fill the empty space. Now the persona shows himself as being
lucky to meet other patrons who have given him rich rewards. He keeps listing
them and commenting on their song-rewarding abilities till the ending of the poem.
Then the poem, calling one of the patrons, ends:
Pine WanMbatinyam aa Ask Daughter of the Mbatinyam aa
M hee shin ii? Am I in shame? (Lines 55 & 56).
This ending, summarizingly, refers back to the motif of shame that was mentioned
in the beginning of the song and was developed in its body. Similar conclusions are
found in Amee 9, 62, and 78 etc. This illustrates that, even though Amee, like
numerous other Tiv poets, most of the times achieves his endings primarily by
voice-based techniques, he sometimes, in addition to that voice, concludes by
summarizing the issues in his rendering.
4.1.4. Four-part Structure
Now, it is only left to mention the few Amee compositions that defy the
three-part division of introduction-body-ending. They are exemplified in Amee 14,
51, 70, 73 and 84 which actually have four parts. Even though the technique of
performing these four parts is within the three-part parameters discussed above,
there are certain peculiarities that are specific to these poems. Then, Amee 1, 44,
64 & 93 have only two parts each. These are clear exceptions. The rule of Amee‟s
poems is that they are explicitly divided into three parts. Indeed, even in the few

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songs that do not have the explicit arrangement of the introduction-body-ending,
the three parts are discernable in the general framework of the poems‟ structure.
As a last word regarding the division of the poems, the strategy of dividing
the poems helped to make Amee‟s compositions an artistic whole. It can be said
that the introduction of the poems established the datum or initial event, the body
built it into conflict onto a climax and the ending served as the denouement. Even
this structural organization demonstrates the composer‟s dexterity which is the
concern of this study.
4.2. SPECIFIC STRUCTURAL TECHNIQUES IN AMEE
Having known the poems' general parts and the functions each of the parts
performs, as well as the artistic appropriateness of the various divisions, it is good
to now look at the structural narrative technique at work in each poem. What are
the structural designs that characterize Amee‟s composition? By structural designs,
it is meant the shape of the poems; that is, their outward form. And to my thinking,
this design is explainable in Amee basically through what can be regarded as
formula.
On formula in oral poetry, it is difficult to comment without reference to the
oral formulaic theory of Milman Parry and Albert Lord which has already been
discussed in the theoretical framework for this research. But C.M. Bowra's zealous
subscription to this theory deserves to be pointed out here again. Bowra has agreed
with the oral formulaic theorists that formula is indispensable in the composition of
heroic poetry (221 – 53). Furthermore, he, acceptably, defined formula as "a set of
words which is used, with little or no change, whenever the situation with which it

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deals occurs" (222). What is more, he has appreciably gone on to observe the
presence and peculiarities of formula in heroic poems beginning from Homer to
Beowulf, to Gilgamesh and various other heroic poems in Russia and the then
Yugoslavia. The problem with Bowra's otherwise exhaustive presentation, however,
is that he has gone on to base his argument on the assumption that "improvisation
is common and may well be the fundamental method of performance" (216) just
like Parry and Lord also did 1 . If those words seem to make some allowance for any
other kind of performance, his subsequent treatment of the subject does not
recognize that allowance. So in the end, it is only improvised poetry that he takes
account of. All heroic poetry, and indeed poetry generally, he implies, is improvised.
By improvisation, he means a situation where "the bard who recites a poem,
composes it in the art of recitation" (216); this position is just like that of the other
theorists of this school.
For present purposes, it must be immediately pointed out that the
delimitating boundaries Bowra set for the definition of heroic poetry were inevitably
crippled by the critical limitations of his time. Thus, they exclude African heroic
poems, an example of which Daniel Kunene has admirably provided in his Heroic
Poetry of the Basotho. In any case, the impression that improvisation is the
fundamental technique in heroic poetry or oral poetry generally is, as said earlier,
incorrect. Besides, it is not heroic poetry only that improvises. That is to say, it is
not only heroic poetry that uses formulas. Tiv oral poetry does not exploit the in-
performance improvisation argued by oral-formulaic scholars as maintained in the
introductory chapter of this research, yet it contains some formulas. The Tiv bard

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composes his lays in privacy and commits them to memory and performs them on
demand. When asked at any other time to repeat a particular performance, he
repeats it exactly as he performed it before – unlike the otherwise respectable
examples Bowra cited from Matthias Murko and Milman Parry (217 – 18). My
position is therefore that formula is not a preserve of improvisation; all oral poets
relying on their memories desperately need mnemonic methods as Denys
Thompson has sufficiently shown (36 – 42). Since formula happens to be one such
method, the poets often employ it to enhance their performances. It is because of
this fact that formulaic materials are available even to the poet of this study. The
materials define the structure of his poems.
Of formula defining the structure of a poem, it needs to be added that an
oral poet may be compared to a bricklayer. He has a mould into which he pours
clay and lays the bricks. Certainly he has a formula for mixing cement and sand for
the bricks, but there is a sense in which his mould too is his formula. This is
because the shape of the mould determines the shape of the blocks. A poet too has
his cement and sand: his words and figures. What qualifies him for the name of
poet is his ability to mix these raw materials with creative precision. Often, he
resorts to formula in the course of manipulating the raw materials. But he also has
a mould which determines the shape of his poems. This mould may be called his
narrative/descriptive/exposition style. This too is his formula since it shapes his
poems. Thus, it can be argued that there is a linguistic formula that poets like Amee
use. This has to do with their idiosyncratic way of manipulating words. But apart
from words, it can also be argued that there is a non-linguistic formula which has

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nothing to do with words. It is the mould which the poet has and into which he
pours the words he has already mixed.
In Amee, the linguistic formula involves his manipulation of proper names
and clauses; the non-linguistic formula involves what I regard as a roll call style and
a collocative placement of persons. These two kinds of formula in his poetry would
therefore now be discussed one after the other in the following design: under
linguistic formula, proper names and formulaic clauses will be discussed; and under
non-linguistic formula, formulaic roll call and collocative placement of persons will
be the focus.
4.2.1. Linguistic Formula
Proper names
In the previous chapter, I mentioned that the most frequently mentioned
person in Amee‟s poetry is Julius Gbabo whose name is often shortened as either J.
Gbabo or simply Gbabo. In trying to determine Gbabo's status compared to other
people mentioned by the poet, it was maintained that even though J. Gbabo has
been so frequently mentioned, he is not a major addressee in these poems because
the poems mention him that often basically for "artistic purposes." Part of what I
meant by the phrase "artistic purposes" is the formulaic utility that Gbabo‟s name
serves the poet. Julius Gbabo therefore provides the best example of a proper name
employed by Amee for formulaic purposes. The name is thus not only the most
frequently mentioned, it has subsequently become, the most formulaically
employed. How does Gbabo's name act as formula in the poems?

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Amee has employed this name as the formula for endings. The name is used
to end some lines, or to end part of some poems or even to end some whole poems
altogether. Of the 38 times that the composer has mentioned this name in the
poems, it occurs at endings for twenty-four times. Illustration: Amee 66: 45 – 49
reads:
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam
Zer cirin mo Has been threatening me
Sha iya na je M var gbande M ver; WanVagi, About [my coming to] his house so much that I
have constructed a drum and kept;
Daughter-of-Vagi,
Tese ishima ior i nenge, Gbabo oo Show your heart for people to see, Gbabo oo
Bosua Uga ee… Bosua Uga ee…
Here, Gbabo ends line 48. The name performs the same function in Amee 20:33,
32: 15, 41: 35, 43: 7, 50: 12, 52: 62, 86: 13, 88: 20, and 93: 49. Then, Amee 19:
39 and 40 exemplify Gbabo's name formulaically used to end part 2 of the poem:
Dugh yô mir a mir imo jimjimjim kwagh doo When she came out, she declared a song-party
igbya yam Kparev mba kuhan a kuha altogether for me; how this pleased the
girinya; Kparev my maternal kinsmen who
are rehearsing the girinya dance;
Suen mve oo, Gbabo oo. [And] boasting of how they will come
necessarily oo Gbabo oo.
The following are other instances where the name ends either part 1 or 2 of any
poem: Amee 30: 33, 33: 8, 34: 8, 76: 7, 77: 7, 89: 35, 90: 9, and 93: 11.
Then:
Mo M ngu van eee Now I am coming eee.
Iortyer Tor Musa Agbe, shi lam a Iortyer Chief Musa Agbe, do talk with
WanMbatyam aoo Daughter-of-Mbatyam aoo,
Aza u Gaase ngula van la Adoonyumbe Aza of Gaase: look at her coming Adoonyumbe
Baka oo, J. Gbabo oo Baka oo, J. Gbabo oo.

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The above lines show the formulaic characteristic under discussion. J. Gbabo‟s
name has been used here to end the whole of Amee 34. The same is the case in
Amee 29, 43, 60, 66, 87, and 89.
Where Gbabo's name is not used for endings as shown above, it is used as a
pause. Thus, on certain occasions, it occurs within lines for pause purposes (Amee
3: 53, 39: 15, and 56: 26). Besides that, the name appears alone on a line – still, to
lubricate pauses. So lines 13 to 19 of Amee 74 go:
Kwagh kpa M cie ga tsô M da kpera imange yam I don‟t even have caution and have dragged
i wuam trouble my way so let it kill me
Hen iya u Tyoor Gber Ifan In the house of Tyoor the Chief Gber Ifan
Tershagba ooo! Tershagba ooo!
Kpa ka Mbaterem tsô He too is still of the Mbaterem [sub-clan].
Gbabo ooo, Gbabo ooo,
Wan u Toryôu nenge a mo tsa shirin ishima Daughter of Toryôu saw me and kept a
ape wen a er a doo yô eee, night vigil sighing over what she would
do and it would be good eee,
WanShitile fa inja i nom na Daughter-of-Shitile knows her husband‟s heart.
The poet-persona has set out in this instance to flatter his patron by blaming
himself for the lack of caution which has landed him (the poet-persona) in trouble in
the house of that patron (Tyoor Gber Ifan Tershagba, a man of Mbaterem sub-
clan). The poet-persona's complaint should be taken for what it is: a rhetorical
device. The trouble in that patron's house that he is blaming himself about is that of
being overloaded with rewards. (This rhetorical technique is vintage Amee). But the
poet hardly mentions a patron without mentioning that patron's wife as well; so he
goes on to mention Tyoor Gber Ifan‟s wife by both her father's name (line 18) and
her clan's (line 19). These are quite respectable forms of address for Tiv women.
And since it is the woman that is in charge of the house, she is the one that ensures

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the comfort of whoever comes in. In this example, the poet-persona is passing the
night so he, with his creative freedom, paints the picture of how this lady has spent
the whole night thinking of how she would particularly impress the poet-persona
the following day. But she knows her husband's (generous) character (line 19) so
the poet-persona should be assured of very good treatment the following day.
Before the persona goes into this picture of the woman, however, he pauses for a
breath in line 17, and the pause point is Gbabo's name. This is how Amee
sometimes uses this name as formula for pauses. In this situation, the name
occupies its own line. The same situation, with some slight variations, is found in
Amee 73: 21, 63: 40, 53: 37, 51: 10, 37: 23, and 28: 33.
If Julius Gbabo's name is used for endings and pauses, Kwaghbula Azege's
forms the formula for beginnings. Of the twenty-eight times that Kwaghbula is
mentioned, twenty-one of the mentions have something to do with beginnings.
Indeed, many of the poems begin with his name (Amee 9, 23, 27, 29, 31, 34, 39,
47, 51, 52, 54, 74, 78, 90, 91, and 92). At other times, his name is used in the last
line of the call part of the poem with a voice shape that is deliberately designed to
usher in the body of the poem. In the transcriptions and translations, I have
accompanied the use of his name this way with either an exclamation mark or a
colon – depending on the nature of the voice shape. This is what is obtained in
Amee 4: 7, 25: 8, 63: 4, and 70: 10 and so on and so forth.
But even beside Julius Gbabo and Kwaghbula Azege, many other patrons'
names occur in formula fashion. There are patrons who are always called with at
least one or two of the names of their ancestors (Nahanga Bede Akundô/Tarywe,

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Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke, Abyem Gaga Myaki, Ageewua
Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam, Iorpande Caha Biam Ala, Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen, Aciniya
Norum Agundô etc), while some are always called by their names and those of only
one of their fathers only (Atôndu Tiôn, Julius Gbabo, Ibi Adabu, Ziki Nor, Gôn Duku,
Ishima Zaki, Likici Agbe, etc). For some patrons, their names are almost always
accompanied by a sobriquet that the poet has created for them. For example,
Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena is often accompanied by the appellation of
Ishimagande the-big-hearted and Orya Anyakpa is hardly mentioned without the
eulogue of Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing fellow. Of Ziki Nor, it is the phrase
"friend, my dear friend" that is always formulaically accompanying his name. These
are some of the other structure-defining formulaic practices relating to proper
names in Amee. And as indicated earlier, they help the narrative flow as well as the
rhythmic pattern of the compositions.
Now, why did Amee design a particular formula from a particular name?
Formulas are usually crafted for the poet's artistic convenience. The issue of
convenience covers more than the mnemonic purpose that was mentioned earlier; it
includes performative as well as rhetorical factors. A fit example should be Julius
Gbabo's name. The name Gbabo ends with /o/ and incidentally, this is a very
important sound in Tiv poetry generally because its lengthened form is usually
employed for endings in songs. It is easier, for instance, to find most Tiv poems
having lines or parts ending with "oo" (sometimes it is even longer, "ooo") than
with "aa", "uu", "ii" or any other sound. Apart from "oo", "ee" (sometimes "eee") is
the only other sound that performs the ending function very frequently. Yet, many

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poets go for the former. Amee, however, used both of these ending-sounds. Still,
the former (oo or ooo) occurred more frequently. In Amee 1, for instance, "oo"
occurs eleven times but "ee" only nine. Indeed, this is what is obtained throughout
the poems; and it is a clear illustration that the poet preferred oo-endings to "ee"
and since Gbabo's name also ends with /o/, it was very phonetically comfortable to
bring it in so that it could harmonize with the "oo" sounds which the poet preferred.
But Gbabo is not the only person in the poems whose name ends with an O,
why was his name still preferred by this poet as an ending formula? From all
indications, Gbabo's name distinguishes itself syllabically for the poet. It contains
only two syllabi and it is obvious that the poet did not find multi-syllabic names
good enough for his endings. Understandably, an oral poet should not be ending a
poem or a part of it, or pausing somewhere within it, with a word containing too
many syllabi. In a well composed poem, the end should be resolving things, not
complicating them as will be the case if a multi-syllabic name is employed. This is
why even in using Gbabo's name, Amee often abbreviated the first name, Julius, to
just “J” so as to cut down the number of syllabi. Thus the poet, for instance, did not
use the name of Adogo, another patron, much to end his songs because even
though this name also ends with an /o/, it is trisyllabic. Amee obviously preferred
multi-syllabic names somewhere else in his poems not at the end of lines or parts of
a poem or the whole poem. He did not even want it at the beginning of the poems.
That is why even though Kwaghbula Azege features prominently in beginning
poems as said above, the poet often cut down this long name to ‟Bula ‟Zege rather
than the full Kwaghbula Azege. This goes to show the composer as a very skilful

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sound engineer, indeed, a creator fully conscious of words and their nuances. That
expertise in sound arrangement very much influenced the design of the formulas
which have formed the structure of his poems.
Formulaic clauses
Amee also used certain clauses formulaically. Clauses like Kwagh er doo
kwav ga/ Kwagh er ve /Kwagh sende iwa ve, M ta gbaka ishima ngi amen mo,
ihyom yam ne etc, are instances. I shall now consider each of these briefly.
The clauses Kwagh er doo kwav ga/ Kwagh er ve/Kwagh sende iwa ve are
placed together here because they all express the same meaning. They can all be
translated as Matters have reached the climax. Of the three expressions, the last is,
representatively, explainable. Igoil has explained the clause, Kwagh sende iwa ve
(literally, matters have hooked up dog-fashion), by correctly connecting it to dogs‟
mating habit (“Cultural Aspects” 341). When dogs are mating, the male dog's organ
hooks up inside the female's; the two are therefore trapped inside each other and
remain there until they both reach the climax. This is only when it is possible for
them to disengage without either of them experiencing pain. This "hooking up" has
passed into a Tiv idiom denoting the high points of any situation especially its
climax. Kwagh/Ikyaa er doo kwav ga (literally, a thing happened in a bad-skinned
manner) and Kwagh/Ikyaa er ve (literally, something has happened) are the other
clauses used by the poet to express similar situations. But these other two do not
contain the sociological detail that Kwagh sende iwa ve has. They are just typical
idioms without any etymological background. Now Amee has employed all three to
paint the charged atmospheres of some of his pictures.

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In Amee 12 for example, the poet-persona is celebrating his luck over the
rewards that patrons are out-doing each other in bestowing on him. Then he comes
to where Kurakwaghga Anyakpa has sent a message for him (lines 31 and 32) –
obviously to give him yet more rewards. The poet-persona now exclaims Kwagh er
ve WanMbatyam aa (The matter has climaxed, Daughter-of-Mbatyam aa, line 37).
In other words, he is overwhelmed by the fact of this patron's message; for, he
would definitely receive more rewards there. This is how Amee uses this clause
formulaically anywhere there is a situation similar to this. Another instance is in
Amee 66 when Atôndu Tiôn arrives at the already charged atmosphere of a song-
party where other patrons have been displaying their wealth. At Atôndu's arrival,
the poet resorts to this formula: Kwagh sende iwa ve! (Matters have reached their
climax! line 41). This is because Atôndu's arrival has added fuel to an already
combustible situation. Then, in Amee 53: 52 the poet says, Kwagh er iyange la ka u
doon kwav ga! (Literally, “What happened that day did not have a good skin!”).
There are more examples of this in Amee 45: 47, 46: 42, 61: 45, 94: 39, 3: 58, 12:
76, 17: 48, 36: 60, 43: 40, 52: 18, 61: 1, 64: 1 and 7, 79: 41, 89: 34 etc
Often Amee screams lamentingly Ihyom yam ne oo! (How enmity has trailed
me oo!) This clause is his formula for situations where the persona is focusing on
matters that are less pleasant. Amee 92: 11, for instance, contains the clause
because the poet-persona is about to comment on the death of Ukaave Tsua, one
of his favourite patrons according to the song. Then, Amee 19: 27 says Ihyom a mo
a mo oo (Enmity after me, after me oo) because he is bothered about the multiple
deaths occurring around Angule Dem, another patron. There are more examples in

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Amee 22: 15, 39: 10, 53: 60, 57: 1, 58: 49, 63: 5 etc. Indeed, it is not possible to
exhaust the instances of formulaic clauses in the poetry of Amee.
4.2.2. Non-linguistic Formula
Formulaic roll call
In Homer‟s The Iliad, there is often a formulaic roll call of warriors both on
the Achaean and on the Trojan sides: Achilles, Agamemnon, Odysseus, Hector etc.
John Milton's Paradise Lost also takes time in Book 2 to describe Hell's warriors
beginning from Satan himself to Beelzebub and Moloch down to Mulciber. It is clear
that this kind of roll call is a characteristic ingredient of epic poetry. Interestingly,
Amee too has employed the roll call technique to aid the narrative progress of his
compositions; and he employs it with formulaic consistency.
This is exemplified in Amee 62 which contains the following scenario: The
poet-persona begins with a complaint concerning Kina Shondu whose death has
made him (the persona) to decide on committing suicide "in this month" (line 2).
But Shiim Torkon Hiinyam forbade him from his intended suicide. Shiim requested
that the poet-persona should hold on concerning such plans because "Daughter of
Gbinde has a thing to do with me, so I should hold on for a while" (line 5). The lady
in this line is Shiim‟s wife and what is happening is that the poet-persona decided to
commit suicide because since Kina Shondu has died, he does not know who else
would be his benefactor again. But Shiim, another song patron, has risen to the
occasion and demonstrated that even though the other patron is dead, he (the
living one) will not allow the poet-persona to be unappreciated. Shiim has thus gone
ahead to declare a song-party for the poet-persona. That is the "thing" the

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Daughter of Gbinde “has to do” with the poet-persona as mentioned in line 5. The
rest of the poem is therefore dedicated to painting the picture of happenings at this,
of course contrived, song-party hosted by Shiim. The roll call of guests (who are the
poet's other patrons or who are friends to this particular patron) to the occasion
then begins.
Line 6 states: "Angol Ikyenge has arrived oo Angol Ikyenge has arrived ee”.
A few comments are made on this arrivant and line 8 brings in Sanker Ajav, another
patron but this one is just mentioned. Lines 9 and 10 are dedicated to Judge Aciniya
Norum who "came in a car"; panegyric comments are showered on Aciniya. Then,
line 15 mentions Chief Kwaor Akosho Ahuku, another guest; line 17, Iorpande
Caha; lines 21 to 23, "another...wild beast in the land of Mbayongu"; line 26,
Angule Deem; line 31, Iorkyaa Kpan Adi from Mbaikwe; line 33, Kunde Ager; line
34, Mnguaorga Wombu Makar; line 37, Ioryem Ikyaave; line 41, Vande Yongu
Abege; and finally, line 44, Adôm Agu Tema and Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam. After
everybody has arrived and settled down for the occasion, Shiim Torkon, the main
host of the event finally, in line 45, the last line, comes out with such honour that
"darkness descended ngighngighngigh". The poem ends there. This is the roll call
that is a formula in most of Amee's poems. Indeed, there is hardly any poem where
this technique is not found. The poet moves from patron to patron; as he moves,
he dwells briefly on each of them handing out panegyrics to them or making
requests or dropping didactic lessons or making general comments or simply just
mentioning the patrons' names in the hope that with that mention alone, the patron
would know what to do. In the case above, the persona, for example, uses the

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arrival of Ioryem Ikyaave (lines 37 and 38) to remind the arrivant of how he has
been threatening him (the poet-persona) about coming to his (the patron‟s) house
but has not fulfilled it. The idea of “threat” here is not negative as it seems on its
face value; it is the rhetorical device mentioned earlier which implies that the patron
has been threatening that whenever the poet comes to his house, he (the patron)
would kill him (the bard) with rewards.
Roll call is therefore a very important formula in Amee‟s poems. Even when it
is an elegy, the poet-persona moves from mourner to mourner with his comments
and critiques and panegyrics. This formula is at work in every Amee poem especially
the long ones. It can be said to be his main technique of narrative. It is not needful
to cite more examples, any long poem could be picked at random and this device
could be seen in its architecture. It only needs to be added that the formula helps
the poet to pay attention to as many of his patrons as possible in one poem. With
it, no patron is left out; all the patrons that need to be addressed are addressed.
This is comfortable for the oral poet‟s purpose is always to carry along as many
patrons as possible.
Collocative placement of persons
Closely related to roll call is Amee„s formulaic collocative placement of
persons in his songs. This has to do specifically with women. Amee hardly mentions
a patron in his songs without finding a way to also mention that patron's wife or
wives. This strategy is also proof of his dexterity in the choice and inclusion of
subjects in his compositions. For, the egos of the patrons would be more
successfully fondled when their wives are mentioned alongside them. Take the

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poem used to exemplify roll call above, for example; of the seventeen people
mentioned, twelve are mentioned along with their wives. Of the five whose wives
are not mentioned, one is the late Kina Shondu whose case is understandable;
another is Gbabo whose formulaic situation has been explained earlier and is
therefore also understandable. Thus, strictly speaking, only three people are not
mentioned along with their wives. One feels safe to conjecture that perhaps these
ones were not married. For, it is safe to aver that husbands and wives collocate in
Amee's poems. Tyôver Ninga collocates with Uhule or Daughter of Mbayenge or
Daughter of Ikyum Kpeese; Angol Ikyenge almost always goes with Daughter of
Damagudu; Beba Unzô is often with Daughter of Yaga; Faasema Nyôr is also often
with Daughter of Aganyi. It can therefore be safely maintained that there is no long
poem of Amee that an appreciable number of his patrons there are not mentioned
together with their wives. The consistency of this approach has reached formulaic
proportions. I need to hereby re-state that the care and design of the formulas in
Amee‟s poems bear witness to his artistic talent and resourcefulness.
4.3. CHRONOLOGY IN THE POEMS
Apart from the general structural divisions of Amee's poems and the formulas
in them, it is important, as a key to understanding and appreciating his narrative
style, to be aware that the poet generally said many different things at the same
time. A typical Amee poem addresses many issues in the same breath as found in
the concluding lines of Amee 94. The last part of this song comprising nine lines is
divided between praising Tsenzughul Hulugh Torhyande Tsa (lines 43 – 46), and
commenting on the various inter-ethnic wars in Tivland (line 47), and apologising to

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another patron over the persona‟s inability to pay him a condolence visit over the
misfortunes he has suffered (lines 48 – 51). And there is no warning at all that so
many issues are being addressed. The appreciator therefore needs to be equipped
by the knowledge of this poet‟s all-inclusive strategy to be able to follow the
narration. This is the way almost every Amee poem proceeds.
Even when a single story seems to be told, the story is hardly told in a clear
linear plot. The movement is back and forth, present, past and even future. This, of
course, is a common technique in modernist and post-modernist writers but Amee
proves that an oral poet who has not even read about those techniques can, with
his natural artistic inclination, employ them unknowingly. So in Amee 61, the poet
paints the picture of another song-party. This party is hosted by Beba Unzô Konjo.
Line 1 of the poem thus declares how "a thing has happened [in the compound of]
Unzô Konjo Aku" – the thing so mentioned is, of course, the contrived party. The
remaining lines of the first part of the poem show the chief host and his wife
dancing and singing very symbolic Tiv songs in celebration of the occasion. Thus,
the first part of the poem clearly shows the party in progress. But in the second
part, the poet-persona returns to tell Atôndu Tiôn his friend-patron to "declare a
drinking galore" for him so that he would drink for the last time since he is about to
go for the imo-mirin party at Beba Unzô Konjo and is likely not to return alive: the
hosts are likely to kill him there with rewards! The idea of asking Atôndu for a drink
is in keeping with the Tiv tradition of asking their favourite people for especially
edible things when they are nearing their deaths. It is felt that when your relation
dies with your food in his or her stomach, you are certainly blessed 2 . So, the poet-

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persona requests a last drink from Atôndu so that he will take it before attending
Beba‟s song-party where he thinks he will not return alive due to the amount of
rewards to be given to him there. But chronologically speaking, this is rather
challenging because the first part of the song demonstrated that the party was
already in progress and the poet-persona was already in attendance. This shows a
backward movement from the progress that the narration earlier indicated.
In the same vein, line 10 of the poem is very confusing tense-wise. For, in "lu
nyiar aôndu...” the Tiv original of the poem, lu is an auxiliary verb that denotes past
tense and present continuous; yet Amee brings it here and imposes a future aspect
on it – only reducing the grammatical tension of the linguistic violence by returning
to the past in the lines that follow immediately. Line 15 shows the poet and his
troupe seeking permission from the elder brother of the chief host of the occasion
to come into the venue. Requesting permission this way further demonstrates the
poet-persona‟s rhetorical fear: he is afraid of the danger in the compound so he is
taking every precaution and seeking assurances from relevant people about his
safety – safety from the danger of having too many rewards bestowed on him. This
kind of treatment of events in the poem continues until in line 22, the party is finally
in progress as Iorpande Caha arrives with his people. Line 24 presents Iorpande's
wife; thus, the roll call and collocative placement of persons begin. It is therefore
very chronologically stunning to come to line 32 and find the poet-persona telling
one of the arrivants to ask his wife (the patron's) to "send a cloth for me, I am
going for a song-party at Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo ['s compound]". One now wonders:
which song-party is already in progress from line 1 to 31? And which song-party is

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the poet looking for a cloth to wear and attend here in line 42? Thus chronologically
disorderly is Amee. Yet, the seeming disorder is another appropriate strategy in the
hands of the poet.
When seeming chronological complications such as those mentioned above
are observed, let them not be regarded as pointless confusion; the poet is usually
only using his creative license to paint situations like song-parties and rewards
received and many other pictures. For the picture to make the reader to "abandon
his disbelief" (like Coleridge rightly said) and compel the patrons to act along the
lines suggested by the song, it has to be realistic. The poet thus creates details that
enforce this realism but these details are usually only artistic, not factual. In fact,
the song-party itself is often an artistic creation, not a factual one. Tiv poets
contrive situations like these so as to make them or something close to them
happen in real life. Since the situation of the song-parties are only contrived, it is
certainly unwise for the poet to persist in the world of make-belief and mere fiction;
he thus often steals himself out of that world to the world of reality and makes
requests that are real and factual. Most of the song-parties Amee created and
attended were therefore often exhibited with what appeared anachronistic if not
approached with this appropriate understanding. The critic thus needs this
knowledge to be able to appreciate the back and forth, “unchronological” progress
of narration in the songs.
By this lack of linear development, Amee has inadvertently demonstrated his
dexterity as interestingly modernist along the lines of artists like James Joyce,
Virginia Woolf, William Faulkner, Kofi Awoonor, Wole Soyinka, as demonstrated by

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David Ker. These artists successfully released themselves from the chains that strict
linear chronology often imposes on the artist. But most of them only followed the
originators of the technique (Joyce and Woolf); Amee did not even hear of these
people; he just decided on his own in his village that chronology should serve his
poetry rather than the other way round. It is actually more possible that he did not
even make this decision consciously. The poet does not need to make every
decision consciously; once he has decided to be a creator, and is true to that
decision, he is most likely to end up creating greater things than he is conscious of.
Thus when asked about the great depths of one of his poems, Robert Frost
sincerely confessed that he did not actually know of all the depths of the poem; he
only felt that the poem had a certain "ulteriority" (Durill 3).
Then, was Amee's audience aware of the technical manipulations discussed
above? It is not likely that they were. Members of the audience do not need to
know all the details about any poet's choices before they enjoy his compositions.
Many people generally enjoy poetry without actually knowing what it is exactly that
they find appealing in it. Amee was a master craftsman whose thematic and
structural dexterity, as shown above, was accurate and adroit. And the audience
maximally enjoyed his art. In fact, in some of the audiocassettes containing his
poems, members of the audience can be heard in the background ululating and
exclaiming with excitement. And from what has been shown here, it is clear that
such reactions from them were not unfounded. In the next chapter, the poet‟s skill
demonstrated in his choice of diction as well as his manoeuvring of names would be
the centre of attention.

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CHAPTER FIVE
AMEE’S ORNATENESS: DICTION AND ONOMASTICS
It is an accepted fact of literature that both its form and its content are of
competing importance. The matter and the manner of a poem do not actually have
an airtight division between them but there is room to regard either of them on its
own rights. Critics have for long been correctly agreed on the significance of both.
Of course, there have been extreme positions concerning this. The Aestheticians' art
for art‟s sake theory, for instance, stressed the manner above the matter. That
position has, however, been discarded long ago especially by African scholars who
have clearly posited that the "African [artist] cannot afford the luxury of art for art‟s
sake" (Emenyonu v). In other words, African literature needs to serve a purpose. T.
S. Eliot, whose words demonstrate the general utilitarian significance of literature,
had put the matter better: “The „greatness‟ of literature cannot be determined
solely by literary standards; though we must remember that whether it is literature
or not can be determined only by literary standards” (ethicscenter.nd.edu). The
above fact notwithstanding, A. E. Housman's contention is useful in considering the
art of poetry: "poetry is not the thing said but a way of saying it" (qtd in Renner).
In agreement, poetrymagic.com has said, "the common view that poetry is more
concerned with how than with what is said, does contain an element of truth"
(“Sound Patterning”). This is the view subscribed to by this study. A stance like this
does not mean that the "what" of the poem is completely of no importance. In this
chapter, the focus shall be on the manner of the Tiv oral poems of Amee Ijôrpo. In
the previous chapters, most of what was said pertained to the matter of the poems;

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in the following chapters, attention is on how Amee has demonstrated his dexterity
in the manner of his renditions.
Of the place of "manner" in Tiv oral poetry generally, it is a fact that no
matter the relevance of a Tiv poet's themes, and no matter the appeal of his other
performance techniques, if his lays are not crafted with appropriate literary
strategies, he never has an audience beyond those obligated by family or friendship
ties. In other words, such a person fails in his composition endeavour.
The Tiv refer to literary devices generally as anzaakaa. This word has a very
large semantic coverage including proverbs, parables, allegories, in short, including
every figure of speech. The ethnic group has no names differentiating these various
tropes; the word anzaakaa is therefore deployed to refer to every noticeable artistic
skill in a poet's rendering. A poet adept in linguistic creativity is usually the favourite
of the society. People approvingly say of him that Ka a ôr kwagh ken anzaakaa
anzaakaa, that is, "He says his things in figures and figures." The things which he is
said “to say” are the subjects and themes of his composition; the figures he is
praised for using are the literary devices. Tiv poets know this and do strive to fulfil
the dual tasks of ensuring that their songs contain both matter and manner. In
Amee's poetry, as said above, the relevance of his matter occupied this study in the
third chapter. The fourth chapter dwelt on the resourcefulness of the packaging of
his poems. In the present chapter and the next, attention will be focused on the
appropriateness of his artistic manipulations. This chapter shall observe his artistry
under the following two headings:
(1) Diction,

(2) Onomastic Manipulation.
5.1. DICTION
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Diction is one of the defining characteristics of poetry generally. Its place is
so paramount that there was a time that an extreme idea of poetic diction was the
practice of all artists of the genre in the writing tradition. It is only during the
Romantic period that the strict notion of poetic diction was discarded. Yet,
poetrymagic.com maintains, with justice, that "Wordsworth…championed everyday
speech in his preface to Lyrical Ballads, but wrote the poetry in an educated
tongue" (“Word Choice in Poetry”). This gives testimony to the extremity of the
depths of the notion of poetic diction at a certain point in history. Happily, that
notion has now been laid aside. This fact notwithstanding, diction in itself remains
one of the defining criteria of poetry. It is for this reason that Brooks and Warren
affirm that "poetry selects details while prose accumulates details" (176). In the
selection of the details, the poet is careful about the words that he chooses. For, as
Samuel Johnson once advised: "Words too familiar, or too remote, defeat the
purpose of a poet" (“Giga Quotes”). Thus, X. J. Kennedy has said that: “poets take
great pains to find the right word. Unable to fill a two-syllable gap in an unfinished
line that went, “The seal‟s wide --- gaze toward paradise,” Hart Crane paged
through an unabridged dictionary. When he reached S, he found the object of his
quest…” (444). Indeed, poets do their best to use just the right words. That is, the
words that are neither too familiar nor too remote, and whose sounds enhance,
rather than clash, with the intended sense. An exhaustive discussion of diction
actually means a discussion of all the literary devices employed in poetry. For, it is

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out of word choice that these figures emerge. Maduka and Eyoh have demonstrated
this in Fundamentals of Poetry by looking at diction from various directions that end
up covering all the major devices used in poetry. This study, however, concerns
itself with touching only those aspects of word choice in Amee that would not
interfere with the subsequent discussion of the other prominent figures in his art.
Such an approach makes room for a more exhaustive analysis since it allows the
other figures to also be appreciated in their own rights. The analysis is therefore
only concerned with the fact that Amee often employed archaic diction, manipulated
registers, borrowed words from other languages, and created new words and
expressions where necessary. Each of these will now be briefly considered.
5.1.1. Archaic Words
Kwagh er a er kera je: A thing has happened, has happened indeed:
Torkon u Hiinyam mar ônuv nav aa. Torkon of Hiinyam, has given birth to his own sons aa.
Ka ônuv mba tswerev ga; a yegh a They are not playthings; it is fireballs that he has
yegh usu ee, flamed up ee,
Agwa za je mande sha Uvaamyande [Their] fame has so spread that it has reached even
the Uvaamyande people.
WanUdende ôv buci kôr dôsugh a Daughter-of-Udende drew the buci sword and made a
wuhev nav a turn with her fellow wives a –
Mba tan mzeryou... They are stinging [in the] honey bee [style]...
These are lines 7 to 12 of Amee 64. The poet, as a panegyric background for Shiim
Torkon, one of his patrons, begins by adoring the patron's father for giving birth to
he-men – among who is the poet's benefactor, Shiim. Line 10 declares that the
fame of the sons of Torkon has spread far and wide. In the next line, the poet
moves to this patron's most senior wife and "her fellow wives" – this shows that the
addressee is a great man with a large household. The most senior wife is shown as

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drawing her sword; and she and the other wives are said to be stinging like
mzeryou honeybees reputed for the emphatic pain of their poison. Of course, the
violent imagery contained in the drawing of the sword and the bee-style stinging is
symbolic of the ferocity of the women in rewarding the poet. One other rhetorical
value of these images is that they demonstrate the heroic character of the women
and subsequently, of their husband, the man whom the poet is actually praising,
albeit, indirectly. The metaphorical significance of these figures shall be discussed
when looking at metaphors; for now, attention is just on the fact that the word buci
in these lines exemplifies archaic diction in Amee. The current Tiv word for “sword”
is sanker. The poet‟s preference for the archaic word adds to the panegyric
significance because the Tiv regard the past with the utmost respect as opposed to
the current fashions that, to them, are geared towards cultural erosion. Associating
someone with the past in traditional Tiv society is therefore an uncommon honour.
This archaic word is thus appropriate because of its potential to fan the right
egotistic embers in the patron concerned. Apart from the word buci, even the verb
used with it is also very archaic. Ôv (line 16) is not a current Tiv word; the current
word is tsua. This is another instance of the poet‟s choice of an archaic word.
There are actually more illustrations of archaic diction in this poet. For
instance, in describing his shock concerning the deaths in the compound of one of
his patrons, the poet-persona uses the word kpishi (Amee 48: 10): Kpishi tam iyol
(A kpishi shock shuddered my body). This word is of very archaic stock; in fact, I
had to seek help to understand that kpishi, apart from its current meaning of
plenteousness, also meant “shock” in olden-day Tiv language. Another example of

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an archaic word is in Amee 84. In this case too, just as that of kpishi, the word in
question is still in currency, it is the meaning it appropriates in this context that is
archaic. The word is ikyundu which means the number “twenty”. This is how Amee
has used the word:
Dajo Pav M hide ve ooo Dajo Pav I have come back ooo,
M za shin Gbamwuan Tor Kpen M hide ve, I went to Gbamwuan Chief Kpen and has
iombur-or o returned: the iombur-or dried-man o,
Ngu a nenge a mo hen gbenda kpa a vihi When he meets me even on the road he
ikyundu sha a mo spends a twenty on me.
WanMbagen aoo! Nomugh ya gande ve eee. Daughter-of-Mbagen aoo! Your husband has
earned supremacy eee (lines 1 – 4).
Let it first be explained that the reference to the concerned patron as “iombur-or
dried-man” in line 2 is a praise word implying that the patron is not a cold and
inactive person; he is a rare personality implying that many of such are not found in
Tivland. But the archaism of my attention is the word “twenty” in line 3. Twenty as
used here is not in the current manner. This usage goes back to ancient times when
the Tiv referred to animals, tugudu native clothes, and anything of economic value
according to the amount of money they felt it was worth. A goat that was big
enough to be sold for twenty shillings was respectably referred to as “a twenty”.
This usage has been out of practice for a very long time now but the poet needed
archaisms to mobilize freshness in his diction and, subsequently, eulogize his
patrons. So he employed “a twenty” here. When he needed to mention money
somewhere else, he, again, used another archaic term. “Look for some bashi brass
rods for me ee", he told the concerned patron (Amee 18: 16). Bashi is the brass
rods that, according to Bohannan‟s Tiv Economy, were used in Tiv land as money in
pre-colonial times by prestigious people (qtd. in Igirgi 70). The current word for

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money is inyaregh. By going back to all these archaic words, the poet certainly has
provided a guard against over-familiarity with his diction. In fact, more than that, he
increases the semantic weight of whatever he has said and in many cases also
enhanced the panegyric value of the rendition.
There are more examples of archaic words in Amee but only a few more
examples will be cited here as evidence. One such instance is found in the
description of his plight in the hands of his clansmen where the poet-persona says
in Amee 78: 7: Ityô yam haam shosho iyol (My clansmen have poured the shosho
spiritually-disabling-force on me). Shosho refers actually to a force in Tiv witchcraft
practice. According to Tiv religion, wizards use this force on whomever they want to
destroy. Once that force is released magically on the individual, he becomes
powerless and the witches and wizards do whatever they wish with him without his
physical protest. This lack of protest is not because he has been hypnotized; it is
simply because he has become too weak to react. A more current, albeit, less
accurate term for this phenomenon is nzughul. Shosho is quite archaic and thus,
further articulates the sorry plight that the poet-persona is describing.
It is, however, not only in the above instance that the poet has gone into Tiv
traditional religion for some of his archaic terms. In Amee 80: 7 and 8, there is this
metaphor:
Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
Or u ke‟ Kpav ka adeunee ee. Man from Kpav [clan] is an adeunee
masquerade ee.
Adeunee is a sacred masquerade that has been extinct in Tivland for a very long
period of time. Its name too has died out of currency. This is the same situation
with the masquerades used as vehicles in a metaphor of Amee 81: 71: "Vande

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Yongu Ikyô Abege is both the akume and ayajôu masquerades." Another archaic
term from the religious domain is in the following imagery:
Cado Akaaer u Adudu Zaanaku, Cado Akaaer of Adudu Zaanaku,
Wua iyar yô, wua iyar ityev, Killed a deer, killed a deer of the farms –
Mase sôughun ijôughultyo How he invokes the ijôughultyo religious emblems!
(Amee 81: 29 – 31).
Line 30 refers to a deer of the farms because the Tiv refer to domestic cows that
are very big as deer of the homestead; a deer of the farms means of course the
deer in the bush. In traditional society, only great people could kill a deer single-
handedly. It was therefore normal for a person who had accomplished a feat like
killing a deer to celebratingly invoke the name of his father, his spouse, or his clan;
here, it is the name of an akombu religious essence that Cado Akaaer Adudu, the
patron in focus, has invoked. And the ijôughultyo that is so invoked belongs to the
very distant Tiv past. Even the name is no longer in usage.
The examples provided here, it is hoped, have sufficiently demonstrated the
point. As mentioned earlier, these archaisms enhance the poet's rendition in two
ways: first the society of his audience venerates the past greatly so using a word
belonging to the past enhances the poet‟s chances of good rapport with both his
addressees and his general audience. Secondly, the archaic words check any
negative familiarity in the diction of the poems.
5.1.2. Manipulation of Registers
A respectable amount of Amee's artistry at the level of words occurs in his
manipulation of registers. By this, it is meant his creative shifts of words from their
usual domain of usage. This is correct because, among other things, it also

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reinforces the freshness of his words and so fulfils one of the cardinal characteristics
of the art of poetic composition.
As it is well known, the manipulation of registers is generally responsible for
images and many other figures in poetry. Since some of these figures would be
discussed later in this chapter, only instances that warrant separate illustrative
attention will be focused on at present. There is one such example in Amee 58:5
where the poet-persona blames his clansmen over the death of one of his patrons.
Ne sôngu Acusa wan (You people have slaughtered Acusa‟s scion), he says. The
Tiv, as maintained in discussing their religion earlier, believe that death is mostly
caused by witches and wizards. The poet-persona is therefore, understandably,
blaming his clansmen in this place for the death of "Acusa's scion". What is
specifically of interest is the poet‟s choice of the word sôngu which in Tiv refers to
slaughtering an animal. The correct register would have been wua. The poet has,
however, preferred sôngu for the obvious reason that, apart from its novelty, it also
metaphorically underscores the bestiality of those responsible for the deceased‟s
demise.
In Amee 20:66 – 8, the persona says:
Or-pin-anyam-ga Iorkyaa u Kpan Adi, Nobody-asks-for-the-lion Iorkyaa of Kpan Adi,
Iyôu-ki-acivin Kpan Adi Iyôu-ki-acivin the red-hot-iron Kpan Adi,
Hua tswa ikyondu iyol oo; Is garbed in a terrible cloth oo;
Muemue ngu sha mi WanUdô vav anyam Fireflies are on that cloth, Daughter-of-Udô has
carried a lion on her back –
Mase esen tembe beel! See how she sweeps the courtyard beel with it!
Here, praise is lavished on Iorkyaa Kpan Adi who is nicknamed as "nobody-asks-for-
the-lion” (that is, the lion is a self-introducing beast) and as "the red-hot-iron"

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(which nobody can touch with bare hands). He is also said to be garbed in a cloth
that has fireflies all over it (that is, the cloth is made of reflecting materials). Then,
the poet-persona, as characteristic of him, moves to Iorkyaa's wife and describes
her as carrying "a lion on her back". Vav, the word used here to refer to the
woman's carrying of the lion on her back actually calls up images of a mother
piggybacking her baby. The shift here is in the fact that the word lion in line 68 is a
synecdoche of a lion's skin which this woman has hung on her body as part of her
dressing – showing that she is a great woman since not everybody is allowed in
traditional Tiv society to dress in a lion-skin. The poet has thus used the
synecdoche of lion for the lion-skin and proceeded to further the figure by
employing the word vav in its correct register but loading it with unexpected
linguistic properties. It is pleasurably shocking to note that it is not a baby that has
been carried on the back; it is a lion – yet it is not an actual lion but a lion-skin.
Why did the poet not go for the word har if it was the dress of a lion-skin that he
wanted to intone? Manipulating the register of a word like this defamiliarizes the
diction of the poem and, in this particular instance, has also hyperbolized the
synecdoche used – thus increasing the praise potentials of the line.
Lines 44 – 46 of Amee 57 also provide two examples of register shift:
Mtilve u Iorbo Mtilve of Iorbo
Har sanker amina yegh byugh! Has hung a sword with a sheath of amina-
decoration flaming byugh!
Samber ishima he‟ tembe or kuma a na ga. [She] spread her heart in the square such that
no one could match her.
The imagery of fire in line 45 has been brought about by the deployment of the
adjective, "flaming" which is accompanied by the ideophone byugh. Both words

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have been taken out of their common contexts. For, ordinarily, a sword and the
decorations on its sheath have no association whatsoever with fire. But the poet has
hyperbolically passed his praise on the sword by portraying that fire flamed from it.
This recalls the point made in Chapter 3 that the Tiv believe that even the elements
respond when serious people are involved in a situation. That this woman is
prestigious is further treated in the subsequent lines of the poem.
In the same lines quoted above, the poet also says that Mtilve "spread her
heart in the courtyard". The image this calls up is one of a big-time farmer
spreading a bountiful harvest of his seeds or grains in the courtyard of his
compound so that they would be properly dried. Samber is not the usual word to
associate with the heart. Even metaphorically, the favoured word is tese ishima you,
that is, "show your heart”, which means, "act so that the size of your heart would
be seen". Amee has, however, gone a step further by using the ordinarily odd
samber which surprises as well as pleases because of the metaphorical freshness
affordable in the shift of register.
The shift strategy used with samber above is the same used with yenge in
the following lines of Amee 18: 15 – 16:
M ngu tindin ior ilyoho shin a we ee. I am sending messages through people to you ee.
Yenge bashi nam ee… Look for some bashi brass rods [money] for me ee…
The word translated as "look for" above is not the “right” register in the Tiv original.
Ker, rather than yenge, would have been a more usual word in this place because
the Tiv talk of keren inyaregh (looking for money) not yengen inyaregh. To use an
English language example, the difference between yenge and ker in this line is like
that between “relax” and “rest” in a clause like “rest in peace”. Though “rest” and

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“relax” share a synonymous boundary, there is no way the word “relax”, instead of
“rest”, can be used in a clause like “rest in peace” without semantic inconvenience.
This shift of register, among other things, has the ability to surprise the audience as
well as draw urgent attention to the poet-persona's dire need of what he is
requesting for.
Indeed, examples of these creative shifts of register abound in Amee's
diction, but for purposes of space, only three more instances shall be considered. In
lamenting of his poverty, the poet-persona says in Amee 30:28 and 29:
Mbasôrun Mbasôrun,
Kwagh kom a kuma sha or M ver ashe gbenda Certain things fit on certain people, my eyes are
an a wasem a ngô ican shon ne ee? on the road: who would help me
concerning this my mother-of-all
poverties?
The term "mother-of-all poverties" may sound appropriate as an English metaphor
but it is rather strange in Tiv language. The Tiv do not use the word ngô (mother)
in this way. The word is restrictively employed for human beings, animals and
insects, or drums. Amee's usage here is evidence of his figurative skills as a poet.
The same thing can be said of Amee 64:18 and 19:
Hindan u Gbôhô ande er ngô dwem a ônuv Hindan of Gbôhô emerged like a mother hyena
mba Agbe Dajo suuluu and her young – people like Agbe Dajo
[in a long line] suuluu,
Nyôr iyange saa bivee [He] arrived and the sun got lost [in the sky]
bivee.
Looking at line 19 of the English translation, one might mistake that the sun has
been personified and presented as getting lost like when humans get lost – which
actually sounds figuratively sensible. But this is not the way the poet has presented
the situation. The word saa which has been translated here as "lost" is used in the
sense of when someone loses a rather tiny item. This reduces the size of the sun

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but enlarges the personality of the patron whose arrival is said to have created such
an impact.
The last instance of creative register manipulation to be considered here is in
Amee 11:1 – 3:
M ngu van oo i kaa Iortyer Abyem I am coming oo someone tell Iortyer Abyem
Gaga Myaki a korum ityou Gaga Myaki to sew my head for me;
Gaze ki nyion mo M vaan ye. Else it is paining me for which I am crying.
The "sew my head" in line 11 is clarified in Amee 57:10 thus: Zaki, ka ibo yam ga
mba kpenem numun ityou yagh kpa vihi njienjie (Zaki, it is no fault of mine, they
are after me for nothing; even my head is gone bad completely ruffled). So what
the poet-persona means by his head being sewn is that he should be saved from his
suffering – suffering from poverty as well as from the unjust treatment by his
clansmen who are against him for no reason. The imagery of sewing one's head is
ordinarily strange to Tiv culture but the poet has imported it from the surgical
profession. When one is operated upon and the wound is stitched back, the Tiv
word referring to the stitching is kor, which can best be translated as "sew" in
English. The poet has therefore transported this word from that domain into his
poems and achieved the imagery of poverty (or whatever form of suffering at all)
walloping its victim and leaving him with a battered head needing the surgical
attention of a generous benefactor. Having provided illustrations that demonstrate
the fact, the case of the manipulation of registers in Amee is hereby rested.
5.1.3. Borrowings
Borrowings also help poets to boost the freshness of their diction. Amee goes
to Hausa and English languages for his linguistic debts. Either of these languages is

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remote enough in traditional Tiv society to challenge the imagination of the
audience, but at the same time close enough to at least be mentally
accommodated, even if vaguely.
In Amee 27: 26 – 30, for illustration, the poet said:
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo nyôr amar taver gande: Chief Beba Unzô Konjo joined the dance in a
spectacular fashion:
Ka i tema deghôô i gba eren GUGU! After a while, there is a GUGU [sound]!
I tema deghôô tsô i ungwa guukuku! After another while, there is a guukuku [sound]!
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo ka nom akaca shin Ukum Chief Beba Unzô Konjo is a he-akaca rattles'
kuashi kpam WanYaga tsua tokobi mase dancer at Ukum together with noble
yengen anikpyanem Daughter-of-Yaga [who has]
unsheathed a tokobi sword and
is searching menacingly for the
slaves
Mba ter na, Nule Makyur Aca. Of her father, Nule Makyur Aca.
The dance that the patron, Chief Beba Unzô, has joined in the scene above is the
one at a contrived song-party. Lines 27 and 28 are referring to the manner this
patron is participating in rewarding the poet-persona at the dancing arena. The
poet uses gugu and guukuku – ideophones associated with thunderstorms – as
metaphors for the thunderous manner Beba is rewarding him. To further praise
Beba, the narration proceeds to that patron‟s wife who is also portrayed in martial
terms. In fact, she is said to have drawn a sword and looking for her father's slaves
to kill for the poet. Igoil has explained the concept of this woman looking for her
father‟s slaves in the following very helpful words:
The situation that Amee wants to evoke through the sequence [of
somebody looking for slaves with a machete] refers to the ancient
times when powerful Tiv people owned slaves who could be disposed

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of in whatever manner as a sign of the power of the owner. But he
actually wants to establish the fact that the person being mentioned in
the song is an offspring of a powerful family. (“Cultural Aspects” 332)
Generally, this reference is a hyperbolical imagery aimed at gingering the subject to
giving more rewards to the poet-persona. For, certainly, one who itches to kill a
human being for the poet should find it quite easy to give him less valuable things
like money. What is, again, of particular interest to the ongoing discussion is line 29
where the poet now calls a sword, tokobi, and not the usual Tiv word of sanker.
Tokobi is not an archaism; it is the Hausa word of tokobi that has been borrowed
(and corrupted) this way.
Another example of Hausa borrowing is that found when Amee paints the
wife of Beba Unzô, his patron. The poem says: Kwase na WanYaga har peta-begha
("His wife Daughter-of-Yaga hung a peta-begha lion-skin", Amee 26:13). The
portrayal of this woman as hanging a lion-skin on her body indicates her greatness.
As said earlier, it is not everybody that is allowed to dress in a lion-skin in traditional
Tiv society. My interest, however, is in the fact that peta, the word used for “skin”
here is a Hausa word. Amee has used it with the word begha, the Tiv word for lion:
peta-begha is therefore a half Hausa and half Tiv term. This term is repeated for
four other times in the poems (Amee 45:26, 52:32, 79:11, and 93:26). This usage
certainly reduces the chances of negative familiarity with the poet's diction.
In another instance, Amee has improved on the borrowing of the word peta.
In the usage above, the Tiv word for lion always goes with the Hausa word for skin,
but the composer in one instance decided to go for the Hausa words for both “lion”

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and “skin”. Thus he says peta-damsa (Amee 26:14) rather than the usual peta-
begha. The purpose achieved is still one of “dictional” de-familiarization; only that at
present, the strategy is doubly effective because of the double borrowing.
Of Amee‟s borrowings from English, there is first of all, the example of the
abbreviation of Julius Gbabo's name to J. Gbabo. Julius Gbabo is mentioned thirteen
times as J. Gbabo in the poems collected here. This style of mention or address is
clearly not characteristic of Tiv people. The Tiv address people by their names, their
father's, grandfather's, and great grandfather's names. Abbreviating the first name
to its initial letter is therefore an example of the first English borrowing that needs
to be pointed out.
More than that, the persona says in one poem that:
Er M za oo, [She] said that I should go oo,
M za wen a nam awanda – kwagh shon cii kpa I should go so that she would give me an
M fa ga Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba! awanda – whatever that is, I do not
know, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!
Kwagh u M fe yô ka he„ Tyôver u Ninga What I know is from Tyôver of Ninga,
Zaki Tyôver u Ninga verem agugu… Zaki Tyôver of Ninga has kept a motorcycle for
me… (Amee 79:16 – 18).
The poet-persona is talking about how the wife of one of his patrons has requested
him to go to her place and collect an awanda surprise-package. This is an
adulteration of the English word "wonder". The poet-persona is, in essence, saying
that the woman wants to do something wonderful to him. Whatever it is that she
wants to do is not known to the persona, who, creatively, uses his ignorance to
announce the contrived gift of a motorcycle which, according to him, his other
patron has kept for him.
Amee 4: 2 – 7 exemplifies another borrowing from English:

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Dajo Pav M fe nyô me tar a lu bem ee? Dajo Pav how could I have known that the world
will be this peaceful?
Lu yiôn ke‟ lôsupika er He was announcing in the loudspeaker
Or a san numben he‟ mtem ne ga, That nobody should mess up at the occasion
Jo ga – ve a yem a nan a za wuhe shin Abetse Not at all – else they would take him and lock
him up at Abetse ee.
Tor yilam yô M va ve ee. The Chief has called me so I have come ee.
It is the occasion of another song-party hosted by Dajo Pav. The Chief Host is
making an announcement that nobody should bring confusion to the gathering,
otherwise he (the Chief Host) would take such a one and lock him up at the jail in
Abetse (actually Abinsi). The poet has borrowed the English word of “loudspeaker”
(which he adulterates as lôsupika) rather than korugh ku buter, the Tiv expression
for a megaphone. Similarly, he has used the word “newspaper” in Amee 13:25. All
these borrowings afford the diction of the poems that remote air that challenges as
well as engages the audience's interest.
5.1.4. Created Diction
At other times, however, Amee resorts to creating words and expressions
that help him to pass his message in an interesting but less familiar fashion. One
illustration of his neologism is found in Amee 76:19 – 24:
Ishima vihi WanYaga tema viing How Daughter-of-Yaga‟s spirit is low [over the
situation] and she is sitting quietly.
Kpa sena vaan yum ga; But do not weep too much;
Ku yô ka vande-hemen ku ka myima-or oo. Death is for everybody; death is [even] a
salvation oo.
Acinge Unzô Konjo ngu ga oo, Acinge Unzô Konjo is no more oo,
U vaa a an? Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam ngu ga, With who would you weep? Indyer Dugwer
u vaa a an? Chief Biam is no more, with who would
you weep?
Mase shin mba-i-nam-me-wa-sha-ho-tyo. Those remaining are only the-give-me-let-me-
put-it-in-my-head‟s-hollow.

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The situation in these lines is that the poet-persona is commenting on the death of
one of the wives of Beba Unzô, his patron. Attention is focused on Daughter-of-
Yaga because she is Beba's most senior wife so she is in a lot of agony over the loss
of one of the women under her. Thus, line 19 tells of her spirit being low; she is
presented as actually sulking. Line 20 advises her to take solace in the facts of the
universality of death and its possible redemption of the deceased from the
unnecessary stress of life. Besides, the persona further asks her concerning who
would she weep with? Normally, in Tiv culture, people take their tears to others
especially in situations of death. The people to whom sorrows are taken this way
are usually more elderly relations. If a woman is married and has suffered a
misfortune, she directs her tears to her husband who wipes them by consoling her.
The husband too turns to his wife for consolation in times of emotional need (Amee
1:12 – 14). In this particular instance, however, the poet-persona, knowing that
both husband and wife are sorrowing, sees the need for a third party who would
take up the function of consoling either of them. This third party would have been
either Acinge Unzô Konjo (the husband‟s elder brother) or Indyer Dugwer (the
husband‟s alter ego); but both of these are already dead (Lines 21 and 22). The
aim of drawing the mourning woman's attention to the fact of the absence of
comforters is to let her know that she has to overcome her grief by herself and
possibly work on her husband to overcome his too. In other words, the poet-
persona is telling her that there is nobody left who could console them. In fact,
those alive are rather dependent on Beba and his wife. And this is where the poet

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uses an expression that he has created; it is mba-i-nam-me-wa-sha-ho-tyo,
translated as "the-give-me-let-me-put-in-my-head‟s-hollow" (line 23).
This expression refers to those who are concerned only about being given
food so that they would eat. That is to say, serious people are no more; those that
are left are only eaters of food – food that they do not even earn. The poet
expresses his disgust over such an existence by coining an odd phrase and using it
for such people. The expression is ho-tyo, head's-hollow which he used to refer to
the mouth. Of course the head's only actual hollow is that called the mouth. The
poet therefore names it as such and refers to the act of eating as putting (whatever
food it is) into the head's hollow. This strange expression does not just accomplish
linguistic freshness; it also expresses the poet's displeasure concerning less useful
human beings who lead loafers‟ lives. All these effects enhance the import of the
poet-persona's consoling words to the grieving woman.
In Amee 90:10 – 12, Amee has, again, extended the expression of head's-
hollow but in a humorous reference to himself now and in a different light.
Ageva Nyaku oo, Ageva Nyaku oo,
We a nenge a mo ga kpaa M yem a imo M ngu Even if you do not see me, I have gone with my
tôngun ityou ke‟ Ipav song, I am blowing my head among the
Ke‟ Jemngbagh… At Jemngbagh…
Ipav [clan]
In this place, the poet has informed Ageva Nyaku, one of his patrons, that if the
patron does not see him, it is because he (the poet) has gone to perform at Ipav
district of Jemngbagh sub-section. The poet, in line 11, metaphorically connects the
hollow of the head with the hollow of a flute. He thus sees his singing as flute-
playing. The flute he is playing is his head, and the hollow of that flute is his mouth.

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This is an interestingly unusual reference to the art of song performance. Its
humour is strikingly emphatic especially as it is directed at the poet-persona
himself. The reference is therefore another evidence of the poet‟s creativity and
artistic exactitude. That same figure is, in fact, repeated in Amee 89:28.
In Amee 93:30 – 33, the poet has created yet another word:
Tor maa iya na ooo, Tor the Chief has built his house ooo;
Ka iya u ibyabya It is a house of ibyabya largeness:
U nyôr keregh daang un a kurau tou kwagh If you enter into it anyhow it will cut off your
ear – I
Wam a lu sha mi ga; M kaa ne M de ee. Will not be the one to blame; I have told you ee.
The word ibyabya in line 31 is created from baba and the poet has used it to refer
exclusively to spatial largeness. Usually, this word is an adjective that pre-modifies
its nouns but the poet has used his creative liberty to re-issue the word and use it
as a post-modifier.
Really, the words and expressions that Amee has created in his poems
cannot be exhausted in this study which is aimed at paying attention to many other
issues. For the same reason, it is neither possible to exhaust the expressions that
the poet has borrowed. It is also difficult to completely mention all the times he has
resorted to archaic diction or manipulated his diction by re-locating the register of
his usage. All these go to bear witness to this bard‟s creative vivacity. More
examples of such creativity could further be seen in the discussion of onomastic
manipulation, the remaining part of this chapter.
5.2. ONOMASTIC MANIPULATION
Onomastics pertains to the art of naming. And it is common knowledge that
people (especially children) are not just given the names they bear. In Africa

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especially, when a baby is born, the parents name it according to their experiences
at the time of its birth, or they say a prayer for the baby in the chosen name, or
they name it according to the predominant event or person at the time of its birth.
On a general note, great care is taken in selecting a name for a child. Daniel
Kunene has confirmed this among the Basotho:
In naming a child, the Basotho did not, as a rule choose a name
simply because the parents liked it, but for its relevance to a given
situation, or for a certain purpose that the name was supposed to
fulfil; in addition, of course, to naming the child after someone, usually
a relative. There was, besides, the belief that when it grew up, a child
might act according to its name. The saying Lebitso-lebe ke seromo,
'An ugly name makes its bearer behave according to it', reflects this
attitude. (13)
These words can also be said of the Tiv whose attitude to this subject is reflected in
their saying that Iti ngi ker, “The name comes to pass”. Tiv parents therefore, also,
exercise great care in choosing names for their children.
There are indeed many other peoples who name their children based on
certain considerations. Mbiti, using his own name as an example, capably captured
the assorted factors that determine name-giving in Africa generally (92 – 5). One
such factor is interestingly demonstrated in Chinua Achebe‟s Things Fall Apart. As
death kept claiming every child Ekwefi gave birth to, "her deepening despair found
expression in the names she gave her children" (54). Thus, one child's name is "a
pathetic cry": Onwubiko, "Death I implore you". As this one dies, another is born

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and named Ozoemena, "May it not happen again". Ozoemena also dies so the next
child born is defiantly named Onwuma, meaning, "Death may please itself" (54).
It is, however, not only in Africa that the choice of names for children is so
carefully done. In the Bible too there are inexhaustible illustrations of onomastic
logic. One such illustration is the child born when the ruling tyrant is killing baby
boys so its mother decides to hide the baby among the reeds in a river. Then a
princess who goes to wash discovers the baby, adopts it, and names it as Moses,
meaning, "I drew him out of the water" (Exodus 2:10). Elsewhere, a mother‟s
experience of labour is so painful that she names the baby as Jabez, "I gave birth to
him in pain" (1 Chronicles 4:9). Naming children is therefore, often based clearly on
definite reasons in many cultures especially in Africa.
This practice does not refer only to the naming of children. Adults too are
sometimes re-named or nicknamed according to either their character or
achievements. Ready examples of this are again available in Achebe‟s Things Fall
Apart. Amalinze the great wrestler, for instance, is metaphorically called the Cat
"because he never allowed his back to touch the ground" (3). Okonkwo is also
called "Flaming Fire" because of his generally combustible nature (108). In the Bible
again, there are more illustrations of this phenomenon. Jesus, for example, named
Simon as Peter because of Simon's insightful confession (Matthew 16: 18). Abram is
renamed Abraham because he has been made "the father of many nations" and
Sarai his wife becomes Sarah, the mother of nations (Genesis 17: 5, 15). The
biblical examples are actually too numerous to mention. Examples of names
(whether of people, places or things) given with a definite purpose seem generally

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pervasive enough to challenge Romeo‟s rather sceptical comment, "What is in a
name?" in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. At least many writers show that there
could be much in a name. Charles Dickens named some of his characters like
Chuckumchild in Nicholas Nickleby and Mr. Bumble in Oliver Twist according to their
roles in the novels. Of course modernist and post-modernist writers have rejected
the concept of tag-naming characters in fiction because, ironically, in actual life
someone with a linguistically positive name could end up behaving totally different
from the meaning of that name. This fact notwithstanding, art in naming remains
highly regarded among several peoples – the Tiv inclusive. Since, according to
Wordsworth, the poet generally “is a man speaking to men” (147), Tiv oral poets
often exploit the art of naming for rhetorical purposes. Amee Ijôrpo, the poet of
this study, was particularly good at this.
Based on the Tiv belief that names come to pass, Amee was adept at giving
his patrons names along lines that demonstrated his expectations. Usually the
names either indicated the manner of rewards the composer desired from the
people that he gave such nick names, or they were praises intended to generally
ginger up those patrons to shower the poet with gifts. To manipulate this strategy
to maximum use in his poetry, he sometimes addressed them with names that he
chose to give them; at other times, he played on their actual names achieving
impressive artistic feats that were certain to go down well with both the patrons in
focus and the general audience. The discussion of onomastic manipulation in
Amee‟s poetry will, thus, be divided into an observation of instances when (1) he

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created names for some patrons (eulogues), and (2) he played on the patrons'
actual names (onomastic manoeuvring).
5.2.1. Eulogues
The word “eulogue” word was coined by Daniel Kunene "generically to refer
to all types of eulogistic references to the hero, whether they be praise names or
associative references" (15). In Amee's poems, the heroes are usually his
benefactors, that is, the patrons of his poetry. He coined the following selected
eulogues for some of these patrons:
1. Aôndu-wa-mkurem God-has-oiled.
2. Iyôu-ki-acivin The-red-hot-iron.
3. Kurakwaghga The-reserve-nothing.
4. Ishimagande The-oversized-hearted.
5. Asemakyundu The-twenty-hearted.
6. Ishimabo The-dangerous-hearted.
7. Inyamkyume-tamen The-senior-beast.
8. Idyorugh-or The-rough-and-rugged man.
9. Or-pin-anyam-ga Nobody-ask-for-the-lion.
10. Gomna Governor.
11. Begha-kwase The-lion-lady.
12. Begha-or The-lion-man.
13. Vingiror The-rounded-man.
14. Norototo-iyô-bo-wan The-carefree-dangerous-snake-of-a-scion.

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Figuratively speaking, these eulogues are made up of constructions that are
metaphorical (1, 2, 7, 11, and 12), hyperbolical (5), proverbial (9), or simply
descriptive (3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 13, 14).
Regarding content, each of these names refers to a quality of high regard
among the Tiv. Some of the eulogues pertain to the martial qualities of the
addressees (2, 6, 11, 12, 14), and others to their general courage (4, 5, 7, 8, 9).
One name has focused on the physical looks of the benefactor (13), another on the
generally good qualities of the patron (1), another on the abundant wealth of the
patron (10), and yet another on the patron‟s generosity (3).
Of the images at work in these eulogues, Aôndu-wa-mkurem (God-has-
oiled), for instance, is usually said in Tiv of one who is very fair complexioned. The
imagery is from a situation when palm oil is added on foo-foo and the colour of the
foo-foo changes accordingly. Amee has, however, creatively excluded the popular
reference of this name to skin complexion because Cieve Tsavbee, whom the poet
eulogized this way, was not fair complexioned. The poet was therefore obviously
referring to the generally good qualities of this patron. That is to say, he was using
the imagery of the delicious taste oil adds to food. What is more, in this case, it is
God that has oiled this food so it is bound to be quite tasty because its oil is
heavenly. Immersing a song-patron into this pool of praise has the potential of
scratching his ego – exactly what the bard aims at.
The second eulogue, Iyôu-ki-acivin the-red-hot-iron, connotes that the bearer
of the name cannot be touched with bare hands. This panegyrically states the
frightening nature of the man. Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing is a positive

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reference to one who holds nothing back when he wants to reward another in his
song-rewarding spree. Ishimagande the-over-sized-hearted demonstrates the
addressee‟s daringness; he reaches out for things that are ordinarily beyond his
years or beyond the size of his body, and achieves them. Asemakyundu the-twenty-
hearted shows total absence of discouragement; with twenty hearts, even when
one heart fails, a standby heart could always take over. This name is particularly
interesting because of the number twenty contained therein. This number is so
significant to the Tiv that they count with it. Forty is therefore called akunduahar,
that is two-twenties; sixty is akunduatar, three-twenties etc. Twenty is thus often
also used as a metaphor for large numbers just as the number one thousand is
used in English. This eulogue could therefore be translated as “the man of one
thousand hearts”. Simply put, the bearer does not give up.
There is no use to try explaining every eulogue mentioned above because
some of them are sufficiently self-explanatory. What needs to be emphasised
concerning these names is the fact that all of them are used basically for panegyric
purposes. Whether a name highlights martial qualities or appeals to generosity or to
any other characteristic at all, its subsequent purpose is to massage enough
egotistic and heroic feelings in the addressee and earn handsome rewards for the
poet.
5.2.2. Onomastic Manoeuvring
Where the poet does not add new names to his addressees and patrons as
demonstrated above, he often resorts to employing the addressees' names for
artistic manoeuvring in his renditions. Sometimes, it is (A) the sounds of such

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names that are homonymically built into the bodywork of the poems; other times, it
is (B) the semantic potentials of such names that are utilised. But of the two,
onomastic manoeuvring based on phonetic grounds is more perverse in the poems.
Phonetically based onomastic manoeuvring
The best way to explain this is to look at one of its examples. In Amee 27,
the opening lines say:
Kwaghbula Azege u kera ngu a mo ga yô Kwaghbula Azege since you are no longer with
Kwagh hange sha gur ve, Things have hooked up for me,
Kwagh hange sha gur sha on Shitile mba iliv: Things have hooked up for me in the land of the
Shiim Torkon u Hiinyam aa, children of the Shitile-of-black-hue:
me
Shiim Torkon of Hiinyam aa,
Inyamkyume ne yav nule nder ve… This inyamkyume wild beast slept but has jolted
awake now… (Lines 1 – 4).
The poet-persona is celebrating the song-party hosted for him by Shiim Torkon
Hiinyam in these lines. The celebration is, however, cast in mock-complaint fashion.
The poet-persona apostrophically calls on one of his dead patrons (Kwaghbula
Azege) and informs him that since that patron is no longer around, things have
"hooked up" for him (the persona). Things have "hooked up" sounds like the poet is
in some trouble but it is all part of his rhetorical strategy portraying the song-party
at hand as a trouble – albeit, a positive trouble because it has to do with the poet-
persona having more rewards than he can contain. What is of present interest is
specifically in the third and fourth lines where Hiinyam, Shiim's grandfather's name,
is creatively played upon. That name Hiinyam contains the word inyam which,
among other things, means “beast”. The poet has then decided to use the martially
potent metaphor of “beast” in the next line for Shiim. Thus, the word inyam is

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manoeuvred to occur in the two lines: first, as part of the name of Shiim's
grandfather, and second, as part of a eulogue for Shiim himself. This strategy
creates aural beauties that through visceral channels contribute to the overall
effects that the poet-persona is out to achieve.
There are more examples of phonetically based onomastic manoeuvring
using the word inyam. Amee 67:21, for instance, says: Ke Mbanyam kpaa
inyamkyume ban ga: Mpuuga Agule Yongu (Among the Mbanyam [clan] too an
inyamkyume beast is not lacking: Mpuuga Agule Yongu.) Here, the target name is
"Mbanyam" which is the name of the clan of Mpuuga Agule Yongu, one of the
composer's patrons. The poet had spent some time in this song praising great
people (metaphorically called wild animals or beasts) from other clans so he decided
to focus his attention on the clan of the Mbanyam now and proceeded in the same
line to refer to his patron in that clan as an "inyamkyume beast." So, the word
inyam is again homonymically manipulated to create that aural harmony capable of
enhancing the desirable panegyric potentials of the poem.
In the same manner, the poet-persona plays on the word ishima which
means "heart" in Tiv. He constructs lines that mention the heart and at the same
time mention one of his patrons whose name contains the word “heart”. Amee
79:22 – 23 exemplifies this:
Kwagh doom juu! M shir ishima kpa kumam ga; How I sighed and sighed with happiness
but was not satisfied;
Me za shir ishima shin iya u Ishimaior Tor Biam aa. I will go and sigh some more in the
house of Ishimaior Chief Biam
aa.

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At issue here is the fact that the poet-persona has been rewarded beautifully by one
of his patrons and he (the poet-persona) confesses to heaving a lot of sighs of joy
over the gifts he has received. But he is not feeling relieved; that is, the sighs have
not been able to exhaust his appreciative emotions. He therefore decides that he
would go to the house of Ishimaior Tor Biam, another of his patrons, and continue
with his appreciative sighs there (of course so that that patron too would add more
rewards to him). Now, the word “sigh” in Tiv is captured with the phrase, shir
ishima which literally means "unloading the heart" – the word shir being the verb
for bringing down loads carried on the head or bringing a cooking pot down from
the fireplace. In the context of discussion, the word shir in shir ishima conjures the
image of one putting down the loads of his heart by heaving a sigh. Of interest is
the fact that it is the patron whose name contains the word ishima that the poet
has mentioned next after two lines have been employing this word for the
aforementioned relief purposes.
The word ishima and the people-names containing it are, further,
manipulated as exemplified above in Amee 82:19 – 22:
Wan u Gbôhô nenge a mo tsô a jingir ityou Daughter of Gbôhô saw me and shook her head
Er M woo iyol yam yô, Wan u Gbôhô About how I have committed suicide [by daring
to come around], Daughter of Gbôhô:
Nule ishima tam kwe. [She] sprang up in such a way that my heart
missed a beat
Ishima Zaki ee anakpishaikpya gba shin igbya Ishima Zaki ee anakpishaikpya abundance has
you we! occurred in the land of your mother's
kinsmen!
In the above lines, the poet-persona has arrived in the house of one of his patrons
whose wife, on seeing the composer, has shaken her head threateningly. Her

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declaration that the poet-persona has committed suicide in coming to her home and
her subsequent springing up are all actions aimed at, in the imagery of the poem,
rewarding him in a manner that he would not recover from excitement. The word
anakpishaikpya, meaning inestimable abundance, in line 22, summarises the
abundance of the rewards the persona is expecting. The next line shows the poet
calling on Ishima Zaki (another of his patrons) whose mother is from this clan and
telling him that he (the poet) has been rewarded with anakpishaikpya abundance
(of course by Daughter of Gbôhô and her husband) in the clan of Ishima‟s maternal
kinsmen. Onomastic manoeuvring occurs in lines 21 and 22 where the poet-persona
says his patron's wife sprang up (from where she was sitting to find a reward for
him) in such a manner that his ishima, that is his “heart”, missed a beat; then in the
very next line, he mentions Ishima Zaki, another of his patrons. The word Ishima
(heart) has been manoeuvred for artistic harmony. The same manoeuvre is at work
in Amee 91:10 – 15:
Yange Malu Bawa lôhôm zende vea Kinabo u Shondu Malu Bawa once invited me for a
shin guma ase nyiaan journey with Kinabo of Shondu
to the guma red-earth,
Kpa me ve tile Kurakwaghga Anyakpa a wam amar But I said they should wait, let
Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing
Anyakpa first host me to a
dance ceremony
Tar u ungwa cii; For the whole earth to hear;
Kpa a timbir yum yô ishima gba yinan mo ve. But he has delayed too much so my
patience is being exhausted.
Ka we a tsa yum u hee. When you live for too long, you do
come to shame.
Ishima Zaki ooo ican yô i hoo ga… Ishima Zaki ooo it is not possible to get
used to poverty…

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The focus of these lines is the poet-persona's complaint that Kurakwaghga Anyakpa
is delaying too much in hosting a song-party for him so he (the persona) may die
before the party is hosted. In fact, the poet-persona says it is this song-party that
he is waiting for; otherwise he would have died long ago especially when his friend-
patrons (Malu Bawa and Kinabo Shondu) wanted to leave the world and invited him
to join them. The only reason he refused joining them to make the journey was to
first have Kurakwaghga's song-party. But since this patron seems to be delaying too
much, he (the poet-persona) is running out of patience and may end up dying
before the event. The Tiv clause used to express the situation of running out of
patience here is ishima gba yinan mo ve, literally, "my heart is being insufficient",
that is, my heart is giving up its patience. Then in the second line following, the
poet addresses Ishima Zaki. Thus, Ishima as the name of a patron and ishima as a
word have been manipulated such that the patron bearing the name is likely to be
more positively pressurised into the action expected by the composer.
In "Elegy for Atôndu Tiôn" (Amee 87:2 – 8), there is further evidence of the
poet's deliberate manipulation of a similar sound to play on another patron‟s name:
Zege ivav gbam ken ishima M ngu tool Angul u A big wound is in my heart so much that I am
Ierve u Beneke ee. groaning, Angul of Ierve of Beneke ee.
Atôndu Tiôn kpe undu WanWende, Atôndu Tiôn has died and left Daughter-of
-Wende,
Ngu vaan zenden tembe zelôô. Who is weeping and going about helplessly in
the courtyard zelôô.
Kwase nyôr a dakaba ve! The lady is loaded with a lot of sadness!
Indyer i gbe imo shin la gidighagidigha! The indyer jumbo slit-log drum lets go its notes
over there gidighagidigha!
ÔnmbaTandyer nam kunya – The children of Tandyer have put me to shame
–

Imo ne kpa duem ishar eee. Even this song art is no longer desirous to me
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The poet-persona has in this place called Angul Ierve Beneke, one of his patrons,
and informed him of the death of Atôndu Tiôn, his (the poet-persona's) closest
friend and song-patron. The indyer jumbo slit-log drum is said to have announced
the death (line 6), as usual with the death of an important man in Tiv traditional
society. The picture of Atôndu's mourning widow is painted in lines 3 to 5. The
poet-persona also expresses his grief by referring to the death as a gigantic wound
in his heart (line 2) and by also declaring that he does not even desire poetry
performance again (line 8) since this close patron of his composition is living no
more. Now in line 7, the poet-persona says the children of Tandyer, that is Atôndu's
immediate relations, "have put me to shame" because they are the ones that,
according to Tiv religion as discussed above, are responsible for the death of his
friend and patron. The artistry in focus is obvious in the name Tandyer (meaning
play the indyer jumbo slit-log drum) and the playing of the indyer (lines 6 and 7).
The word indyer is the one played on here.
For the last example of onomastic manoeuvring based on a play on sounds,
Amee 89:21 – 24:
Ka an a za kaam Kivaor kuashi kwase na oo? Who will go and help me tell Kivaor and
eee.
Sarin Ashwe! his wife oo? Sarin Ashwe!
Ve da ungwa er M lu zamber a tar kpa tar ungwa They should come and hear how I am
ga aa. pleading with the world [over my
poverty] but the world is not
listening aa.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa kuashi WanAganyi, Faasema Nyôr Tarwa and Daughter-of-
Aganyi,
Ityô yam er a mo 'pe shin mo. My clansmen have treated me in an
unsatisfactory manner.

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The word played on here is tar, which means "the world". Tarwa (meaning, the
world has yielded) is the name of the grandfather of Faasema Nyôr, one of the
poet's patrons. After wondering about who would go and inform his patrons Kivaor
and his (Kivaor‟s) wife over his (the poet-persona‟s) plight in the hands of the world
(the world is here personified, line 22), the poet-persona next addresses another
patron whose name contains the word tar – thus achieving the onomastic
manoeuvre which is one of the artistic foci of this chapter.
There are indeed more examples of similar manoeuvres on the names of
patrons like Ande Kwagh (Amee 57:23), Kwaghbula Azege (Amee 23:1), Nule
Maikyur (Amee 90:27), Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba (Amee 46:6 – 7) and several others.
Semantically based onomastic manoeuvring
Then, there are situations where the poet-persona bases his onomastic
manoeuvring on semantics. That is, he plays on the meaning of the names of some
of his patrons in the course of the songs. An example will clarify this better; in
Amee 89:26 – 28 the poet-persona says:
...M ngu anigbian a we, sena eren mo ican ga. ...you and me are brothers, do not inflict
suffering on me.
Mba genev yô u pinen mo kpa bunde ee. As for others, even asking after me has become
impossible ee.
Tseeyol Kajo ooo, WanMbapuun Biam kaa Tseeyol Kajo ooo Daughter-of-Mbapuun-Biam
loho a mo... has sent a message to me...
In these lines, the poet-persona is telling one of his patrons that he and the patron
are brothers so that patron should not abandon him, and thus, inflict suffering on
him (that is, leave him to suffer). But the poet-persona's situation is worse; there
are other patrons who have become so unconcerned about him that they do not
even care to ask after him again. Now, the poet calls on Tseeyol Kajo, one of his

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patrons whose name reflects the plight he (the poet-persona) is complaining about.
Tseeyol means, "It is hot." These words are usually employed to refer to weather
conditions, but they are also used metaphorically to refer to extra-weather
difficulties. Thus, one having financial difficulties or any difficulty at all would
complain that tsee iyol. In the situation presented in the poem, the poet-persona
has the right to complain concerning his patrons' abandonment that tsee iyol; but
the poet, rather creatively, chooses to do so by calling on a patron whose name is
made up of the words denoting this complaint. This way, he complains about his
condition but also panegyrically mentions this patron and thus kills two birds with
one stone.
The above use of Tseeyol's name is also found in Amee 75:16 where the
poet-persona's condition is so bad that even his looks have so changed that it is
difficult to recognise him again. That way, the name of Tseeyol is mentioned in a
manner that both complains and reports the situation to the patron bearing the
name. A further employment of the same name is found in Amee 78:42 – 43:
Tseeyol Kajo Gbermke, Tseeyol Kajo Gbermke,
Kaa WanKighir a san hundu ishima a mo ga Tell Daughter-of-Kighir not to become oblivious
of me.
In this instance, the situation of the poet-persona, rather than pre-modifying
Tseeyol's name, post-modifies it. Tseeyol is requested to tell his wife not to forget
about the poet-persona since things are generally difficult with him as implied in the
patron's name. Now, it is very possible for the poet-persona to use this patron's
name in syntactic situations that completely disregard the semantic connotations of
the name, but he does not. He has mentioned this name for just four times in the
poems collected and every mention exploits the name‟s connotative significance.

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In "Gbande Drum Notes Calling the Nobles..." (Amee 81), there are two more
examples of onomastic manipulation based on semantic principles involving the
names of Ageewua and Apeatim.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam
Nenge ikyundu ior ooo Fights twenty-people ooo (Lines 23 – 24).
Ageewua literally means, "Strength (agee) has killed (wua)." In other words, the
individual in question is so strong as though the concentration of strength in him
would suffocate him to death. It is thus semantically sensible that the bearer of this
name is panegyrically portrayed as capable of fighting twenty people at the same
time. The example involving Apeatim's name comes up in line 35 which says
WanAdi Gever we shi wuam or M nenge Apeatim Kpav Kpabi Agondu (Daughter-of-
Adi Gever, do kill someone for me, let me see, Apeatim Kpav Kpabi Agondu). Here,
Daughter-of-Adi Gever is requested by the poet to demonstrate her heroic qualities
by rewarding the poet in a manner that is as impacting as the death of a human
being; then the persona goes on to call the name of Apeatim. Apeatim literally
means, "Where genocide would be carried out." The name thus refers to what
relates to the general request in this line. Indeed, the name suggests that
Daughter-of-Adi Gever will not kill just one person for the poet-persona; she will kill
enough people in genocide proportions. To better understand to request that this
woman should kill a human being, Igoil‟s words quoted earlier need to be recalled:
The situation that Amee wants to evoke through the sequence [that
somebody should be killed for him] refers to the ancient times when
powerful Tiv people owned slaves who could be disposed of in
whatever manner as a sign of the power of the owner. But he actually

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wants to establish the fact that the person being mentioned in the
song is an offspring of a powerful family. (“Cultural Aspects” 332)
As further exemplification of onomastic manoeuvring, the poet-persona, in
discussing his victimisation in Amee 76, says, M zer ikyondu pupuu or ngu zendan
mo oo. Mkohol Ivase (I have dressed in a white cloth [so] someone is pursuing me
oo. Mkohol Ivase, line 34). The white cloth in this line is performing the function a
red rag plays to a bull. It is thus a symbol of the poet-persona's frightful plight
before his enemies. The mention of Mkohol Ivase's name thus serves two purposes.
The poet-persona running from his pursuer has called on Mkohol who should rescue
him; but more importantly, this name literally, means "I (M) joined (kohol)", which
also readily means, "I took refuge in." Thus, the name fits in this place since it
extends the preceding sense of the line by stating that the poet-persona has run
from his enemy and taken refuge in this patron.
One other name that the poet has manipulated very often for its semantic
relevance is that of Mnguaorga Wombu Makar. The name Mnguaorga (M ngu a or
ga) is a pathetic declaration meaning, "I have nobody." The poet therefore, in Amee
66: 41 – 42, uses this name to pre-modify his request for a cloth: Mnguaorga u
Wombu Makar aa/Kaa WanHwange M ngu a ikyondu i zeren ga (Mnguaorga of
Wombu Makar aa/Tell Daughter-of-Hwange ee [that] I have no cloth to put on).
This name fits into this environment because while it is a panegyric call on this
patron, its meaning at the same time infers that if the persona had someone, he
would not need a cloth. In another instance in Amee 46, the poet-persona
manipulates this name in a rather boastful fashion. In this case too, he is discussing

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his victimisation in the hands of his clansmen. Then he boasts, Kpa me kera ôr ze,
Mnguaor' u Makar (But I will not complain further, Mnguaor' of Makar, line 20). It
can be noticed that, ga, the final syllable of Mnguaorga's name, is deliberately
omitted by the poet in this instance. The omitted syllable is the negator in the
statement of the name that “I have nobody”. Once ga is gone, the name becomes
M ngu a or, "I have somebody." In the context of this particular song, the poet-
persona is saying that even though he is besieged by persecution from his
clansmen, he would not complain since he has somebody who would defend him.
Even though this line, in fact, serves for only a rhetorical purpose (since the poet-
persona goes on in the very next line with his lamentation), it is interesting to note
how, in achieving that rhetorical purpose, the poet has manipulated Mnguaorga's
name.
Again, it is not possible to cite all the examples of onomastic manipulation in
Amee. Indeed the manner this poet has manipulated the names of people
mentioned in his poems is one of the methods that manifest his creative skills. What
is most important to note is the fact that, whether the manipulation exploits the
phonic or the semantic potentials of names, it helps the poet to address his patrons
while at the same time making significant statements that expand his themes. Only
a very dextrous artist can do this as successfully as he has done which is
demonstrated in the illustrations considered above.

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CHAPTER SIX
AMEE’S ORNATENESS: FIGURES OF SPEECH
Finnegan has observed correctly that: “Some oral poems make their effect
without much apparent reliance on figurative language, just through the beauty of
evocative description, allied to pleasing formal structure” (Oral Poetry 114). Amee‟s
poetry, however, does not do this. It is a reservoir of carefully crafted figures and
images. In his poems, figurative language plays such a prominent role that there is
no way anybody can fully appreciate him without regarding his figures. Indeed it is
in these figures that there is the best demonstration of his skill as an artist.
This discussion will dwell on some of the poet‟s figures and observe the
appropriateness of their construction and their suitability in context. The figures are,
however, so many that it would be fruitless trying to discuss all of them; I shall
therefore limit myself to just enough number of figures to establish the fact. The
figures that shall be discussed would therefore be: imagery, metaphor, simile, pun,
allusion, hyperbole, proverbs, alliteration, ambiguity, and euphemism. These are
chosen because they are the most pervasive in the poems and therefore the most
deserving of attention.
6.1. IMAGERY
The easiest definition of imagery looks at it as words that create mental
pictures for the audience. Generally, the figure is regarded as very useful in poetry
because of its ability to evoke the right atmosphere and thus, sense of reality, for
the world of the poem. The generally known definition and significance of imagery

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notwithstanding, it must be stated that the figure has its difficulties of definition.
Millar and Currie have, for example, correctly regarded it as a term,
difficult...to define and has many different uses. The word itself
suggests that it is concerned only with the visual sense, with eyesight
or things we can conjure up in our mind‟s eye; and this was the sense
in which the word was used in the past. (63)
The duo has tried to point out an important fact about imagery, but Maduka and
Eyoh have stated it better:
Imagery consists of two components: descriptive language and
figurative language which are not necessarily separate entities,
independent of the other….In certain poetic contexts they work
together....They are so closely related that in some books imagery is
considered as a descriptive language and figurative language as a
different category; in others, imagery is treated as an aspect of
figurative language. (28)
In other words, imagery generally is a descriptive language which results to the
various figures of speech like metaphor, hyperbole, simile etc. In discussing figures
of speech therefore, imagery is inadvertently discussed. But, there are instances
where imagery becomes a figure of speech in itself. The dual roles of this trope
have therefore brought about that disparity of its handling which Maduka and Eyoh
identified as seen in their quotation above. The point to highlight, however, is that
language generally is loaded with imagery. This was part of why Emerson said that
"all language is fossil poetry" (qtd. in Millar and Currie 61). Thus, even the most

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unliterary use of words could, on close analysis, inevitably evoke imagistic pictures.
In spite of this fact, there is good reason to discuss imagery, not just as a
descriptive strategy present in all figures of speech, but as a figure of speech in
itself.
Even as a figure of speech, imagery, because of the etymological echoes of
the word, was for long confined to only that which could be visualised. Of particular
note is the usage to which the Imagists, at the beginning of the last century,
emphasised this meaning of the term. According to Millar and Currie, the imagists
“insisted that sharp visual images were the essence of poetry, and some on the
extreme maintained that a poem could be constructed of visual images alone,
without grammatical statements” (64). The Imagists did not last because some of
their poets, most notably Ezra Pound, soon abandoned their austere recipe for
poetic composition. Moreover, the appeal of imagery came to be understood to
cover not just the sense of sight but all the five senses. Indeed at present,
psychologists have identified two more senses with human beings, and, knowingly
or unknowingly, poets have already been employing all the seven senses in their
renditions. Imagery is therefore, to follow the terminology of Vivion Smith, divided
into: olfactory imagery (smell), tactile imagery (touch), visual imagery (sight),
auditory imagery (hearing), gustatory imagery (taste), kinaesthesia (imagery that
recreates a sense of physical action and or natural bodily function), and
synaesthesia (imagery that involves the use of one sense to evoke another). In
Amee's poems, there are examples of all these types of imagery as shall soon be
shown.

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The discussion of imagery will be divided into looking at it as descriptive
language (which will involve identifying its manifestation in the current seven
senses identified by psychologists), and looking at it as figurative language (which
will involve appreciating the most prominent pictures the artist has painted). These
are the territories where imagistic silhouettes are created so it is only proper to, in
discussing the subject, briefly see how the poet of discourse exhibited his creative
prowess in all these imagistic possibilities.
6.1.1 Imagery as Descriptive Language
It has already been stated that the criticism of imagery under this heading
will look at it from the seven senses where the figure is usually exhibited. Thus,
olfactory imagery, tactile imagery, visual imagery, auditory imagery, gustatory
imagery, kinaesthesia, and synaesthesia will all be briefly discussed. Two instances
will be cited in the poems to justify this composer‟s use of imagery in each of these
senses.
To begin with, the olfactory imagery appeals to the sense of smell. A good
instance of its deployment is found in Amee 28:2 – 5:
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Kuji hide a tar Tiv ve Gôn Buruku Duku Kuji has brought the Tiv world back, Gôn
Buruku Duku;
Or ya tor na sha cia, Mbasôrun ôô, The man emerged as a Chief due to his good cia
invocation, Mbasôrun ôô,
Aôndu haa orya wou mkurem ma human God has poured sweet-smelling oil on the body
doon iyol ve ee. of your husband ee.
These lines are celebrating the appointment of Teryima Mbapuun Gbor as a Chief in
his clan. The poet-persona happily declares to Gôn Buruku Duku, his other patron,
that the appointment of Teryima as Chief means the return of the Tiv world (that is,

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Tiv culture which has been eroded by needless modernity) since the new chief
would definitely see to that. He next calls the new chief's wife and tells her that it is
God that has anointed her husband as chief. In talking about this anointing, the
persona, in a deliberate allusion to biblical stories of anointing, describes the
process as the pouring of not just "oil" but "sweet-smelling oil" on the new chief.
This detail has accomplished olfactory imagery, as it is difficult not to imagine the
aroma of the oil poured on the new chief. This exemplifies the use of olfactory
images in the poems. Another instance of the deployment of this imagery by this
poet is in Amee 15 (line 14) where the poet-persona has complained that his
clansmen “abhor me as if they would use me to ferment nune locust beans with!”
Fermenting locust beans traditionally is a very smelly business 1 . The poet‟s usage of
this figure here conjures sufficient olfactory imagery because lthis process is
generally known for malodourous nature.
Of tactile imagery, there is an instance in "Azege, I am Calling You from
Death..." (Amee 78:7) where the poet-persona, in describing his persecution in the
hands of his unjust clansmen, says, Ityô yam haam shosho iyol (My clansmen have
poured the shosho spiritually-disabling-force on me). The sense of touch here is
enhanced by the specificity that the shosho vehicle ensures. Shosho, as explained in
the last chapter, is a Tiv ancient word referring to a substance that witches and
wizards pour magically on anyone whom they want to deal with. The substance
disables the individual from any physical protest. Thus, had the poet-persona simply
said his clansmen have disabled him, it would not have had any imagistic
significance. Members of the audience are bound to experience the shosho on their

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bodies too on hearing the persona‟s detailed complaint concerning it. This same
experience is most likely to overtake the audience with regards to the description in
Amee 81 (lines 27-28) where the poet-persona captures the effect of his poetry on
one of his patrons in the following tactile imagistic accuracy:
Likici Agbe ee a kaa wan u Koko, imo ngi Likici Agbe ee should tell Daughter-of-Koko
agher WanKoko: – song is itching on Daughter-of-Koko‟s body
Or a cihi a cihi tsô nan a due tembe nan Let anybody dare come out in the arena. Such a a
tser a i… one would see danger…
What is obtained in these lines is a situation whereby Daughter-of-Koko, the wife of
one of the poet‟s patrons is presented as so possessed by the power of the
composer‟s performance that it is said that the song is itchy on her body – itchy in
such a way that she has lost control of hereself and is dangerous for anybody to
dare draw close to as warned in line 28.
Visual imagery abounds in the poems of this study, Amee 5:4 – 10, for
instance, says:
Wan ke' Turan-mba-Anjembe-dughun-iyou Veunô A scion from Turan-of-the-honey-
Alya fetching-axe, Veunô Alya –
Ngula shaven amar a ishôm sha tembe la! See him dancing with a machete there
in the arena!
Or a due un a gber nan. [That] he would cut down whoever
[dare] comes out.
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri Cieve of Tsavbee Muri
Kighir hen inya mou tsue ishôm Rose and snatched the machete;
Ishôm pav jivajiva The machete broke jivajiva.
Kwagh gandem M tum toho ye. The scene was above me so I ran away.
Here, the poet paints the picture of a song-party where some of his patrons are
displaying their heroic capabilities (which would subsequently end in the nature of
their rewards to the poet). So Veunô Alya, threateningly, monopolises the dance

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floor with his machete till Cieve goes out and displaces him. The visual imagery
occurs in line 5 where the poem actually literally points out the happening in the
arena to members of the audience. The word ngula, which has been translated as
“see him”, is a Tiv deictic which reinforces the realistic details of the picture that
members of the audience can virtually see Veunô dancing with the machete.
Another instance of visual imagery is in Amee 94 (lines 24-26) where one of the
poets patrons is thus presented in lamentative light:
Sen Dajo Pav Sen Dajo Pav
Nyôr a ajav uya kighir sha ishima Arrive with ajav rags tied round his abdomen reaching up to
the level of his chest
Ka me a pine kpa a ungwam ato a Even when I ask [what is amiss] he keeps quiet and only
kulem a kule wegh tsetse motions his hand tsetse to me –
M fa me zege kwagh eru bo ve [Thus] I know that a big bad thing had happened.
The visual imagery here is the picture of Sen Dajo Pav who is presented in such a
way that the audience can visualise him in his mourning attire and carriage. The
rags mentioned in line 24 are symbols of Tiv traditional mourning clothes. The poet
has carefully described the reach of the rags on the body 2 of the mourner in such a
way that is hard to miss visualising. Added to this is the presentation of the
mourner as being so overcome by grief that he cannot even explain his plight to an
inquirer. The poet-persona has therefore concluded in line 26 that it must be ”a big
bad thing that has happened”.
In "Azege, Did a She-baboon Drink Water..." (Amee 52:55 – 56), the poet, in
describing the jovial mood at the celebration of the chiefdom of one of his patrons,
says:

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Adula el angbande; zua wegh a mo tsô se je kaa Adula took off his drum; shook hands
ikyenge; with me and laughed and
sounded a voice;
Zua ishigh a mo se kaa ikyenge. [He] met his eyes with mine and
laughed to the point of sounding a
voice.
One hears the laughter too because there is a detail that ensures this. If Adula was
presented as simply laughing, the audience would have just had the information.
But he has been presented as laughing to the point of "sounding a voice", the literal
translation of the Tiv se je kaa ikyenge. It must be confessed that this Tiv phrase
has not been satisfactorily captured in the translation. What it does in the Tiv
version of the song is to definitely distinguish normal laughter from a more heartily
loud one. With this distinguishing detail, auditory imagery is accomplished. The
same imagery is available in Amee 84 where Angwe Asen Ahura, one of the poet‟s
patrons is presented as arriving and the “gbuuka gun boomed a shot guukuku” (line
13). One can hear the sound of the gun announcing the arrival of this important
patron especially as the ideophone guukuku has been employed to bring the sound
alive.
Gustatory imagery is observable in "My Clansmen took away My Raffia
Sticks..." (Amee 12:2 – 6) where the poet-persona jubilates:
Ityô tôôm atsor oo, My clansmen took my raffia sticks away oo,
Ve fa er ve hôngul mo Thinking they have messed things up for me
Yô M za kuma zwa sha dôu shin ônmba But I rather dipped my mouth on dôu soup at
Sende; the children of Sende‟s [compound];
Veunô Alya nam tar M ngu yan ave ahar... Veunô Alya has given me the world and I am
eating it with both hands...
The Tiv use raffia sticks in roofing their houses; the proverbial presentation of the
poet-persona being deprived of his own raffia sticks by his clansmen is an indication

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that his clansmen want him to be without abode. Thus, without an abode, the poet-
persona wanders into luck in the house of one of his patrons whose benefactory
duties to the poet-persona are presented in alimentary terms. The persona then
employs gustatory imagery with details of how he has been given enough food and
he is enjoying it to the full. As usual, it is the realistic specifics that accomplish the
imagery. For, the persona appropriately describes what he has been given as dôu
soup (a soup made of melon, vegetables, fish, chicken or bush meat); this detail
greatly brings the picture to life, and the further description of his "eating it with
both hands" makes the audience participants in the eating. In Amee 82: 6 the poet-
persona achieves another gustatory imagery by celebrating his happy fate in the
course of wondering about in search of succour: “Dwem the hyena‟s crave for meat
has led it to discovering an elephant in Tyuluv [clan] at Orya Anyakpa[‟s place].
Dwem the hyena is a carnivorous animal that the Tiv are fully aware of its
alimentary habits. This figure calls up gustatory imagery but at the same time
eulogises Orya Anyakpa the patron mentioned. He is shown as a person who has
enough to satisfy even the greed of a hyena (the poet-person); it is proper that the
poet-persona has proceeded in the same line to describe this patron as an elephant.
That s to say that he is so abundant even the hyena cannot exhaust his meat.
As for kinaesthesia, there is an instance in the description of Ôrmôm
Ayagwa's movement at the song-party hosted by Aerga Gum Anar (Amee 53:37):
Ôrmôm Ayagwa lu van meghar...meghar (Ôrmôm Ayagwa was coming with
meghar...meghar steps). The meghar ideophones and the long pause in-between
them (captured in transcription and translation with three elliptical dots)

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successfully conjure up the imagery of movement as well as the gorgeous clothes
on the patron. The same kind and manner of kinaesthesia is also employed in
describing the movement of Kukighir Baki whom the poet-persona has said “kwase
due gba van luaa…luaa” (The woman emerged and began to advance luaa…luaa)
(Amee 12: 23). The strategy used in the earlier example of kinaethesia examined
above is the same employed here. The luaa ideophone and the long pause in-
between them (again captured in transcription and translation with three elliptical
periods sufficiently communicates the sense of movement that the poet has
portrayed.
Then, synaesthesia is found in Amee 36: 44 – 45:
M tema imôngu a ityô yam ônmbaBiam I sat with the children of Biam who farted
fiishi mo zwa through their mouths for me,
Ande ka human mo Nule Makyur Aca. Ande, the malodour is disturbing me, Nule
Makyur Aca.
To demonstrate his disgust about his clansmen's words to him, the poet-persona
describes the words as having been farted. The sense of faeces is therefore used to
evoke the figurative malodour of the words of the poet-persona's clansmen. This
imagery clearly shows that the talkers‟ mouths are decomposing with foul words.
Elsewhere in Amee 90: 26, the poet-persona has employed breadth to measure
height in describing himself thus: “er M tav ga yô ka me a kar i tôvum sha hwange”
(Since I am not tall whenever I pass anywhere, I am traced by the marks I leave on
my path). At least in traditional Tiv society, height is not measured by foot-prints.
This is another example of synaesthesia: using one sense to interpret another; and
it demonstrates Amee‟s imagistic creativity.

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Above are examples of the prevalence of the various types of imagery, in its
sense as descriptive language, in the poetry of Amee. Their value is that, among
other things, they take the poet‟s rendering more successfully across to the
audience.
6.1.2. Imagery as Figurative Language
Then, another very rewarding vantage point from which to study Amee‟s
imagery, as stated earlier, is by looking at it from a figurative angle. This shall be
done by observing some of the subjects in the poems and how imagistic language
has been used to exhibit them. I shall limit myself to three such subjects. These are
the martial, privation and prestige imagery.
Martial Imagery
Often, Amee conjures the imagery of war in his poems. Such imagery
invokes heroic sentiments in the people so portrayed. The traditional Tiv greatly
admire gallantry; the poet-persona therefore usually, panegyrically, portrays his
addressees as valiant, war-like, bold and sometimes even truculent. Literally, this
imagery predominates the poems. For instance, the example considered above to
illustrate visual imagery also illustrates martial imagery. Veunô Alya is presented as
dancing with a machete in the tembe arena ready to cut down whoever dares to
come out (Amee 5:4 – 10). But Cieve, demonstrably a greater warrior, goes out and
overcomes Veunô by snatching the machete from him. Cieve is portrayed to be
such a ferocious warrior that the machete breaks to pieces at only his touch. The
situation between these warriors is so serious that the poet-persona has to run for
his life.

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The combative imagery of dancing in the arena with a machete can also be
found in Amee 82: 7 and 8:
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa tume won iyange mile Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa
tugh ile; Wan u Gbagir Zer came outside: the sun disappeared, night
fell; Daughter of Gbagir Zer –
Ngula shaven amar a ishôm sha tembe la. See her dancing in the arena with a machete.
The poet-persona is describing the situation at a contrived song-party hosted for
him by Tyôtim Lanve. Kurakwaghga Anyakpa is abundantly portrayed as coming out
during the occasion and causing the sun to, in recognition to his splendour,
disappear in the sky resulting in a noon-night. Then the poet-persona, as formulaic
with him, proceeds to praise Kurakwaghga's wife, Daughter of Gbagir Zer. She is
portrayed in dauntless light as holding a machete and dancing in the arena. But
there are more examples of the soldierly imagery involving the machete. In Amee
83:14 – 18, Kurakwaghga Anyakpa is again portrayed in the following image
cluster:
Kurakwaghga u Anyakpa When Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing of
Anyakpa
Ngu a wa ibyôr a posu sha or o; Is dressed in an ibyôr loincloth, he undoes it on
somebody;
Kwase na kpa fa. Even his wife knows it.
Ngu a tsua ishôm yô gber kwagh ndor keng- When he unsheathes his machete, he must cut
keng a wet thing
Ishima i yav ye ee. Before his heart rests [within him] ee.
Undoing an ibyôr loincloth is a Tiv idiom referring to getting ready for a fight. It
comes from the fact that in traditional Tiv society, the ibyôr loincloth that was
usually worn often loosened in the course of fighting. This figure therefore became
an expression for fighting generally. Thus, the poet continues to portray
Kurakwaghga's bellicose attitude by stating that when he unsheathes his machete,

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"he must cut a wet thing", that is, he must cut down something with blood – human
being or animal. This way, Kurakwaghga is portrayed as being among the great
traditional warriors who never unsheathed their machetes or removed their arrows
from their quivers for nothing: once they did, either a man or an animal was certain
to fall dead.
In Amee 94:38, the poet-persona, in praising some of his patrons, achieves
another martial image by saying, Mbera mba tse a asôm ave er ve dondu ken Udam
(Those ones sleep with machetes in their hands as though they are neighbours of
the Udam [people]). This imagery evokes the enmity that used to exist between the
Kunav districts in Southern Tivland and the Udam people of Cross River State.
These two groups share a border with each other but regarded each other as
traditional enemies. The enmity came to a point that men in either ethnic group
used to go to bed war-ready because they could be attacked at anytime. This
enmity, and the accompanying war-readiness that went with it, quickly passed into
a Tiv metaphor as observable in the line quoted above. It is thus another example
of martial imagery. Elsewhere again, the poet-persona paints Mtilve Iorbo, the wife
of another patron of his as har sanker amina yegh byugh! (that is, she has hung a
sword with a sheath of amina-decoration flaming byugh! Amee 57:43). He could
have as well described the woman as just dressing well but he preferred to present
her in the martial imagery of having a great sword by her side.
It is, nonetheless, not in every belligerent imagery that the machete or sword
is mentioned. Example, Amee 64:46 – 50:
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam Has Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam
Ar shin ii ior i lam camcam ga? Ioryem Arrived that people have stopped their camcam

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Ikyaave lu lamen dughun ave chattering? Ioryem Ikyaave was talking
and gesturing with his hands
Er or a kende wegh sha WanIkyô Ukaan un That whoever [dares] should put up his hand,
kôr nan a Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan would devour
him a.
Ageva Nyaku oo Nyaku kende wegh sha kaa Ageva Nyaku oo! Nyaku put up his hand and er
aôndu a gba aôndu a gba wen said that thunderbolt should fall, the
nyôr ôô; thunderbolt should fall: he has arrived ôô;
A lu kwagh u ime-ile kpa ka kwagh ga. Even if it is a matter of night-time, there is still
no problem.
This extract is from a song that celebrates the occasion of yet another song-party.
The roll call of the great men in attendance is going on with the poet-persona
stopping briefly at the mention of each of them and showering encomiums before
proceeding to another. In lines 46 and 47, he wonders if Ageewua has arrived that
the crowd at the occasion has become so respectably still. But he, again, moves on
to Ioryem Ikyaave, another arrivant, who is threatening that if anybody is daring,
such a one should indicate by a raise of hand and Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan
(Ikyaave‟s wife) would devour him (the daring person). Then Ageva Nyaku, another
great patron, answers the challenge insisting that even if it is a matter of “night-
time” (line 50), that is witchcraft, he is man enough to stand it. These are some of
the martial propensities that the great men in Amee‟s poems are shown to be
demonstrating.
In another instance (Amee 67:22), the poet-persona tells one of his lady
patrons that nomugh lu lamen jangjang sha tembe or cihi wa zwa ga (your husband
was talking with jangjang loudness in the arena: nobody dared chip in a word in his
words). This shows the aggressive nature of the man; he is someone who nobody
can dare contradict or interrupt. The above imagery is repeated, though in a

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different fashion, in Amee 51:57 and 58 where the poet-persona, in depicting the
situation at another song-party, says:
Mici Karku kpile ihywa Mici Karku drew an ihywa line [on the ground]:
Or cihi aver ga; No one dared to cross it;
The ihywa line here used to be drawn with the foot in traditional Tiv society by
youths as a wrestling challenge. If anyone wanted to challenge another to a
wrestling match, he backed up his words by drawing a line on the ground with his
foot. The challenged never crossed that line if he knew that he was no match to the
challenger. This is the traditional practise that Amee has exploited here to achieve
this martial imagery. Earlier in this same poem (lines 36 – 49), the poet achieved
war-like imagery by describing a wife to one of his patrons as rubbing pepper all
over her body – leaving only the eyes:
...WanAtue ...Daughter-of-Atue
Kwase ta mngbakpa tsea ashe The woman rubbed the mngbakpa pepper all over her
[body] excepting the eyes only –
Tar huan ayôôsu. The whole world ceased noise.
The Tiv do not have occasions in which people rub pepper on their bodies to
demonstrate their courage. The poet has therefore used his licence as a creator to
panegyrically display the venturesomeness of this addressee.
The pre-occupation with martial imagery in the poetry of Amee, and indeed
in other Tiv oral poets generally, is aimed at displaying the heroic nature of the
individuals so portrayed. It need not be read as a primordial preoccupation with
violence. Martial imagery in these poems simply serve to, in the words of Gregory
Nagy, evaluating similar imagery in The Iliad, "arouse a sense of wonder or marvel"
in the audience ("Heroes and the Homeric Iliad").

Privation Imagery
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It has already been stated in Chapter Three that privation is one of the
subjects associated with Tiv oral poets generally. Indeed the art of song
composition is generally regarded as synonymous with privation in Tivland. It has
also been stated that Tiv oral poets have accepted this slur since, after all, they
collect rewards from their patrons. Thus, most of them, rather, take pride in
painting their poverty. It is against this background that the imagery of privation
occurs frequently in the poems of Amee. His ability to paint such successful pictures
of privation is further proof of his skill as a composer.
One example of privation imagery is in "Gbenyie Yeor, I did not See
Daughter-of-Chief Amadu..." (Amee 46) where the persona declares that M za
zende kpa lu ibyume zende (I went on a trip but it was a stupid trip, line 35). This is
a very austere imagery of privation. Normally, whenever people are in dire straits,
they expect that if they travel, they might be lucky to meet better circumstances
and bring some relief home. In the present situation, however, the poet-persona
has shown that his journey – obviously in search of succour – was in vain. The
imagery thus reminds one of Kofi Awoonor's "Songs of Sorrow" where the persona
similarly laments, "Alas! the travellers are back covered with debt" (Nwoga 45).
Their journey in search of help rather took them deeper into their quagmires.
Amee‟s imagery here is therefore very effective in communicating his privation.
In Amee 66:52, the poet-persona, further, mourns, Kobo u aan iyol a mi kpa
M tser a or u nan mo ga (Not even a kobo with which to scratch my body have I
got someone who would give me). The poet-persona has created a very compelling

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imagery by linking the state of his poverty with some imaginary itch of the body
demanding scratching. It is a kobo coin that the persona could have used to scratch
his sickeningly itchy body. This clarifies that it is poverty that is actually itching his
body. But the image of an itchy body without anything to scratch it also conjures
the biblical story of Job, popular in Tivland because of its thematic proximity to the
people‟s psyche. Job, once rich, falls to poverty and sickness and spends his days in
ashes using pieces of broken pottery to scrap his body (Job 2:8). This is the picture
the poet also manipulates to create the imagery here.
Yet, there is a more pathetic privation imagery in the following line of Amee
78: M ngu zenden a azemba iyol sha tar u Mbatsavazun ga (I am going about with
azemba rags [for clothes] on my body in the land of the Mbatsavazun, line 45). This
paints painful privation indeed. The persona has no good clothes to wear because
of his poverty as the preceding and subsequent lines of the poem demonstrate. Of
dressing in rags because of poverty, Amee actually has many more images which
feature as similes, metaphors and other types of figures which I shall subsequently
show.
In another instance, the poet-persona laments his orphanhood but slides on
to lament his poverty too. He conjures the imagery of how when he would die,
"Someone would put his leg on my coffin that it should be paid for before I‟m
buried in it" (Yange me kpe or a ta nguhar sha akwati er saa i kimbi man a iim ye,
Amee 55:9). That is to say, he is so poor that even his coffin would be taken on
debt. It is useful, however, to note that the poet-persona is no longer talking about
his poverty as an individual but the poverty of his society generally. Otherwise, a

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coffin should, in Tiv society, be readily purchased by the living to bury the dead.
What further makes this imagery poignant is the phrase ta nguhar which has been
translated as "put his leg on". This phrase is usually used for a man in bed with his
wife. Applying it to this situation as the poet has done further ridicules the persona's
death echoing the suggestion that the supposedly sad event has rather become an
occasion for some people's play. At this point, further exploration of imagery in
Amee‟s poetry shall be carried out by considering his use of prestigious image-
casting.
Prestigious Imagery
Prestige is called ishagba among the Tiv and it is a very important aspect of
the society especially to composers who often need to present their patrons in
panegyric lights. Traditionally, a prestigious man was a warrior, a successful farmer,
a philanthropist, and most of all, a man of character. He married many wives and
generally did things in a noble fashion. Whether he dressed, walked, looked, ate,
sat – whatever he did was aimed at exhibiting prestige. So important was prestige
in traditional Tiv society that it is proof of his dexterity that Amee has employed
assorted prestigious imagery to achieve his panegyrics. Amee 66 (lines 15 – 22)
provides an illustration:
Chief Beba Unzô Chief Beba Unzô
Konjo kpa va ve oo! Konjo too has come oo!
Tor hua akôv a tungul tema sha kujira Wan- The Chief wore a tungul-decorated shoe and sat
Yaga har gbum on a stool, Daughter-of-Yaga wore the
gbum beads
Sha ikyer, puse ijô-angel. On her neck with the ijô-angel cloth roughly tied
round her waist.
Kwagh va iyol ve! Matters have gathered momentum!

Iginga-imôngu kumbul amo her tsô Dajo Pav a How iginga drum-crowds chorus ceaselessly,
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Dajo Pav a!
Me tseghem me nenge ooo; I will tip-toe and behold ooo;
A lu amimin yô me za kaa Ishimaior u If it is true I will go and tell Ishimaior of Tsofo
Tsofo a wa iyol... too to get ready...
It is, as often, the occasion of another song-party. The poet-persona's roll call
begins with Beba Unzô Konjo whom the poet takes time to project with noble
imagery. There are details that underscore this imagery. Beba is dressed in a shoe
decorated with tungul and is sitting on a particular seat. His wife, Daughter-of-
Yaga, is wearing a specific necklace and dressed in a particular cloth. After
exclaiming in approbation (line 19), the persona goes on to paint the general
atmosphere as it is nobly affected by Beba's presence: "drum-crowds" (a
refreshingly unusual phrase even in Tiv language) are chorusing. The atmosphere is
not one which less great men would draw close to so the poet-persona, counting
himself among the less great, says that he would only tip-toe and enjoy the
spectacle and go inform Ishimaior, another patron, to get ready to come for the
party. All these details, whether of atmosphere or of personality, contribute to the
success of the imagery of prestige.
A similar imagery concerning this same patron is found in Amee 79:10 – 14:
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo Aku ishima bou-bou Chief Beba Unzô Konjo Aku ishima-bou-bou
terrible- hearted [man].
Tor yav sha peta-begha mase kenger ashe wer- The Chief reclined on a peta-begha lion-skin;
werwer ee! how he looks on with werwerwer
fierceness!
Mba peer iusa mba shi peer, WanYaga aa; Those for fanning off his sweat are fanning on
and on, Daughter of Yaga aa;
Mba esen akôv mba shi esen – Those for cleaning his shoes are cleaning on and
WanYaga kpamkwase mase môngul on. How Daughter-of-Yaga the noble

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kaaki! lady is conducting herself with the
kaaki catbird‟s grace!
Here, Beba is first of all given the eulogue of ishima-bou-bou, which has been
translated as the terrible-hearted. This eulogue evokes the addressee's admirably
combative nature – a very valuable attribute in traditional Tiv life. Line 11 then
begins a detailed imagistic outline. Beba is reclining, symbolically, on a lion-skin; his
looks are ideophonically portrayed; servants whose role is to fan him are painted;
servants whose duty is to clean his shoes are also presented; meanwhile, his wife is
by his side "conducting herself with the kaaki catbird's grace!" Observably, Amee
delights in painting noble images of his addressees by detailing a suggestive setting
and describing their appearance. This fact is also available in Amee 40 (1 – 11)
where there are many other images:
[M] ungwa kwelegh sha Mbayenge; [I] heard a lamentation at Mbayenge [sub-clan],
M pine me ka an nan kpe ve And asked who it was that died that
Indyer i gbe imo sha use gighirkiki? The indyer jumbo slit-log drum sounds
gighirkiki?
Er ka Tor Musa Agbe Cafa aoo! They said it is Chief Musa Agbe Cafa aoo!
Wuha iyol cir angel He dressed up and covered himself with the
angel traditional cloth,
Kange ityou kua ishigh cica; He turbaned his head – covering up all of even
his face;
M yila je kpa gba viing. I called yet there was only silence.
Aye! Mbadam heem ve ee; an a wa ior Aye! The Mbadam [people] have put me to
kwagh? shame ee who would be our adviser again?
Er yan' M ôsu M za he' na a za ôrum akaa How I used to sneak and go to him and he
ityô yam a! would tell me the things of my clansmen!
Kera ngu her' ga yô ka nan a yimam? Now that he is no longer here who would be
helping me?
Dajo Mue ee ior i bee ve ee! Dajo Mue ee [true] people are no more
available ee!

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Here we find the corpse of Chief Musa Agbe Cafa dressed (line 5) in keeping with
the deceased's prestige. The traditional angel cloth that is used to cover the corpse
especially demonstrates this prestige. To further show that this is a noble man's
death, the indyer jumbo slit-log drum is shown as having not just sounded, but
sounded gighirkiki. The remainder of the lines has been committed to an imagery of
stamping the fact of death; the deceased's face, for instance, is tied up as done in
traditional Tiv culture. The statement by the poet-persona that he called on Chief
Musa but there was no answer brings the fact of the deceased's demise to its
climax. The remaining lines are dedicated to general lamentation.
The noble imagery of Musa's death is also exhibited in Amee 93 (21 – 33)
where other images can also be observed:
M ngu yemen ku u Tor I am going for the burial of Chief
Musa Agbe Cafa aoo, Musa Agbe Cafa aoo,
Tor sule sha use indyer kaa The Chief cooled to death during the wee
hours, indyer the jumbo slit-log drum
boomed,
Gbagede gbide na ian ga The gbagede small slit-log drum sounded its
notes tirelessly.
Tor tema sha kujira penda ityou sha nom Tor Chief sat on his throne and rested his head
anyam; on a he-leopard;
Haa angahar sha peta-begha; kwagh His feet were resting on a peta-begha lion-skin;
– a thing
Er ve ooo! Has happened ooo!
Aye! Mba peer Tor Aye! They are fanning Chief
Musa sha tunbu uu Nule Makyur Aca Musa with a large fan uu, Nule Makyur Aca.
Tor maa iya na ooo; Tor the Chief has built his house ooo;
Ka iya u ibyabya It is a house of ibyabya largeness:
U nyôr keregh daang un a kurau tough kwagh If you enter into it anyhow it will cut off your
ear – I
Wam a lu sha mi ga M kaa ne M de ee. Will not be the one to blame, I have told you ee.

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Every detail in these lines bears testimony to the greatness of the deceased just as
it was observed in the previous example. Even in death, the Chief's servants
(especially those whose responsibility is to fan him) are still doing their job. He is
placed on his stool: his head resting on a leopard's skin (metonymously referred to
as a “he-leopard”) and his feet on a lion-skin. The Tiv prestigious musical
instruments are played to announce his demise. All these are details that evoke the
imagery of nobility. The persona next projects the compound the Chief built when
he was alive. This digression is aimed at further underscoring the deceased‟s
greatness. This is in keeping with another quality of prestige among the poet's
audience: a large compound.
Tiv people really regard a large compound as an important evidence of high
standing. Thus, anywhere Amee portrays a large compound as he has done in lines
30 and 31 above, he achieves prestigious imagery. At certain times, he also focuses
on the people of such large compounds, that is, the people under the patron he is
eulogizing. Often, such people are the addressee's wives. It is having many wives
that which actually results in building a large compound, another prominent feature
of great stature in Tiv traditional society. Thus, Amee achieves prestigious imagery
when he projects some of his patrons' crowds of wives as in Amee 1:33, 18:22,
20:8 – 9, 21:33, 64:11 etc.
At this juncture, a consideration of metaphor in Amee‟s poetry will advance
the stance of this study, namely

6.2. METAPHOR
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Aristotle stated that: “The greatest thing by far is to be master of metaphor.
It is the one thing that cannot be learned from others; it is also a sign of genius,
since a good metaphor implies an eye for resemblance” (Dukore 36).Maybe Aristotle
exaggerated the significance of metaphor but his evaluation nonetheless shows the
importance of this figure which compares two objects by referring to one as the
other. At present, there are metaphor theorists who have taken the criticism of the
figure to levels that were not thought of traditionally. So, there are arguments
which postulate that:
Metaphors...are obvious enough, and Traditional or New Criticism will
examine the ways they are effective – in supporting argument, setting
mood, adding freshness or distinction to the poem. But the claim of
metaphor theorists is larger: that these tropes constitute meaning.
(emphasis added, "Metaphor Approaches")
In other words, metaphor is no longer given a supporting role but is regarded as
something constituting meaning in itself. They "reflect schemas, which are
constructions of reality using the assimilation and association of sensorimotor
processes to anticipate actions in the world." ("Metaphor Approaches"). Thus, "far
from being matters of style, metaphors organize our experience, creating realities
which guide our futures and reinforce interpretations" ("Metaphor Approaches").
This is the line of argument that metaphor theorists like Lakoff and Johnson,
according to the website being quoted, have taken. But this study is not interested

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in these arguments beyond their mere mention. My preoccupation is with the
traditional role of metaphor as a device for literary communication.
Of metaphor as a literary device, I. A. Richards observes that it has two
parts: the tenor and the vehicle. "The tenor is the subject to which attributes are
ascribed: The vehicle is the subject from which the attributes are derived"
("Metaphor"). Thus, when Amee, the poet of this study, says Mkohol Ivase, one of
his patrons, "is a needle with which the world is sown" (Amee 76:38), the tenor is
Mkohol Ivase and the vehicle is the sewing needle.
Another note-worthy fact concerning metaphors is their division. The
Wikipedia under "Types of Metaphors", interestingly recognises three major types:
the extended metaphor which has "a principal subject with several subsidiary
subjects or comparisons", the mixed metaphor which "leaps, in the course of a
figure, to a second identification inconsistent with the first one", and the dead
metaphor which has lost its ability to evoke the required comparison it once did. But
the Wikipedia, further, goes on that:
Linguists have identified other types of metaphor too, though the
nomenclatures are not universally accepted: an active metaphor is one
which by contrast to a dead metaphor, is not part of daily language
and is noticeable as a metaphor... an absolute or paralogical metaphor
(sometimes called antimetaphor) is one in which there is no discerning
point of resemblance between the idea and the image...a complex
metaphor is one which mounts one identification on another... a
compound or loose metaphor is one that catches the mind with

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several points of similarity...a dormant metaphor is one in which its
contact with the initial idea it denoted has been lost... an implicit
metaphor is one in which the tenor is not specified... a submerged
metaphor is one in which the vehicle is implied or indicated by one
aspect... a simple or tight metaphor is one in which there is but one
point of resemblance between the tenor and the vehicle...a root
metaphor is the underlying personal attachments that shape an
individual's understanding of a situation. It is different from the other
types of metaphor in that it is not an explicit device in language but
merely a part of comprehension. ("Metaphor")
Again, this study is not interested in pursuing types of metaphors beyond their
mention and identification. I shall therefore proceed to discuss metaphors in Amee
generally – only stating, where useful, the typological bias of any one discussed.
In "Azege, an Elephant Chased Me..." (Amee 51:35), for instance, Amee says
Dabul Mbangi ka iyar-asua (Dabul Mbangi is an iyar-asua deer-of-weaverbirds).
Weaverbirds are known in Tivland to often perch on the antlers of reindeer. Thus,
the Tiv refer to the reindeer as deer-of-weaverbirds. Actually the reindeer is,
generally, one of the dreaded beasts among the Tiv. One with antlers big enough
for weaverbirds to perch on is respected even more because of its maturity as
indicated by the antlers. Indeed, images abound in Tiv folktales of the deer-of-
weaverbirds‟ ability to pull trees from their roots if it so desires. The poet's
comparison of his patron to this animal thus exemplifies a compound metaphor
because the vehicle of the metaphor calls up two similarities that are relevant to the

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tenor. Primarily, the deer-of-weaverbirds' strength comes to mind, but even more
important is the fact that the reindeer provides abode for weaverbirds. The artistic
benefit of the image of birds perching on the horns of the reindeer can be
appreciated when its symbolic implication is taken into account. Jesus used a similar
symbol when he ended his parable of the mustard seed by saying "birds of the air
came and perched on its branches" (Matthew 13:32). This demonstrates the tree
(and the reindeer of the metaphor) as a uniting point for birds of the air. It also
demonstrates accommodation for the birds. When these two facts are married with
the strength of the reindeer in the metaphor, the artistic appropriateness of the
figure becomes emphatically apparent. The poet-persona is, in essence,
panegyrically whipping both heroic and benefactory sentiments in the patron he has
so portrayed.
Later in the same poem just quoted above (line 80), the persona employs yet
another metaphor regarding the heroic subject. He says, Tor Biija/Agula ka ivshôhô
(Chief Biija/Agula is an ivshôhô toads' pond). The imagery at work here is rooted in
Tiv traditional religion. Every clan and district of Tivland has its tsav witchcraft
paraphernalia which are usually spiritually hidden somewhere in the land.
Sometimes, the hiding place is said to be in a river pond. Thus all big and deep
ponds in certain rivers and streams have come to be regarded with suspicion by
ordinary Tiv people. The pond that they suspect of hosting such paraphernalia is
usually referred to as the ivshôhô “toads' pond”. Toads here are just a euphemism
for the said paraphernalia. The poet has therefore found the “toads' pond” a fit
vehicle for his metaphor because it renders the patron of his attention in

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appealingly dreadful colours – albeit respectfully so. Moreover, a toads' pond is
usually dark in appearance because of its depths; this darkness thus passes unto
the addressed patron. For, the Tiv usually describe a man who is prestigious as a
wa ime, literally, “he conjures up darkness”. This darkness is not negative but
rather positive – just like the darkness that sometimes descends where rain is
imminent.
There is another metaphor with a vehicle that is borrowed from traditional
religion in Amee 81:71 where the poet says, Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege ka akume
man ayajôu (Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege is both the akume and ayajôu
[masquerades]). The two masquerades mentioned here (unfortunately extinct at
present) were dreaded in traditional Tiv society for both their physical and spiritual
powers.
One other metaphor occurs in Amee 66:40 where the persona refers to
Atôndu Tiôn as mngerem ma kiren il sha (water-with-which-to-wash-away-dirt). In
another poem (Amee 55:35), he says of Ormbatsavaja Maku, another patron, that
he is nom nor akô (a he-hippo of the forests). In Amee 41:36, Unor Diôgô, another
patron, is said to be kogi wase u Tiv cii (the kogi big sea of all of us the Tiv). The
imagery here is that of an ethnic well. Tiv villages often have wells where all the
people go for their water needs. This common well enhances the unity and
communality of the village. The metaphor therefore is fitting to the panegyric
intentions of the poet.
In "Shiim Torkon's Song-party" (Amee 64:24 – 25), there is the following
pepper metaphor:

Ormbatyou ka mngbakpa mke The man of Mbatyou in an mngbakpa pepper
Ishange imiôm kpa a kuma ne iyol a min cica. Even one fruit would be too much for you
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people.
Mngbakpa is a Tiv species of pepper whose fruits are very small in size yet it is the
most gingerly of all peppers known to the Tiv. While other species require several
fruits to taste on any food, one fruit of mngbakpa pepper is usually enough. The
persona has therefore used it to metaphorize the strength and capability of the
patron of his eulogy.
Projecting a picture similar to the one above, the poet-persona in Amee
94:43 – 46, further says:
Tsenzughul u Kur Torhyande Tsa Tsenzughul of Kur Torhyande Tsa
Ngula ka tinge bagu u tamen That one is a tinge most-senior baboon,
U zenda nan-nan kpa u ya ruam sha mke No matter how you pursue it, you will eat your
ruam food with [only] pepper [as soup];
M man M de iyol nyion Wan Dajo Gir As for me, I have stopped torturing my body
[for nothing], Daughter-of-Dajo Gir.
Here too, the imagery is of a comparative presentation of one patron. He is
compared to a senior baboon. This reference is, of course, to the domain of
hunting. Baboons, when they were still very much available in Tivland, were used
as meat. But there were certain baboons that were very hard to get as game. No
matter how hard hunters tried, the baboons always escaped. Such unfortunate
hunters therefore returned home without game and so had to eat their food without
meat. Pepper is used in these lines because where there was no meat in traditional
Tiv society, people ground pepper and used it to eat food. At least its gingerliness
provided some respite in the absence of meat.

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It is hoped that the few metaphors considered so far have demonstrated the
fact that this figure is one of the important items in Amee's artistic kit.
6.3. SIMILE
Like metaphors, similes also compare one thing to another except that their
style of comparison is usually more explicit because they use comparison signifiers
such as: as, like, as though, as if, etc. Due to its closeness to metaphor, some
scholars actually regard the simile as an aspect of metaphor. The two figures have,
however, been separated here because of my conviction that they deserve separate
attention. Similes are divided into implicit and explicit kinds. The explicit kinds
clearly use the comparison signifiers while the implicit ones achieve comparison
through more covert means. Often, their covert comparison signifier is a verb. Thus,
the Wikipedia, illustrating, says, the phrase " 'the snow blanketed the earth' is also
a simile and not a metaphor because the verb blanketed is a shortened form of the
phrase covered like a blanket" ("Simile"). There are also the Homeric similes used
especially, but not exclusively, in epic poetry. These are also called long-tail similes
since their vehicles keep graduating from one imagery to another.
In Amee, similes literally abound. They are used especially in the poet‟s
panegyric presentation of his patrons, in a realistic depiction of the world, and in
the description of the poet-persona's plight. Most of Amee's similes, however,
concern his patrons. The similes usually focus on paying eulogistic attention to the
appearance, actions and characters of such patrons. In describing the cloth given to
him by Angule Deem Ifam, one of the patrons, the poet-persona says, ikyondu ngi
a aôrugh sha mi er nom anyam (the cloth has stripes on it like a he-tiger, Amee

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1:67). The comparative point in the simile is the stripes on a tiger's skin and those
on the cloth given the poet-persona by this patron. In associating the cloth with the
tiger (one of the most dtreaded beasts in Tivland), the poet-persona is
demonstrating the value he attaches to the gift and thus expressing his appreciation
to his benefactor.
Of tiger similes, there is another example in Amee 92:52 – 54:
Tyônem Ikyôhô kpa va shin ii? Has Tyônem Ikyôhô also come?
Tor wuha iyol tswam hua ijôu mkir Tor the Chief dressed in martial gear wearing a
sprite-like mkir traditional cloth,
Mase gohon zende er wananyam a! How he moves with noble casualness like a
wananyam young tiger!
The feline steps of a tiger are employed in this instance to praise the patron in
question. The same feline carriage is the vehicle of the simile in Amee 81:44 – 47:
Vaa u Ngyeke Vaa of Ngyeke,
Or ke' Mbayenge vea WanAtoza aa: Man from Mbayenge with Daughter-of-Atoza
Kwase la puse zeren How that lady has roughly tied
Ikyondu maa môngul a mi er nom anyam! Her cloth: how she conducts herself in it with
aa:
noble carriage like a he-tiger!
Tigers are generally regarded as carrying themselves with grace when they are at
ease. The poet-persona therefore keeps exploiting that quality to praise his patrons
and their wives. In both of the previous two examples, the simile is foregrounded
by a reference to clothes because the Tiv regard clothes very highly and a noble
person is known by the quality of his attire. The poet is therefore, panegyrically
speaking, very right in adoring the clothes of these addressees. Moreover, the
animal presence in these similes is very appropriate because it is among the Tiv as
it is among the Southern Bantu where Finnegan said: “In Southern Bantu panegyric,
the hero is often depicted as an animal, thus conveying to the audience his

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fierceness and bravery. He is a lion…a buffalo, a spotted hyena, an untamed bull, or
a bird of prey baring its teeth as it swoops in to attack” (Oral Poetry 115). This
submission fits the Tiv as well, and it helps to explain the animal presence in some
of Amee‟s figures.
To go back to the mention of clothes in the previous simile, there is another
simile that also touches on clothes in Amee 15:47: imo kumau iyol je hemba
ikyondu (Song fits on your body more than even clothes). What is meant by this is
that mentioning this patron in song is usually fitting. This should be because the
patron usually responds appropriately. Then, in praising Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen,
the poet-persona says, or kôndu er ka tombu gbace (how he is ramrod like a gbace
plant, Amee 46:30). Gbace, taca leontopetaloides, is a plant known for the straight
shape and its plant and it is this imagery that the persona has extracted for this
simile. In praising the determination of Shiim Torkon (Amee 27:14 – 15), the poet-
persona, using another simile, says:
U nenge a na kpa u kav ga or tee iyol a yam ishima Even if you see him you won‟t
a mi: recognize: the man has sold his
body to buy a heart:
Ishima kehe hemba nor His heart is bigger than an elephant.
The subject of this simile is presented as having a rather diminutive stature, which
would tempt anyone to want to dismiss him. The poet has defended this stature by
saying that this patron used his body to batter for a heart. So while his body is
small, his heart is bigger than an elephant – the simile. In lamenting the sad
circumstances of one of his patrons, the poet-persona, again, says, ikyu ngi eren we
er mar mkungu (deaths are occurring for you like the hatching habit of doves, Amee
58:43). Doves are said to hatch rather frequently compared to other birds. This

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simile is additionally successful because of the irony inherent in it. Doves‟ hatching
is a positive habit that should be appreciated; it is therefore very ironically pungent
that the poet has employed this good happening as a vehicle for a simile lamenting
the deaths in his patron‟s compound.
Of similes concerning death, there is another example in Amee 93:12 – 16:
Aerga of Gum Anar Yawe Aerga of Gum Anar Yawe
Shighe ku iyol er ka kpagh yô Has rubbed death on his body like kpagh camwood;
Mba uman ashe he' iya na ga They do not have dry eyes in his compound.
Hanma shie ka mliam; Every time they are in tears;
Hanma shie ka mliam… Every time they are in tears…
Here again there is a very positive imagery ironically deployed in a simile that
denotes evil. Tiv people in traditional times used to rub camwood on their bodies as
cream. Thus, since deaths are occurring all over the compound of Aerga Gum, the
poet-persona has used his creative liberty to compare it to camwood that the
patron has rubbed all over his body.
Still on similes regarding his patrons, there is another instance in Amee 57:24
where, in appreciating the noble qualities of Unor Diôgô and his wife Daughter-of-
Jabi, the poet employs this direct comparative imagery: Mba maa toon ishagba er
hir kwamen yô ee! (How they blow about their prestige like high harmattan winds'
force ee!). Sometimes, the comparison is among patrons themselves as in the
following illustration:
Nule Makyur Aca vea WanGunduor Nule Makyur Aca with Daughter-of-Gunduor
Mbela mba te kwagh gbenda ga er Orhemba Those ones do not give way for anything like
Cia Burya Kidam Agoho oo Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam Agoho oo
WanManger aooo! WanManger aooo! (Amee 20:43-45).

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Nule Makyur and his wife Daughter-of-Gunduor are explicitly compared to Orhemba
Cia and his wife Daughter-of-Manger. Thus, both the vehicle and the tenor in this
simile are the poet's patrons. The panegyric impact of the design is unmistakable.
Now, to focus on a few examples of similes regarding the poet's realistic
depiction of the world, there is a good illustration where the poet-persona in
discussing his frustration with an inconsistent world, says:
Tar ne ngu kuan sha inja i tyeku This world is flowing in the manner of a tyeku ocean
'Pe u kou u ze kpa Where it is flowing to,
Or fe ga Iortyer Abyem. Nobody knows, Iortyer Abyem (Amee 21: 15 – 17).
The ocean is known for its non-specific direction of flow; the poet-persona sees the
world too as flowing in non-specific directions beyond anybody's knowledge. This
simile appears in a song that the poet-persona is lamenting the fact of his troubles
with some of his patrons. He does not know why such troubles came up and so
resorts to the simile as a way of capturing his general confusion. In Amee 93:47
too, the poet-persona, describing the impact caused by the arrival of one of his
patrons and the patron‟s wife, says, tar tenger je bee er ka hwembe yô (The earth
shook like a hwembe quagmire). Elsewhere again, Amee has presented the arrival
of one of his patrons as causing a whirlwind that swept the venue of the occasion.
He then describes the neat nature of the square thus: tembe kungu je bee er ka
tembe mbakuv yô! (How the square is neat like that of mbakuv spirits! (Amee
67:27). In this simile, the poet-persona has used the imagery of mbakuv spirits
found both in the Tiv religious worldview as well as in their folklore.
But a good number of Amee's similes concern the speaking voice in his
poems; that is the poet-persona. Often, it is rhetorically strategic for the poet-

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persona to exaggerate his plight so that his patrons would be more compelled to
assist him. Since clothes are significant to the Tiv as mentioned earlier, the poet-
persona finds it appropriate to focus on his clothes. So in Amee 12:29, he presents
himself as going for a dance ceremony with only an ibyôr loincloth tied to his waist
as though he is of Bafum descent (M ngu yemen amar a ibyôr ken ityô er Bafum).
Bafum is the name the Tiv have given to one of the ethnic groups in the
neighbouring Republic of Cameroon. According to the Tiv, the Bafum were famous
for their attachment to ibyôr loincloths. This imagery is not positive at all because
an amar ceremony is an occasion where traditional Tiv use their best clothes. The
importance attached to an amar ceremonial dress has passed to a figure of speech
as can be seen even in Amee 58:4 (“If you people take the amar ceremonial dress
and are engaging in sua fishing with it/When a ceremony comes what would you
dress in?”). Indeed the significance that amar ceremonial clothes have in traditional
Tiv is similar to what the phrase “Sunday clothes” stands for in English language.
Thus, for the poet-persona to be dressed only in an ibyôr loincloth for an amar
occasion is a very effective figure that sufficiently underscores the self-depreciation
that he aims at exhibiting. Then, that the vehicle of the simile is the Bafum is
satisfactory because of the degree of crudity that traditional Tiv society, self-
indulgently, exhibits towards that group of people.
Still focussing on his dress, the poet-persona uses another simile in Amee
37:31 to address one of his patrons: nenge er M woho iyol iwoho i ancanakopa (see
how I am dressed in the manner of an ancanakopa ragged-dance performer).
Ancanakopa is a dance whose performers dress in rags. But in their situation,

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everybody knows that it is as costume that they are so dressed. However, in the
situation of the poet-persona, he is dressed not as a costume. He is so dressed
because he cannot afford better clothes. And this is what gives the imagery its
force. The same simile is repeated in Amee 55:15. Still on his clothes, the poet-
persona laments in Amee 47:27 – 28:
M ngu zenden a icaver ikyondu iyol er I am going about with a rag on my body as if
Ihyundugh kôrum ee. Madness has overtaken me ee.
There are many other similes expressing various things about the poet-
persona. For instance, to paint his joy at seeing one of his patrons, he says: Jôôji
Aciniya Norum Agundô oo! /Ka me a nenge a we M hingir er nyinya ma akase yô
(Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!/Whenever I see you, I become like the horse
that has drunk akase beer-chaff, Amee 15:52 – 53). In traditional Tiv society,
horses, when they came to be known through contact with the Hausa, were used as
symbols of prestige. Noble men bought horses and hosted amar dance ceremonies
at which occasions they mounted their well-decorated horses and went about the
arena, dancing martially on horseback. At such ceremonies, the conduct of the
horse itself was usually important. Generally, people preferred horses that were
lively and active in conduct as can be variously seen even in Amee's poems (Amee
20:62; 21:62; 36:2, 40; 45:44 – 46; 66:6 etc). To ensure a horse's maximum
activity, some people used to give it beer-chaff to eat. On eating this, horses
performed with drug-like prowess. This is therefore the imagery that the poet-
persona has exploited in this simile.
Further on assorted similes on himself, there is another illustration in Amee
15:14 where the poet-persona says his clansmen so hate him "as if they would use

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me to ferment nune locust beans with" (er a hile nune a min). Locust beans are
used among the Tiv as a condiment for soup. But the beans need to be prepared to
the point of being the ingredient. The process of this preparation involves boiling
the beans and leaving them for some days in a container (whose mouth is usually
covered with some fresh leaves) to ferment. There is usually a serious malodour
when the beans ferment. In its malodorous state of fermentation, it is the leaves
used to cover it that bear the blunt of the unpleasant smell. The imagery of a
person used to ferment locust beans is therefore a forceful one. In, yet, another
simile (Amee 58:20 – 22), the poet-persona is angry that certain witches and
wizards are killing innocent people. In frustration, he resorts to Christianity for the
punishment of such witches, saying:
Or u nan woo Utsua wan la The person who has killed Utsua's scion
Iyange i mkurtar nan a tema ken igyamusu. On the last day will sit in hell fire.
Iyange la me se me kende ikyôr er That day I will laugh and throw back my head
Mbazendan Atso like Mbazendan Atso.
Mbazendan Atso, the vehicle in this simile, was a popular mad woman in Zaki-Biam
town who was famous for her constant and endless laughter. There is no use trying
to cite more of Amee‟s similes here since they are a too numerous.
6.4. PUN
This is a play on the different senses of words; it is also a manipulation of
words that sound similar but have different meanings. The figure is sometimes
regarded by some people as playful and therefore less artistically serious. I belong
to those that are not of this persuasion. Pun is seen here as a very aesthetically
strategic figure that is useful for both artistic freshness and linguistic economy.
The Wikipedia identifies three divisions of pun. These are:

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Homographic, where the pun exploits multiple meanings of
essentially the same word. For example: 'Being in politics is just like
playing golf: you are trapped in one bad lie after another.'
Ideophonic, where words of similar but not identical sound are
confused. For example: 'A chicken crossing the road is poultry (poetry)
in motion.'
Homophonic, in which the words are pronounced identically but are
of distinct and separate origin. For example: 'I've no idea how worms
reproduce but you often find them in pairs (pears).'" ("Pun")
Of these three categories, it seems obvious that artists could employ ideophonic
puns more in the written tradition than in the oral. This study, based on an oral
poet, will thus exclude ideophonic puns from its discussion. Of the remaining two
categories, it is necessary to state that homograhic puns are the more pervasive in
Amee. They shall therefore be discussed first.
6. 4. 1. Homographic Pun
This occurs, for example, in Amee 2:6 where in describing Cieve Tsavbee,
the poet-persona says that, the patron's looks are good to behold; "his character
too is neatly in line!" (Ieren kpaa ngi tsembelee 'ha ba!) People who look good
hardly have good characters, so do the Tiv say. Saying Cieve is good looking and
well-mannered is therefore a very effective eulogy. The pun is in the word/phrase
'ha ba which is manipulated by the poet for two senses which, unfortunately,
cannot be fully captured in translation. First, it means "in line"; the imagery here is
from Tiv yam farms. In constructing the moulds for planting yams, the Tiv make

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sure the moulds are on a straight line. They call this line as ba. The lines help in
knowing the number of earth moulds a farm contains. A mould that does not fall in
line is said to be out of ba and is therefore usually re-constructed. Being out of line
(that is, out of ba) has then passed into a Tiv idiom. Since the society has its codes
of behaviour, any behaviour away from this code is regarded as out of line. People
therefore use this imagery in their everyday communication to either condemn or
approve the behaviour of others generally. When someone behaves correctly, his
actions are said to be sha ba, that is, in line; when his behaviour is not correct, his
actions are said to be sha ba ga. In the poem, the artist has used ‟ha ba to approve
of Cieve‟s general behaviour. The second sense of the phrase is haba, an
interjectional word of Hausa origin. The poet-persona has uttered it here to express
his being overwhelmed at the qualities of the patron that he has just described. To
accomplish this interjection, he has dropped the "S" that should have preceded the
sha for sha ba. While the exclusion of this "S" does not diminish the meaning of sha
ba, it fits the expression for the second sense of haba – the exclamation. The
persona thus accomplishes the two senses at the same time.
Another example of a pun where the word in question is used for both
interjectional and for statement purposes is in Amee 93:16 where in discussing the
frequent deaths in the house of Aerga Gum, the poet-persona exclaims, Hanmashie
ka mliam, Ku! WanMbatinyam vaa je kunya kôrum ee (Every time they are in tears,
Ku! How Daughter-of-the-Mbatinyam has so cried that I feel pity for her ee). Ku
here serves as a Tiv exclamation; but it also is the name for "death" – the cause of
the constant tears in Aerga's compound.

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In another poem (Amee 45: 42 – 43), the poet-persona describes the arrival
of his patrons thus:
Ônmba Dam nyôr shin ii! Have the children of Dam arrived!
Aôndu tsa shirin ishima tugh me a shi KAANG! That God kept heaving sighs all through
KAANG kpa a lu Zaki Kusugh Mnenga the night. How he kept [sighing
Abev heavily] KAANG! KAANG! It
must be Zaki Kusugh Mnenga
Abev.
Kaang kaang is used here to express the sound of the sighs God is said to be
heaving at night – a metaphorical reference for the rumbling in the sky. But it also
refers to the poet-persona's conjecture that it must be Kusugh Mnenga's arrival that
has caused such response from the heavens. This is the phrase used for such a
conjectural purpose. For example, if one sees a figure at a distance and supposes
that that figure is John, he can say, A shi kaang kaang kpa a lu Jôn a lu zan heela
ye (It certainly must be John going over there.) This is therefore the other sense
that the poet has employed in the lines quoted above.
But in Amee 93, pun is at the root of most of the whole introductory part of
the poem (4 – 10):
Anorhyundu tema sha gbenda nenge a or lu A mad man once sat by a road and saw a man
van a ake; coming with scrotal elephantiasis;
Nenge a or lu van a ishange; He saw a man coming with an ishange bad-
pupiled-eye;
Nenge a or lu van a ikyer ee. He saw a man coming with a goitre ee.
Orhyundu yua gbou gba gbiden or: The mad man picked his rod and began to beat
the pedestrian:
“Shi u ngu van amar “You are also coming for the dance ceremony;
U ngu wan tswen shin ii? ” Are you the only child?”
In these lines, a mad man sitting by the wayside sees a guest to an amar dance
ceremony and begins to beat this guest. The mad man's anger is that this guest

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wants to have everything as if he is the only child in the world. Kids who have no
siblings are the sole benefactors of their parents‟ wealth, and so everything goes to
them. They have no sibling to compete with them for their parents' love or family
resources. The point of this accusation by the mad man is the word va which means
"come" – one of its forms being van (coming) as can be seen in the Tiv version of
the lines quoted above. Now, the word va (come) is the same word used to
describe the symptoms of sicknesses like scrotal elephantiasis, bad-pupiled eye, and
goitre. Since the guest has all these sicknesses, it is, in the mad man's twisted
reasoning, unfair for him (the guest) to be coming for the dance ceremony again.
In other words, why does he want to va everything? This is the pun. Of course, va
as it applies to the symptoms of the ailments is different to when it is used as the
verb to come.
There are many more illustrations of this type of pun in Amee but we will
look at just one more example. In 54:11, there is this line: Aôndu gba tar tsô ijen
man gba (Once God created the world; hunger, emerged). The pun is on the word
gba which means "create" (particularly the creation of the world) as well as
"emerge".
6. 4. 2. Homophonic Pun
As explained above, this pun occurs where words sound similar differ in both
origin and meaning. This also features in Amee's poems though at a lesser
frequency compared to homographic puns. One example will suffice for illustrative
purpose. In Amee 50:18, the poet has just announced that Aza of Gaase has given
him a motorcycle that he [the persona] should collect, or ican nan sena caghen

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atuul ga (The man of ican poverty should not cagh thresh atuul okra soup [with his
feet as he treks]). Okra is a plant whose fruits, in traditional Tiv society, are cooked
and then threshed on a grinding stone and dished out as soup. This method of
preparing the soup has passed into a Tiv idiom for trekking. When someone is
trekking (especially to a place that he/she should, ordinarily, use a faster means of
transport), he/she is said to be caghen atuul, that is, threshing okra. In the
quotation here, the poet-persona has stated how his patron has forbidden him from
trekking by giving him a motorcycle. The pun is on the word ican (poverty) which
sounds close to caghen (thresh with the feet). The poet-persona has therefore
planted this phrase in the same place with ican to achieve the pun which the
homonymous nature of the two words ensures – though the words, of course,
mean different things and have been used as such.
6.5. ALLUSION
Robert A. Harris, acceptably, defines allusion as "a short... reference to a
famous person or event". Amee Ijôrpo, the poet of this study, has indeed made use
of this device over and over again. He employs all that is alludable in Tiv life as such
in the poems. Some of his allusions are to Tiv oral tradition; others are to Tiv
religion; others to Christianity; and others to Tiv history. Each of these shall now be
briefly considered.
6. 5. 1. Allusions to Tiv Oral Tradition
Igoil made an effort to discuss this but had the rather too large sub-title of
folklore for the subject (“Cultural Aspects” 333); this limited his focus. It is better,
within such limited space as Igoil‟s, to dwell on allusions to oral tradition than on

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allusions to folklore generally where the discourse becomes too broad. For purposes
of this research, attention will be concentrated on this poet‟s allusion to oral
traditional materials like folktales, legends, sayings, anecdotes and fables. In fact,
for purposes of convenience, only two oral traditional genres will be looked at here.
These are folktales and legends.
In Amee 84:21 – 24, there is this sequence:
M sugh wan sha ikyum ior oo. I greet the scion from the people-group that is populous
Mato suwe un a wuam or u doon mo, A motor car insisted on killing the man of my pleasure,
Kpa ishamhila ndiir a na oo, But the ishamhila spear-grasses disappeared with him
Ndiir a na da yer ee. Disappeared with him and hid him away ee.
oo.
oo,
The addressee in these lines is said to have escaped unhurt from an accident. The
poet-persona‟s consideration of this escape as the handwork of the ishamhila spear-
grasses is an allusion to Tiv folktales in which Hare, the trickster hero, is often
rescued deux-ex-machina from troubles by his maternal kinsmen, the spear-grasses
(Hagher, Metaphor 57). Besides, there is an obvious panegyric value in treating an
addressee in such light. Only few people may not fall for such a flattery when they
are cast in the light of Hare the almighty trickster hero of Tiv tales.
There is another reference to a popular Tiv folktale in Amee 27:34. The poet-
persona says M ta nor-mnger kor M kua nor-tar ve (I have tied an elephant to a
hippopotamus). This denotes his bringing two of his patrons together and the fact
that these patrons resorted to competing for who would out-do the other in
rewarding the poet-persona. The tale being alluded to at present is the one in
which Alôm the Hare tricked both the elephant and the hippopotamus separately
into a tug of war with each other – with each of them thinking it was Hare that they

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were competing against. Of course, Hare was the beneficiary since both beasts
exhausted themselves to his amusement. Igoil has correctly explained the
significance of this tale to the poet by saying that:
Amee is claiming to be Alôm while [the] two of his sponsors are each
designated the hippopotamus and the elephant. He is saying that each
is that powerful and between them he (Amee) is just like the
diminutive hare. But that he had brought them together and each
should prove that he is more powerful than the other. In other words,
he is urging them to outdo each other in bestowing gifts on him…
.(“Cultural Aspects” 335 – 36)
In "Azege, an Elephant Chased Me..." (Amee 51:1), the poet-persona, again,
refers to a dilemma tale that is very popular in Tivland. He says, Kwaghbula Azege
nor zendam ooo, M za hembe ikyange aji ve (Kwaghbula Azege, an elephant chased
me ooo, I have fled and broken the eggs of an ikyange guinea fowl). This dilemma
tale can best be appreciated by looking at its more elaborate appearance in Ance
Igbyaaze, another great Tiv bard. I have transcribed and translated the following
piece from Ance:
Tor Ter Agbe oo! Chief Ter Agbe oo!
M va me ôrugh kwaghalôm ô: I have come to tell you a tale:
Ceregh ngise da num ikyor o; The cobra once disturbed the ikyor rat out of his hole;
Yan‟ ikyor due za num ikyuna; The ikyor rat ran out and disturbed the partridge;
Ikyuna yô i purugh gba sha kon o; The partridge flew and perched on a tree;
Kon gema sombu cagh nor ijime o; The tree branch broke and landed on elephant‟s back;
Nor ande ayem a za hembe Elephant sprang off running and in the process, broke
Akernyon aji ye. Akernyon bird‟s eggs.

Tor ime cor toho – ka an or Chief, darkness dominated in the bush – which man
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Nan fe gbenda yô? Knows the way out?
Even Ance has left out the aspect of the tale where Hunger is the one that started
off the sequence. Hunger first disturbed the cobra, which led to the rest of the
chain of disturbances. The dilemma in the tale is: Who is guilty among these
offenders? Amee has used this tale to let it be known to his patrons that his
disturbance of them is caused by a chain of other forces beyond him; they should
therefore not blame him. It is necessity that has pushed him into pestering them
with constant pleas for help. And the tale helps him to present his case more
persuasively.
Consoling one of his patrons over the death of one of that patron‟s relations,
the poet-persona has again resorted to the use of Tiv legends in the following
words:
Gbayange Atô kpa kpe oo; Even Gbayange Atô died oo;
Cia Cile Tali kpa kpe ee; Cia Cile Tali too died ee;
Aba Kume kpa kpe ee Aba Kume also died as well ee (Amee 18:54 – 56).
The names alluded to in these lines belong to great men who died long ago but
have become legends in Tivland for the spiritual powers that they possessed. If
anybody could defeat death, these people could not have died, the poet-persona
implies. The same allusion to legendary figures is done in Amee 7:51 – 52 where
the poet-persona calls on:
Aôndu u Gbayange Atô ee God of Gbayange Atô ee.
Aôndu u Ibyaver God of Ibyaver
Gbayange's name is repeated here and Ibyaver (Abaverjua), another legend is also
mentioned. These people are among those that the traditional Tiv believe used to

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talk with God (Akiga 232). Stories abound of how they used to say things and such
things would come to pass as exactly as they decreed. The poet's decision to use
them as allusions is thus, very rhetorically strategic.
6. 5. 2. Allusions to Tiv Religion
There are also several allusions to Tiv traditional religion. In Amee 40:26 and
48:8 for instance, there are references to Swem. In the former, the reference is to
Swem as a symbol by which to swear as described by Akiga (218 – 25), and in the
latter, the reference is to Swem as a sacred place to which people go and receive
spiritual gifts. "Atôndu Tiôn Died..." contains another religious reference where it
says even the deceased's friends from Ugbe attended the burial (Amee 86:2). Ugbe
is a place that the Tiv regard with sacred considerations. It is regarded by many as
the entry point of the Tiv to their present location and many myths are associated
with it. It is also in the direction of Ugbe that the sacred Swem Hill is located.
Moreover, the Tiv clans that occupy Ugbe are famous for their magical powers. The
poet's portrayal of the deceased as having friends among the Ugbe is therefore a
panegyric way of saying that the late patron was really a great man. In other
places, there is reference to various Tiv religious practices. Amee 81:31, for
instance, says that Cado Akaaer Adudu is invoking the "ijôughultyo religious
emblems!" Often in the poems, clans and districts are blamed for causing the death
of some people (Amee 87:7, 73:5-7, 77:1 – 7, 40:8 - 10 etc). This blame is in
keeping with the Tiv religious faith where nobody just dies but is killed by the
collective witchcraft of his clansmen. At other times, witchcraft generally or its

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paraphernalia are freely referred to (Amee 17:51, 43:39, 51:26, 64:50 etc). These
are all religious allusions.
Allusions to Christianity are also perverse in Amee. Christianity has become
so domesticated in Tivland that it is no longer possible for any artist in the ethnic
group to ignore it. Poets therefore freely incorporate Christian materials into their
renditions. Amee too has employed Christian allusions very often. In condemning
the terrorism of wizards and witches for instance, the poet-persona, borrowing from
Christianity, tells the terrorists that:
Or u nan woo Utsua wan la The person who has killed Utsua's scion
Iyange i mkurtar nan a tema ke' igyamusu On the last day will sit in hell fire (Amee: 58:20 –
The Last Day and Hell Fire are not traditional Tiv religious concepts but they are
useful to the poet because a good number of members of his audience belong to,
or at least sympathize with the Christian faith. The allusion is thus, very rhetorically
effective. Another example of an allusion to Christianity is:
Or ngu a due ne wua keng; Whenever a man [who is truly a man] emerges
you people usually kill him;
Ne mba eren asorabo, You people are committing iniquities,
Ayange Aôndu a kôr ne eee. Some day God will punish you eee. (Amee 56:76 –
The idea of sin Christianizes the imagery of divine punishment in the lines above.
But the poet's Christian allusions are not limited to only the subject of crime
and punishment; in "Elegy for Ayagwa's Mother" (Amee 90:14 – 18), for instance,
the poet alludes to the biblical story of God's descent on Mount Sinai (Exodus 19).
In those lines too, God has come down on Mkar Mountain in Tivland to attend the
burial of the deceased. In Amee 83:4, the poet-persona exclaims that since he has
78)
21).

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seen Gbamwuan (one of his patrons), even if he dies he would no longer be
bothered since he has seen Jesus “with my own eyes”. Here, it is the biblical story
of Simeon that has been alluded to. Simeon spent all his life in the temple waiting
for the birth of the saviour. When Jesus was born and brought to the temple for
presentation, Simeon "took him in his arms and praised God saying: 'Sovereign
Lord, as you have promised, now dismiss your servant in peace. For my eyes have
seen your salvation..." (Luke 2:28 – 30). Many more allusions to Christianity in the
poetry of Amee are to be found in Amee 75:34, 40:39, 10:32, etc.
6.5.3. Allusions to Tiv History
"On Ethnic Wars" (Amee 75:8) contains an illustration of an allusion to Tiv
history. The poet says there that Kasar nandem kwase iya hia vindivindi (Kasar has
burnt my wife‟s entire home). Kasar was a Chamba warrior that was an ally of the
Tiv and they formed a gang which was a thorn in the flesh of colonial companies
since it usually engaged in armed robbery. Kasar and his gang were finally defeated
in 1896 (Makar 93). The Kasar gang was admired by some Tiv for its dare-devilry
but abhorred at the same time for its criminality. In the context used by the poet
here, it is the criminality of this gang that is in the picture. The arson on the house
of the poet-persona's wife is evidence of the criminality.
In Amee 65:16, the poet-persona complains of zebo being after him. This is
also an allusion to a Tiv historical material. Zebo, according to T. G. Ierve, is a
name which featured in the anti-witchcraft movement known as inyambyuan which
began in 1939 (114). The members of this movement referred to people who used
witchcraft for evil purposes as zebo. This is the same sense that the poet-persona

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has employed the term here. Since there are other figures to be discussed in Amee,
I hereby leave out the numerous other allusions available in the poems.
6.6. HYPERBOLE
This is largely synonymous with exaggeration and overstatement. Statements
that are hyperbolic are usually creatively extravagant in meaning. The figure‟s
artistic value is emphasis or effect.
Abounding examples of hyperbole in Amee include Amee 2:23 where the
poet-persona submits that the land of Tyôsugh Tyônem is so good that even when
you mistakenly step on a snake there, i hingir tsar ikyondu (it turns into a rag). That
is to say, even snakes do not bite when they are treaded on in that land. This same
hyperbole is repeated in a different context in Amee 55:55 – 57. Hyperboles are
also deployed generously when the poet is describing the attire of some of his
patrons. Such an example is found in Amee 39:11 where Chief Musa is said to wear
a garment that has carried a child on its back. Almost the same is said of Beba
Unzô's garment which is said to have "a head" (Amee 26: 10) just as the cloth
which Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan gave the poet-persona in Amee 8:45. The habit of
hyperbolically imbuing clothes with human characteristics is aimed at emphasising
the high quality of these clothes and in turn, massaging the egos of the patrons
said to be wearing or giving the attire.
Another aspect that has attracted many hyperboles from Amee is when
describing the rewards given to him by his patrons. Cieve Tsavbee, for instance,
hosted a song-party at which the poet-persona got so much money that when he
carried it to go, he developed a hunchback (Amee 3:50). The same overstatement

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is repeated in Amee 20:12 where the persona says he took such a load of financial
rewards that he collapsed with chest pain. In describing the generosity of Daughter-
of-Baki, the poet-persona further says that the woman kept a whole human being
for him (Amee 17:20). Later in the same poem, the invented protagonist says
"'Wouku [another song patron] held the sky and pulled it down that I should climb
thereon; I climbed" (line 53). These are hyperbolic images that demonstrate the
quality of the rewards the poet-persona received. In Amee 71:48, the persona says
Ikyiva Ura and his wife Sarin Ashwe "have reserved a kpese wooden basin for me
over there [so that I could pack the rewards that they would give]". As for Veunô
Alya, the poet-persona says:
Alya Tyôba wan mirim imo Alya Tyôba‟s scion hosted me to a song-party:
Nyinya zool nongu nyôr Isherev; Horses lined up, up to Isherev land;
Bua kpa mar sha gbenda. Even a cow gave birth on the road (Amee 7: 28 – 30).
The horses said to "line up, up to Isherev land" are those Veunô has bought to
reward the poet. The distance to Isherev land (where the line of horses is said to
reach) is about twenty kilometres away from the point the poet-persona is referring.
Concerning the persona‟s reference, in line 29, to a cow giving birth on the way, it
needs be clarified that the hyperbole here is derived from a Tiv proverb which says,
bua maren sha ashe a ior ga (the cow does not give birth before people). If a cow
is giving birth right on the highway as shown in this line, it means there are too
many cows to attend to so this particular one escaped attention. Elsewhere, the
persona celebrates the noble Daughter-of-Hambe that she "met her hand with mine
[in bestowing a gift] and my luck was so greatly enhanced [that] throughout the
whole year, I did not know poverty again" (Amee 15:54).

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There are quite a number of other hyperboles in these poems. To mention a
few more, the poet-persona portrays a situation where he is given so much financial
rewards that when he sets out to go, robbers go after him. He then begins to run.
Then an exaggeration is employed to describe the speed of his running: “How I
ran/As if my toe-nails would fall out!" (Amee 20:18 –19).
One other area that the poet has resorted to the use of a lot of hyperboles is
in the creation of the imagery of heroism for his patrons and addressees. This is
appropriate because of the panegyric value of overstatements. So the persona goes
on presenting people who catch wild cats without using any weapon (Amee 51:66)
and turn beasts into horses (Amee 45:25). Regarding clothes, he presents some of
his patrons as being so heavily dressed that the weight of the clothes almost give
them chest pain (Amee 36:3). Indeed overstatements, like many other figures,
abound in the poetry of Amee Ijôrpo.
6.7. PROVERBS
Achebe's submission that "among the Ibo the art of conversation is regarded
very highly, and proverbs are the palm oil with which words are eaten" (5) is true of
the Tiv as well. Their word for proverbs is anzaakaa and Adeiyongo's “A Literary
Study of Tiv Anzaakaa” is an ample demonstration of both the functional relevance
and the literary value of this figure in the ethnic group. The fact is that in traditional
Tiv society, the ability to communicate in proverbs is proof of maturity and skill.
Every Tiv clan, for instance, has an orshua (literally, human weaverbird), that is, the
clan‟s orator whose job is to lead discussion whenever there is need to have a
discourse with another clan. Speaking skills generally are among the many qualities

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required of a candidate for this position, but proverbs are particularly regarded as
most necessary in his repertoire. As maintained earlier, the Tiv so value proverbs
that it is anzaakaa, the name of proverbs, that has become their generic name for
all figures of speech. Recognizing this fact, Tiv poets demonstrate their
communication skills by either creating their own proverbs or by a dextrous
employment of already existing ones. The following instances exemplify the role of
proverbs in Amee.
In Amee 88:35, the poet-persona is informing his patron of how that patron‟s
clansmen love him (the patron's), for, imo ngi gbe teren or ga (song does not just
mention anybody). Amee as a traditional poet knows that you do not just decide to
mention anybody in your song; you first consider the reputation of that person in
his clan. If it is good, you proceed to include his name in your composition hence,
the proverb, song does not just mention anybody. Amee 94:4 has another proverb
which says ijombu unde ikyon kpaa ijombu nyagh acikpado (the ijombu wild cat has
climbed a lot of trees but it has avoided the acikpado thorny plant). This proverb
means there are exceptions in every situation. The poet-persona is telling his
audience this because they do not seem to be aware of it and are making no
exceptions in their wizardry killing spree. Four lines later in the same poem, another
very popular proverb is called up: kon môm ngu lu ikyô ga (one tree does not make
a forest, lines 8 and 9). This is used to give the audience another piece of
information that they seem to be forgetting: the danger of isolation.
In trying to console Igbyon Anyam over the death of that patron‟s mother,
the persona, in Amee 21:36 submits: ki hegh ki a wa ki tsegh ki hôô (when the new

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has germinated, the old does rot away). This proverb is from the domain of
farming. When seed yams, for instance, are planted and they germinate, it is
inevitable that for the new yam to grow, the old seed yam must rot away. The Tiv,
mostly yam farmers by occupation, are only too aware of this fact and have fetched
that proverb out of it. The poet-persona is therefore telling his patron that since his
mother gave birth to him, she, as a fact of nature, has to leave the stage for him to
continue with her legacy. Later in this same poem (lines 55 and 56), Amee has a
cluster where two proverbs compete for attention:
Ka we a vende wan yô u lu a ishima cighim- When you have given birth and your earlier
cighim; baby is not mature enough yet for it,
you do cultivate a big, big heart;
Sena ongu akpenger gbenda ga… Do not heed to the akpenger birds on the way…
The proverb in line 55 is a reference to insufficient spacing of children by parents.
When parents give birth to another when an earlier baby is yet to be weaned, they
have two small babies to care for; they therefore have to cultivate all the patience
in the world and endure the babies‟ disturbances. After all, they are the ones that
gave birth without the needful spacing that both wisdom and necessity demand.
The Tiv have therefore extracted the proverb from this phenomenon. The poet has
used it here to remind his patron that his (the patron's) other responsibilities should
not make him impatient with the persona, since the patron has only given birth to
another baby. Concerning the idiomatic usage in line 56 (“do not heed to akpenger
birds on the way”), the persona is advising the patron he is addressing not to pay
attention to gossips that want to cause division between him and his poet.
In addressing one patron who seemed to abandon him, the persona asks
proverbially: tso hembe yô ihyongu kpa i kpe shin ii? (Since the canoe has broken,

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should the ford of the river also be closed down? Amee 54:10). Obviously there was
a problem between the poet and this patron. Yet, the poet-persona is saying that
even if the canoe is broken, people continue to cross the ford by other means.
Implication: the patron should not close the door on him so completely. In another
instance, the poet-persona tells his audience, ka we a ta inyam u kera nee ura ga
(When you shoot an animal, you no longer cause rain to fall at the same time)
(Amee 77: 23). The imagery here is from the domain of hunting where, sometimes,
an animal that was shot usually dragged itself very far away before falling and
dying. The hunter traced it by the spoor until he found it. But suppose the hunter
was a rainmaker and he caused rain before discovering the game that he shot, the
rain could have washed away the spoor and made it impossible to trace the game.
The lesson here is the need to be wise in prioritizing whatever one does. Still
drawing from the domain of hunting to advise on the necessity for wisdom, this
same poem says elsewhere that:
Mba a ta sha vanger Even when the shot is on the chest
Kpa i goom a mi It is still usually said to be elsewhere,
Man ior i fa ga ye... Then people do not know... (Lines 8 – 10).
In hunting expeditions, there were mistakes sometimes which led to fellow hunters
being shot rather than game. Now, even when one was shot on the chest, the
report spread sometimes was deliberately misleading. It was reported that the
fellow hunter was shot in the leg. The reason was that if the true position of the
shot were reported, evil people using witchcraft would capitalize on that accident
and kill the victim and claim that it was the shot from the hunting accident that
caused his death, but a shot in the leg is not life-threatening. Thus, even when
someone was mistakenly shot right on the chest (a very dangerous spot), the truth

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was kept secret and the public was deliberately misinformed to protect the victim
from being harmed by evil people. The poet is condemning his addressees in this
poem for over-exposing their kindred.
In asserting the safety that one of his patrons provided for him, the poet-
persona says, furthermore, that, anyam ker or ken mboho ga (The leopard does not
devour one who [has taken refuge] in mbohom thorny plants, Amee 79:46). The
mbohom as a thorny plant, protects whoever manages to hide in it from even a
leopard's trouble. There is a good panegyric advantage in this proverb since the
patron compared to the mbohom plant would certainly feel good. Elsewhere, in self-
indulgent anger on his role as composer, the poet uses another proverb, Ankpan
kurun ga / Imo ne kpa duem ishar eee (A slave does not rest from work/I am
saturated with even this song [art] eee) (Amee 71:63 – 64). Ankpan kurun ga is a
proverb. The poet regards himself as a slave to his Muse; that is why he cannot
stop singing. All these, and more, demonstrate the proverbial depths of Amee
Ijôrpo, the Tiv ibiamegh poet of this study.
6.8. ALLITERATION
This is another figure that is perverse in Amee‟s poems. As a figure of
speech, alliteration is in Harris' words, "is useful for emphasis and art". To observe
a few instances of this figure in Amee: Amee 9:38 has the poet-persona calling one
of his patrons and confessing to him that: orimo wou vôr a gbande sha gbenda ve
(Your song-man is worn-out with his drum on the road). Drum here is a symbol of
the poet's song performance. The alliteration is in the juxtaposed two words of
gbande (drum) and gbenda (road). The alliteration occurs at two levels. It is found

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in both the first and the last syllables of either word as can be seen underlined. It
can thus be said that, that line has double alliteration since the figure occurs at two
different positions. The double alliteration while giving the line a drum-like staccato
also stresses the idea in the line.
"Elegy for Tor Tiv Gondu" (Amee 14:25) also contains an example of
consonantal as well as double alliteration: Tor kpe tar Tiv kpa kpe (As the Tor died,
Tivland also died). Here, the double alliteration appears in the /t/ and /k/
consonants as underlined. It is a Paramount Ruler's death so it is proper that it is
alliteratively highlighted this way. Another alliterative example is in Amee 35:26:
Aôndu gba tar tsô gba ku (Once God created the earth, He also created death) and
in Amee 84:13: gbuuka gba imo guukuku! (The gbuuka gun boomed guukuku!).
The poet, in this last instance could have said, gbuuka gba imo diing but diing
would not have alliterated as guukuku has done and given the message appropriate
weight. Amee 38: 3 – 4 too contains, M civir ôn mba Biam je M gba kpan/ kpa ka
kom ve ga… (I have respected the children of Biam to the point of a slave/But they
are not being satisfied...). The alliterative sounds here are /kp/ and /k/.
There are very many other alliterative occurrences in the poetry of Amee.
One of the most repeated clauses in the poems is where the poet-persona laments
the demise of his brother Mko and talks of going to join him in the grave: kohol Mko
(join Mko, Amee 65:9; 71:21; 86:8; 91:17). As easily noticeable, /k/ alliterates in
the lines. Also, in Amee 81:32, the persona says of the wife of one of his patrons:
WanSherev lu tan tu shin tembe (Daughter-of-Sherev was displaying her character
in the arena). The /t/ here is repeated alliteratively. In Amee 66:6 too, the poet

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describes Zenda Agagu, one of his patrons thus: Zenda Agagu senda a kungucur-
bidi aver akinde gba shin tembe (Zenda Agagu jumped with a kungucur-bidi horse
over an akinde tree and landed in the [dance] square). All the four syllables in
which the /d/ appears in this line are stressed. More examples of consonantal
alliteration in Amee are: Amee 93:16: Ku! WanMbatinyam vaa je kunya korum ee!
(Ku! How Daughter-of-Mbatinyam has so cried that I feel pity for her ee!); Amee
93:18: Kwase a kpe kpa ne kpaa shin ii? (Would you people have sex with even a
dead woman?); Amee 21:4: Atôndu Tiôn kpe imo kpa kpe (Atôndu Tiôn died, my
song also died); and Amee 76: 36 – 38:
Ivase Chichi Agbe ka or Mbayiôn Ivase Chichi Agbe is man of Mbayiôn;
Or u ke' Mbamterev Man from Mbamterev;
Or u ke Jemngbagh jighjigh. Man from Jemngbagh exactly.
The alliteration is in the /j/ of the last line. There are indeed inexhaustribkle
instances of alliteration in Amee.
6.9. AMBIGUITY
This denotes expressions that are capable of more than one interpretation.
In a section of their The Language of Poetry titled "Ambiguity as a Poetical Device"
(50 – 52), Millar and Currie have satisfactorily demonstrated how this device is
achieved through pun, innuendo, and irony. They then conclude, agreeably, that:
There are occasions in serious poetry when the poet may enrich his
verse by deliberately writing so that a number of different meanings
may be held in tension while the implications of all of them are
vaguely felt. (52)

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An examination of the puns in Amee has already been done; it is therefore not out
of place to regard all of the puns thus examined as examples of ambiguity. That
notwithstanding, a few other instances of this figure will be considered to
specifically exemplify it.
In Amee 28:36 for example, the poet-persona implores one of his patrons to
nam kwagh M ya ayange me kpe ashe nga wanger mo ze ee (Give me a thing so
that I will eat that I‟d die some day [for] my eyes are no longer beholding clearly
ee). This is an innuendo because the words are arranged in such a way that the
clause "my eyes are no longer beholding clearly" is capable of two interpretations
by members of the poet's audience. The first interpretation is that which has to do
with the poet-persona's clansmen. The Tiv believe that when your clansmen have
made up their minds to end your life through witchcraft, there are some signals that
if you are a careful person, you would observe. This clause is therefore usually
employed when it begins to seem to anyone that he is noticing such signs. Since
the poet-persona is talking of dying, it is clear that the things he says his eyes are
not beholding clearly are those ominous signs from his clansmen. But another
possible interpretation of this clause is that mentioned in the poet's brief biography
in the introductory chapter. He had problems with his eyes. Even though he did not
go blind, he visited opticians on a timely basis. Indeed, this was his major sickness.
So it is possible that he was here just lamenting that his eye problems seem to be
finally taking him to his grave. The poet employed this innuendo repeatedly,
sometimes with slight modifications as can be seen in Amee 23:11 and 42:22.

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One other way Amee employs ambiguity is in reference to people –
particularly husband and wives. In his roll call of patrons which was discussed in
Chapter Four, he usually addresses people along with their wives. It is in this
address of patrons and their wives that the artistically ambiguous is often available
because there is regular confusion as to which person (that is, the patron or his
wife) certain comments are directed. Illustration:
Atôndu Tiôn aoo, Atôndu Tiôn, Atôndu Tiôn aoo, Atôndu Tiôn!
Gbam msôrum me ma M ngu yemen imo Declare a drinking galore for me to drink, I am
shin Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo going to Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo;
Alaghga me za me hide ga: Perhaps, I may go and never return:
Wan u Yaga lu nyiar aôndu kwegheer, Daughter of Yaga was sending lightning
kwegheer [in readiness to thunder],
Alaghga un a gba sha a mo. Maybe she will strike on me [with her bolts].
Wan u Yaga shagba ngôm Daughter of Yaga my noble mother,
We shi tule ishima la teghlee. Do calm your heart gently, gently.
Mirim imo kpa M gbe cian u zan tsô. Declared a song-party for me but I am
fearing to go (Amee 61:7 – 14).
Now, the last line above has an action that has no actor; and there are two
possible actors in the previous lines: Beba and his wife. So who does the poet refer
to as declaring a song party for him? There is, more over, no way one can pick the
nearest actor (Daughter of Yaga) as the implied subject of this action because the
line in which she appears has already ended. Even if one concludes that Daughter
of Yaga is the actor, the lines after this have returned to discussing Beba as though
he is the one that is actually the main focus. There is therefore ambiguity as to who
is actually being addressed in these lines. To my mind, this ambiguous presentation
is wise because the poet does not intend to credit either of the two with hosting the
party; he wants both husband and wife to have equal credit for the event. It is,
however, better to leave the action confusedly between the two so that they would

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be more challenged to do what the poet-persona expects of them. The same
strategy is repeated in lines 30 – 32 of the same poem:
Kunde Ager Wuhe Kunde Ager Wuhe
U Ashwa a kaa Wantor Va man Wangyuse Wanza Of Ashwa should tell Daughter-of-Chief
Va and Daughter-of-Gyuse Wanza:
Tindi a ikyondu i va nam M ngu yemen imo... Send a cloth for me; I am going for a
song-party...
The same question comes up: who is the poet-persona actually asking to send a
cloth to him? The syntactical background is inexact concerning this. The request is
therefore applicable to Kunde Ager and both of his two wives.
ambiguous.
Furthermore, the actual addressee in lines 1 – 8 of Amee 49 is also
Mo yô me de imo ne mayan' ga As for me I will never ever abandon this song:
Kwagh ngu a erem u me de imo ze eee. Things do happen to me in a manner that I will
never stop song eee.
Anula Gbande mato ta sha mi Chif Iorpande A car hit Anula Gbande, Chief Iorpande
Caha Biam Ala ka ônuv mba Aôndu jimjim Caha Biam Ala are the children of God
properly
Me a ôr aie yô i pine Tor Hil Agule man Shima- If [you think] I am telling a lie, let Chief Hil
ior Tsofo Agule and Shimaior of Tsofo be asked.
Ka ve ve lu tuul atônkô They are the ones that are the atônkô
supporting-poles
Tar ne ye Ugba u Iwevzer Agôv Of this world; Ugba of Iwevzer Agôv
Ka or Toruv ooo! Is a man from Toruv [clan] ooo!
The first lines demonstrate the therapeutic value of songs to the poet; when terrible
things happen to him, he finds songs a good source of relief. After stating this, the
persona moves to panegyrics concerning patrons whom he regards as children of
God because of their role in stabilizing the world. Line 6 continues with the subject
of world stabilization employing the metaphor of atônkô supporting-poles which the
Tiv use when roofing a house. But against the background of so many names

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mentioned for many different purposes, and also followed by one more name, it is
difficult to know who specifically the "they" in line 6 is referring to? In the Tiv
language original, there is little assurance that the poet-persona is referring to all
the persons mentioned in the background as would seem when reading the English
translation. These are just few illustrations of the role of ambiguity in the poems
under study. The figure has helped the poet, among other things, to say several
things to so many people at the same time while singling no one out or excluding
any.
6.10. EUPHEMISM
Amee often engages in the substitution of the very vitriolic with the less
offensive. The obvious rhetorical effect of this figure is to make whatever has been
presented more acceptable. Since death is the most unwelcome incident in the life
of a human, most of Amee's euphemisms centre on exiting in this world.
In "A Horse Dies in the Battlefield..." (Amee 5:37 – 39), the poet lessens the
negative impact of his report on the death of one of his patrons by simply saying,
Or ti per ifi ve The man has crossed the sea –
Mase eren se gudu bai ii ; How he waves us good-bye ii;
...Saa se va ...Till we come.
Death is thus, simply referred to as crossing the sea – the sea of life of course.
Elsewhere (Amee 56:1– 3), Amee uses a different euphemism in reporting death:
Van oo Tor Ibi Adabo oo! [I am] coming oo Chief Ibi Adabo oo!
M za kpa M za nenge a Laha Kpan Yakubu I went but could not see Laha Kpan Yakubu ee.
ga ee,
M pin yô er guma gba kighir un ee When I asked they said the guma red-earth fell
upon him ee

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The poet-persona has reported to one of his patrons that he went to Laha Kpan
Yakubu‟s compound but did not see him. Rather than say Laha Kpan was dead and
buried, the persona says guma, that is the red-earth that forms a tumulus, has
fallen on him. This makes the acceptance of this hard fact a bit easier – even
interesting. Of the death of Indyer Dugwer, the poet-persona again says, the
deceased has only "gone and met Ikpyônkô" (yem za kohol Ikpyônkô), a relation of
the deceased who had died earlier (Amee 76: 5). In still another rhetorical portrayal
of how one of his late patrons asked the persona to join him so that they would
both die and leave a wretched world, the persona simply says: "Malu Bawa once
invited me for a journey with Kinabo of Shondu to the guma red-earth" (Amee
91:10). This is certainly more acceptable than, for instance, a blunt, "Malu Bawa
and Kinabo of Shondu asked me to join them so that we would all die". Once more,
of the constant deaths and burials in the house of another patron, the persona
simply inquires: how is it that pigs keep ploughing the hut eaves in the compound
of Dajo Pav?" (i wa nan ve igyo i vughul kungul he' iya u Dajo Pav? Amee 94:31).
Pigs‟ ploughing is an indirect reference to the digging of graves for burial. Then, of
the universal fact of death, the poet-persona simply avers: Hanma tar hanma tar
kpa or de kulugh atse ga (In whatever land, whatever land at all, they never stop
digging up the old homestead, Amee 80:28). Graves in traditional Tiv society, just
to clarify the statement of this line, were usually dug in the old homestead. It is this
imagery that the poet is exploiting here. His use of the word kulugh is particularly
effective because this is the word used in digging up seed yams or potatoes in the
farms. Using the word with such denotation in this context is ironically sharp.

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But even besides death, there are many other instances that Amee has
employed euphemisms. One example is in his lament that one of his patrons
wanted to give him a car as a reward but the patron's close relations forbade him
(the patron) from doing so. To mention the patron's relations explicitly would sound
too scandalous so the poet-persona uses the odd word of ikyuakyua (nearness,
Amee 9:27 – 30):
Yange tee mato un a nam nyiaan How he once picked a motor car to give me straight
away
Kpa ikyuakyua venda cica But Nearness stopped him altogether
WanShitile nyôr And Daughter-of-Shitile began
Ishimanyion a na ngbavngbavngbav! To be angry with him ngbavngbavngbav!
Even this patron's wife is not happy that her husband has refrained from giving the
poet-persona the car and she is presented as being angry with her husband over
this. The panegyric mention of this patron‟s wife is to clarify that she is not among
the close associates of the patron that have been blamed. Perhaps, it is the patron‟s
brothers or friends that stopped him from rewarding the poet with the car. What is
of interest to this research in these lines is the fact that the poet created the
euphemistic word of “nearness” to denote the persons close to this patron since
what he (the poet) is reporting about them is not pleasant.
Amee's literary manipulation is more expansive than time and space can
allow to be sufficiently examined. It is, however, hoped that this chapter has given
an idea of the literary integrity of his compositions. There is evidence that he does
not just rush out words because they come to his lips. His diction is carefully
selected; the names of the people he mentions in his songs are deliberately thought
out and presented with the consciousness of whatever artistic values could be

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derived from them; he also designs literary figures that have the potential to
enhance both the matter and manner of his poetry.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
I set out in this research to investigate the artistic skills of Tiv oral poetry by
focusing on the late Amee Ijôrpo, a performer of ibiamegh poetry and one of the
most prominent bards in the land. The first chapter established the background by
stating the problem of the research, defining key terms, dwelling on the scope,
significance and theoretical framework of the study. The chapter also dwelt briefly
on Tivland, the context of Amee‟s performance and presented a brief biography of
the composer. In short, all that is necessary for the introduction of this study was
done in the first chapter. The second chapter reviewed literature related to the
subject. Here, literature on Tiv oral poetry was divided into the colonial and the
modern. The colonial scholars of the subject were compelled to study Tiv oral
poetry by some other concerns like anthropology and cultural studies. They never
set out deliberately to study Tiv songs in their own rights. This fact, and the
professional shortcomings of these researchers regarding oral poetry limited the
success of their studies. Those regarded as moderns in the study of Tiv oral poetry
are the scholars who began to approach the art on its own rights. They set out
specifically to study the Tiv song art; some of them dwelt on the subject generally
while others focused on particular Tiv poets. It has been shown that the problem
with this category of scholars vis-à-vis this research is that none of them was out to
specifically examine artistic issues in the art. Even though they discussed artistry in
the poems, such discussions were done as part of the thematic issues which were

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usually the major concern of the researchers. It was demonstrated that this study is
the first whereby a scholar has set out to specifically work on the artistic skills of Tiv
oral poetry. Moreover, it has been argued that there are many composers in Tivland
who have not been given the scholarly attention that they deserve. Amee the poet
of this study has been demonstrated as one such poet, hence the research.
The third chapter focused on aspects of Amee‟s poems. Here, the speaking
voice in the poems, the addressees, and the subjects and themes of the
compositions were discussed. It has been shown that even in these areas, the poet
has displayed profound artistic maturity just as he has done in constructing the
physical structure and narrative framework of his poems – the focus of Chapter
Four. The fifth chapter has analyzed the poet‟s dexterity by paying attention to his
diction and onomastic manipulation. Amee has been shown as varying his diction by
employing archaic words, manipulating his registers, borrowing words from other
languages and even creating his own words – all of these have helped to creatively
defamiliarise his audience with his diction. The poet‟s skills are, further, shown in
his ability to play on the names of his patrons and sponsors in such a way as to
appropriately scratch their egos and secure the desired response from them. In
Chapter Six, attention has been focused on the poet‟s figures of speech. Ten such
figures have been identified, discussed and illustrated.
At this juncture, it is pertinent to conclude that this study has confirmed what
it set out to investigate which is that Amee Ijôrpo, and by extension Tiv oral poets,
are skillful creators who demonstrate their artistic ingenuity at all levels of their
compositions beginning from how they craft the aspects of their poems, to the

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structural designs of the poems, to diction and to their use of figures of speech.
Even the way their patrons and sponsors are mentioned in the poems is carefully
crafted to serve both artistic and thematic purposes.
7.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
As mentioned when discussing the evolutionists and romanticists theorists of
oral literature, it would not be correct to be alarmed that civilization and
industrialization will lead to the demise of oral literature. This fact notwithstanding,
the fieldwork carried out for this research has shown that even if oral literature
generally does not completely get lost in the wake of industrialization, its forms
change into new ones and thus the old ones become lost into the new. In fact, in
some instances, the new is hardly aesthetically better than the old. At other times,
certain oral literary genres actually die away without even transforming into
anything new. In Tivland for example, horse songs have become totally extinct
because the emergence of cars has made the buying of horses to lose its relevance.
Yet, horse songs were one of the dominant oral poetic forms in about the middle of
the last century. The prestigious in the society, as mentioned earlier, used to buy
horses as a sign of their achievement and commissioned poets to compose specially
for them. A day was usually set aside for an amar dance ceremony, on which day
the celebrant's clan, and indeed, all the neighbouring, and even distant, clans
attended the event. It used to be such a joyous day of poetry, music, dance, and
eating and drinking. The celebrant mounted his horse and rode casually around the
arena to the tune of genga membranous drums and songs, most of which were
composed specifically for him. As children grew up, one of their earliest forms of

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poetic education was to know their father's horse songs – that is if such fathers
were prestigious men. Usually, even if their immediate father bought no horse, his
own father did, or some uncle somewhere. There was therefore no lack of horse
songs from a family for children to learn. It was usually a shame for a child not to
know such songs. This was how serious this oral poetic genre was, but with the
coming of motor cars, horses lost their pride of place in Tiv society; amar dance
ceremonies too gradually died away. At present, the horse tradition is completely
extinct. The great body of poetry that attended it has also died away. The point
being recommended is the need to collect as much oral literary materials as
possible. This is because even though the literature does not totally die in the face
of civilization, it often changes from form to form and the earlier forms need to be
preserved for artistic and extra-artistic uses. If collections are done, even where
certain sub-genres (like horse songs among the Tiv) become extinct, the collections
will provide the needed materials for study and appreciation. My first
recommendation is therefore for conscientious collection of Tiv oral literature
generally by all and sundry – scholars, government and non-governmental
organizations.
The recommendation for the collection of oral literature is further needful
because sometimes, some composers die and their performances seem to die with
them. I have, for instance, exhausted myself in vain trying to locate some of the
poets that Charles Keil (who researched in Tivland in the early 1960s) mentioned.
Poets like Chen Ugye and Jato Nyamikyôngu seem to have died with their songs.
When a poet dies, especially those who composed and performed before recorders

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were available, the passage of time, and the passage of the generation in which
they performed also go with their songs. I made several efforts to collect the songs
of the great Yatsav Ugôh (who performed in the 1920s and died about 1934) but
was only able to get three songs! This was after sending three different teams of
researchers 1 to what used to be his house. Residents of the place all confessed to
have been born after the man‟s death. The same story could be said of numerous
other poets who performed during this time in Tivland. Even today, there are many
who are performing in villages where no recorders are available so their songs are
likely to die with the passage of time. In the case of the poet of this study, for
example, even though his poems were recorded on audiotapes, it was very difficult
tracing the tapes. When they were located, the contents of some of them were lost
and getting even the poet‟s surviving assistants to supply the missing parts was not
a solution because the assistant who performed for me forgot some of the poems
himself. This is the more reason why it is necessary to have professional
researchers collecting and archiving the works of such poets.
To further underscore the need for collection, in some cases, the contents,
and indeed the texts of poems are not lost when the artist dies but the performatics
of the poet are no longer available. In oral literature, it has been generally accepted
that performance is monumentally important. Apart from what the poem says, the
way the artist performs it: his gesticulation, facial expressions and general
manipulation of contextual elements to enhance his rendering are quite valuable to
an appreciation of the rendition. When a poet dies, his idiosyncratic performatic
style dies with him. For instance, when Amee the poet of this study died,

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Iorwashima, his son, took over his career but there was a difference. The son had
neither his father's voice shape nor artistic tact. Thus even though he performed his
father's songs, the performance was good only as an imitation of the original. It
served more to remind one of the great bard that was dead and gone. Perhaps, had
the son not died too soon himself, he could have learnt on the job but there is little
possibility that he could have been exactly like his father. He may have cultivated
his own skills and developed in his own direction. Thus the originality of Amee's
poetic rendition, like that of any other oral poet, died with him.
To further clarify on the collections being recommended here, they have to
be done with audiovisual facilities. Almost all that has been recorded of Tiv oral
poetry so far is only audio. This is inappropriate because of the common knowledge
that the oral artist does not utilise only the voice to communicate, he uses his whole
body to perform and to fully appreciate him, he must not just be heard but also
seen. The collections being recommended therefore have to be done on
audiovisual recorders. Moreover, with the availability digitalization facilities now and
the security they afford for materials stored on them, it is advisable that Tiv oral
materials be digitally. After all, this is one of the methods of glocalisation.
Then, another recommendation is for critics to go beyond the almost
exclusively thematic focus that has so far dominated the study of Tiv oral poetry as
demonstrated in a part of Chapter Two. Oral literary scholars need to pay greater
attention to linguistic and artistic matters in these poems. Godwin Yina's semiotic
interest in the poetry is a good effort in this direction. There is the need for more of

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such research works especially when they are centred on particular Tiv poets, rather
than on Tiv poetry generally as Yina has done.
Then, patrons of oral poetry need to do more to encourage the performers of
the genre. There is a serious lack of patrons for poetry at present. For the past ten
years, I have heard of only two song-parties hosted. Most of the great patrons of
poetry like Wada Ihyuan, Jime Akaaka, Paul Unôngu, Tilley Gyado, Udorugh Ada
Iwenkyôn Agena, Awua Anyila Agbadu, Dam Ayali Gyadam, Kehem Dajo, and many
others have either died, become less wealthy, or less interested in poetry – being
overtaken by age, survival stress or other concerns. The patronage of oral poetry is
therefore very low among the Tiv at present. It seems it may not get better except
concerned individuals as well as the government make conscientious efforts.
The matter is like what is happening in the natural sciences now where
endangered species are conscientiously preserved. Endangerment of species does
not mean they are no longer relevant; it often means that the unjust forces
operating on primordial jungle laws are stressing them out of existence. The forces
of globalization are operating in that style now against oral poetry. Thus, just as
deliberate steps have been taken by some people to preserve some animals that
are unjustly being forced to extinction, there is equal need to do the same for oral
poetry.
So individuals, even if they cannot host proper song-parties, can help by
inviting oral poets for at least imôngu-teman courtesy visits. The government of
Benue State Government, for example, once specifically commissioned oral poets to
help her spread the gospel of fertilizer use and adult education in the 1970s. The

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same oral poets could be of immense assistance if commissioned to help
governments to fight some of the ills (like HIV-AIDS) bedevilling the society now. It
is really unfortunate that oral poets particularly have, to employ Shelley‟s words,
become “the unacknowledged legislators of the world” (qtd. in Kennedy 827). It is
therefore recommended that the Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa State Governments
should live up to their responsibilities by empowering their Ministries of Culture and
of Information to encourage Tiv oral poetry. The Ministries of Culture should
organize annual oral poetic concerts and competitions while the Ministries of
Information should see that Tiv oral poetic performances are aired from their radio
stations – rather than allowing the current terror of the Frequency Medium (FM)
bands in airing foreign – and often needlessly noisy – music. The ministries of
information could also involve poets in spreading some pieces of information that
they require the populace to know.
Associations need to be formed for the preservation and survival of oral
poetry. This researcher has in the pipeline plans to inaugurate a Benue Valley
Folklore Society (BNVFS) as well as Benue Oral Literature Association (BOLA). The
aim is that when any of these two commences, one or two oral artists would be
invited to Makurdi every month to perform before an audience of oral poetic
appreciators. The performances would always be recorded and preserved. This is
one other way to help the situation.
Oral poetry must never be extinct! However, like everything else, the genre
will fare better only when efforts are made to deliberately encourage it. As

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mentioned above, this is the role of scholars, culturally inclined individuals as well
as government and non-governmental organizations.

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7.3. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
This research has contributed to knowledge by focussing on a profound poet
who was hitherto unstudied. For all his versatility as a composer, only Iyortange
Igoil investigated Amee Ijôrpo‟s poetry. Even that study by Igoil is highly limited by
space. Dwelling on this poet as has been done in this research has therefore
reduced the number of Tiv composers yet to be researched.
Useful to knowledge as well is the fact that this poet‟s work has been
preserved in this thesis. Amee Ijôrpo is dead; most of his song assistants are also
dead. Even his son who knew about his songs enough to carry on with his
performance has died as earlier stated in his biography. Thus the endangerment of
the poems which has already been pointed out in the discourse on methodology.
Preserving the songs as done here is therefore very significant to the promotion of
knowledge.
Additionally, this study is concerned primarily with the artistry of a Tiv oral
poet. Even though previous researchers looked at the artistry of the poets, the main
foci of such scholars were thematic and sociological in nature. This is the first time a
researcher has worked specifically on the artistic credentials of a Tiv oral poet.

Notes to Chapter One
311
NOTES TO CHAPTERS
1 One of the shortcomings of poetry in Hardy‟s time was an overemphasis on what
was regarded as poetic diction.
2 Ibiamegh initiates necessarily had to be children from exchange marriages
(Downes 59) which the Tiv traditionally regarded as the most reliable and
honourable form of marriage; once the exchange marriage was banned by the
colonialists in 1927, ibiamegh religious ritual was also indirectly banned.
3 This investigation was popularly called the Haakaa or Namakaa; it involved
interrogating people suspected or accused of possessing witchcraft paraphernalia
which they were using for destructive purposes. Details of the investigation are
available in Akiga‟s Story (275-95).
4 An illustration of this is the situation in some fieldworks that I supervised on the Tiv
oral poems performed during the Tiv riots of 1960 – 64. None of the poets who
performed during the riots could remember his songs of that time with any
accuracy. In the few lucky cases, the poets could recall only few short portions.
5 Only in 2007, an academic in the Department of English, Benue State University,
Makurdi, told a postgraduate class that oral literature was not serious literature!
With this situation, it does not seem right to me to just take it for granted that the
literary potentials of oral literature are now generally accepted.
6 In his recent article, “African Oral Literature: Definition, Theory and Taxonomy”,
Gabriel A. Ajadi has dwelt condemningly on the “pejorative aura” (236) surrounding
the definitions of oral literature.

312
7 For instance, when I told a friend that I was researching on oral poetry for my
PhD, the friend expressed displeasure and reservations on “this oral literature stuff”.
He went on to voice his preference for “hard core literature” and by that he meant
written literature.
8 Okpewho has confirmed this by stating that:
Critics have claimed, with some justification that, there is nothing
particularly new about structuralism. In a somewhat polemical book
Jean Piaget makes the point that this methodology has been going on
in mathematics, logic, biology, physics, and the social sciences before
the advent of Claude Levi-Strauss, the acknowledged doyen of it.
Henri Wald also reminds us that „structural analysis is a phase through
which knowledge must pass before it can reflect the essential
properties of an order. (Myth 36)
9 This information was obtained from the biography of Isidore Okpewho official
website of Binghamton University: www.harpur.binghamton. 28th April 2005.
10 If Iyo, an otherwise thorough scholar, used that information without
acknowledging its originator as appears to be the case in Igirgi‟s words, it will be
surprising. Knowing Iyo‟s reputation as a scholar, one is inclined to conclude that
perhaps Igirgi mistakenly mentioned Iyo when he actually intended to talk about
Downes.
11 For instance, this writer‟s surname of Tsenôngu, which is Tiv, if ended with an O
(as done, without any semantic harm, by many Tiv) is the name of a town of 300,
000 people in the present Democratic Republic of Congo. There are other similar

313
names and words. One other case that demonstrates the affinity of Tiv language
with the Congo Bantu languages was pointed out to me by one Mr. Ukomo, a
Congolese, who came to Benue State some time in 1998. Mr. Ukomo persistently
drew my attention to his name and that of Ukum, a district of Tiv as well as the
name of one of the Tiv local governments.
12 To illustrate this, as the Chairman of the Benue State Chapter of the Association of
Nigerian Authors (ANA) between 2001 and 2006, this writer decided to conduct a
census of unpublished indigenous language manuscripts in Benue. However, he
abandoned the project midway because of logistic shortcomings but what was
carried out so far confirmed that most of what has been written in this language is
yet to see the press.
13 In his sleep, Aginde is said to have felt like someone was urinating in his mouth;
when he jumped up, it seemed the only way to have a clean mouth was to
compose and sing; thus he began composing and performing.
14 In the field work on oral literature carried out by undergraduates that this writer
has supervised, poets like Ajo Ugor, Kuje Iyum, Ikyaater Uge and several others
have confessed to jiagba composition medicine as the secret of their performance
success.
15 In a 2007 interview by undergraduate students of oral literature field work that I
supervised, Atayo Koko insisted, with the obvious dread of the spiritual implications
associated with ibiamegh, that his compositions were in the aluabiam and wanbiam
style, not ibiamegh. He was clearly afraid of being referred to as an ibiamegh poet

314
because in earlier times, it was believed that such a posture could expose the
uninitiated claimant to trouble with the spiritual forces of his society.
16 There is more information on secular ibiamegh dance in Igoil (548-71). The most
prominent performer of this dance in recent times, however, is Akile Bende the
poet-dancer and Gumkwase his wife; in fact Gumkwase even won the Best Dancer
award with the dance at the Festival of Arts and Culture, FESTAC, hosted in Lagos
in 1977.
17 The number of members of Amee‟s troupe has been presented here as ranging
from three to fifteen people because it depended on the occasion. If he was
performing at informal occasions, he could perform with even two assistants, but if
it was a formal outing where musical instrumentation was included, the band
expanded to fifteen people.
Notes to Chapter Two
1 This writer must confess that it is Keil‟s book that properly introduced him to Tiv
oral poetry especially as regards poets who performed in the distant past and
whose songs and names are hardly mentioned nowadays.
2 It is just like someone setting out in the 21st century to research on “Symbolism in
the Nigerian Novel”! In earlier times when there were very few of such novels, this
would be proper but in modern times, an informed scholar would easily advise this
imaginary researcher on symbolism in the Nigerian novel to limit himself to a certain
period or region or literary school or writer. So too is it with Tiv oral poetic research.
3 In this research the terms “poetry” and “song” especially among the Tiv have been
taken to mean the same thing. After all, Eddie Finnegan and O‟Mahony have

315
submitted that generally “it is difficult to make a distinction between song and
poetry, and indeed would not be fruitful to do so as such a distinction would not be
made in the society they come from” (52).
Notes to Chapter Three
1 Since all the major patrons and addressees of Amee Ijôrpo discussed here are
dead, it was not possible to discuss their addressee status with any of them and at
least have an idea of their view on this matter. This is, however, not regarded as a
weakness in this study. In empirical criticism such as is being attempted here, the
critic does not need the opinions of the artist (or, in this case, the patrons) to arrive
at his conclusions.
2 The non-oral-formulaic nature of Tiv poems which Yongo has convincingly
demonstrated (57-56) and which has been discussed in chapter One, makes it
possible to locate setting in Tiv oral poems. The discourse here is, however, limited
to physical setting; other aspects of setting like time, psychological, temporal,
metaphysical and social setting are left out because they are not necessary here
due to the fact that setting is a minor facet of this study; it is therefore not needful
to dwell too expansively on it. Also, since attention has thus been exclusively
focused on physical setting, setting and context can be regarded as synonymous at
least in this study.
Notes to Chapter Four
1 The problem of regarding all of oral poetry as composed in-performance as Bowra
has done has been exhaustively demonstrated in Ruth Finnegan‟s Oral Poetry (58-

316
87); Finnegan even went ahead to discuss the numerous societies where oral
poetry is composed before performance. To that list the Tiv society can be added.
2 This reminds one of the biblical story of Isaac when he was old and close to death,
requesting his favourite son Esau to cook some meat for him so that he would eat
and bless the lad (Genesis 27: 2-4).
Notes to Chapter Six
1 Locust beans are used as condiment in traditional Tiv society. The process of
making them into condiments traditionally involves boiling the raw beans till they
cook, washing them and picking any of its bad seeds; then leaving it in a basket
designed for the purpose and covering it with leaves till it ferments. The process of
the fermentation brings about so much smell that the house in which the
fermenting beans are kept can hardly be entered at ease by anybody. The poet-
persona‟s position here that his clansmen abhor him so much as if they will use him
to ferment locust beans is therefore a strong figure because it communicates
excessive hatred.
2 In traditional Tiv society mourners tied rolls of clothes; often referred to
figuratively as “rags”, round their stomachs to keep the stomach in place since the
mourners never ate food at all. The mourner mentioned in this poem is said to tie
such clothes so generously that they reached his chest; this indicates the
seriousness of his mourning.
Note to Chapter Seven
1 The researchers mentioned here are undergraduate students who go for oral
literary field work under the supervision of this researcher.

317
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AI. 1
329
APPENDIX A
THE TIV VERSION OF AMEE IJÔRPO’S POEMS
Zenda Agagu a Kaa WanMbatyula…
Mnder
Mo lu van oo,
Zenda Agagu a kaa Wan u Mbatyula,
M va ve Doowuan Nyajo.
Tiv mba kohol aya;
M sember imôngu me kôr kpan
Hen iya u Nor Adiôgô Gumtor.
Wan u Jabi a kangem kwa me yem ee;
M va ka inyaregh keng ga,
Kpa Tor a nam yô me ngohol oo,
Alhaji Mukaara ee.
Mrumun
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo aii!
Zaki lu kôndun a imo yam a mlyam ashe.
Ishima i gba awambe. Asaaryana Yaga
Nyôr a nyôr u kumbul nom na ee;
Nom kpaa nyôr a nyôr u kumbul kwase na Nule Makyur.
Kpa me kera ôr ingila ga, M zua a takerada-awambe
Sha Cieve u Tsavbee Muri:

Ityô na zua tsatsa mba keghen mo oo,
Er M za ve a nungwa ishor.
Ôn mba Ijir ka iyou-kor oo;
ÔnMcaa ka inyamazôugh,
Mba soon kunya er mba genev ga.
Iyange yam due ve ee.
Tor Bosua Uga a kaa WanAbaver,
Igbya you mba wuan mo;
We her kpaa igbya you a wua Ijôrpo.
Tor Gbaeren Torugh Korbyaa a deu ga,
Ka hurugh-hurugh u
Igyo i ye min ne Adetor a vendan ye.
Lu vea nom na, Aôndu-wa-mkurem e:
330
M nenge a WanAgashua sha gbenda lu man ahumbe M pine:
Orya wou nder nena?
Kasev nav nder nena ee?
Akwati-nyar na nder nena?
Mo yô ka ican i nandem iya ye, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Ikyôr i nam yô M tser a Maakyee u Shazwa lu vea WanTor
Tyôndu shin mato o;
M ngu sasen zan,
Gumor a dughum ken ican sha, Gôn Duku.
Iortyer Tor Musa Agbe Cafa oo!

Tor nyôr shin M ongu gudugudu?
Aza u Gaase kpa ishima na dio ga;
Mue Ager Nortema,
331
Wan u Gbande sughum kpa M ngu a ungwa ga.
Moave ee!
Iorhemen Moave Adi Baaka!
Or u sha Mbatyam zurum nyôrun;
Lu vea WanMbalihô yamem turumi, Mcivga, „Civga kang!
Kure Nyakpa lu ôrun kwagh,
Kaa er mo a hide yô M za imôngu shin a na ee;
Wen a nam kwagh u kpilighyol oo Angol Ikyenge,
Ikyenge Avii Tyav kaa WanDamagudu yô M za shin M de?
Ishima vihi ôn mba Gbeji keregh ee:
Tsua Gbeji Ukpaa Cagem
Ayange oo lu vea WanAsema ve gbide ior atsu
Hen imo ne ve, ve tee ityegh;
Mba mase kuhan yemen a mi! Atule Uga ti kôr ngohol o!
Vea kwase na Lele Ihywan a oo:
Tar Tiv hide heregh ve!
Iorkyaa Aye oo!
M nenge a we yô kuma ape me wa imo yam ve.
WanAzege Zômun
Kpa tem ken var ga

Er Angul Adem Ifam Aju yô.
Angul Adem Ifam Aju oo!
Or nam ikyondu,
332
Ikyondu ngi a aôrugh sha mi er nom anyam;
Wan u Ikyurior aeen wen ee!
Nahanga u Bede Akutô kaa WanMbatinyam,
M ngu sughun we WanKunde.
Toryila Zôzô kpa va vea WanUkum oo;
WanUcha nyôr zer ikyondu Takuruku tema sha ikyondu mase sen werwerwer!
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri
Mirim imo, ior gba ayongu a mo cii,
Kpa inyaregh ki been or been ze ee.
AI. 2
Yemen Yam Me Za Nenge a Tule or Ken Mbakumba
Mnder
Yemen yam me za nenge a tule or ke‟ Mbakumba oo:
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri ii.
Inyamkyume ingila mo M cian wen ee;
Inyamkyume ingila mo M cian wen ee;
Ken ashe kpa wan doo ashe kenger gande;
Ieren kpaa ngi tsembelee „ha ba!
Wan u Gôgônongu Kpam oo mo M va ve ee.
Va va keghem gbenda;

M ngu vea kwase wam Adoonyumbe;
Or a san timber mo ga.
Baka oo Tor Ibi Adabu oo, Ande Kwagh
Kpa kera ngu a mo ga M vaan ye ee.
An a wasem a?
Mrumun
Begha gbe ke‟ kper ga ande ve oo:
Alhaji Tajar aa!
Lu van vea kwase na u vesen la.
Ka mase eren jingee. Iorpande
Biam Ala oo lu vea Lahadi
Shin mato il-dindee.
Madam Carati va shin ii,
M nenge a mato liooon…
Lu kôndun shaala aa,
Sha tar u Tyôsugh Tyônem;
333
Shaala ka we a ndyar iyô kpa i hingir tsarkyondu
Wan due lu yiôôn kwagh
Voughul-voughul yem keela nule a nule va keen ee.
* * *
Hanmashien
Ka M shi tesen ior amenge ke‟ zwa u wan ishor oo;
Wasem nen Aôndu aee.

Cieve u Tsavbee Muri oo!
Begha-ande-kper-due je ve ee.
Norototo-wan lu vea WanMbatyam aee.
AI. 3.
Shenshen Hingir Imande ve
Mnder
Shenshen hingir imande ve oo!
334
M civ ibyer sha atô hen iya u Tsavbee Muri („pe
Igo i ker ikyegh la), kua WanAgashua.
M ngu anigbian a we ga shin ii?
Sena kpenen ga.
A lu u kende aningyô nomugh a wuam ee.
Mrumun
Kwaghnzughul u Naakyo oo!
M ngu yilan we shin ihyongu fefa me i yimam
Gaze M vôr oo!
Or u nan a yimam yô M fa ga;
Saa ka we, kwase u Mbalam aa.
Er ishima ior i nenge kera kpa ishima you i za,
Angul u Beneke.
Amishi Tor Ugba u Gbyudu ngu ga, ka an nan a tesem gbenda
Me za sha ônMcaa,
He‟ Cieve u Tsavbee Muri Inyamkyume

Ande aoo,
Gwakyaa u sar wen a mo oo;
Kuashi kpam WanAgashua.
Orhemba Cia Burya,
Aôndu nam kpa igyuve ngohol o;
335
Gaze ma M gbe kpen hen ôn mba Garaka ze ee;
Kpaa M gba agbenge e:
Kwase ngu ga
Wan ngu ga:
Ciicii wam tsô M tem ne Vande Yongu.
Mbanengen Aveil oo,
Or kar iwan ga mo kpa M gba a gba je.
Ôn mba Nyaga oo!
Ior la yilam er mo M za keng-keng;
M vaa kwase yum.
M za ve a nam gumkwase a lu gande-gande aa;
M tesen sha anyom, sha anyom oo.
Ôn mba Nyaga vande wasen ior
Kuma uhar-utar M fa, Gôn Duku.
* * *
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
U nam kunya ke‟ Shitile vea Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba
Er M ngu a ambi iyol yô.

Kpadoo Dogo
M ar ve ee,
Or a yav ga; Tor Mnder Cagh a,
Va tsô u nenge kwagh sha MbaJirswange
336
Ve kpo a kpoghul iyol kpa M nenge ijar tam:
Ishima Zaki Tor Tsofo kpe hide nder ve,
Kua WanTor Kyado –
Mbela ka inyamazough.
Or a fam ikpyashimbe ee,
Kobo ngum yum.
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri mirim akpishaikpya
M tee kobo juu M va igyundu uu.
Adetor aoo!
M saa ve Gbabo oo, Ngueigbya u Pila Hinda,
OrmbaBookyo oo,
Ne mba nengen ashe ashe yô tar ngu yemen a yem je.
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe ka orMbayiôn eee:
Nambe imo yam ta ikpya kera aa;
Kwagh er iyange la ka u doon kwav ga.
AI. 4
Dajo Pav M fenyô…?
Mnder

Dajo Pav M fenyô me tar a lu bem ee?
Dajo Pav M fenyô me tar a lu bem ee?
[………]
Lu yiôn ke lôsupika er
Or a san bumen he‟ mtem ne ga,
337
Jo ga ve a yem a nan a za wuhe shin Abetse ee.
Tor yilam yô M va ve eee.
Kwaghbula Azege ee!
Mrumun
Hoo ayio ooh!
M nenge a Tor Aôndu-wa-mkurem e,
Vea kwase na u tsutswa
Wan u Boiue Agashua
Ande shin tembe ivaa kondu ato M gba zan tumbuluu
Er M bume ee.
* * *
Kpa ka kwagh ga;
Ape M tem ne ee,
Kwagh ngu a ta sha amo M kuve a kuve ee.
Mbazendan va shin ii?
Madam Carati nyôr ve!
Kwase ta wegh sha vanger
Or akaa a tar be caca cii.

„Ôndu kume ga tsô gba haan aber ve!
Ishagba ngôm oo; mo M er nan ee,
Tor Ibi Adabu oo.
AI. 5
Nyinya Kpe ken Utya…
Mnder
Nyinya kpe ken utya Ande Kwagh aoo!
338
Inyamkyume zua nyian sha Shitile, Nule Makyur Aca,
Antyo u Gaji ngu vea kwase na u yunda;
Wan ke‟ Turan-mba-anjembe-dughun-iyou Veunô Alya
Ngula shaven amar a ishôm sha tembe la:
Or a due wen a gber nan.
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri
Kighir he‟ inya mou tsue ishôm;
Ishôm vihi jivajiva.
Kwagh gandem M tum toho ye –
M yem sha gafa je,
Aôndu yimam eee.
Mrumun
Kwagh kpa M cie ga! M war kperan i he‟ ôn mba Puu
Shin iya u Kule Nyakpa,
Ôn mba Adim er a mo je hingir iyongu.
Or u mo M yer me Mpuuga la or la ka anyam mhmhm

(WanShitile oo!).
Nyôr he‟ iya na ken abu,
Kpa M kav Tor sha dôu oo.
Tor u Kwaor Akosho
339
Kaa WanMbashor a due yô Amee va ke‟ won ngu ngôôl ga
Anza Gbemshin Ngou Atu ke‟ Mbatsavazun
Va vea WanUgye wuha iyol ikyondu gba gban zeeel!
Or a kaa Tyôapine Vembearum
Sha Mbaduku oo –
Lu vea Wanukuna
(Nom na kpa ka Kunav,
Kwase la kpa ka Kunav): a va vea er a er kwagh.
Damera Tor Aza Biam Ashileku!
Begha nyuma wan wegh kpa wan sendegh norototo!
Or ka ishima; kwagh ngu a er or;
Eren inyamtoho ze ee. Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam,
Wan u Duku Agemaji oo aye!
Ka ne M keghen ye, Adoo WanAveil.
* * *
Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
OrUkan nenge a mo ga shie vese.
M ngu ke‟ iyouci: M kera zende ga WanHambe aoo!
Vaa u Ngyeke, Ngyeke Agir Tough oo;

Orti per tyeku ve –
Mase eren se gudu baii;
340
Saa se va. Orhemba Cia Burya de me kera bum a Mbaterem ga,
Aayaaya!
AI. 6
Van oo, Mo M ngu Van oo
Mnder
Van oo;
Mo M ngu van ee.
Mrumun
M za kpa M za nenge a Wanngôm ga
M tse vaan
Dajo Pav oo!
* * *
M nenge a Shagba Akpam;
Akpam wam yarem ku ee;
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo je kpa vam ku ee;
Anza Kule ke‟ mba Tyôkuha Abunku je kpa vam ku ee;
Likici Agbe,
Agbe wan je kpa vam ku ee;
Atôndu Tiôn
Ishagba wan yarem ku ee;
Shiim Tor u Kon

Orhiinyam Abaa je kpa vam ku ee.
M nenge a Hil Agule ga;
Ishima ngi yinan mo oo.
* * *
Ityô yam gbidem warawara M fa ze ee.
Fan yam er
341
Iyav mbu idyen mbu zungu mbu ijenev ga ne.
Ityô yam sôngum sha agagambe;
I kaa Ishimaior u Tsofo.
We her kpa Aôndu venda a mo oo.
Kpe ahiin!
I bundem pe vaan ve, Mko u Ijôrpo,
Anigbian gba yemen tsô ee.
AI. 7
Yer oo Mlanga Adiko…
Mnder
Yer oo Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee,
Iyol kor ga shin ii.
M nenge a wan u Mbaura ga.
Iyol kpe ne a mo ve ee.
Orhemba Cia,
Cia Burya tingan kpa gema ijime a mo ve oo,

Laha Kpan Yakubu,
WanAya oo,
Vav Anyam uma lu van agugu.
Ihyundu i maa ke‟ ijime mba kuhan Tor
Kwase la sha jita eee,
OOO!
Mrumun
Faasema u Tarwa oo,
Ityendezwa ka injô ôô,
342
WanAganyi kwagh shon gba a gba dôgôri shin ii.
Ziki Nor Aboki,
M yam awaishima kpa
I hembam ve ee.
Amishi Tor Ugô,
Or due ikyom ma u nenge kwagh sha won,
Kpa Tor lu yaven
Kpungkpung; Zaki ungwa heregh ga.
Tar u MbaJir kpa u doon
Koko ve kwase wam Adoonyumbe,
Wagburgbur kwase wam ka pe tar u lu ne.
Imo musan yem sha uke mba Adiegba
Kpa M tile acan ve ee.
Veunô Alya oo!

Alya Tyôba wan mirim imo,
Nyinya zor nongu nyôr Isherev;
Bua kpa mar sha gbenda;
WanAkombu oo ne yam gande.
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe o!
Aôndu zuam awambe a we ve ee.
Tor Mnder Cagh Mici Karku.
OrMbaGar‟, Tor M nyôr tyôtsar ne ve ee.
Kpa M ngu a mlyam ashe jim
Kpa ka sha ci u WanHyande a undum ne.
343
M nyôr hen Alyewe je M ngu nengen a avindigh a na;
Ishima vihim zua a kwagh ga ee.
* * *
Wan u Baki nenge a mo tsô gba vaan yilan wuhe na
Kpa orti venda va ga seeng.
Tor Ukaa Ikyuan, Tor
Ne er a tar ve!
M ungwa indyer
Shin Mbawan M pin yô er Gbamwuan
Tor u Kpen a orya na kpe indyer i highir ye.
Mba Haa Azembe
Zua tsatsa ter na due shin inya lu ôrun kwagh:

“Or [u] nan woom wan la yô oo,
344
Ngôkwase a gber o tsenge ityu ivav a bee mayan‟ ga”
Kpa Gbamwuan Tor
Lu yiôn Aôndu aee:
Aôndu u Gbayange Atô oo
Aôndu u Ibyaver
Aôndu u gbegba dwem ee ee.
Acoco yem a yem je;
Or kpe, kpe yem a tar ga;
A gba den tsô ee.
AI. 8
Mlyam sha Purusu-nyôrun u Iorkyaa Aye
Mnder
Kwagh aoo!
I lu ku kpa „pe ma M lu vaan Aye-wan ne ee;
Er a lu ken purusu tsegher
Kpa M ngu yan ambi, WanShangev.
Ka me sôn or kwagh,
Nan kenger mo gbononono,
Er M za Aye-wan a nam.
Senegh bundem or oo‟
Ka M hemba or iyol M kua ishima,
Kpa nan côvur mo ijime ee.

Mrumun
Zende tar Ukum M tser ve,
Kpa me hee ga;
Me za shin Mnder Cagh a,
345
WanHyande, Wan Mbamenaka shi tesem gbenda M nyôr Mbawar aa.
Yange M nyôr shin Mbagen shin Tyôkuha Wanza
Kpa kpe undum ee.
M hide M nyôr sha Mbafesakum mape Zaki Wantyôu Agur;
Wantyôu Agur ti kpa kpe undum ee.
Orya Anyakpa Amber Doki Imbyarakem aoo!
Imo yilau ica gba yum;
A ter ayange ve a war a we ee.
Ngueku kpa shi yuen ee;
Wan u Gbagir Zer,
Kwase kpa shi yuen ee.
Kwaghnzughul u Naakyo oo!
Kidam Agoho oo!
Begha-kwase unde nyinya;
Hungwa sha nyinya nyôr shin mato oo;
Gema nambe imo a mi;
Redio shi ôrun gbem.
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri Nyaga ka or u MbaJirswange; M shi yilan Adetor nenge a
mo tsô hingir koomkokoom.

Ngu a yua ingila kpa a kendem;
A tee ingila kpa a kendem.
Tsô M gbe yemen gongoo! Vaa u Ngyeke,
Or u shin Mbaavav a.
346
Dorughdodorugh WanAto Mdenga ngu a nenge a mo hen a na,
A lu tugh kpa M yem tugh-tugh.
M gber ve pev;
M gber ve pev tsatsa Gôn Buruku Duku.
Zege-ter, zege-ter Jôôji Aciniya Norum,
Mo yô M ta hwande a or ga:
A nam cukuu kpa me ngohol;
Wan u Hambe oo, M tsôr girgir ze, Adoo WanAveil.
Mlanga Adiko,
WanMbaBookyo WanAkpenwe hungwa a or shin MbaDwem
Ate-biam num!
Nor gba kighir
Or u genegh la jo ka u moughun sha ga.
* * *
Ioryem Kyaave Kyusen: anyam mhmhm!
Wan u Ikyô Ukaan na ikyondu, ikyondu ngi a ityou:
Er M ya kirimishi a min;
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko na ngôbua kighir nyinya,
Er M ya kirimishi min.
Wan u Tor Avav doo kwagh ga tagher ityou ga, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.

Nahanga u Bede oo!
Bede Akundô oo,
Pine WanMbatinyam aa
M hee shin ii?
AI. 9
Ikyav Saam Aga kpa Saa
Mnder
347
Kwaghbula Azege ikyav saam aga kpa saam oo!
Imo saam sha Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko M ngu keren zuan a min ga,
WanTor.
Ka M ôr kwagh,
Ior i ma amine kpa orti kôr venda;
Ka M ôr kwagh,
Tiv ve ger ahan he‟ tashi beel kpa orti kôr venda:
Or kera se he‟ tashi ga ee.
Mrumun
Alhaji oo!
Makaara yem sha Maka ve.
Ngu za nengen war u Mahamadu.
Sen mem sha Jiida,
Er sadeka er Aôndu rumun;
Purugh va gba shin Kano,
Er sadeka er Aôndu rumun;

Purugh va gba Makurdi
Icôrugh: Kpough!
Shi er sadeka er Aôndu rumun cii.
348
Va nyôr sha Zaki-Biam he‟ geri na jim! jim! jim!
Shi er sadeka her ior i zua Taratu kpa due iyol na,
Welegida WanFulani.
Tyôver Ninga oo M ngu yilan we,
We vea Wan u Mbayenge
Tar cirim aco ka M tsa vaan kaka.
Or yôngul mo ze ee ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Ma a yemem je kpa Mbashushushu cir sha mo gba wer ga.
Yange tee mato wen a nam nyiaan,
Kpa kyuakyua venda tsatsa. WanShitile nyôr
Ishimanyion a na ngbavngbavngbav.
* * *
Ka a lu kwagh wam la i doo mbaihyomuv u ôrun;
Tsô pinen kpa ve pinem ga tsô ve yem u ôrun;
Yange ikyungun a pie ve alakpa;
M lôhô or sunda wam ga, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke.
Kaa WanSar, WanMbatungwaper ee,
Kukighir Baki,
Ngula van la ee!
Orimo wou vôr a gbande sha gbenda ve – Ageewua Tor o,

349
Kaam Alu u Vagi yô M ngu a kwagh u zenden sha mi ga;
Nam agugu môm la ee.
AI. 10
Me Me Vaa Ga kpa Me Vaa Tsô ôô
Mnder
Me me vaa jo ga kpa me vaa tsô ôô;
Me me vaa ga kpa me vaa tsô ôô.
Tor Ibi Adabu oo,
U ngu ga M tse vaan ye ee.
Wan u Ikpyayugh a lum nan ahô ne ee?
Kera kpa M ngu a undu ga
Hembam M ngor mlyam WanIkpya Adagba
Zungul ta sha mo je M za kungu ivu inya.
Mrumun
Use Gagu oo!
M ungwa me u ii WanTor aoo!
Ku! Doowuan Nyajo,
Sena vaa yum ga ka mkurtar.
Tor Tyôver u Ninga
Zaki, ka kwagh u kera wan ihyum
A or ze ee.
Hanmayange ka M ungwa or kpe;
Mo kpa M ngu sha usu ee.

Uhule ee,
Tee kii i mato nam er
350
A lu me yem shin inya me za me za ôr Ninga
Er i lu eren sha u-uma yô ôô. Ibyume iwa kaa ishima na er ka mfakenger na,
Wen ye min ye;
Ibyume iwa kaa ishima na er ka mfakenger na,
Wen ye min ye;
Mo zer u kenger tsô mo ya min, Tor Ibi Adabu oo oo.
* * *
Moave Adi oo da verem shaala a;
M za nenge war u Iorember aoo.
Tsergbyudu Angula M va ve ee;
Kaa WanMbayengejir
Tar ngu nôngun u gban – u nenge ga shin ii
U nenge u vaan yô;
Ter Aôndu yem a tar za kosu sha Aôndu;
Mba mase nôngun sha ityo Adabu oo.
AI. 11
Abyem a Korum Ityou…
Mnder
Van oo i kaa Iortyer Abyem
Gaga Myaki a korum ityou,
Gaze ki nyion mo M vaan ye.

Mrumun
351
Gudugudu-tar wen shon ne kpa a sarem ze ee.
Ka M doo a or ica i gba ga shi se vihi;
Ishimaior u Tsofo, alaghga,
Alaghga ahoo shin a lu inja yam shin ii,
Kpa mo M fa ga.
Shin ka er M cihi senegh yum ior i aam a Bosua Uga
Vea WanAbaver shin ii.
* * *
Kpa mo M wa ikyo ze ee.
Mlanga Adiko,
Ishima vihi ne a mo juu;
Kpa ma u yughum ze ee,
Ma u er a ôr a mo.
Wua u wanye kpa nor ye;
WanAkpenwe WanMbaUra
M sugh ikya ke‟ bar me ka tor,
Kpa zaki ungwa heregh ga.
M kaa kpa ka iyongu ga;
Ne wam ikyo ga yum ngun mo M vaan ye.
Tor Ukyaa Ikyuan inyamkyume begha ngu a ityou here.
WanMbaleva oo!
Nomugh ngu her‟ gbang-gbang-gbang.

Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe or u Mbamter ee ee.
Wan va sha mato liooon…
M kenger kpa kumam ga;
Or a nam sokpo me za var zwa u he
Me za ken a na ee.
Kpamwan u Madugu o mo M ar ve ee.
Wan u Tor Kyado a shi nam kobo;
Ityô yam Najeria er a tar ve!
Ve hee se ijungwen ne ee,
Ordorugh Nyam a ee.
AI. 12.
Ityô Tôôm Atsor…
Mnder
Kpenyie Orudam aoo!
Ityô tôôm atsor oo,
Ve fa er ve hôngul mo,
Yô M za kuma zwa
Sha dôu shin ôn mba Sende,
352
Veunô Alya nam tar M ngu yan ave ahar M ngu yan mtôvun.
WanAkombu er kwagh a mo juu!
Agwa za je mande sha Uvaamyande;
Kwase la venda iv a mo ee.

Mrumun
Tor Hil u
Agule aoo!
Zaki ityô yam kôrum sha we tese tar ga.
Veunô Alya nyôr ke‟ iyou
Hule ikyagh
Ikyondu gba ke‟ won
Akôsanger gba or sha ityo
Hide fese ta mkonguso!
Lu yilan mo M venda me a dem.
353
Iyô i yilan tugh la mba ye mke-mke mayan‟ ga;
Mo yô a dem ayongu keren ee.
Ingila ka i yam ga.
Hôôn! Ingila ka i yam ga,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke.
Or tile hen gbenda yôô er i haa inya i nambe a nambe ishor oo;
Iyange ngi been aoo.
Yila Kukighir Baki,
Kwase due gba van luaa…luaa.
Nenge a mo sôrum iyol kpishi kuashi WanTor u Biliji.
Angol Ikyenge Avii Tyav,
Va vea WanDamagudu ijô-genga umen nerem-nerem!
Udorugh Nyam Dabul aoo,

Ape me lam a we ne tsô hembam;
354
M ngu yemen amar a ibyôr ken ityô er Ubafum u;
WanAtue ngôm ka ne je M kaan ye,
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa.
Ngueku kaa loho a mo oo,
Wan u Gbagir Zer
Kwase na loho shin a mo o,
Er M za kwagh ngu ga. I za kaa Iortyer Musa Zaki
Kwagh er ve WanMbatyam aa.
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe orMbayiôn, inyar ki tamen,
Hungwa shin mato kar tema;
Kwase na wuha iyol,
Hungwa shin mato kar tema:
Me me wa imo kpa imo ngi nzughul mo oo.
Shiim Tor
Kon u Hiinyam zurum nyôrun,
M nenge ikyav sha perendoki.
Wuha iyol a hua ikpyamkir.
Va vea WanUdende haa mba shin hua mba ôrun kwagh
Er ve a erem a ishô.
Kwaghnzughul u Naakyo oo Kidam Agoho oo!
Kwase la wua ishima ta mtsem,

Yua mato sukutun nam
Er M de ayôôsu wen e ôr kwagh;
A mou yô i haa hen na ee;
A mou yô i haa hen na ee –
355
Ishima gba kwase awambe „pe or a lu sha gbenda ga.
Torkange Ajev oo Kile Gbaka,
Imo ngiu yilan shin tembe. Meri u Gaga Laji WanMbadwem ee,
Ishima yegh ibyughbyugh; ishima ingila i pirin ga.
Angule Deem, Deem Ifam Aju penda van ve:
U nenge a na yô ngu yevyev kpa ishima ngi yevyev ga,
Kua WanKaca. Josef Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
OrShitile oo,
Shitile mba lahan ga WanIgyusa
Bai. Atôndu Tiôn, M gba menger van sha we ve, Datso Awav Adugba,
Adu Dyegeh oo dio u Tiv.
WanMbaHile pe M lu sharegh ne;
Ishan Bede kpa Ishan Bede ungwa gbe sen murmurmur,
Er un va a ishôm ga tsô M war ve ee,
Er mba teren
Iti i ter na shin inya ze, Adabo oo,
A lu wen a gber or oo.
Ka me a ta nguhar kera M sough Iorpande Caha
Biam Ala vea WanUva Vaase, M zua a icôrkwagh kor iyol ga;

Nguyan kpa rumun:
Kwagh la beem mato juu!
Kwagh er shaala doo kwav ga:
Veunô Alya mirim imo,
356
Nam kwagh u tan kume M de caghen atuul oo, Gôn Duku;
M zenden wen a iti sha tar ee Ziki Nor aboki
Lu vea Wan u Zugu Agaagba;
Mba tem yilan mo ze ee. Mue Ager Nortema,
WanAbaa Ndyar ngbôughum u van:
Ingyuran gba imo ke‟ gbenda mase nyôrun gighirkiki;
Kwagh gandem M tum toho ye.
Use wan Nyam Agule oo,
Zaki ityô yam aam a we ve ee;
Wan u Dema ve aam a we ve.
* * *
Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
Va tsô u nenge kwagh u sha DanAnaca ne,
U ôrun kwagh a min, Wan u Vambe ee.
Kpev ze [……………….] hidi ze ee, Ugba u Iwevzer a kaa WanAgaku M kpera
imange yam i wuam tsô;
M ngu vea Vande Yongu Abege;
Wan u Faase oo!
Biinebi purugh mo a kor M ngu zendan kpa ityô yam mba wasen mo ze ee.

Icôrugh: M er nena?
357
Wende Adatso oo WanAvenda ngôm M er nan? Nule Makyur Aca,
De me gba yemen tsô ee.
Icôrugh: M er nena?
Wende Adatso oo WanAvenda ngôm M er nan? Nule Makyur Aca,
De me gba yemen tsô ee.
AI. 13
M Tema Doom Ga oo…
Mnder
M tema doom ze oo,
Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege oo lu vea WanPaase aa;
M tema doom ga.
Ka an nan a za kaam Saimon Musa?
Aza u Gaase,
Va va nenge er M er ahan eee:
Kwagh môm ngum ken uya ga.
Mrumun
Uer ta doo u ôrun kwaghalôm tsô!
Yange mbaasôhô zua tsatsa za kohol Aôndu ooo er A na ve tor.
Aôndu tôô gungur-kon man na tor; ica i gba ga,
Mbaasôhô shi zua tee
Da kohol Ter Aôndu aoo er, “U na se tor,
Tor doo se juu kpaa Tor lamen ga nahan doo se ze ee.”

Shi Aôndu tee menasôhô
Na ve tor u tamen.
358
Ngu a nenge a ve a mena juu; ka „pe tar u lu ne:
Shi ve gba vaan gungur u kon ve, Adabo oo.
Alu ne nambe or-
Hyundu amar sha iwange yô or a shi sha tembe ga.
Tar hemba dange iyôngu zenden a ivo ityô yô a tôô ikyar kpa mbaivo gbide ve
ngohol oo.
Zwa môm-môm ôô MbaGbera lôhô ibyem;
Zwa môm-môm oo ibyem bunde MbaGbera ve Iortyer Musa o mo M va ve ee.
Terna yilam kpa ato kondum M ongu ga;
Or ngu hiin mo.
Ka mo M kaa a nan me nan a due ke‟ nyusepepa ga –
Mo a tar wam tsô a gbam zendan ga aa.
Mbayev ger nen ikyombu oo or la gba karen ve ee.
Nam ikyagh M tema M nenge er Iorpande
Caha wene er a tar yô.
Saremkaan, nengen a mo tsô a wam kwagh:
Mo M de sena ongu kwagh u ibyume ga aa.
Ibyumegh ki a icigh ze ee.
* * *
Saan mo iyol vea Angule Dem Ifam aoo!
Adende oo,

Tor Ibi aee.
AI. 14
Mlyam sha Ku u Tor Tiv Gondu
Mnder
Mo lu van oo Josua Tor Tiv Gondu oo M ngu ungwan mba-zende-agbenda mba
ôrun er Tor ngu ga ee;
Tor Tiv Gondu Aluor nyôr.
359
Ka M shi tunan me alaghga ga mnyamciem;
Mo pine or a shi tuna kpa or tuna er i kundum iyol ga, Nule Makyur.
[M] hungwa ifi ikyerkyer M per ve ee;
Mo za yô a lu amimin yô M ngu hiden ga.
Mrumun
Kegh ato ken Zaki Ishimaior Tsofo kpa tam a tam ôrum;
Ngu a ikyondu uya ngeekeke:
Tiv ger mlyam tsatsa due shin Mbakuv.
Josua Tor oo,
Sena vaan ga oo.
Kumbul anmbayev.
Kujira u Tor a tem a min la kpa ndiir,
Ndiir sha dwel ve oo oo;
Ndur yôhol inyon i hemben ye.
WanAligba gba vaan;
M za nyôr je kunya kôrum ee.

Or gande mbatsav je kpa? Gôn Duku!
360
Tor ngu a orihyom ga; kwase kpa ngu a lam a nan leghlegh e;
Nomsuor kpa ngu a lam a nan sha inja i nan aa.
Ahiin! Kwaghnzughul u Naakyo oo
Kidam Agoho oo.
* * *
Tor kpe tar Tiv kpa kpe.
Kwagh hembam oo,
M ngor mlyam M yer Kôr Agena,
Kôrshima Agena Kushi oo!
Ter wase za hana?
Mba yiôôn er i kaa mba ke‟ ityev i kur.
Kwagh er ken geri vihi gande;
Tor wa ikyav lu yemen shin inya:
Udam kpa mlyam,
Uke kpa mlyam –
“Se er
Nan ee?”
* * *
Use Mue Anzer Adi:
Wan na u ishimashima kpa shi kpe!
Inyom vihim ave joo,
Wan u Duku Agemaji ngu hen inya asharen M jingir

Ityou mlyam ngohol mo vanger;
MbaBookyo er a na cimin-cimin.
361
Jôôji Aciniya Norum se za yar ku u Gondu Aluor;
Orti undu se a yem
Tartor oo.
AI. 15
Ikyuen Ta kera Gba Keren Igyongu Ve
Mnder
Ikyuen i ta kera i gba keren igyongu ve oo!
M ngu sughun Vaa u Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agirtou shin Mbakyahan.
Ikpira iyar i ker ga ankpan ta icôngu ka an nan a zenda?
Er icôngu i nyoho nyam yum ne ka an wam a zenda?
Kwagh hembam oo!
Oryiman mo ngu ze ee.
M ngu keghen iyange i Ter Aôndu A verem
I a kuma yô mo va yem e,
Shin adugu vying:
Or yiman mo ngu ze ee.
Mrumun
Tor Hil Yakua Agule!
Zaki Aôndu a kaa ijir yam ee.
[M] vihi ityô yam asema er a hile nune a min!

362
Ka me a ngule karen ior i shim tômun inyam a;
Kighir heela tsegher ga mba soon sha u iin mo uma;
Igbya yam Tômbu ungwa ga,
Ngishe je man ve va yem a mo oo;
Man M z alu shin heregh Gôn Duku uu.
M ngu umbur cia i ngôm sha a mo oo:
Kaa er un nyôr hen Ngyenev mba Gyenku lu heregh a mba Jika Agwente,
A mba Muewuaze Adum sôrun tar a mba Torkasua ye.
Ve zua a na ken won tugh ka han anyam a nenge u kôrun mo;
A nenge u kôrun mo Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke,
Kaa Kukighir Baki yô ôô,
A va yem a mo shin a na fefa;
Tar ngu tswamen mo;
Ityô yam vihi kwagh gande,
Bee er i yam ngôm gbile ve nan lu icegher.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko,
Ican ka angev ga;
A lu u nenge a mo de sena yeren ga;
Va ikyua vea mo,
Man a saan se iyol ye oo.
Mimi-wan u Tor Va
Iorkyaa u Kpan Adi ken Ugondu – idyorugh or o,
WanUdo ngôm oo ka „pe Aôndu a verem ne;

Vaa u Ngyeke,
Ngyeke! Ishima tsue wan
U ôrun mo kwagh,
Kpa shi i gen ngi vendan a.
WanAto Mdenga iyol kpem ve Mbayenge;
363
Iyol kpem ve Mbayenge ku! wonum M er nena?
* * *
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa oo ityô you ver iôrun
Sha kwagh wou vea wan u Gbagir Zer:
Imo kumau iyol je hemba ikyondu.
Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen inyamkyume
Ngi dorugh akaa a eren: nyen kpa yam mato,
Nyian kpa shi yam ugenegh sha „ci u wan Ikyô Ukaan a yaren a min;
Ityom a gba,
A lu bar kpaa i za yam bar sha genyi, Nule Makyur Aca.
Jôôji Aciniya Norum Agendô oo!
Ka me a nenge a we M hingir er nyinya ma akase yô, kpam Wan Hambe,
Zua wegh a mo ikyôr diom ee:
Inyom ajimin M fa ican ze o, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Nahanga u Bede oo!
Bede Akundô oo,
Pine Wanmbatinyam aa
M hee shin ii?

AI. 16
Shiim Torkon, OrHiinyam…
Mnder
Shiim Tor u Kon OrHiinyam Abaa oo,
Shiim Tor u Kon OrHiinyam Abaa oo,
Lu eren mo:
Tôô ngula va nam zam han ee?
Tôô ngula va nam zam han ee,
WanUdende nyôr zôhôn a na
364
Kua ityô na Mbatyou wene za Mbayongu ve da nam ishor;
Kunya doo ga.
Yar Kpindi u Dye ngu a se.
Mrumun
Tar u se u se cii;
Ngu a yue tar u yue cii,
Ngôm WanShitile kpa va amar kaa er,
Mo M va a zamber.
Wan u Zungwe ishagba ngôm mo M ngu ityou ku ee.
Tindi a ikyondu i va nam M ngu a ikyondu ga;
I nam me hila tengan aa.
Ageewua Tor
Biam a wa wegh;
Atôndu Tiôn a wegh;

365
M zer gbem tsô M za dugh dôôr ve Adoonyumbe.
* * *
Da er a Vande Yongu
Shin kasua M zer ôrun gbem ee;
Da er a WanPaase sha gbenda,
Ngula ko komi ga ngu a nenge a mo a lu tugh,
Kpa a bee ishima na cii,
Kpa ishima yam kua a mo ga M hile ve ee.
AI. 17
Kina Shondu Kpe…
Mnder
Kina Shondu kpe ka me a hen er
Kwagh a tserem Tyôkuha Wanza vea Akaaer u Dogo mape Tor Zaki Wantyou
Agur,
Mbela ve beem sha ave;
Mase shin mo Kurakwaghga Anyakpa,
Kpa iue dion ngi ze ica ga
Tativ kou ve ee;
Ande Kwagh anngôm ee,
A undu WanGbagir Zer,
Lu vaan zenden
Tembe zelôô,
Mo yô doom ken ashe ga

Kunya kôrum ee.
Mrumun
Ugba u Iwevzer aoo!
Ityô you mba er ikyaa „pe doon ga;
Wan u Gba Nor aoo!
Noov ou mba eren ikyaa ape doon ga.
366
Tor Mnder Cagh Mici a lu doon tar u torugh iyol ye.
Tar a hôm nan kpa ka WanIgbinda ee;
Gurgur a lu kpa ka WanIgbinda ee;
Wan u Baki verem or ajimin i,
Ishima ingila ngi kôu! kôu! kôu!
Wende Datso aoo WanAvenda ka a kaa loho a mo gbenda na,
We u kaa di u wou a mo gbenda wou;
Yô M pav a pav iyol shin? Nule Makyur Aca.
Ziki Nor aboki
M sugh wantaregh ve M kimbir;
WanMbatyam aoo!
Ka me a doo a or kwagh u bo a er nan keng;
Ka ihyom i ken a mo,
Man i perugh ye.
Kwagh la ka Aôndu aee.
Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee ka MbaDwem ee,

Orya na kpe ku je M waa tsweren iliam
A ior mba shin keela ee.
367
Ukaave u Adusa kpa ngu a mlyam sha ashe:
Kwase na u kiriki ngu ga a yem uve;
Wan Una wan lu vaan zenden akôngu ee.
Kaacivin Tor Ayati
Ayati Yager M nyôr ve,
Nyôr ikyume due zaratata aa!
Wan u Mbatyam aoo,
Udoon-nom Bur u;
Kpa mo yô M ngu anor u kuhan amar:
Kwagh a lu yô i nam me yem e.
Iortyer Tor Musa va vea kwase na u kiriki ii;
Terna u Akpagher nyôr ivyaa ngi kpeman,
Kwaghbo er nyian ve!
Mo kpa M ngu yevese tenantenan;
M cir angodo osugh gba,
Tsô M kar ayem M ngu masen ningir akôngu ee
Er M za ngohol ikyav.
Iorwa Adogo oo Iorwa u Wouku,
Wouku kôr aôndu nerem,
Er m unde sha min M unde je;
Kwagh u cieryol ee!

368
WanUdô har peta begha M nyôr geri ve ee,
M nyôr hen iya u Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe ape i dughun sementu la ee, Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam;
Wan u Duku Agemaji M ta gbaka ishima ngi amen mo.
Tor Bosua Uga lu vea WanAbaver, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke
Anyam hungwa sha gado ve or a san kpoughul ga aa;
A lu u kpoughul anyam un a kôrugh we ee.
Lu vea WanBaki ii!
* * *
Iortyer Abyem Gaga Myaki va amar yô i dem mo cagh ishor;
WanShitile oo,
Ityô yam wa beel gande aa
Ka ve a goom M goom je, Gôn Duku;
Tyoor Ulanve u Malu kpa va amar;
Ior dem beelbebeel i civir a civir Tor,
Tor ka ihyôwe i Aôndu aee
WanHule Cakpa ee.
AI. 18.
Ishima u Tsofo, M Tsume Gbenda..
Mnder
Ishima u Tsofo oo,
M tsume gbenda ior mba sen mo gedee,
Kpaa M hide sha gbenda ve, Mkile WanAzande;

Or ngu a ma tashi u buter/gomna gbing-
369
Gbing yô nan gema tsughum er M ngu mirin Ijôrpo-wan imo,
Kpa M kav ze oo;
I tserem a ior ve ee.
Or suen varen ga;
Yange igbe sue sar sha wuna ingbianjôu;
Oryese tse a wan ze Adabo oo.
Mrumun
Torkange Ajev oo Kile Gbaka,
Inyon ya amine juu kpa ngi a za wa ilyum ga oo.
Kaa WanGaga Alaji,
A san vihin ishima a mo ga,
M ngu tindin ior ilyoho shin a we ee,
Yenge bashi nam ee,
Gaze M ngu nyôrun agbaca;
Kwagh hembam Ugba u Iwevzer e;
Wan u Gbanor aoo.
Iorwa u Wouku Adogo kaa loho shin amo oo
Er M za oo M san cie ga WanUgô lôhô wuhev nav a,
Er M za wen e mir a mir ishor;
U zeren ungwan
Iti na gbem la wen soo u ungwan ze ee;
M yam awashima kpa hembam,

Angul u Ierve u Beneke ee.
Saimon Musa,
Ciaman nyôr ve ee Iortyer Musa,
Dyorugh-or wa bende sha keela.
370
Aza u Gaase oo or te hwande a wo shawon kpa?
Mnyam ma cier mo oo,
Use Wan Nyam Agule
Mirim imo vea wan u Dema kwase yua or sha we gema ijyôu;
Ikyarkyase i gbidim iyol ye,
M ya gege M ya ki hôôn ve, Orhemba Cia Burya
Lu yaven he‟ kpe-cie M wa me me za yô or kpusugh mo,
Er mo M sena ze ga ka ibyume kwagh,
Ibyumekwagh u daang;
Ka awambe a iyolugh oo.
Kwagh ngu a er or wou kpa u za zua ishigh a nana a,
Laraba ee,
M gba van ve ee.
M sombu tor awange ityô yam a dem zan ga ne.
Likici Agbe ee,
M nenge WanKoko lu vaan zungul tumen sha guma u Anaca;
Lu vaan yilan,
“Atemba Agbe ee,
Wan wou kohol we ve ee;

Wan yem ityou tingir shin inya.”
* * *
Ageva Nyaku oo!
Nyaku Agba tema imôngu a Likici u Agbe,
A de mlyam ma vaan a;
Or pie a pie ga:
Gbayange Atô kpa kpe oo;
Cia Cile Tali kpa kpe oo;
Aba Kume kpa kpe ee;
Ka iyan‟ yase i u-uma tsatsa.
Ordorugh Nyam Dabul oo WanAtue
Ngôm shi wam ikyo we ior i nenge ee yange mo kpe me kera nenge ga ee.
AI. 19
Imo Hingir Kpenga
Mnder
371
Imo hingir kpenga mba mase gberen aagar aagar oo!
M vôr a imo ve ee;
Imo kpa mba we ka kwaghfan Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
Ande Kwagh aoo!
M va kpa M ngu sha gbenda;
Ior mba fe iyou ki dion sha mende.
Mrumun
Kpa me kera ôr ingila ze,

372
I da kaa Tyôver u Ninga kuashi kpam WanKyum Kpeese,
Er Atôndu Tiôn a kpe je or ngu a kenam a kobo ga;
Ka Iorpande Caha
Man a fe er M ngu anigbian a na ye WanGula.
Hungwa tughtugh M za ken Ageva Nyaku,
Kpa bua tôndu un a yem u keren
Ve M hiden a wegh uase ye.
Gafa oo!
Ka u me yem ne;
Orhemba Cia Burya M ngu yemen ee,
Hiam iyol juu!
Laraba M kpehe ishor kpa ishor kôr Ican aa;
Ka we u nôngu a mo ye or ngu yiman mo ze ee.
Ityô yam mba burun kaka;
Or tende nyam kaka ne anigbian ga.
Angule Deem,
Deem saghen ikyondu hen uya ga;
WanIkyurior om ashe ga, Adende kpa gever kwelegh;
Vaa kwagh juu,
Kunya kôrum ee: ikpiraku i er or gande.
Ihyom a mo a mo oo,
I kaa Iortyer Musa,
Mo kpa M ngu zenden a ityumugh iyol oo;

M zende a zende megh,
Ageewua Tor Biam aoo!
Ambe kôrum he‟ imo ne jighjigh;
Ityô teem agogun yuham, wan u Vagi;
Tar kera doo iyol ze ee;
M er nan a kuma Ali Abya?
WanAjaver nenge a mo tsô hide koonoon
Ta ke iyou na kôr wuhe;
Tamber ker gbiooung…
Dugh yô mir a mir imo jimjimjim,
373
Kwagh doo igbya yam Kparev mba kuhan a kuha geranyi,
Suen mve oo, Gbabo oo.
* * *
Or a gbidem kpa me kera
Vaa ga oo;
M tsegha ikyontamen yam sha Mbatyan aoo;
M tsegha ikyontamen yam ngi ken Ugondu;
Or a gbidem kpa me vaa ga.
Anmbayev mba gbidim asa
Je er M mar wan ga,
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa.
Ngueku M ta hwande a or ga,
Cia yam tsematsema

Iorwa u Wouku
Adogo oo aye!
374
Adogo nyôr ve ee WanUgô Shagba ngôm ô,
De hungul a mo ga ee.
AI. 20
Kumam Kôndun ve, Ande Kwagh
Mnder
Kumam kôndun ve Ande Kwagh aoo!
Kam saren u zan ke‟ Nule Makyur Aca
Vea WanMondu.
Inyam mbin tar iyange shin ii,
Aôndu a kper ikyer uuu?
Inyamkyume i tamen akumecii ne ar ve ee;
Dajo Mue ior dem zamber ican a.
Mrumun
Ior va a ityou;
Iordyem nenge a mo tsô vishigh wegh:
Ikpira ukase due yô;
Mba er M-ngohol-M-ngohol ne gande ôrun cii.
WanWombu oo, M ta hwande a ven ga.
M tôô kwagh nan shon je M gba vanger;
M kera pine gbenda ga tsô M per ifi imbyusu oo.
Mbaiv mba a mo gudugudu;

Er ve a ngohol keng;
I bunde tsô M yem sha gafa aa.
M yevese M yem shin Nyian Lali;
M yevese juu!
375
Er me tsua akughul yô Ikyiva Ura a va a mato fefa,
Gaze mbaiv a kôrum ee.
Kusangen Ashwe,
A pe M ze la yô nyinya purugh sha min M za kenger nyinya.
Kpenyie u Damaji oo!
Kwase wou shon la yô za hana?
Mbatsav kôr sôngu,
Je M lu ke‟ ishoja ee;
U kaam ze, Adoo WanAveil.
Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen kpa ior vihi wen a mo shin ii?
Ka a bunde kpa icur i kura sha;
Or vihin or a or ga ka ishima you ee.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
Nyôr Tarwa ee
Lu a mo dedoo kpa kwagh gba ke‟ Tiv taver yum Gbabo oo,
Igbya Kartyo kar a da gber ee.
M mase hurugh wegh ihyôwe sha Iortyer Musa
Tor nam ikyekye ajimin i!
Aza u Gaase oo kaa WanMbatyav,

U kiriki ee,
Terna u Akpagher aa.
376
Zamber kpa beem sha won ve Mnguaorga u Wombu Makar a;
Wan u Hange ee M ngu yilan we,
Nule Makyur Aca vea WanGunduor,
Mbela mba te kwagh gbenda ga er Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam Agoho oo.
WanManger aoo!
Laraba M nenge a ven shi me vaa nyi?
Kwase kpa orti nam M ngu kuman kwagh;
Ka cii tar je la ee.
Nahanga u Bede oo Akundô wan cier mo iyol ee vea Nguher Kunde;
Anyam a kôr ior kpa a tsea wan u Bede,
Or u Mbakyeren oo,
A er a er ishor oo.
Anyam a kôr ior kpa a tsea wan u Bede,
Or u Mbakyeren oo,
A er a er ishor oo.
* * *
Jôôji Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
Inyar kin per shin ii mato a lu yôôn kwagh a?
Er Tor va ve ior ta ônuv acin,
Kua Ngôundu u Hambe.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko

377
Unde nom nyinya, nyinya mou a na sha zengaa;
Hide haa inya teghlee.
WanTor Avaa ngula van la ior i de aun,
Nyôr iyange saa teghlee.
Or-pin-anyam-ga Iorkyaa u Kpan Adi, iyôu-ki-acivin Kpan Adi
Hua tswa ikyondu iyol oo;
Muemue ngu sha min WanUdô vav anyam,
Mase esen tembe bee…el.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala oo!
De nzughul, de nzughul a mo shie vese;
Er M lagh M lu uma ne me nenge tar er yange me kpe me kera nenge ga ee.
AI. 21.
Time War i Ver a Ver
Mnder
I time war i ver a ver oo;
Uma wam ngu been aoo.
Aga-suul wam kpa sombu, Vande Yongu;
Atôndu Tiôn kpe kpe imo kpa kpe;
Atôndu Tiôn hemen M ngu van aee.
M ngu sôughul akuul kpa M ya ruam hen Saimon Musa,
Vôsu WanMbatyav –
Ikyur la ka ngbagh-awen;
Mo M te wegh vanger sha „ci wen ee,

Zaki we a lu han kpa Tor
Umbur a mo ee.
Mrumun
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa kua WanAganyi,
Ikyôrbo yam ne ngi wuan mo oo,
Ka me a ter or imo
Nan hingir orhyom wam ku! WanAganyi.
Tar ne ngu kuan sha inja i tyeku,
378
„Pe u kou u ze kpa or fe ga, Iortyer Abyem.
Igbya yam mba amimin mba Likici u Agbe mba her‟ je kpa
Ka me a er kwase,
Iwuhe i yôô angwe i va vande karen nyôrun;
Kwase la nan due keng.
* * *
M sue a an wen me M gande a?
Mo yô ityô hembam a hemba jo oo,
Mase shin mba genev M zungu ve ye.
Tor Vaatyou, Tor Ananum oo
Lu sha MbaJir‟;
Ma M ve sha we jo kpa Aôndu venda a mo oo.
WanWombu oo ikyu tserem M zenden ze eee Udorugh Nyam Dabul.
Iorkyaa Aye!
Aye Igbon Anyam ngu a ikyondu uya shinla,

Er ngô na shi kpe ve;
Kasev nav ger mlyam M za soon yô,
379
Lu amimin: Asabe a nyôr yav ken akwati yav gbedaa.
Kpa me a de mlyam ma vaan;
Ki hegh ki a wa ki tsegh ki hôô, Adoonyumbe.
Ijenmee Iorvaa tar ngu yôôsu a mo;
Tor Mnder Cagh Mici
Kpa lu tool ityô na.
[M] tema imôngu tugh M gbe ungwan redio yô mba yôôn
Er WanIhyande kpe ee!
Ishima nulem kwe M pir iusa iyol o;
M nyôr ke‟ iyou M tee avaan me me wua iyol yam kpaa Iorpande
Biam Ala ooo orti kôr ngohol ayio ooo!
Shi kôrum yem a min shin a na;
Wan u Uva Vaase
A da kumbul mo M de mlyam.
Ishima Zaki ooo!
Zaki Aôndu a lu a we
Man WanAzande.
Mo M va ve ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor Kuji ooo,
Zaki Aôndu a nau wegh ku iyianegh eee;
Ka we a vende wan yô u lu a ishima cighim cighim;

380
Sena ongu akpenger gbenda ga Mbasôrun aooo,
Oryima or ikyôngu ngu ze eee ikyume due yange ura Tiv ger kyuuu!
* * *
Tor Ukaa Ikyuan kpa rumun,
Zwa wou la u kôrum ve eee;
WanMbaleva ooo.
Ngôm M undu jaki ga;
Ka M henda nyinya u fan ityav Tor Ibi Adabo ooo.
Moave Adi ooo M vôr ee;
Kaa Mbalihô ooo M vôr ee.
Iorwa u Wouku,
Adogo er nan ve M nenge a WanUgô ga?
Ishima ngi nôngun u yinan mo ka u mo yem je ne,
Eeee.
AI. 22
Ka Yemen Yam Ne oo Ken Iortyer Musa
Mnder
Ka yemen yam ne ooo me za ke‟ Iortyer Musa,
Musa Agbe Cafa oo;
Orcivirigh due je Aôndu wa ura;
Mba kuhan Tor senen a min be-eel
Ônuv Ukum u!

Mrumun
Ukaa Ikyuan kpa lu sôrun tar na,
Lu sôrun ior veren sha inja sha inja aa.
Or a san vaan ga;
Lu vea Kansol u tamen
Madugu wan cier mo iyol ee.
Iyange yam due ve Adabo oo!
Iyange yam due ve ee;
Tor Tyôver u Ninga,
Wasem nen ee.
Ihyom yam ne ee,
Ka me a ngor mlyam kpa or
Yôngul mo ze, Adoonyumbe.
Alhaji Mukaara or
Nengen a mo tsô a wa ityou inya,
Lu ôrun kwagh
Vea kwase na Taratu geman ashe
Kenger mlu wam eee.
Orhemba Cia,
Cia Burya M nôngu ican teghtegh
M nyôr shin iya wou ve ee.
WanMbatinyam a mou sha:
Ishagba ngôm ka „pe M te imbyorom ne.
381

Mo ka hurugh-hurugh
Dar M kum ye.
382
Iortyer Musa oo Zaki M nyôr geri wou ne ve ee.
Mo za kuha Tor, Tor u ishima bem-bem ee;
Welegida a ôr a ishima fefa Tor Ibi Adabo oo.
* * *
Ishima Zaki oo!
Shi urugh mumu sha akombu u wa apera yum;
Kwagh kpa baneu ga u. U ma a ma alagudi shin ii?
Kwagh kpa baneu ga.
Ne aam a Tor Beba Unzô Konjo kpaa M rumun u yiman mo ee;
WanYaga ityô you ngi a mo heregh tsô,
Je mba a oom ikyor ga. I kaa Kpamor Hil Agule ee.
AI. 23
Mlyam sha Ikyu Kpishi
Mnder
Kwaghbula Azege dwem ngu tômun mo ake, Ioryem Ikyaave,
Anigbian mo ndyar ikyememe M kera zenda ga. Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
Er Atôndu Tiôn a kpe M ngu a se ga;
Dorugh Nyam Dabul oo,
Ka M shi vaan ior mba kpenev,
Mba Tor Ibi Adabo oo,
A mba Tor Amishi Tor Ugô,

Ugô Igbyudu wam kendem tswen ee.
Mrumun
383
Kera wa u me vaa a ven ga yô M de ve ee.
Ter Aôndu nam ican yam ka ken uya je ee;
Shi nam mlyam ma vaan. M vaa ior gege ashe pirim, Vande Yongu Abege.
Wan u Paase oo!
Mbatsav wuam il ku ee;
Mbatsav wuam il na ee.
Uer Ajio oo!
Ajio Bunde kwagh erem:
Mbaamoov av mba timin tsatsa;
Adega u Orbiam shin Ugondu kpa kpe; Kinabo u
Shondu kpa kpe M ngorun mlyam ye.
Zaki Tor Amishi Ugô Igbyudu kpa kpe
Kpe vea WanAtakya.
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa oo,
Orya Anyakpa,
Atôndu Tiôn kpe je M ngu keel ga;
Vanger ngu nôngun u paven mo oo Mue Ager Nortema,
An a kumbul mo oo?
M va ve WanGbande;
Yarem ku ee.
Hoo ayio oo!

Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko
384
Ngu nôngun u kumbul mo vea WanTor Va:
“Wan, yav girgir;
Yange me nau or u dughun we ze ee”.
Angol Ikyenge,
Ikyenge Avii Tyav kaa WanDamagudu ibo kôrum ô;
[M] kera za ke‟ we ga yum, ibo kôrum ee.
* * *
Ikyiva Ura aoo lam a ngôm Sarin Ashwe ee, lam a ngôm Sarin Ashwe;
M ngu a mlyam sha ashe.
Madam Kpadoo Dogo oo tindi a mato fefa i va tôôm; me za me za mem shaala.
Kpadoo Dogo o ku nyion gande.
Or ngu a kpeu or wou-wou nan a vau ku ga i lu er ka abokin-kura yô ee.
Ugba u Iwevzer,
Faasema Nyôr vam ku ga ee Tor Ibi aee.
AI. 24
Imo i Iwuese sha Iortyer Musa
Mnder
Kumam kôndun ve Ande Kwagh aoo!
U kera nenge a mo ga M yem ayange ne M ngu imo ke‟ Mbaterem, Gôn Duku;
He‟ iya u Iortyer Musa
Agbe Cafa oo!
Ciaman nyôr geri ve WanMbadema.
Kwagh doo uke mba kuhan a kuha

Kaka, Ciawa ee.
Mrumun
Wan yua sha vande „pe karen ngu ga;
385
Usu per jande ve, Ande Kwagh, inyam-akura hingir gudugudu;
A doo kpa i doo a vihi kpa i vihi, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba;
Mlyam ma doon ga.
Nyian inya ve Tsee‟ Kajo Gber Mke,
Anula Gbande ungwa se gege, kaa er M ngu ôrun kwaghalôm
„Tetan shin ii M de me tugh u ile ga ee.
Ikyiva Ura aoo shi za verem M za kuha Tor
Musa Agbe ee!
Agbe-wan!
Aza u Gaase nomugh bee kwagh sha won ve:
Wan za yunivesiti,
Wan hingir molonia,
Wan shi nengen sha divishôn tsatsa –
Aôndu kar kwar a nam or u doon ve.
Lu vea Tor Anduru Tsukwa mba sôrun tar;
Ve zua wegh mba sôrun Wukari divishôn cii.
Kwagh gba sha kwagh u pati ga;
Ityô yam M zamber –
Lu nen ishima imiôm ee.
Sôr nen tar, tar u doo se ya or ngu tsôrun ga.

Pila jôôji Kum yangem gar bemaan,
M kera ze Genyi ze o Ibi Adabo oo.
Iorwa Adogo oo kaa ngôm WanUgô Akighir M zurum u nyôrun shin bar u ndor
ve!
Kwagh a lu yô i nam mo yem ee.
386
Orhemba Cia Burya venda er M de asenge la kpunkpun;
Wan u Manger a yilam he‟ iya na ve ee.
* * *
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam
Ar shin ii, ikyondu i posun mo shin iwenge ee.
Ôn mba Biam a wua nor shin,
Ityô na i lu wuan asôm kenger sha a mo oo?
Use Mue Anzer Adi oo!
Kaa ngôm WanDuku M ngu yemen Mbaterem,
Sha iya u Iortyer Musa; me za me hide teleghee ga;
Hôwe hônum sha min,
Er ikyato fa iyou yô eee.
AI. 25.
Akpam, Akpam ngu Van a
Mnder
Akpam, Akpam ngu van a;
Ishagba Akpam, Akpam ngu van ee;
WanIkyoona ar ve ee!

387
Mba kuhan WanTor Boagundu Azaigbyaga senen a min yemen be-eel,
Kpa mo yô M ngu a kwase u me za vaa ga.
Kwaghbula Azege ee!
Mrumun
Ishima Zaki oo!
Kwagh u kwase lu zan ior/Tiv iyol o,
Mbanengen Aveil er a mo kwagh kwase hilem ishima;
A bumem M waa den ishoja.
Kpa ka Dajo Pav a taver mo ishima ye;
M ngu vaan,
Angul u Ierve Beneke.
Mo vea Kwaor Akosho yô saa ka ku ee
Or a de dimin iyol ga.
* * *
Tor cir agundu ka mase kuman ken ashe nyonyonyonyo;
WanUgô WanMbashor M zurum ve ee;
Kpa M ngu a ikyondu iwenge ga ee.
AI. 26
Tor aoo! ‘Pe M Kaa la
Mnder
Tor aoo o!
„Pe M kaa ne
Wan u Yaga nande abua ityôu er M za ya tar cier mo iyol o!

388
Mbaapu yar haa sha akinde nerem u gban; bo-tar wen ne,
Wan u Yaga sôr tar ne bee;
Kuma sha u yan vo!
Mrumun
Hoo ayio ooo!
Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo lu van sha nyinya.
Tor hua riga, riga ngi a ityou; Dajo Mue u fa ikyondu la kpa?
Mo yô M fa ga.
Kwase na WanYaga har peta begha ee;
Har peta damsa sha iyol na ôn mba Nevkyon hingir
Gbuegbuegbue a asôm cii.
* * *
Ishima u Tsofo oo ishôm kôrum ve ee;
Ôn mba Unzô a sôngum ô.
Kasev av hembe kwelegh;
„Pe M ze la ka u hiden ga, Vande Yongu Ikyô M va ve ee.
AI. 27
Imo-mirin i Shiim Torkon
Mnder
Kwaghbula Azege u kera nenge a mo ga yô
Kwagh hange sha gur ve;
Kwagh hange sha gur sha ÔnShitile mba iliv Shiim Torkon u Hiinyam aa,
Inyamkyume ne yav nule nder ve;

Nule nder gbe kôrun ior oo,
389
Vea WanUdende, mo kpa me za ve kôrum kera i wanger mo oo.
Mrumun
Tor Hil u A-
Gule oo! Zaki Tor kange nyinya fefa,
Gaze laketa kaa imo pepe,
Pepe nahan beem Kunde Ager
Vea wan u Tor Va a lu kôndun sha Shiim Tor u Kon u Hiinyam mir ishor oo.
Aôndu san inima iyol Na. WanUdende mase hamber aluabiam gaga;
Akpema mar wan la je hamber wen ifan tyutyutyu.
We a nenge a na kpa u kav ga or tee iyol a yam ishima a min,
Ishima kehe hemba nor.
Cado Akaaer Adudu WanJughkou hemen nyôrun;
Ôn mba Tyula tangent sha mi be-eel;
Nyôr mba cirin Ala,
Lamen sonku er nyian a lu ikyurior a bam se yô se kpe;
Hôôn se kpe!
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Wan u Ikyômke ungwa na loho shin a me oo;
Kaa er M za wan-na-kem Cieve u Tsavbee Muri kpa a kume ishima vea WanTor
Ve ta oo;
Sankera,
Ve ta oo. Kase Gagun, Apeilu nderem nena?

* * *
390
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo nyôr amar taver gande:
Ka i tema deghôô i gba eren gugu;
I tema deghôô tsô i ungwa guukuku.
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo ka nom akaca shin Ukum kuashi kpam Wan
Yaga tsua tokobi mase yengen anikpianev
Mba ter na Nule Makyur Aca.
Apeatim Kpav oo!
Kpav Kpabi Agundu kpa ka nom akaca sha Ushitile ee,
Vea wan u Ikyanyon oo.
M ta nor mnger kor M kua nor tar ve i ôrum Ter Igbyudu Angula
Kuashi WanIkyô Ukaan ee,
Ior ne kôndu ve ee.
* * *
Icôrugh
I kôr or va nam a!
Mrumun
Ahieooo aye imo ne mar ahina ve.
Icôrugh
Kpamberakpa kôr or va nam a!
Mrumun
Ahieooo aye imo ne mar ahina ve.
Imo mar shi ku:

391
Uhaa Akpema ku kôr yem a min M ngu vaan aa
Ka kwagh u a bundum ikyekye i usu je ne
Ahii eee aye imo ne mar ahina ve.
AI. 28
Tar Hide Ve oo!
Mnder
Tar hide ve oo!
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Kuji hide a tar Tiv ve, Gôn Buruku Duku,
Or ya Tor na sha cia Mbasôrun ôô;
Aôndu haa orya wou mkurem ma human doon iyol ve ee.
Mrumun
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!
Inyamkyume tar iyange shin ii?
Inyon i shi kuhan gbaka.
Or yam mato gbing-gbing haa sha igbenda;
Hide yam mato u hendan ver Wan u Kura.
Ka we a kenger sha mi,
Ashe a hingir we ke‟ ikyôr er mba man indi…
Him yô.
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo Aku Tor ka me a nenge a we,
U fan me ku ngu tsô kpa M kera fa ga; Asaayana Yaga,
Ngu a fam ciin sha igbira yam a cir leghlegh je. Ugba u Iwevzer,

Wan u Gbanor aooo!
392
Kpa kwagh u a shim yô Atôndu Tiôn ngu ze ee,
Ka M tsa vaan kaka;
Vaa ivaa ivaa tsô u wam a va me za ee.
Kwaghnzughul u Naakyo oo Kidam Agoho oo!
Hide shin Lôndôn ve wan za shin Lôndôn,
Za va giigii sama,
Gema pijo nam;
Er M yem a min;
M zenden wen a iti sha tar ee,
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!
Bum nom na shin inya; bum Akaaer; bum ngô na WanUgondu;
Shi bum ityou ki Benue cii,
Aku Kisô kpa rumun [u] M de u caghen atuul oo Gôn Duku.
* * *
Kpe ahiin! Zaki Ishimaior u Tsofo yô me mem a mem zamber a.
Ma M za lam a ngôm WanTor u Kyado kpa,
Jee Gbabo oo,
Iwa ngim gbehen kpa ka icaver ikyondu i M zer ne ee.
Jôôji Aciniya Norum
Nam kwagh M ya ayange me kpe ashe nga wanger mo ze ee;
Kaam WanHambe,
Wanger mo ze ee Tor Ibi aee.

AI. 29
‘Bula Azege oo Iyô Nyuma Ankpan
Mnder
„Bula Azege oo iyô nyuma ankpan,
393
Man iyese ta wan tsô ior zua tsatsa mba sôrun wan iyese
Orcivirigh Ishimaior u Tsofo shi yima ankpan;
Iyô i bee ooo.
Aôndu A verugh wegh ku iyianegh ee,
Kpa kunya kôr ior a mo ga yum yô ve de me yem aee!
Mrumun
Ugba u Iwevzer Agôv!
Lu vea WanGbanor,
Mba tem yilan mo mo ga;
Tor yilam yô M va ve ee.
I kaa Ibi u Adabo yô a lam a WanIkpyayugh,
Ishima ngim ze ee;
Amishi Ugba Igbyudu kpe tar huan viing!
Mba a kever atungwa asôhô a tsa kpiligh ayol.
Tor Manger Awav Agbe ee,
Mo kpa M kura yemen ve ee.
Atôndu Tiôn aooo!
Ka kwagh u yange se ôrun je ne ee.
Tyôver u Ninga!

Wanmimin lu sôrun tar je er
Ka organden yô ôô.
Orti tôô iyuhe kende mnger ee;
394
Lu wan tar inya tine, Hil Agule, nyinya-ma-akase orti lu civir ityô na aa;
Or fa kwagh u akper ze, Adoonyumbe.
* * *
Uer Ajio oo,
Ajio Bunde wan za hana
Vea wan Ikyurav-tiev aoo?
Wiwiii!
Jee Gbabo ooo!
AI. 30
Mbanengen Bunde Kwase a Mo sha Shie Ga
Mnder
Kwagh aooo!
Mbanengen bunde kwase a mo sha shie ga.
Kunya kôr kwase a mo ga yum ka „pe ma a nenge a Gbamwuan
Tor Kpen Asha oo,
Vea WanMbagen,
Ma a soughun je ne ee,
Tar-yan karem ve ee.
Mrumun
Orya Anyakpa Amber Doki Imbyarakem

395
Wa ura ka u bunden u nôôn ga mba yiôn er ior i tim daar;
Mngerem a iv tar. Wan u Gbagir Zer
Sue vea welegida WanMbatinyam
Ka ishugh i gbe ze M zaan M seen ee.
Jôn Agande Agev
Or u MbaDwem kwase na ngu ga,
Ngishe je ma M ma amine he‟ iya na ma M tirigh ishor aee.
Kwaghnzughul u Naakyo WanMbaterem kwase gba
Van ve ee!
Lu ndyaren sha akav;
Mase zenden mungôô er lakumi venda atsonka ikyav gbenda yô;
Mase gbidyen tsa ken inya daalaa!
Angol Ikyenge inyamkyume ne tar iyange shin ii,
Inyon i shi kuhan gbaka
Wan u Dam Agudu aoo? M va ve ee:
A lu ipyungwa i eren kpa zôr nam nen ee;
A lu ipyungwa i tsusugh kpa zôr nam nen ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor Kuji oo,
M ngu yilan we ee;
Aningyô ngu vaan yilan we.
Mbasôrun,
Kwagh kom a kuma sha or M ver ashe gbenda, an a wasem a ngô ican shon ne ee?
Likici Agbe kpaa kera ngu a ishima ga mbaiv

Kile wan iyol seeng.
Ter na shi kpe oo,
Kunya korum a WanKoko juu, Gbabo ooo.
* * *
396
A lu a ishima na heregh Ashi u Jabu Sôngu Vambe;
Mo yô M er
Nan kangev yum, Kaacivin Tor o?
Man mu er nan ee?
AI. 31
‘Bula Azege, Uer Ajio oo…
Mnder
Bula Azege ee,
Kwaghbula Azege, Uer Ajio oo, WanKyurav-tiev
Ngu ga shin ii
M lu zamber ikyondu o?
Ikyondu ikyondu kpa hembau shin ii?
Anza Kule ke‟ MbaTyukpa nam ikpyur gbagir er M cir akuhe iyol u mo M ngorun imo
ye ee,
Adôm Tiil…
Mrumun
Ishima Zaki oo kaa ityô you
Yô i wuam kera ve de u eren mo ican;
Gaze M ya kunya ke‟ tar juu!

397
Kwagh u M lu zenden ior ishi yô M fa ze ee.
* * *
Kwase kpa a min ga;
Wan kpa a min ga a lu me yem shin inya ne ôr
Kwagh wam ayange atar ga tsô ne huan viing.
Icôrugh
Atim Tiôn Sha!
Mrumun
Anigbian due gema ishigh nenge nen sha Aôndu ôô.
Wasem!
Wasem vea boki wou Ageva Nyaku.
Zenda Agagu oo M ngu nôngun u kpen a or ijime shio.
Kwase wam undum M ngu tswen ee.
Mbanengen Aveil wam aa,
M kaa me a lu kwase a mo ooo orti venda va ga;
M kaa me a lu kwase a mo ooo kpa orti venda va ga.
AI. 32.
Inyom Vihim Ave Juu!
Mnder
Inyom vihim ave juu i kaa Kwaghnzughul Naakyo Gberndyer
Kidam Agoho oo, ka we M keghen ye ee;
Gaze ma M yem ishir ke‟ Gongola je;

Ma u kera nenge a mo ga ee.
Mrumun
398
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor Kuji venda kaa er M sena ndôhôl ve tar ga,
Mbasôrun ngu nôngun u yilan mo oo;
M wa iyol je M yam jubu.
Ka nyen-nyen u Mlanga Adiko a yerem ne;
Tor yilam a nam kwagh aa,
Ka me a samber vanger a nôngu u paven Tiv –
M er nan WanMbabookyo?
Gbamwuan
Tor Kpen Asha wanbegha
Vea wan u Tor Gyusa Wanza due annar
Kar gba shin ityô tar Tiv num ayem, Gbabo oo.
[M] nenge a Akume Atôngu lu van yô ior i de ayôôsu;
Se huan nen viing!
Akume Atôngu er kwagh sha ahwa,
Sha ahwa oo, wan u Makar Agaku,
WanWombu Makar Agaku ngula wa ura ke‟ ankwase hungwa
Dyelegh aoo. U nôô ior i posu akondu shin u hungwa a hungwa ijande?
* * *
Zaki Tyôver Ninga M va oo;
Ninga a kerem ankwagh u hendan anu nga nyion mo, Uhule ee,
Uhule ungwa ga shin ii?

Ageewua Tor
399
Dugwer Biam Ala or ka a nam kwagh u tamen;
Shi a nam inyaregh;
Shi a lam a mo sha mkpeyol ee.
WanVagi oo Iorkyaa Aye,
Aye Igbyon Anyam zegenan ne va ve ee.
Lu vea kwase na Pati,
Pati M va a zamber ;
WanShangev yila mo M nyôr ve ee e.
AI. 33
Adoo-yaven-a-min
Mnder
Adoo-yaven-a-min!
Mrumun
Dajo Pav M ngu van a ngô-zamber juuu,
M ngu vaan Kina Shondu shin guma ee;
M ngu vaan Malu Bawa kpa yem shin guma kendem tswen e;
Sunda Boiue Agashua,
Mimi-wan kpa nyôr huan vying.
M yila je kpa rumun ze ee;
M er nan? Gbabo oo.
* * *

Icôrugh
Hembam mo de kera:
Mrumun
Ishima Zaki oo labar tee gbou ga;
M ungwa me i nau tor ve,
Kpamwan MbaGar‟ aa.
WanTor Kyado ngôm shi erem an mumu M ma sha gbenda M ngu lun a ven ga,
400
M ngu yemen ape Mko a ze la me za lam a na ee.
Kam „pe me za lam a Tyoor Amishi Sereki;
Kam „pe me lam a Kwaghbula u Azege man Adega u Orbiam Nimbir,
Man me hide ye ee.
Kper a kper M lu a ikyondu uya, kper a kper M lu a ikyondu uya;
Mayange ka u me mem mlyam ga.
Tsav mbu er nyi?
Mbatsav mba er kwagh ga ee.
Yange or u gen‟ a kpe a tsav vanger a,
Kpa mayange nan a hide ga ee.
Faasema u Tarwa oo!
M ngu zenden kpa ka ikyôvugh; Nguhilen Aganyi a nam ikyondu i vesen M ngu
yemen
Shin inya, angôm ô.
Likici Agbe,
Agbe-wan a lu me a kpe yô pavem M vandeu ôrun

Kwagh wam a MbaGaraka cii:
Vihishima mou a mo je M lu wanye M lu ungwan a ungwa mo vea Atôndu Tiôn;
Kwagh wam kur fefa ga ee.
401
Kwagh kpa M ngu a mi ze o Mbanengen wam a,
Kwase wam M kpera iyongu me me wa amo yô M ker i ve.
Ageewua Tor
Biam aoo,
Kaa WanKendev ityô zendam kpa kwaghga,
Iya wam ngu shin inya ee.
Ande Kwagh a haan mo ahu
M ngu van aee. Katsina Ge:
Ngu a nenge a mo a cir ave sha ashe ee;
Kwase wam ka kunya wam shin
Ka u wou we?
U vendam we M ngu anor u inyar ga.
AI. 34
‘Bula Azege, M Vôr
Mnder
„Bula Azege oo M vôr ee!
Mrumun
Nguegbya u Pila Hinda
OrMbabookyo wam ngu heregh ee;
A za mape ga oo M ngu van ee;
Welegida M ngu van kpa,

Atimbir nga a mo sha gbenda
Hen iya u Laha Kpan Yakubu uu,
Kpa M ngu van ee, Jee Gbabo oo.
* * *
Ugba u Iwevzer,
Iwevzer kpe undum M gema ashe,
M kenger Aôndu hiinaan…
Ugba u Iwevzer inya ngi ikyuakyua ee.
Kpa Tiv soo ku ga Tor Ibi Adabo,
402
Gaze ma M kera lu a ven ga za kaa wonum o,
Veunô Alya Tyôba.
Usewan Nyam Agule,
Zaki lam a ngôm WanDema;
Ikyôm vihin ishima juu Mko u Ijôrpo undum M mase zenden;
Yange or a tuham er wan yav nan ye ee.
Emberga u Iormbameen yenge ivekwase nam;
M za M za tsa a nan a.
Wuhe ngu kôrun mo, Tor Ibi Adabo oo. Ande Kwagh,
Or a za yô i kaa Tor Ukaa Ikyuan shin la ee,
Kua WanUgô oo,
Ugô Igyila ee.
Kwase mase duran van sha mo un a nambe imo yam yô!
Cier mo iyol oo,

Ikyondu mase eren jingee ee.
* * *
Iorwa u Wouku ishima vihiu a mo kpa de;
Culecule M zamber;
Ya anyi angôm ee.
Kwagh u cieryol a de yugh ga
Ishima ngi imiôm tsô.
Me ôr tsô ne masen kaven.
Tor Mnder Cagh Mici M fenyô me
403
Yange me tser a or u mimin, Tor Na u Lokoja,
Kua WanTyuluv u?
M gba van ve eee.
Iortyer Tor Musa Agbe shi lam a WanMbatyan aoo,
Aza u Gaase ngula van la, Adoonyumbe;
Baka oo, Jee Gbabo oo.
AI. 35
Kwagh Kohol Mo ve!
Mnder
Kwagh kohol mo ve oo!
Yange i me se imiôm ngi lun shawon ga.
Ka M shi vaan ikyu
Zenden er ka gbensôôr ee.
M wua Ku wan shin me mem shawon ga?

Ahiin! M hingir kujôu a Udam shin ii?
Usewan Nyam Agule,
Zaki huan mlyam ma vaan;
404
Labar tee gbou ga M ungwa me Tor Agule kpe;
Tor kpe acivin tutu;
Lu nyôrun a turugh iyol ka kwagh u cieryol ee.
Kpa ka kwagh ga i lu kera ku ka kwagh u Aôndu ee.
Mrumun
M nenge WanDema lu vaan zumun tumen sha guma u ter na Mne,
Mne Dema oo,
Aôndu yem a na ee.
Ishima Zaki lu vaan ku u ter-na-kem,
Vaa ivyaa ivyaa man tsa ke‟ toho Adabu oo Kunde Ager Wuhe
U Ashwa Amonko shi za verem M za kuha Ishimaior u Tsofo
Ken atô ikyôngu ô.
M za soon yô,
M nenge Agbom Ngou vea ijende na
Malu Adôôr Atsenge ve kôr Usewan Nyam zerzer,
Mba kumbul un shin hua:
“U ngu eren yum nahan aa
Kasev a wua ayol a ve”. A gba den tsô ee;
Aôndu gba tar tsô gba ku; a huan ee.
Kwagh u ndor tser ze ee; hanmaor tema ka imôngu. Aerga u Gum Anar,

405
Ityô yam bughum kulugh M tsa ajai hen iya u Kpamor
Usewan Nyam Agule.
Tsa ku he‟ iya u ishagbaor;
Ku hingir amar akpam a ôn mba Jima zua tsatsa mba kumbul
Aningyô ee.
Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena
Tar ne ne u vihi oo wan u Gyusa ishagba ngôm ka kunya M mase
Zenden a u-uma ityô ye; Adôm Tiil kpa ngu ga;
Adega u Orbiam Ningir kpa ngu
Shin inya ee.
* * *
An a nam kwaghyan o Aôndu venda a mo oo.
Usewan Nyam Agule
Ngu a mlyam ashe jajaja
Vea wan u Dema ku er ve ahina ve Tor Ibi Adabo oo.
AI. 36
Gbenyi Yeor, Nyinya lu Tumbul a Veunô Alya…
Mnder
Gbenyi Yeor Adam oo!
Nyinya lu tumbul a Veunô Alya shin hua ivyaa kondu ato;
WanAkombu zer mou je war gban vanger aa.
Mba kaan er Cieve u Tsavbee Muri da hemba;
Mba kaan er Anza Gbemshin Ngou Atu ke‟ Mbatsavazun,

406
Wen a hemba ikyondu yange la vindivindi ii;
Begha-gbe-ken-kper-ga,
Tor Ishimabyo Unzô Konjo Aku wen a hemba iyange la kengkengkeng!
Mrumun
Er i ve amar ne,
Mba ve lu a jijingi mba bov mba ôrun a ior ningir
Er Amee ka u wase ga; M va ka pati ga;
Shi M ngu ke‟ pati ga.
M va a anzamber wam ne sha „ci u Tor Na Ayu,
Chif Kôstôm vea Udoo tsegher.
Iortyer Tor Musa Agbe
Gomna kaa er M za;
M za vaa ter na Tor Musa wen a ungwa ee,
Lu vea WanMbasaa kuashi ukiriki Wanmbatyav a.
Ziki Nor aoo!
Ikyôr na yô Lim kpa va aa;
Dôkutô Azeaze Lim nyôr shin anger a tende?
Kwaghnzughul u Naakyo oo,
Begha-kwase wua iyar yô,
Wua iyar yô,
Mba karen wen sha ishi ga Gôn Buruku Duku,
Saa ka Anduru Tsukwa – ngula kpa ka angum inyamkyume!
Shiim Tor u Kon,

OrHiinyam Abaa ior-ior mba lu bo a or ga,
Kpa shin Ugondu yô Mnder Cagh hemba;
407
Ngu a nenge a mo hen gbenda kpa a vihi ikyundu sha a mo oo,
Kua WanMbasar.
Mtem wam a ven ne a hômum je kpa i hemba mo sha nongu Iortyer Tor Musa Agbe
ee;
Mbela mba eren mbimbimbi-kwagh ga er Orhemba Cia Burya,
Ma a iim jo kpa,
Ikyereve i ban sha kwagh ga ee,
Ngu ôrun a ior ningir er ee,
Kwase na de awambe wen a zurum a war wam ga.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
Zege-nar ne nyôr vea WamMbabyon ve,
Unenge u Igbeve ee tema ityô sha nomsuor nyinya;
Ikyondu mase eren jingee!
Tor Nyishima u Gberndyer,
Mo me kera vihi zwa wam ze ee;
Me mase civir we. M tema imôngu a ityô yam ôn mba Biam fiishi mo zwa
Ande ka human mo, Nule Makyur Aca;
Kwagh vihim ave yô kwase kpa ka nan vendam je er M gba iwan a.
Aerga u Gum Anar Tsar
Yawe aoo!
Wan u Gyuse na loho shin a mo oo,

Kpa M ngu a ian ga –
Ityô yam mba tumbul a mo gbangera,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke.
Ikyume lihe kpa i tse swem môm ee,
Damera Tor Aza Biam Ashileku,
408
Ngula yuam sha M hemben kohol shin ye ee;
Famkyôr a lam a nom na ee.
Nyinya pev kwa shin Ugba u Iwevzer
Zenda jende jende man uve ve,
Cier mo iyol oo.
Ioryem Ikyaave Kyusen kwagh er u bo ve;
Ande Kwagh aoo!
Tar ngu gban ee;
Tar gba a gba je.
* * *
Tor Kwaor Akosho Ahuku
Man welegida WanMbashor Amam,
Man M ve je kpa M ngu a tser a kwase u zamber ican
Nan a ungwan ze ee, Aye Igbyon Anyam
Kaa WanMbatyam man WanAzege Zômun Diôr ee.
Dem, gbande kumbul tsuaar inyon i susum ye, Adoo WanAveil i.
Josef Tor Dwem Adam
Kanyi Tsô va amar vea WanUkan,

Iikpii gba kôrkôrkôr;
409
Nguegbya u Pila Hinda va vea WanIkpyajôu.
Usu teram, M za kpera i i zaan a mo,
Tsevende Tor Ageghayô!
Aaii!
Uhule M ar ve
Due va va nenge a mo oo,
Mo kpa M nenge a we ee.
AI. 37
Dajo Mue M ngu Van kpa Cian
Mnder
Dajo Mue oo!
M ngu van kpa cian
Nguegbya u Pila Hindan vea WanIkpyajôu.
Ma M ve jo kpa jiagba ngi tumbul a mo hen iya u Damera Tor Kogi,
Ngi a nam ian i karen ga.
Ôn mba Biam ya icieshe ve ma mngerem gbanyi pue ee,
Kpa ior mba sen ve gedee.
Mrumun
Iorkyaa Aye oo!
Igbyon Anyam a kaa WanMbatyan a wam amar;
Buativ sarem aa, zege igbyam Ageva Nyaku,
Kaa WanMishe a tam ikyondu uya sha ku u Tor Mvaaga Ashaver Biam;

410
Shi a tam ikyondu uya sha ku u Ugba u Iwevzer.
Uer la môm ô,
Toruv mba vaan wan ve;
Uer la môm ô,
Ngyenev mba vaan wan ve:
Gba hingir mo kuukuku er iyongu kpem.
Orhemba Cia Burya,
Ayange ijôu a gôr or o.
M kera tôm tar ne ze ee
Ziki Nor aboki u sari M va;
Va nam kwagh M ya,
Gbabo oo,
Ku ngu ningir a mo Vande Yongu:
Ayange me nyuma iyô sha zwar-ahi.
Or ngu a gbidyeu wan un a vaa a
Va we yô oo we kpa u gber mbaakpa
U gbide, shin u kumbul a kumbul
Nan a gba mnyam aa?
Ityô yam gbidyem M yevese juu
[M] gba Likici Agbe
He‟ ikyum nyiaan
Kpa yôngul mo ga; nenge er M wuha iyol iwoho i ancanakopa.
Ande Kwagh aooo!

411
Ihyev i gberen zwa i ze ke‟ „pe toho u lu yô
M vihi ashe ikyôr a
Inyamkyume je kpa ma u woo keng.
Ishima vihim, Nule Makyur Aca.
Ikyiva Ura oo! or u sha Kwande kam begha man anyam,
Lu vea Sarin Ashwe mba cirin mo oo.
Mo u kaka ne kpa tativ ve wam ke‟ mi er M ngu ma kwagh.
Veunô Alya ooo,
Alya Tyôba-wan wa ishigh ki inyamkyume;
Tor mase kenger sha a mo nyanyanyanya!
WanAkombu msurshima wam ka we, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
Nguegbya u Pila Hindan,
Ageba Tagita ande shin tembe nyian „pe or a lu sha tembe ga, WanIkpyajôu,
Mase gbodugh mo ashe;
Wen a masem shin ii?
M zende a imo sha yum,
Imo piin a mo ve ee.
* * *
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
WanBaki oo!
Shi mou sha M ta hwande a or ga;
Vaa u Ngyeke ee!
Ngyeke Agir Tough oo,

412
Nyiôôn kpa ye iyol na ga i nam me yem ee;
WanAto Mdenga M ker ahaba ve ee.
AI. 38
Ande Kwagh aoo Aye
Ande Kwagh aoo aye!
Ikyiva Ura oo aye!
Iorhemen Moave Adi Baaka M civir ôn mba Biam je M gba kpan,
Kpa ka kom ve ga WanMbaliva oo,
Yô M er nan? Tor Nyishima u Gberndyer,
Kpa lu van amar a en ne,
Lu vea welegida mba mase keren ica sha tembe kwagh doo Tor Na,
Tor Na Ayu,
Ayu Lokoja.
Wan va sha mato liooon;
Mato tile jigh wan hungwa shimi gbe lamen imbywase,
Vea kwase na u WanMbatungwaper ee, wan u Liaga.
Likici Agbe or Ipav
Sha nongu u Mkôvur Jagera Tyôtsum Vambe Adam mir ishor;
Wan u Koko za nam ikyekye i hendan
Kua WanMbaterem;
M venda me ve de kpa ve kighir mo a min
Er M ngohol tsô M ngohol oo.
Tsevende Tor Ageghayo,

Kaam Uhule ee inyom bee ve.
413
Nyôrun yam iya ze oo! mo za kohol Gomna Tor Musa ke‟ Gongola kwagh a lu yô a
nam;
Me za me tese Zaki Tyôver Tor Biam.
Tyôver Ninga Zaki Biam M hide ve,
Uhule a nam wisiki;
Shi a nam berasa me ma me ôr ican a.
Vingir-or erem kunya kpa kwagh ga,
Ishima ngi a kende a kende ga.
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa ar ve ee,
Lu vea WanAkôsu Igyaase mba yiôn kwagh a:
Mnyam cie ve er uke mire he‟ iya na yô,
OrUkan ta tu iyange la gbem tugh ile,
Lu yiôn er i haa inya,
Wen a tese ishima na ee.
Vaa u Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agir Tough kpa lu dedoo ga shie vese;
M mase kenger ior akaayan zenden ye.
Ayange u Dagi Angou yam bua ver ngu nôngun „pe kpen ahôm ô;
WanDagba yilam kpa M ngu a za ga, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke.
Yôô loho ee M gba van ve ee.
Shenshen hingir imande ve ee Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe ee

A za a wan sha Barakur.
Nyen M tsa ôrun kwagh wou he‟ iya wam Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam Agoho oo;
We a kaa we M saa ishe me saa.
* * *
Ande Kwagh aoo aye!
Ikyiva Ura oo aye!
414
Iorhemen Moave Adi Baaka M civir ôn mba Biam je M gba kpan,
Kpa ka kom ve ga WanMbaliva oo
Yô M er nan? Tor Nyishima u Gberndyer
Kpa lu van amar a en ne
Lu vea welegida mba mase keren ica sha tembe kwagh doo Tor Na
Tor Na Ayu
Ayu Lokoja
Wan va sha mato liooon
Mato tile jigh wan hungwa shimi gbe lamen imbywase
Vea kwase na u WanMbatungwaper ee wan u Liaga.
Pita ooo!
Anôngu eee;
Pita ooo Anôngu wam nyôr ve! Gidion Mnjinia u vesen lu vea Wantyôtyev e
Mba mase namber gbogbo inyar sha kortai chachachacha;
Aluya nyôr yô i ta ônuv acin.

AI. 39
‘Bula u Azege M gba Van ve
Mnder
„Bula u Azege M gba van ve ee
415
Zege ivav gbam ke‟ ishima yô ka me a henen er
Tor Musa a kpe,
Ve M gbe vaan
Zenden he‟ tembe zelôô ôô,
Kpa ka kwagh ga a yem ee,
Tor Ibi u Anyam kpe.
* * *
Aôndu gba ica ga ze ma M yem ee eee,
Ma M kera lu a ven ga.
Mrumun
Ihyom yam ne oo M ngu zan kpa hômum ga
M nenge a Tor Musa Agbe Tor wuha iyol gemeen;
Hua riga, riga i har wan ke‟ ijime, Adoonyumbe.
Time war i lu her‟ oo ka ishoja ve lu iin ye Tor gande perenkaya;
Ka ishoja kua poloshi ii.
Tor Na Ayu, Ayu Lokoja mou va va nenge ee.
* * *
Jee Gbabo oo Jiliôsu Gbabo oo Ibi Adabo oo.

AI. 40
Mlyam sha Ku u Musa Agbe
Mnder
Ungwa kwelegh sha Mbayenge;
M pine me ka an nan kpe ve,
Indyer i tse imo sha use gighirkiki.
Er ka Tor Musa Agbe Cafa oo!
Wuha iyol cir angel,
Kange ityou kua ishigh tsatsa;
M yila je kpa gba viing.
416
Aye! Mbadam heem ve ee, an a wa ior kwagh a?
Er yange M ôsu M za he‟ na a za ôrum akaa a ityô yam a,
Kera ngu heregh ga yô ka an nan a yimam?
Dajo Mue ee ior i bee ve eee.
Mrumun
Iortyer Tor Musa a de mlyam vaan; de me vaa „ci wou kua Aza u Gaase;
Inyamkyume vaa ku u ter ga.
Terna a de mlyam,
Ukiriki a de mlyam or ngu tsôrun ga. Tor Mnder Cagh a,
Va se za nenge war na.
Or la kpe Udam tôndu kasua sha Tiv.
Er M gande or je,
M ngu a nenge „pe

Musa a hia wan u or
417
Ruam sha we ze ee, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba;
Er M gande or je,
M ngu a ungwa Tor
Musa a yua ilyôuugh a ta ilegh ki or er
Ki za dugh iyav ga. A lu aie yô oo,
A geman u ôrun yô a bumun swem:
Er a kpe nahan aa,
Or a tee un ityôbaa ga aa;
Or a tee wen ada ze, Ugba u Iwevzer Agôv.
Damera Tor Aza Biam Ashileku
Kpa rumun sha zwa la ee;
Na yandegh za kaa
Tor Yeke Bôgô ke‟ Mbaavav a;
Or na yandegh za kaa Mka u Kyan,
Tor a tumbu ior nav kor oo,
Gaze ka doon ga ee.
Anula Gbande Nako oo,
Or MbaGar‟ kape Aôndu ngu a er ikyaa ne kpa,
Cighir ishima er Tor Farou tsô a wanger we.
Wan wou yem a yem je,
Ngu hiden ga Wantor Tyôshaaôndu a de mlyam;
Kwagh u Aôndu A neu yô ngohol ee;

418
We a rumun yô ngohol hunde ishima kera wan u Tor o,
U ngu tsan nengen a na shawon ga;
Hide va kuram anigbianev aa.
Yange or u gen‟ a kpe yô hungwaja kpa ngu a dugh i doo kenger ee.
Aerga u Gum Anar,
Kaa WanGyuse ee M ngu sughun we a zege ishima wou ee.
* * *
Kpa kwagh la ka Aôndu aee!
Laha Kpan Yakubu aoo,
U kendem yô Udam kôrum mba kuhan gerenyi;
M kera tem imôngu a or ga Maakyee Shazwa a kaa Wantor
Tyôndu a de sena hundu ishima a mo ga
M ngu vaan ku u Tor Musa
Musa Agbe Cafa oo!
Ka „pe me de vaan we ze ee.
AI. 41
Mo Va, i Kaa Kpamor Zenda Agagu
Mnder
Mo va oo i kaa kpamor Zenda Agagu lu vea Doowuan Nyajo ishagba kwase M va
a zamber ve ee.
Mrumun
A lu nannan kpaa i pev ave
Kam „pe me za zua ishigh vea Faasema Nyôr aee.
Unenge u Pev ee labar tee gbou ga

M ungwa me ee
Iyô ngi tamen a we i nyumau ee
Ngi sha gado u ke‟ MbaAdiegba
419
Nyôr a ajav uya tsatsa mba senen Mbabyon yô
Ikyur gande ibyôr ve anngôm ô.
Kwase hungwa gado ke‟ ijime-ijime cier mo iyol oo.
Ma M ve jo kpa iyol kpem a Amishi Tor Ugô
Igbyudu, Igbyudu ngu ga ee tar u Mbajir cii gbam wegh.
A lu me va yô an a wasem a?
Me ya a ya kunya Adoonyumbe.
Ior mba a kunya ikyum ze Adabo oo.
„Pe M kaa je ne oo
Aciniya Norum Agundô Tor la gba gungun.
Mase huran iuuu Inyamkyume lu van vea WanHambe ka „pe ungwan kera ga.
Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee lu van de me nenge
Lu muan guntu
Wen a ta sha mo shin Adabo oo WanShitile kpa nyôr.
Doo rumun i rumun WanShitile ee.
Yar Kpindi u Dye
Lu vea ijende na Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege Mbabookyo cirim ica gba yum
Me za WanPaase a za kume amine kam „pe me za er
Ishor sha iya na shaala ee.

Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
M ungwa me u ya Tor ve ee.
WanGyusa iim er M lu uma ne ee;
Yange me kpe me kera fa ga.
* * *
420
Moave Adi ooo shi za verem M za nenge tar
Ke‟ Saimon Musa,
Aza u Gaase
Yilam er M za her ee.
M ngu van ee Jee Gbabo ee.
Unor Adiôgô ka kogi wase u Tiv cii
A lu aie yô i za pine WanJabi kwase a na ne tadi;
Or la dondu sha Aôndu aeee.
AI. 42
Me a Tool Kwagh Erem
Mnder
Me a tool kwagh erem ka u me de mlyam ga.
Mko Ijôrpo kpe ee,
Kpe a tseen oo foto kpa wan undu mayan‟ ga
Malu Bawa kpa kpe
Kpe a tseen oo foto kpa wan undu mayan‟ ga
Ande Kwagh
Kpa kpe a tseen oo foto kpa wan undu ga aa.
Ka me a nyôr M yav tugh ze Ageewua Tor.

Kpe ahiin! Me ior ne undum ve ee.
Mrumun
421
Kinabo u Shondu kpa kpe a kende wan he‟ tar u Mbadyam ga,
Sunda Boiue Agashua kpaa M nenge a ishigh nagh he‟ Mbadyam ga;
Wan u Gberusu ahooo!
Amishi Ugô Igbyudu kpa er a mar wan a Kahemban
Nyamkyekye ga yô
Yange me kpe ee iti na i a ndôhôl i a ndôhôl Nule Makyur.
Kwaghbula u Azege yô orti nôngu tar:
Mar ikyweior ngi zenden wen a iti mba yamen mato mba yamen aa;
Mba eren tom u buter hemba iyenge ee;
M nenge a na ga kpa kwagh za iyol yum ga Mpuuga Agule.
Imo ter Ashim Tyôkuha Tor u tô u Sôngu Vambe
Er a mo juu M war hungul mba shin inya Gbamwua Tor Kpen Asha Wanmbagen
kwase nderem nena?
Mo yô M tema ikyu i vaan M pir ashe je M kera nengen ga Iorpande Caha tingan
zungwem kunya mato kpa ka sha jijingi na Iorgyer
Orti lu van a va mape hiinaan
Lu pinen WanKyume er, “Ka nyi di la a?”
Kunde Ager Wuhe
Ashwa M ta hwande a Wantor ga ze a de a sena kpoughul mo sha bia ga M
zamber
Ka me a ma M hunde yum Vaa u Ngyeke

422
Kaam WanAtoza mo M zamber ka ican ka bia ga.
Nahanga u Bede Akundô saghem inyagba sha tar
Ga ngu duen mo ape M bugh ga yô Ngukpen Kunde.
Orya Anyakpa Amber Doki Imbyarakem
Labar tsegher tsô M ngu yaren kwan
Yilan WanGbagir Zer.
* * *
Shiim Torkon
OrHiinyam Abaa lu vea WanUdende
M ngu ôrun we oo
Nyinya wam la
Uke kôrum sha mi za kendem M ngu ke‟ purusu u Gberndyer e.
We a za ôrum Jôôji Acin‟
Ôrum Ngôundu u Hambe
Kaa wan u Duku Agemaji oo M ngu kuman iusa ke‟ purusu hang.
Moave ee
Iorhemen Moave Adi-wan
WanTse u Kuewe kpa ungwa ga Ioryem Ikyaave kpa ungwa ga.
WanIkyô Ukaan M wua iyol yam me M ngu dughun amo Ashim Tor tô u Sôngu
Vambe M nenge a we ga ee.
AI. 43
Tor Ibi, M Tem Imôngu
Mnder

Tor Ibi oo M tem imôngu a ior mba fan kwagh mba Ishimaior u Tor Tsofo
Mba ve kenger ken ica ne Gôn Duku
Azeaze Lim
Dôkutô Azeaze Lim
Ka mba ve nengen
Ken ica ne Gôn Duku
* * *
423
Ihyom yam ne oo tar soom yum ga Gbabo oo
Nenge Laha Kpan yem mbaadiyô mba wua shin M nengen a na shawon ga?
Mrumun
Da kaa Ande
Kwagh aooo!
M ngu wan ityô yam akura ihyinda ningir;
Begha vihi kwagh kpa te anigbian na sambe ze ee Beba Unzô
Konjo ahiin!
Ne de mar u kôrun ne mba kenger ikyur
Wan a kpe kwase ken uya.
A lu tar sha gyer Ter un a kôr ne ee ôn mba Biam aa.
Ne mba ngbaghen ishoho sha ake atsor ka vian ga
Mnyim ma kpurum yum
Tor Deem Ifam Aju kpa rumun.
Ka de-kera a doon tar ye, Zaki Tyôver u Ninga
Zua nen ihyamber ikyagh imiôm M shi nenge ngun me yem ye Vingiror

Iorpande Caha
Tsofo Biam Ala ishimanyion ye kagh M kegh ashe ke‟ we ve WanMbatyan wam.
Ande Kwagh aooo!
Kunya doo ga.
424
Me geman u yemen yô me za me za kaa mbala nyi?
MbaMko u Ijôrpo
A mba Atôndu Tiôn ve a lu saan ve iyol a mo yô Vande Yongu.
Kper a kper M nyôr M yav ze ee
M ngu nôngun „pe me wua iyol sha „ci u
Kwagh a beem iyol ee.
Gudugudu M sen ee
Gudugudu M kôndu yô mo M gba vaan yilan ôn-mba-ngôm ve ee
Ka mba Mkohol Ivase
A va yem a mo oo
Tar tumem iyol ve ee.
* * *
Ityô yam mba hamber ifan sha zar tyukwa ka yuan ve
Ve gema num u utu ve apitan kpa ve ta sambe sha min
Kwagh er u bo. Mvaaga Ashaver Biam
Tor yiô tar ve tile
Ve a bum abengamtende je kpa ve de;
Ka mimin M kaan ne ye ee.
Gbem Shin Ngou oo,
Kookoko-iyô-bo-wan ke‟ Mbatsavazun,

Nam kwagh M ya M kpe a mi ken uya ee.
Ziki Nor aooo!
M saa ve Gbabo ooo!
AI. 44
425
Ican a Dem Ze Me De mba Iortyer Musa Ga
Mnder
Ican a dem ze ooo mo kpa me de mba Iortyer Musa ga;
Ka M tema kpuaar,
Tsô M za ke‟ Iortyer Musa;
M da hide i vihim ga.
Anigbian ka cii je la ee,
Aza u Gaase anigbian ka cii je la ee.
Nôngun nen a mo ayange me kpe a pever ne iyol,
Ibi Adabo ooo.
Mrumun
Ityô yam kuvum ave ashe;
Ve wua Atôndu Tiôn juuu,
M ngu yan ambi kpa i kuma ve ze ee.
M er nan a kuma ne?
Veunô Alya
Tyôban aooo,
Tyôban kaa loho er M za shaala aa
WanAkombu a za kumbul mo ku u hundem ke‟ ishima, Adoonyumbe.

426
M we me me mem yô M ungwa teem-wan due iyange kar miren
Sha Mbabookyo M cia iyol er Gôn Duku kpa kpe ve ee.
WanAnyam vaa juu,
Ikyer uma tsatsa cii;
Mase weregh
Ior sha we tesen tar na:
“Shitile Ukum zendam oo
Yô ka u me yem je ne ee.”
Ishimaior u Tsofo,
Zaki Ishimaior u Tsofo a kaa WanAzande M ngun vaan ningir ne,
An a kumbul mo ooo?
Iortyer Abyem Gaga Myaki kpa yem kôsu ngu shin abutter,
Vea wan u Maashin ve ican i tserem ye ee.
Ordorugh Nyam Dabul oo,
M gba agina ior yevese mo tsatsa;
Kpa WanAtue
Nyaghem ga ngu a mo heregh ee;
Orhemba Cia,
Cia ngu sha gado kpa Laraba ngu a mo heregh ee;
Angule Deem Ifan Aju,
Tso kura yemen a mo ve ee WanIkyurior
Lam a Adende ee;
Mo M va ve ee.

Ukaa Ikyuan
Tor ungwam mlyam ke‟ ikyô a na wada
427
WanUgô a da nenge kwagh u a tserem ve mo M ngorun la.
Yarkpindi u Dye,
Lu vea kwase na u ishimashima
Wan u Zungwe
Lu vea kwase na u kiriki WanAbwa ee,
Cier mo iyol oo Ior‟ Bosua Uga ee
WanAbaver M vôr a imo ve ee.
Tor Beba Unzô
Konjo ahiin!
Ne wuam ijende Atôndu oo; wan yem shin inya tsô a yav a hunde ican.
Igbya Kartyo a kaa WanMbaliva ee, ka pe i tserem ne.
Ka me a ngor mlyam shin ikyô i akinde
Likici Agbe a za ngor shaala,
Mnguaor‟ u Makar Agaku kpa a za ngor shinla ee.
Tyôver u Ninga
Ne wuam ilkyu myer ee.
Aciniya Norum Agundô kpa ungwa shinla ga ee.
AI. 45
Nenger Utim Gile Gesa Ar Ve!
Mnder
Nenger Utim Gile Gesa ar ve oo!

Ior mba kperan u nengen a na ee;
Gema mba ndyaren ayolave.
U lu a tahav iyol ga u nenge a na ga;
Ica gba ga tsô orti hide yem,
Kua Wantor Badageri Ugba Gwar ee
Aôndu a kaa.
Mrumun
428
Dajo Pav oo ashwe ange jo kpa fa iyol na ga aa;
Ikyav mbi orugh lanem yuhan a,
Wan u Azagwa, or u gen‟ da tee ikyav
M kar M va igyundu uu.
Iorwa Adam Ate
Ikyuve Abali oo ka or u shin Tômbu oo ka Mbalagh aee;
Wan u Tyônôngu va a ikyondu i lamen Anula Gbande Nako oo Gbande Abege,
Wan-dedoo Gbande Abege,
Nenge a mo karen shin gbenda
Yisa gbenda er M ngu karen ga Wantor Tyôshaaôndu a kume ishima a ta
WanIkpyavyungu Mata,
WanKendev kpa a er ishima wen venda kwagh u ken Ugondu la eee.
Hembam M wa ayem M tume shin Vaa u Ngyeke hemba gban kera;
WanAto Mdenga tagher ityou ga, lu lamen icôvcôv
Er mo za Ugondu ze eee mo za tee acho shi ii?
Or a de hiin mo sha ipira ga ne timber mo juu iyange i heem;

Tor u Solozo oo Iyôu-ki-acivin Kpan Adi
Kôr anyam wa iyôu henda WanUdô
429
Har peta begha Mbamegh ger ikyuu i doom kenger gande.
Angol Ikyenge Avii Tyav orshor wam ngohol kwase shin ii
Ivyaa i lu kaan kôndun senen?
Angwe yer ka WanDamagudu;
Mba kôndun imo a min,
Kwase ngu gang er ka WanDamagudu.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam mou u zan ke‟ igbya na yô,
Hua ikyav mbi tswamegh, a kange ishigh ki tswamegh: or a de numben a na ga –
Kua WanVagi –
Kwagh wam a lu sha min ga;
U heen a awambe heenheen.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
Nyôr Tarwa
Ior mba pinen Tarwa-wan yô a gba van ve ooo ka ilyan ga.
Kwase na Unenge kpa lu a mato na kposu je.
* * *
Ôn mba Dam nyôr shin ii,
Aôndu tsa shirin ishima tugh me a shi KAANG KAANG kpa a lu Zaki Kusugh Mnenga
Bev,
Tor va sha nomsuor nyinya va sha nomsuor, Gbenger Kur.
Tor nyôr ve oo!

Akume lu gbidyen
Ior i sa ian sha WanIkyagh Adogo
Ar ve ee ikyaa er ee.
Ôn mba Ipusu hide ta ijuku;
430
Mba Icôngu hide ta ijuku tsô gesa er kwagh.
Or va a wan ga!
Tor Manger Awav Agbe a kaa Gôn:
Nyinya sarem ee,
WanMôngul
M er nan M va iyol nyô?
Me yem angahar a doo ga eee.
AI. 46
Gbenyi Yeor Adam Aju, M Nenge a Wantor Amadu Ga
Mnder
Mo lu van oo Gbenyi Yeor Adam Aju ooo M nenge a Wantor Amadu ga
Aya ngôm za angbem-zende?
Shin a yem a yem shin abo zende aooo?
Shin a yar a yar shin agbenga-tyev e?
Kpa or ôrum ze eee.
Kpa me war a ven ga ka msoo u igyo i nyôughul ye
I kaa Igyohia Butu sha Mberev;
Kwagh ngu a er wan u Tor Ngorkyaa
Kpa a bugh zwa a mo ga,

431
A lu me gba zan or a gbidyem, Ande Kwagh aooo!
Anigbian a lu ibo yam eee.
Mrumun
Iorkyaa u Kpan Adi ooo!
Zaki, ityô yam nam kunya M tim tsua ve ngôm WanUdô
Ôn-mba-ngôm ngohol mo gbar ityô wem avom
Ye, Adoo WanAveil.
Ityav mbi anigbian mba nenge sha avaan
Ga; mba nenge sha acaikpyum aooo!
Kpa ityô yam ôn MbaGar‟ lôhô ibyem
Sha mo ooo M ngu yemen kemkemkem, Iortyer Musa Zaki,
Kpa me kera ôr ze Mnguaor‟ u Makar;
Iwa ya tar wam ze eee;
Tar wam ngu shin inya. Nule Makyur Aca
Kaa WanMondu aooo M va me me lôhô ne yô,
Kwagh a lu yô i nam me yem eee.
Ishima Zaki M wa abume he‟ ngôm WanAzande aa;
Kwagh a gba ga nan kpa me de u kenger ze eee,
Alaghga kunya a va kôr ve eee.
Mbanengen Aveil Udoon-kwase wam kpa venda iye;
„Pe ma a lu a mo he‟ ikyoosu ve ma M shi kenger ne. Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen
kuma or ooo;
Or kôndu er ka tombu icor ooo Uil WanUdô ee.

Kwase u ormbaiv nan tse ayange atar ga
432
Ga tsô nan gema u yuen mo kpa M gba yuen ve,
Dôkutô Uga a kaa WanAvav ee;
Ijôu i nenge a mnyim usu a pir ga ee.
* * *
M za zende kpa lu ibyume zende;
Saa me va man me va ôr ne ye
Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam Agoho oo,
Orhemba Cia Burya
Kpoughul kwase wou Laraba a due sha won;
A due a sena muan mnyam ga
M ngu vea Vande Yongu Abege, Vande va u lôhôn we imo i mirin i ke‟ inyom i he
WanPaase na wada er i sôr igbenda tsatsa –
Lu vea wan u zege Igyuve; ikyaa er ve!
Or a kaam Atôndu Tiôn
Shin inya a va ee,
Kpa M nenge a na ga eee.
AI. 47
Amishi Tor Ugô Igbyudu ngu Ga
Mnder
„Bula Azege, Amishi Tor Ugô u Igbyudu ngu ga ooo!
Ma a va nenge er M lu eren a tar yô ooo Gôn Duku.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko,

Er akaa bee cii;
A nam ngôbua man inyaregh,
Kpa igyo la yô hungul wen a hungul uu.
Imo kpa hungul sha mi
M ngu a za tee ga WanMbatyan wam;
Udoon wam a,
Shi kuvem M za nyôr ee.
Mrumun
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
M kaa loho nyôr we ga shin ii?
Ku erugh je ishima kpa i kaha.
We a kunde ishima er WanAganyi ga yô
433
Or a kera za hwange anigbian ga Nule Makyur Aca.
Guda wam yô ka Ikyiva Ura kuashi Kpadoo Dogo man ve lu nôngun a mo ye.
Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam ka mngerem ma teghlee ma saan a or ye ee
M va he‟ WanMbatinyam a,
Laraba M sugh ne,
Ape u lu la Aôndu A verugh
Ape u lu la Aôndu A verugh. Tor Ukaa Ikyuan
Tor nyôr shin M ongu guukuku?
Lu vea WanUgô Igyira ooo;
WanMbanev ngôm M ngu kuhan agbadenger
Shin kungul M kera dugh tembe ga, Gôn Duku,

Ikyondu ngim ze eee.
M ngu zenden a icaver ikyondu iyol er
Ihyundugh kôrum ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Maa iya na ooo;
434
Maa iya na sha akam a ke‟ Galalia yisa tsatsa
M gba zan tumbuluu
Er M bum yô;
M za gba keregh M gba diing;
M nenge M waren yô M de beel a ku
Hen iyange la jo. Mbasôrun ôô,
We a za kpa kaa orya wou
Ka ishima ker je ee.
***
Orkura u Madugu
Kaa WanGberkyon Kyado
Sha mimi je yô u kuma Tor
Aie doo ga eee.
Abyem Gaga Myaki ooo,
Or u MbaMena aooo!
Jôôji M ngu ityou ku eee,
WanMaashin kaa nomugh eee
M ngu yan shi ikya ga.

Use-wan Nyam A-
Gule aooo Zaki „pe i lu ne ee wan u Dima,
Ngôm M ngu zamber ican a ôn Tiv,
Kpa M ngu di her tsô er nyen yô;
435
Ordorugh Nyam Dabul ooo Ordorugh Nyam,
WanAtue ngôm kpa ka Aôndu a nem
Ga ye. M er nan ee?
AI. 48
Ishima u Tsofo Ka han M Ongu Mlyam
Mnder
Ishima u Tsofo oo,
Ka han M ongu mlyam vegher u shin Mnguaorga u Wombu Makar?
Saasaa
Ga yô lu umbur ku u ngô na man ku u WanUgondu ooo;
Man wan u Kukpe Aso kpa wan na shi kpe a ityumba sha zwa.
Mnguaor‟ u Makar,
U da tee ku sha Swem shin ii?
Ka „pe kwagh a ze a wan u or la ga ee.
Mrumun
Kpishi tam iyol M za me za ôr Tor Zaki Hil Agule kpa M kpoughul a kpoughul a ku
u wan na u vesen
Anduru Hil; Avaaime tsa mlya vaan kaka.
Zenda Agagu oo M yerugh eee.

436
Zenda ungwam ato lu vaan ku u kwase na u vesen
WanAtelu tsô kondum gbooung.
Nahanga u Bede Akundô zua ishigh a mo tsô hide kuma ityou inya,
Lu vaan ku anngô na u vesen
Nongu u Bede ee,
Bede ishima vihi wan pever ga.
Kera ka u me ngôôl a ven ga
Me za sha Ayati,
Yô Acivin Tor Ayati Ager lu sosum zenden
Tembe zulôô; lu vaan yilan kwase na u kiriki WanAligba Duku kpa kwase due ga.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Kpa lu vaan ku u wan na,
Lu umbur ku u wan na, Vande Yongu Abege,
Iyange la imiôm oo Mnguaorga u Wombu u Makar A-
Gaku a ne ve ior i shi umbur ku sha iyange la ye ee.
***
Kahemban Anyam Tseke kpa lu umbur ku u nom na Amishi Tor Ugô,
Ugô Igbyudu ooo!
Mko kpa nyôr ke‟ ijime you eee.
AI. 49
Mo yô Me De Imo Ne Mayan’ Ga
Mnder
Mo yô me de imo ne mayan‟ ga;
Kwagh ngu a erem u me de imo ze eee.
Anula Gbande mato ta sha mi; Chif Iorpande

437
Caha Biam Ala ka ônuv mba Aôndu jimjim.
Me ôr a lu ie yô i pine Tor Hil Agule man Ishimaior u Tsofo
Ka ve ve lu tuul atônkô-
Tar ne ye; Ugba u Iwevzer Agôv,
Ka orTorov oo.
Mrumun
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo ityô yam mba a kunya ikyum ga wan u Yaga aa.
Kam „pe me yem shin Jôn Agande Ager a da yimam,
WanKuse mo M timber ashe ke‟ antyange bagu ityô yam bur nor shin pev karem a;
Tativ kura cii.
Mo M tse imôngu a ityô yam ôn mba Gar‟ kpa tativ mba umbur mo sha kwagh ga.
Mtswenem ka iwan;
Ande mtswenem ka iwan i hemban nyion sha tar cii.
Ngôm kpe ityumba na tsô kpa M fa er i lu ga;
Terem kpe ityumba na tsô kpa M fa er i lu ke‟ zwa ga, Nule Makyur Aca.
Or a zam aa loho shin Tor Mfe i za kaa Gbamwuan
Tor Akpene Asha kuashi WanMbatera.
Nahanga u Bede u Tarkywe
Ishor i yar i kondu ve eee: M nenge a Anula Gbande vas ha mato hula iuuu!
Gaase inya a na tiing!
Kpa ka kwagh ga,
A naha da taver gande;
Wan u Tor Tyôshaaôndu surum ishima Ashi u Tor u tô u Sôngu

Vambe M va me me lam a we kpa
Wan u Tor ngu sha gado sha mnyion oo.
Likici Agbe ooo!
438
M ngu undun we vea WanKoko man Shiim Tor u Kon,
Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam,
Wan u Duku Agemaji ooo Kwaghbula u Azege kpe M ngu vaan a.
Wan u Kur Chekpe vaa orya na juuu
Man saa toho je ngu a hide ga.
Nahanga u Bede u Tarkywe M ngu civir ne
Kpa M gba kwagh ze eee;
Wam saren ape
Den imo je kpa Ioryem Ikyaave venda a mo kpunkpun.
***
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
Nyôr Tarwa,
WanAganyi, icugh i kpe iyol kpa i yam ne kpe ne iyol ga.
AI. 50
Pinen Kpa Mba Pinim Ga
Mnder
Pinen kpa mba pinim ga.
Mrumun
Sanker Ajav aa!
Mnder

Pinen kpa mba pinim ga.
Mrumun
Kaa Likici u Agbe ee.
***
Mnder
A kuma Ali u Abya,
Abya a mo yô M va ve ee;
439
Kaa Wantor Biam yô M ngu van sha gbenda;
M ngu vea Jiliôsu Gbabo ooo,
Kwaghbula Azege!
Mrumun
Zaki Iortyer Musa kpa va ve ooo;
Tor wuha iyol lu van sha mato ooo.
Aza u Gaase kwase ngu van sha agugu,
Gema nam er M yem a min:
Or u ican a sena caghen atuul ga M ngohol ee.
Iorwa u Wouku ka anigbian u Kurakwaghga u Anyakpa ooo:
Ka iyô shon tsô i lihe a lihe ee.
Hil Agule, ityô yam ngi tan kpamberakpa;
M hia sha iyange i dogonraba aa.
***
Ishima u Tsofo kpa mo yô mo tindi wan ze;
Da kaa Tor Ibi Adabo oo.

AI. 51
Nor Zendam M da Hembe Ikyange Aji
Mnder
Kwaghbula Azege nor zendam ooo!
440
M da hembe ikyange aji ve, Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko;
Kpa kwagh la ka Aôndu ôô.
Ior ka ve a zua M shi aver zwa ye; Ugba u Iwevzer a kaa wan u Gbanor oo.
Me me de imo kpa M kanshio;
M wa ifan
Me me de imo kpa gande.
Tiv ka ve a zua M shi tesen ve amenge ye,
[I] kaam zege igbyam Ageva Nyaku.
M nyia M tema a min ve o!
Jee Gbabo ooo.
Mrumun
Vaa u Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agir Tough oo,
Mato hia kpa ishima hia ga eee.
***
Kwagh aooo!
Aôndu kuram M mende ivu;
M wuese Aôndu aeee.
Terem mar se je er se lu pue-kar:

Kpe tsatsa ihyev-you sange ya tsatsa
Mase tseghan mo,
Ior i gbidim asa ye ee.
Animônguv tativ ka ve zua ikyaa ve,
Ve kenger mo hileoo;
Ve kenger mo hileloo, Gôn Duku.
441
Kwagh wam kpa gbe kwagh ga or a duen ityô ma M dugh ityô i he‟ ôn mba Garaka;
Ma M da lu ityô i Faasema Nyôr Tarwa.
Kwagh u atetan yô mo kpa me lu agungô;
Tugh u il ve me lu akembel ye. Mko u Ijôrpo
Ngu a mo ze eee,
Gaze ma se zou a zua vanger.
Aerga u Gum Anar M te wegh vanger sha „ci wen ee,
WanMbatinyam
Venda zende a mo ooo;
M de sônun ior akaayan côvcôv:
Kwagh a gbam tugh kpa M za tugh;
Wen a yimam eee. Ordorugh Nyam
Dabul Mbangi ka iyarasua,
Ande vea WanAtue shin tembe,
Kwase ta mngbakpa tsegha ashe,
Tar huan ayôôsu. Emberga u Iormbameen,
WanKar Ugande Ishega ooo,

Wan u Mindi kwase nderem nena?
Ijiir kôrum M ngu a ian ga,
OrMbatsavaja oo,
Serekin pawa M ngu zeren inyagba,
Shi kaam WanUkan
A yem a mo ooo,
Ga M ngu waren ga,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke,
OrMbawar lu cier mo mnyam:
Mnyam cier mo ma doon mo;
442
M nulen M nderen yô M sase a sase gambe,
Kpa me war a mnyam ga,
Ma vande tsughun mo. Azaatsar Imadu,
Or u MbaAwune ooo
A lam a Dookaan imo ngi yilan we
Ken Ukum ishagbaor nyôr ve,
Ior i mem coomcocoom. Mnder Cagh
Mici Karku kpile ahwa
Or cihi aver ga,
Vea WanBaki ii.
Or fe iwa yar sha ikpya ga;
Iorpande Caha
Biam Ala fa yar sha a mo kua mba Nule Makyur.

Tyôba ooo,
Veunô Alya Tyôba,
Or zenda begha kôr sha ave;
Mtilve u Iorbo,
Kpa ongu tile-tile ga ee.
Kwaghbo Kura ooo,
Tiv-ver Kwaghbo Kura ooo,
Asemakyundu Kwaghbo Agundu
443
Va vea WanIkyurior Sabe ior ne tsa a mnyam ashe namben ishor
Kaka sev av a min.
Ishima yam kehe ga M rumun uu.
***
Damera Tor Aza Biam Ashileku,
Mba a wua er a wa ihinga la kpa,
A da wuan tsô ve gema burun;
Famkyôr a nam mo ya,
Mo ya mo da tese Tor,
Tor Biija
Angula ka ivshôhô.
WanAjon na loho shin a mo ooo,
Me za me hide teleghee er inyon a sem gbenda ga.
Mo hide a kwagh u hendan.
Ishima i Turan ka ishima i mngbakpa aa;

Mba te iyou-kor ooo.
AI. 52
444
Ngô Bagu Vande Man Mngerem a Mo Shin ii?
Mnder
Kwaghbula Azege sev av ngô bagu vande man mngerem a mo shi ii,
Ikyôr i vihin mo? Ande Kwagh, imbya ne me de a de ishor.
Kwagh-nan shon a lu.
Ka me a doon a or me a ta nan icur-ikyondu yô
Nan kpera gba mo ooo.
Iortyer Tor Musa M er nena aa?
Kpa me war a mbamaren av ee;
Ve marem doo ga;
Ve wam ashe a iyô;
Or doo a mo ga, Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee,
Kaa WanMbanyange ityô yam ishekyô;
M zende M tool ye.
Mrumun
Veunô Alya ooo!
Alya Tyôba or u shin MbaSende va ve,
Lu vea kwase na u iyunda Mtilve u Iorbo:
Aôndu hingir sha min azuku-azuku!
Kwagh er shin tembe nyian doo ga aa:

Mvaaga Ashaver har
Jenjen nyôr kasua yô
Kasua hembe kpugh!
Or kera za hwange a anigbian ga ee.
WanYashar lu yiôn,
“Kembe-kembe!
445
Kembe-kembe ar ve!” Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam Agoho oo.
Laraba M va ve ee Mnder Cagh Mici kpoughul iyol shin ii?
Iyange kôr Uer mba kuhan yemen a min;
Mo kpa M de a de ga M ngu kuhan
WanBaki eee.
WanBaki mou a ishima na ve!
Lu ndyaren sha peta begha! Kwagh u kpiligh iyol eee, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!
Iwa i i ye mkurem ingila i soo u kpen ne ta i ga Iorpande Biam Ala ne mba memen
ga.
WanKura wa akaa nga ke‟ vanger hemba pue
Sha „ci wam aaa, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
M gba kwagh ga
Kpa mo M civir we vea WanMbasar,
WanMbatungwaper Ziki Nor aboki boki wam ee,
Kaa WanMbatyan kpandegh kôrum ôô,
A gande yô i de me za ke‟ Anza Gbem shin Ngou Atu ke‟ Mbatsavazun;
Ka we a gba iwan u lu a bem ke‟ vanger aa

Gaze or a tuhau
446
Kpa u lu a ager a u gbide nan ze eee, Iortyer Abyem,
Kpa mo yô mba tuhan mo kpa i saa. Likici Agbe kaa WanKoko a nam ikyondu me
zer me kuha Tor,
Tor Mvaaga Ashaver Biam
Tor u Ruandaadi,
Tor u Ruandaadi ior mba kuren ave tsatsa aa;
Azôu kpa nga kuren ave ka mo tswen ga eee.
Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam
Kaa WanDuku Agemaji uga gba shin geri ve Mbatyan wam;
Mba kuhan Ashaver wan yô,
Iikpii gba kôr! kôr! kôr!
***
Kwagh doo Emberga
Adula er angbande zua wegh a mo tsô se je kaa ikyenge,
Zua ishigh a mo se kaa ikyenge,
Vea WanMbaura
Ape u lu la Aôndu A verugh.
Zer zamber Mnguaor‟ u Makar,
Kpa ungwan her ga.
Ihyom yam ne oo!
M ter Aerga u Gum Anar imo sha shie u gudugudu-tar M tile a icagh ve.
Devaa ahooo! Gbabo oo!

447
Ishimagande Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
Agena Nyikyaa or u Shitile ka we je M kaan ye;
WanGyusa ityô yam ngi eren ahir a mo gande.
Shiim Tor u Kon
OrHiinyam Abaaior sena gbe wer sha mo ga;
WanUdende tar vihi jo kpa tsegha sha we eee.
AI. 53
Nor Tese Wan Shin MbaMena
Mnder
Zenda Agagu M va ve ooo!
Nor tese wan shin MbaMena ve Mbaayagher mba undun anigbian a kwagh ga;
M kav he‟ Aerga u Gum,
Aerga u Gum Anar kôr ishagba nyôr shin tembe yô
Mbakov na yevese cii.
Mba kaan er, “Mo ne yaa a WanUkum ga;
Ngu a aberaba;
Kwagh kpa ongu ga,
Saa ka WanMbatinyam a
Ngu a venda kwagh ve a ungwa ye,” Nule Makyur Aca.
Kpa me gba zan tsô;
M ngu anigbian a na;
Kwagh a da erem kpa me vaa ga;
Anigbian woo u genegh eee.

Mrumun
Kpa me ta cia me na Mbamena ee;
448
M ngu zan kpa hômum ga Tyungu Gum Anar ngu ke‟ iyou
Kua idyondun na cii.
Ka nyi inja tar ne ee?
Ôn mba Mena oo ka nyi imbya tar ne ee?
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe ka orMbayiôn ne ee,
Ka Jemngbagh mba ke‟ atô geri jighjigh –
Kpa va imo i Aerga u Gum Anar ve, Adoo WanAveil.
Gesa hii shin hua je nyôr sha iya; Mvaaga Ashaver Biam
Mase ndyaren sha ishagbawan gômômômô.
Bee-kwagh tsegher tsô M dugh dôôl ve Môvihinze a nôngu a mo me yem e;
Tagher-tagher wan shin Mbamena yilam a.
Or a fam ikpyashimbe ee,
Kobo ngum yum. Devaa kôr gbogbo inyam akusu
Ngu va nan mo.
Ata Ushe ee,
OrMbabookyo nyôr ime ile atetan Dajo Pav oo!
M nenge a iyange ga! WanNyam
Lu pinen mo,
Gbabo ooo;
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa lu van meghar…meghar…

Lu vea WanAkôsu Igyaase ee,
Kaa er i lu tsô,
449
Wen a wua or ga yô hungul wen a hungul.
„Dorugh Nyam Dabul aooo!
Or u MbaJija M gba yilan van ve i kaa WanAtue ee;
Bee-kwagh tôndu alôm gemasha ve.
***
M ngu van oo Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee ka MbaDwem inyamkyume i bor ior ishwa la WanMbaneenyam aa;
M ngu dorugh ishor shin ôn mba Gum Anar:
Mbailakor kpa va ee;
Mbagbaaka kpa va.
Tor Tyôver u Ninga
Nyôr a WanMbaterem
Kwagh er iyange la ka u doon kwav ga.
AI. 54
M Nenge a Ver Ikyav
Mnder
„Bula u Azege M nenge a Ver Ikyav oo;
Ver Ikyav or sha Adikpo Lôndôn
Ka buter aserser ee,
Kwase wam kpe ve M ve me
Me vaa kwase a wan u Pev ee.

Kpa M nyôr tugh yum tsô kôrum iyol oo;
Katsina u Ama!
Mrumun
Wuam Gambe Dajo Sabe ee!
Gambe Dajo Sabe ee!
Tso hembe yô ihyongu kpa i kpe shin ii?
Aôndu gba tar tsô ijen man i gba.
***
450
Kwaghbula u Azege M ngu zenden a ku iyol shin ii?
AI. 55
Begha Gbe Ken Kper Ga
Mnder
Begha gbe ke‟ kper ga;
Ityô yam a sombum wan nyinya ikyôngugh he‟ iya u Chichi Agbe,
He‟ iya u Mkohol Ivase;
Kpa mo vaa a Tyôver u Ninga
Kpa a lu icô ze ee, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba;
Ma M nenge num kpaa or ta mo ga ee.
Mrumun
Icôvur vihi juu!
Yange mo kpe
Or a ta nguhar sha akwati er saa i kimbi man a iim ye;
Ku wam ngu a ter ga;

M fa er M lu uma ne, Gôn Duku;
Saa ka Jôôji Aciniya Norum Agundô
Vea WanHambe aoo!
Cier mo iyol oo Ade u Tsofo,
Tor M wuha iyol er M ngu ancanakopa,
Kwagh kpa M ngu a min ga Orshoruv ee,
Azaatsar Imadu!
Kaa Dookaan a nôngu a mo oo,
451
Kwagh hembam M ngu ahs Bologo Ashav a;
Yimam nen aeee.
Orhemba Cia Burya,
Kpev venda alufu
He‟ iya u Mkohol Ivase aa,
Ngu za yan kpoo-maakye
Shin iya u Mue Ager Nortema.
Kpa me vaa a ven ga: or tindi iyol na
De sondu iju ze ee Mnguaor‟ u Makar.
Hou kondun or ahenga kpa been ga kpa mo yô kondu cii.
Azeaze Lim, Dôkutô Azeaze
U pinen a pine kwase wam Wantor Biliji kpa i lu sha kwagh u kpilighyol ee.
WanAvaa
Norbenga mimi-wan u mar ve.
Ormbatsav Aja oo,

Ormbatsav Aja Maku ka nom nor akô.
Inyar kin tar iyange shin ii?
Atishar WanUkan nengen a mo tsô
Nule ta ke‟ iyou bugh akwatiyô:
M nenge a samu juu;
[M] cie kwagh ga jo kpaa M nyôr zamber.
Ziki Nor aboki tar ngu nôngun u gban;
Shin u a gba ahoo!
452
U ngu gban kpa ior fa ga, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
***
Abyem Gaga Myaki
Or u Mbanyamatsor va ve ee;
Ke‟ kwaor kpa or ngula ya ityou,
Vea wan u Maashin ee.
Ande Kwagh aooo M ta iyugh sambe ve, Angul u Beneke, Dajo Pav, M vaa i ne
nena? Aerga u Gum Anar lu esen mo mlyam
Shin Mbamena jighlii.
M ter Mbamena imo
Er me tser yô,
Kpa or yangen mo ga – saa ka WanMbatinyam aa.
Timve Kwaghbo Kura oo – ka Mbawuadi mba
Ka ve a ndyar iyô
Kpaa i hingir tsar ikyondu ne.

453
Wan u Daaior u WanIpav, M va me me lam a we kpa gande;
Ikyondu ngim ze ee, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke,
„Zenke umbur a mo eee.
AI. 56
M Za Kpa M za Nenge a Laha Kpan Yakubu Ga
Mnder
Van oo Tor Ibi Adabo oo!
M za kpa M za nenge a Laha Kpan Yakubu ga ee.
M pin yô er guma gba kighir un ee.
M hiden a wegh-uase ye.
WanAgya nenge a mo tsô gever kwelegh;
Mo kpa M nyôr mlyam tsô se gba vaan cii.
Kwagh hembam ooo!
Tar tam igyôôr ve ior ve lev “gông!” ye, Nule Makyur Aca,
Tor Ibi aee.
Mrumun
Kinabu u Sho‟ oo!
Ka ndorndor Kurakwaghga Anyakpa
A undun mo ne ee.
Ku ne gbam ahina ve; M za Mbaterem shin ii?
Shin M yem shin Tyuluv u?
Ajo ooo,
Unumbe a Ajo oo,

Ajo, se za han a?
454
Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen kpa kera nenge a mo ga kua Wan u Ikyô Ukaan ee; M ngu
vaan ikyu.
Kper kpa me za vaa ku u Wouku Adogo kpa nyôr shin guma uve piliaa!
Mbatsav lan kwagh a!
Iorwa u Wouku,
Iorwa u Wouku mo M gba vaan a:
U kendem aa an a?
Baba kendem a an wam? Anza Gbemshin Ngou Ato ke‟ Mbatsavazun,
Kaa imo i due sha ga tar ngu gban ee;
Sha mimi Jee Gbabo oo Gôn Duku kpa ngu a uma ga,
Angul u Ierve Beneke ee.
Ka Damera Tor Aza Biam ga yô
Ujukun ma ve ye ishar
He‟ iya u Laha Kpan aa;
Kpan Yakubu ooo aye!
Ityav ma mbi bugh keng; Mkohol Ivase
Ma a per a ishoja petari,
Ma ve nyer shala ee,
Ma ve nenge a awanda kpa Dôkutô Azeaze Lim
Or u Tômbu lu vendan aa.
Er i de oo!
Ishôm kar ishe na je ve i gba den tsô. Orhemba Cia Burya,

455
Burya kaa Laraba M ngu uman ashe ikyôr ze ee.
Vaa u Ngyeke ee,
Ngyeke Agir Tough kpa ngô na nyôr akwati,
Kpa M ngu a za ga; M ngu zenden ikyu.
Yange wen a nenge a mo a sasem;
A lam a mo „pe kpen mo iyol ee;
[A] lam a mo leghlegh e.
Or civir ka ijime ee;
Se kpen ngeen er ibua-Felani
Se mba wese or ze. Ageewua Tor o,
We a seer mo ishima yô
Ma M yam igyweegywe;
Ityô yam hôn agbur M paregh nan-nan kpaa M da ndyar keng M ngu tool ayuu!
Nyoho a nyoho kpaa,
Shi ange a ange kpaa,
Yua a yua kpaa, Adoo WanAveil.
Usu tserem eee,
Iorhemen Moave Adi Barka
Kaa WanLihô ôô.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko!
OrMbayaka u ya Tor alôm shin ii u ya tor u ivo?
Iyange imiôm i sev a av man me se a ior yô M fa ga shawon ze. Mvaaga Ashaver
Biam,
Kpa ye kwagh na we ityou inya a mo ga,

Kua WanMbakyon,
Môvihinze u Yashar ee tam ikyondu uya
M da vaa Laha Kpan Yakubu aee.
***
Iortyer Musa ee!
Iortyer Tor Musa mou lu ôrun kwagh:
“Nengem ase yô,
Tar Toruv
456
Kpa Mnder Cagh lu her gbang-gbang-gbang;
Shi nengem ase yô,
Tar Ucha Maakyee Shazwa Iomburor kpa ngu her‟ gbang-gbang-gbang.
Ku! Mbaterem,
Or ngu a due ne wua keng;
Ne mba eren asorabo,
Ayange Aôndu a kôr ne eee.
AI. 57.
Anza Gbem, Ma M Ve jo kpa…
Mnder
Ihyom yam oo!
Anza Gbemshin Ngou Ato ma M ve ke‟ we jo kpa,
Ikyondu ngim ga ka pila ga; injar mato kpa ngim ze ee.
Da lam a WanAdi u Abughul
A kerem ankwagh u mo cir akuhe iyol yô.
Kam „pe mo za ke‟ Ioryem Ikyaave

Ma a da wasem henen kwagh a,
457
Vea Wan u Ikyô Ukaan ee or civir or ka lu inja i nan aa.
Mrumun
Ageva Nyaku oo! Nyaku Agba ityô yam tam kera kpa me vaa ga. Tor Hil Yakua
Agule,
Zaki ka ibo yam ga mba kpenem numun ityou yagh kpa vihi njienjie.
Ma M er nan ee?
Iorwa u Wouku,
Ma M er nan ee?
WanUgô ishagba ngôm kwagh tsurem je zua ga;
Ka ape M tem ne, Vande Yongu.
Kam „pe za shin akôvul he‟ Aôrmôm, môm Ayagwa
Kuashi WanTsambe ee WanAkôsu Igyaase.
Or u nan cirin mo sha MbaJir la a shi nan kpa ka orMbatyou,
Ka nom u WanAganyi man Unenge u Igbeve ee;
M ngu cian u yilan iti i nan alaghga wen a wuam a;
De, M yam dufu ga.
Unor Adiôgô nyôr ve,
Ande ka ilyan ga lu vea wan u Jabi wuha iyol tswam a har anyam,
Mba mase toon ishagba er hir kwamen yô ee;
Hiar mase zômun teghlee. Iortyer Musa,
Iortyer Tor Musa ee!
Ior a nem kunya ke‟ imo cii

458
Kpa we yô M ngu veren ashe me u mirim ishor,
Iti you i a due ye;
Kpa ka zan ije i Iorpande
Biam M zamber kpa kunya kôr ga. Udorugh Nyam Dabul aoo!
Shi kaa WanAtue a va yem a mo ga ican a wuam. Tor Mnder Cagh
Mici a kaa WanBaki yô Apeatim Kpaghkpagh Bia Agondu kpe ku,
Ôn mba Beekon
Ve sombu nom ivaan;
Ve wua ka or ga,
Ve wua ikyôngugh ee.
WanAye Twar
Kumbul WanIkyanyon a de mlyam ma vaan a;
Or pie a pie ga.
***
Veunô Alya oo!
Alya Tyôba wan nyôr shin ii
Indyer i tse imo tugh tse yilan WanIor-i-bo?
Mtilve u Iorbo
Har sanker amina yegh byugh!
Samber ishima he‟ tembe or kuma na ga.
Vaa u Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agir Tough ka MbaDam aa, WanAto Mdenga kohol nomugh ee.
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke

459
Kaa WanMbasaa yô M karugh ishima tsô u de
Haren mo ikyegh u harem ngur na.
M ngu anigbian a na je, Gôn Duku,
Ior a nem kunya kpa ne ma ne civir mo.
Ata Ushe ee,
Abera kaa ngôm Wan u Nyam,
Ikyondu i yange u nam la ande be ve ee;
Inyaregh ki yange u nam la Tor u kpande ti kôr ngohol oo,
Ande rishii nam M mase zenden wan amo min ye. Aerga u Gum,
Gum Anar nenge a mo lu ôrun mo mnyam,
Er shi kpeôô tsô
Gberusu un a gbam sha kungu. Devaa lu ôrun kwagh teren nom bua er M za wen a
nungwa ishor o;
Ziki Nor aboki boki wam eee.
AI. 58
Kina Shondu ngu ga…
Mnder
Kina Shondu ngu ga oo!
Malu Bawa ngu ga ee
Tiv ve ya akaa ve ve nyumem diing, Biam.
A lu ne tee ikyondu i amaregh ne mba yaren sua a min yô
Amar a gba ne zer nyi? Ne sôngu Adusa wan
Sha nomyange zarartata;

Ishagbaor kuma u kpen ku swendegh ga.
Ukaave u Tsua
Ngula yemen la.
460
M gba ave sha ikyondu kpa wan nyer norototo;
Kende WanNawa he‟ tembe
Lu ngorun zumun tumen sha gema u nom na.
Dajo Pav ooo!
Mbatsav ya ibya mke,
Ishima i ndôhôl ve a or ga;
Kunya kôrum eee.
Mrumun
Kpenkpen tsô anyam kôr yem a min shin abozende „pe or ze nan hidi ga la ee.
Laha Kpan Yakubu aooo!
Aningyô cirugh ijime ve Laha Kpan a;
Or nan woo Utsua wan la,
Iyange i mkurtar nan a tema ke‟ igyam usu uu;
Iyange la me se ee me kende ikyôr er Mbavendan Atso.
Kpa M kaa me or wua a wua ga,
Ka Aôndu a yem a na ee.
Vaa u Ngyeke ee,
Agir Tough mbatsav hemba kpa ve hemba ku ze ee.
Ku ngu ngô a or ze Anza Gbemshin vea WanAbivegun,
Huan nen ee;

Ku yô ka kwagh u Aôndu aooo,
Adoo WanAveil i.
Damera Tor Aza Biam Ashileku!
Mo ka M shi vaan
Mama wou a yem shin inya a da kohol
Nom na ee.
Aza Biam Ashileku
Mba eren msen sha „ci wou ee,
U tema i kpeu iyol oo,
Angul u Ierve u Beneke ee.
***
461
Ishima ngi vihin mo i kaa Iortyer Musa ityô tam tsar a ibyume bagu;
M za ishiôr M gbide baba nyiaan kpa
Kwase bundem Ziki Nor oo,
Ziki Nor aboki, boki wam ee.
Aerga u Gum Anar, ikyu ngi eren we er mar mkungu;
Hanmayange ka ii or gengee:
Nyennyen a ii wan na u ishima,
Shi a ii Igbya Kartyo,
Shi a ii ingyôr na ne ee.
Devaa ishagba ngôm de ka Aôndu ôô.
Ihyom yam ne oo!
Angol Ikyenge Avii Tyav, wan u Damagudu a yem a mo oo,

A da kumbul mo;
Ga me kpe WanTinyam
462
M mase vaan zenden aa kunya iyol ne eee.
OrMbatsavaja oo!
Kaa WanUkan a mou sha
A de sena muan mnyam ga,
Culecule M zamber;
Ku ngum karen zuzu aooo!
A lu ne sembel yange ne va ne nambe war wam eee.
AI. 59
Inyom Bee ve oo!
Mnder
Inyom bee ve oo! Emberga Adula Angbande u Mbapyer,
Chif Deraba M ngu yilan we,
We vea wan u Tor Ayati kôrum M tsa hen a na.
Hanmakwagh zende inya he‟ iya na oo;
I da kaa Nule Makyur Aca,
Kwagh gandem M tum toho ye.
Mrumun
Ityô yam mba zendan mo keren avishigh iii!
Mba er i tseren a tser i kôr keng,
Kpa kwagh ga cia yam ngi shin kungul.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala ooo!

Iorpande Caha
Biam Ala anigbian M ngu pinen we,
Aôndu vendam yô we kpa u vendam shin ii? Wan u Gula ishagba ngôm M er nan
eee?
Ayange u Dagi Agôv nyôr a ityô na suuluu, kôrum sha we er M mou sha,
463
A lu sha apera kpa wen a yem a mo keng! keng! keng!
Wan u Dagba a mirim imo;
Ityô na zua tsatsa mba keghen mo a kegh eee.
Mvaaga Ashaver kpa sen;
Wan u Yasha ka imo yam u shi ayem shin ii?
Kwase kpa ngu a wa nom kwagh aa,
Hide va mirim imo tsô u mase gaase yevese.
Anula Gbande Nako oo!
Or MbaBookyo cirim kôhô inya wa kua WanTor TyôshaAôndu aooo!
Iyange yam due ve ee ku! Tor Mnder Cagh Mici Karku
Er yange u mirim imo je M ngu a yav mnyam ga;
Anyam saghem ivo shin hua
Ka M tsa vaan kaka aa.
Wan u Baki ii or a nam yô mo kpa me lu kpan u nan;
Tor Ba u Ikpyughul Hwembe u nam ze ee.
Ma M lu teen ikyon,
Ma M doo ishima he‟ ôn mba Garaka ye ee;
Ma M lu dughun gbace teen,

464
Ma M doo ishima he‟ ôn mba Garaka ye ee.
Zenda Agagu dyorugh orakombu!
WanMbatyula eee Doowuan Nyajo ku Doowuan Nyajo;
Terugh kpe kpa M tser a or u van ga,
A lu inja er se mba ye a or iye i kuugh yô, Ugba u Iwevzer Agôv
Kpa kwase na u vesen kpe,
Wan u Gbanor undum tsô a yem shin gudu-
Gudu ve, Adoo WanAveil i.
***
Likici Agbe ee,
Likici Agbe ee WanKoko sughum kpa M ngu a ungwa. Iwarwar Anyamgwa
Va vea WanUgondu ooo,
Wan u Yaga nyôr ve ee;
Ior i ta ônuv acin.
Aerga u Gum Anar mimi-wan kpa nyôr ve ee or a yav ga; lu vea Mbatinyam aa.
Ican a wuam yô me hungwa a or keng;
Me hungwa a Ageva Nyaku kua Gafa Vande Yongu,
Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
Va vea WanHambe ee tar ngu mase guusu a guusu!
Or u mimi cie kwagh ga,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke
Kaa WanMbasaa ka unô ve kar er ka Musa Yongu yô?
Iortyer Musa

Lu vea Aza u Gaase
Mimin due ve ee.
Veunô Alya,
Alya Tyôba M ngu yilan we
Kaa WanAkombu ooo
Yô M gba van ve eee.
AI. 60
Bosua Uga, M gba Van ve ee
Mnder
Bosua Uga M gba van ve ee;
Ior‟ Bosua Uga,
Lu vea WanIkyuravtiev aee;
Ior‟ M va me me lam a we,
Kaa WanAbaver!
* * *
Tor Ibi Adabu ooo!
Mrumun
465
Ôn mba Biam nôngu ityav a mo je M sua awambe,
Kpa ishima i taver yam Aôndu kendem ga;
Ngu a mo heregh ee.
Iyuhe ka kwagh u eren ga;
Or u mimi er iyuhe ze eee.
Iyuhe ka mtuhwem;

Yange i a hide sha a we keng-
Keng bunde ga yange ga ee.
Or ngu a tser a kwagh u doon nan keren wan u nan a mi; a lu kwagh u bo yô
Nan gema a min a na anigbian a;
Orhemba Cia,
Tar vihi ee annar kera dugh ze M nenge sha Aôndu aee; mo M va ve ee.
Ka ndorndor ne Mvaaga Ashaver Tor –
Mase ndyaren zenden daalaa –
466
Kaa er M za wan u MbaIbyon a kume icihe,
Wen a nam kwagh u tamen,
A yam he‟ Makaara aa.
Kwagh la dugh mnyim, kwagh la mba tem ke‟ mule na ee;
Tiv ger ikyuuu.
Anyam mou ve ee Vingiror nyôr shin tembe;
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala va amar shin ii?
M nenge a ônUkum mba sha inja sha inja; ior kar
Mba tumen idyu i atsuku-tsuku a na shin kwa ee.
Wan u Kuna kpa ngu a ve ke‟ min;
Ikyôr i nam ve Adabu oo.
Shiim Tor u Kon u
Hiinyam M gba akpev ior mba nyaghen mo;
Emberga Adula Angbande ee,
OrMbatyer M ngu shin ku ee.
Kaa Wantor Ayati M va ve

Iti you la i doom kpa kwagh shim:
Nomugh la ngu a ishima i wuan or yum;
467
Inyumbe nyumbe kpa ngu a bee ishima na cii,
Baka oo, Jee Gbabo ooo.
AI. 61
Imo-mirin i Beba Unzô
Mnder
Dajo Mue oo kaa wan u Azagwa ooo, kwagh er shin ônuv mba Unzô Konjo Aku tar
ngu mase shiren shimi dishidishi!
Tor Beba Unzô gbede ishagba ityou mase yaren kwan
Er “mnyam ciem er Uke mile;
Ishima yam ngi awambe-awambe.”
Wan u Yarza
Kpa lu yaren kwan er, “Aya u mar Adibobo i cian ve ee”.
Mrumun
Atôndu Tiôn aoo Atôndu Tiôn!
Gbam msôrum me ma M ngu yemen shin Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo;
Alaghga me za me hide ga;
Wan u Yaga lu nyiar Aôndu kwegheer,
Alaghga un a gba sha a mo.
Wan u Yaga ishagba ngôm,
We shi tule ishima la teghlee.
Mirim imo kpa M gbe cian u zan tsô.

468
Acinge Unzô Konjo M va kpa M ngu a ngu sha hundagar ashar a;
We a rumun yô me nyôr a ityô yam a,
We a rumun ga me hide ijime ee.
Ishima i anngôu la wanger ga, wanger mo ze M er a Tor
Hil Yakua Agule gbem,
Man WanTema – ikyegh na cihi usu – a zamber a WanYaga teghtegh;
A de me nyôr a lu nan kpaa i lu sha gar ee.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!
Nyôr a nongu na, nyôr a kômpeni gighirkiki ii;
Wan u Kura Adasu nyion ishima tsua kii sha mato gema nam,
Er M tôô Nguyan kpa rumun;
Er M tôô M yemen a mi zouloo;
Inyaregh ki mkuregh kpa wen a nam;
Inyaregh ki deraba kpa wen a kimbin gbem saa uer a kpe,
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Kunde Ager Wuhe
U Ashwa a kaa Wantor Va man WanGyuse Wanza:
Tindi a ikyondu i va nam M ngu yemen imo sha Zaki Beba Unzô;
Wan u Yaga mase toon ishagba aa,
Er hir u kwamen yô ee M ngu hulugh ihyôwe sha Zaki Tor u Kwaor Akosho
Ahuku er kwagh u cieryol va: ishor a mar.
***
Ishimaior u Tsofo Zaki nyôr a kwaor ve; Wantor u Kyado

469
Hua itikyondu imiôm kuma iyol gbing-gbing;
Mba mase keren ica sha tembe kwagh doo Ioryem Ikyaave
Ngu sen murmur,
Man WanIkyô Ukaan ee:
Ngula kpa ka angum inyamkyume.
M va ve ooo! Jooji Aciniya Norum nyôr
Vea wan u Hambe, Dajo Mue ka ilyan ga.
Asôngu kaa shin iya u Beba Unzô;
Kwagh er ingila kur ve eee.
AI. 62
Kina Shondu Kpe ka me a Hen…
Mnder
Kina Shondu kpe ka me a hen kwagh
U a tserem – ka uer ne ma M kpe ye,
Kpa Shiim Torkon u Hiinyam venda a mo oo;
Kaa er mo M de
Wan u Gbinde ngu a kwagh u eren a mo oo, yô mo M tile kpuaar.
Mrumun
Angol Ikyenge ar ve oo! Angol Ikyenge ar vea wan u Damagudu;
Nyôr yô lu kombul aga-tar, Sanker Ajav aa.
Nenge Jooji Acin‟
Aciniya Norum vas ha mato!
Tsuen ishima ken atô,

470
Man WanHambe, kuashi Ngôundu u Hambe.
Kwase la kpa ka kwase!
Eren ier i yange wen a sôngu a sôngu or ooo.
Tor u Kwaor Akosho Ahuku inyamkyume! begha-wan! iyar-wan!
Or cihin nyôrun ze „pe a yaven ze o, WanMbashor Amam.
Iorpande Caha ooo Biam Ala va ve eee;
Ior i mou sha ve er msen:
Aôndu A ver Caha wan,
A lu ishima bem-bem eee.
Inyamkyume i genegh ngi sha Mbayongu aooo!
Iti na er M-soo-ihyagh-ga Ugô ôô;
Iti na er A-er-a-er-ikyaa Ugô ôô,
WanAnyamhur kwase gbide ior atsu
Sha imo i Shiim Tor u Kon ve o!
Angule Deem, Deem-wan nyôr shala yô uga ya tsur ve!
Or a kaa a mo me kaa nan aa, Deem-wan ngu heregh ee or a cihi ga,
Kua WanIkyurior o.
***
Iorkyaa u Kpan Adi sha Mbaikywe
Ar ve eee WanUdô ve.
Kunde Ager M ngu ku ee Wantor Va a nôngu a mo me yem ican i beem,
Mnguaorga u Wombu Makar aa.
Wan u Hwange ee ngula van la

Ior i de aun;
Hanmaor a ta icin a ishima i nan aa.
Ioryem Ikyaave oo! Ikyaave Angula
Zer cirin mo sha iya na;
Wan u Ikyô Ukaan ta hwande a nom na.
Jee Gbabo ooo,
471
M ngu yilan Mbabookyo: M yila Vande Yongu Abege,
Kua Wan Mbajirswange;
A lu ne vavem ga yô,
Ishôhô a yam angahar Adôm Agu Tema ôrum imokyaa ior i ungwa, Use Mue Anzer
Adi Nyam,
Wan u Duku Agemaji oo Shiim Tor u Kon u Hiinyam nyôr ime shile ngigh-ngigh-
ngigh!
AI. 63.
Tsofo, M Nenge a We yô…
Mnder
Tsofo, M nenge a we yô M ya tar ishe ga, wan u Tor Kyado kwase gba gungun;
Ior mba kuhan vinen amar aa.
Mo kpa M ngu shaven ker ee,
Kwaghbula Azege ee!
Mrumun
Ihyom yam ayio oo!
Mnzughulga Agede,
Agede Beeku wan M ta inyagba icur M ngu senen

472
Shin Zaki Tyôver Ninga me Zaki Tyôver Ninga a tesem gbenda me za shin ôn mba
Tandyer.
Atôndu Tiôn
Ka wan u Tandyer aseeraseer ee.
Or u inyar lu orhyundu;
Kenti M va ve ee.
Atim Tiônsha,
Ashiamar ngu ga kpa ishima ngi heregh ee.
***
Tor u Kwaor Akosho Ahuku M civir ôn mba Kosho kpa lu sha inja ve Kosho a ne mar
ye ior ve tsua akôv sha;
Jee Gbabo ooo,
Kpa doo kwagh ga ee.
AI. 64
Imo-mirin i Shiim Tor u Kon
Mnder
Tor Ibi oo kwagh er u bo sha Ushitile ee
Bee er a ya mkem man a ungwa ye: Shiim Tor
Tor u Kon u Hiinyam u Abaa mirim imo,
Mirim imo je Udam tôndu kasua sha Tiv;
Or u wuan ka ican he‟ na ga eee.
Mrumun
Kwagh er a er kera je ve Tor u Kon u Hiinyam mar ônuv nav aa,

473
Ka ônuv mba tswerev ga a yegh a yegh usu ee;
Agwa za je mande sha Uvaamyande.
WanUdende ôv buci kôr dôsugh a wuhev nav a,
Mba tan mzeryou;
Ior i num tsatsa ve undu tembe gbirin Vande Yongu.
Wan u Paase va amar kpa?
Er a va!
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri kpa ior mba pinen er a sen amar kpa?
Er a va; a va nenge tar shin Mbavur er i eren yô.
Hindan u Gbôhô ande er ngô dwem a ônuv mba Agbe Dajo suuluu;
Nyôr iyange saa bivee.
WanAnyamhur va amar a kwagh ishima keng,
Ngu eren ashe ka wanger mo ze ee.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
Nyôr Tarwa,
Or u Mbatyou ka mngbakpa-mke:
Ishange imiôm kpa a kuma ne iyol a min;
Atôndu Tiôn za iti kpa ka icocoshima na la,
Kuashi WanWende.
Ishima Zaki kpoughul iyol shin ii?
Kwen gba imo tsô iyange due zaratata;
Wan u Tor Kyado hua ikpya mkir mase geman mungôôô.
Shiim Tor u Kon u Hiinyam mirim imo kôr Aôndu nam;

M fa ior mba mimi ke‟ imo ne cii.
474
M fa WanUdende ile ashe, kpamkwase yuha ga.
Ngu a kôr or a nambe imo,
A kôr ikyekye a nambe imo,
A kôr bua a nambe imo.
Kwagh u inyar yô ka u henen a hen tar u Mbagunduba ga ee.
Tyôver u Ninga Biam shin MbaGar‟ yô,
Tor Tyôver Ninga Biam nam tar M ya M maa imya;
Wan u Mbayenge Ajir M ngu sughun ne.
Apeatim Kpaghkpagh Bia Agundu, Tor u Donga, nyôr a inja na ve WanIkyanyon
nenge a mo
Tsô imbishi mo mbiôôl,
Er M kar ee,
M de timbir un ashe ga, Gôn Buruku Duku.
Likici Agbe ooo M ngu van kpa keghen Yarkpindi u Dye,
Yarkpindi lu vea wan u Zungwe nyôr shala Aôndu ta aber.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam
Ar shin ii ior i lam camcam ga? Ioryem Ikyaave lu lamen dughun ave,
Er or a kende wegh sha WanIkyô Ukaan wen a kôr nan a.
Ageva Nyaku oo! Nyaku kende wegh sha kaa er Aôndu a gba, Aôndu a gba wen
nyôr ôô!
A lu kwagh u ime ile kpa ka kwagh ga.

AI. 65
Inyaregh ki a Ku
Mnder
Ki a ku oo!
Inyaregh ki a ku oo mato a gba a mo he‟ gbenda kpa shi iwenge sombu ve eeo;
WanPaase aa,
Kaam Vande Yongu
M ngu zenden sha akuku ayan‟ ne;
M ngu sha gado M ngu a fa u waren ga.
Mrumun
M saa ve ooo!
475
Ishima Zaki kpa ungwa ga M yemen ne ee;
Mo da kohol Mko shin inya.
Atôndu Tiôn,
Nenge a mo he‟ gbenda kpaa kavem ga;
[M] wuha iyol kuugh M bee tsatsa cii.
Likici Agbe ee,
Me vaa ku ga ka ihyen a mo ze ee.
***
Ageewua Tor
Dugwer Biam Ala oo zebo mba zendan mo;
Iyuhe ngi zendan mo er M yem shin inya kpa M ngu yemen.

Yarkpindi u Dye
476
Vaan ayem ooo! va me zua ishigh a we me yem ayaa;
Ityô tumem oo M ngu zenden a ityumugh iyol o.
AI. 66
Imo-mirin i Kwaor Akosho
Mnder
Da kaa Ande
Kwagh aoooo!
Zenda Agagu sen ivaa kpeman,
Nomgbande tôndu iwa,
Shin iya u Atôndu Tiôn.
Zenda Agagu senda a kungucur bidi aver akinde gba shin tembe,
Vea wan u Tor Melabu.
Zenda Agagu igbya na ka Ushitile ee;
Atôndu Tiôn,
Atôndu Tiôn kpa ka igbya Ushitile ee;
Hil Agule ee,
Tor Hil Agule kpa ka igbya Ushitile ee:
Ior ne mir ishor cii;
Ve dugh asema a sha Ushitile eeng!
Mrumun
Tor Beba Unzô
Konjo kpa va ve oo!

477
Tor hua akôv a tungul tema sha kujira; WanYaga har gbum
Sha ikyer puse ityô-angel.
Kwagh va iyol ve!
Iginga-imôngu kumbul amo her‟ tsô Dajo Pav a!
Mu tseghem mu nenge ooo!
A lu amimin yô mu da kaa Ishimaior u Tsofo a wa iyol;
Wantor u Kyado a wa iyol.
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri inyamkyume
Kpa ngi van amar a en ne.
WanAgashua oo iyou-zwar aa,
Oo iyou-zwar aa.
Ishagba Akpam
Ar ve eee.
ÔnShangev,
Ikwande mba namben ishor teren Tyôver u Ninga,
Gema zwa ke‟ kpe lu sen murmurmur
Yilan Uhule ee;
Uhule due dendôô,
Kar tema sha kujira – kwagh er u bo!
Tar huan ayôôsu.
Atôndu Tiôn kpa sen;
Wan kondu ada ityou
Ior i num ayem ee

478
Or ngu a wa a cir inya ngôm WanWende ee.
Atôndu Tiôn ka mngerem ma kiren il sha.
***
Kwagh sende iwa ve! Mnguaorga u Wombu Makar aa,
Kaa WanHwange ee M ngu a ikyondu i zeren ga.
Hindan u Gbôhô va vea/ee WanAnyamhur ee;
WanAnyamhur te kwagh gbenda ga. Or u sha Mbaikywanyongu.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam
Zer cirin mo
He‟ iya na je M var gbande M ver WanVagi,
Er ishima ior i nenge, Gbabo oo,
Bosua Uga ee,
Uga-wan a korum ityou.
Kobo u aan iyol a min kpa M tser a or u nan mo ga; ka Atôndu Tiôn a lu nôngun a
mo ye.
Nande Ishawa va vea WanMbayenge Ajir;
Ikyôr i nam yô Use Mue Anzer Adi kpa sen,
Vea WanDuku Agemaji oo,
WanDuku Agema‟ aa,
M saa ve Gbabo oo!
AI. 67
Kina Shondu ngu Ga…
Mnder

Kina Shondu ngu ga vea Adega u Orbiam,
479
Ka „pe ma ve nenge tar u he‟ Ikyuravtiev ne ee;
Tor u Kwaor Akosho
Ngu a ikyav sha ityo kpa a mir ishor oo.
Or la ya tor a ityumba sha zwa
Ka ishima ker je ee.
Mrumun
Zaki Tyôver u Ninga oo!
Or ka ishima Tyôver u Ninga,
Kwagh erugh vihi kpa ka kwagh ga,
Inyaregh ki been or been ze eee;
Uhule ee,
Kwase kpa ngu a wa nom kwagh aa.
Tor u Kwaor Akosho Ahuku
Lôhô ityô na ôn MbaIcôngu zua gbing-gbing;
Lôhô igbya na MbaIpusu nyôr gighirkiki.
Tor-bo Ngibo Azua Ikyase Biam,
Tor nande shin kwa Aôndu ta agidigbe,
Iyange due hide mile;
Kaa er i nambe imo i nambe kwagh wen ngu heregh ee,
M-monkwav mou rumun ngigh!
Ke Mbanyam kpaa inyamkyume ban ga Mpuuga Agule Yongu,
WanAkundu nomugh lu lamen jangjangjang sha tembe or cihi wa zwa ga.

Nahanga u Bede ooo!
Bede Akundô eee, ku!
WanMbatinyam yar amar ne shin ii
Hiar a zer esen tembe?
480
Tembe kungu er ka tembe Mbakuv yô. Jooji Aciniya Norum
Lu vea WanHambe ke‟ ashe kpa wan doo ashe kenger gande;
Kwagh kpaa ngu a er sha undu na.
Ioryem Ikyaave wa amar gande;
Wan u Ikyô Ukaan M ngu kôndun a imo sha Tor u Kwaor Akosho;
Ka sha na me za ya tar ye.
Kaacivin Tor Ayati ee,
M nenge a wan u Mbayenge Ajir ke‟ mnya kôr kwase gema nam
Er M de u aver zwa sha ior u zenden. Mnguaorga
U Wombu u Makar Agaku ka Mbajima piooor;
Ter na kpa ka Tonguv,
Ngô na gema ka Ukum nongu u Kunde Ager Wuhe;
Wan u Tor Va tee kwagh kenger sha hunda man a ne anigbian ga ee.
***
Kusugh Mnenga oo!
Ikyaa tserem M vaan
M yer WanMbaibyon ye.
Wan u Ikyagh Adogo oo!
Ne wasem ga me kpe i pever aeee.

AI. 68
481
Ishima u Tsofo, Kange Ikyondu Uya Fefa
Mnder
Ishima u Tsofo oo kange ikyondu uya fefa
Kwagh taver apande tar u Ikyurav je er i mir kor o.
Tor u Kwaor Akosho Ahuku uu:
Inyamkyume!
Mba nderen sha we ga,
Saa sha iwange ngôm WanAkô
Kpa ka inyamkyume ukase ingila van la ee.
Mrumun
I da verem me za sha Mpuga Agule Yongu;
I da verem me za sha WanAkuundu.
WanMbasar hingir kontamen:
Me da mem ayaa hen a na i kundum iyol ee.
Shiim Torkon u Hiinyam aa,
Pilaor ne kpa va vea WanUdende ve ee;
Tar ngu mase gbuusu Gôn Duku uu.
Tor Kwaor Akosho Ahuku
Lôhô kwagh wam ne je bee ikyura nyian ikyura il
Man vande nyôrun cii.
Mba yiôn er i haa inya, i haa inya i nambe a nambe ishor ooo.

Imo ngi yilan WanAkô, WanAkô:
Kwase dura iyol je kusugh gba atô;
Ikyon ngi môughun WanAkô zer i-
482
Kyondu ngi yeghen hiden pirin, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!
Mba ikyor i agher ve je ne;
Wan u Ikyume sugh kwagh bundu ga:
Sue vea WanKura Adasu
Tsô M gbe timin akende kera zenden ngagher
Nga ngagher tsô, Nule Makyur Aca.
Bosua Uga
Kpa va vea/ee
WanAmena;
Hen ape ve tem la iikpii gba heregh WanAmena aa.
Kunde Ager Wuhe
U Ashwa mou – ôn mba Terem a mi –
Ior mba tesen ave sha a na zumbee.
Inyamkyume ne shir ishima je nor vaa,
Lu vea Wantor Va mo kpa M ngu vaan ku wam ayei!
Kpa er M kegh ato ke‟ Tor u Kwaor Akosho.
Tor Kwaor u „Kosho Zaki „pe u lu la Aôndu A verugh Zaki
„Pe u lu la Aôndu A verugh.
Apeatim Kpaghkpagh Bia Agondu,

WanAye Twar ngu van shin ii.
483
Iyange kôr uer mba kuhan vinen amar. Ioryem Ikyaave,
Ikyaave u wua nor shin ii
Ikyondu i posun mo shin iwenge ee?
Wan u Ikyô Ukaan M ngu yilan we;
Vaa u Ngyeke,
Inyamkyume ne mou tsô mbeli kaa tsô gbande kaa;
WanAto Mdenga lu tan icin:
Or a sena lamen hen mtem ne dang ga wen nyôr ee.
***
AI. 69
M Vaa a An?
Mnder
M vaa a an?
Mrumun
Tor Ibi Adabo oo!
Mnder
Dajo Pav M vaa a an?
Mrumun
Tor Ibi Adabo oo!
Mnder
Jooji Abyem
Gaga Myaki Tor

Wuha gemegeme kua kwase na ee,
An a pine ee?
Tor ngula ee.
Zaki u mirim ishor
Je ka u henen ga.
Mrumun
Ishima Zaki Tor kôr igyo i wuam mo,
484
Kpaa igyo osugh i tume shin kwa man saa aa.
Tim ityô saan ga kpa u wam ne saa ve ee.
WanAzande ngu a nenge a mo
A ta azer kera jang kpa kwagh ga;
Kwagh wam ze kur yua ze ayio oo!
Dajo Pav, kwagh la doo u a da tema ke‟ ica
A ôrun nahan ze ee.
Mo ka bee-kwagh a vihin mo ye.
Ande, mo icugh i diom ze ee.
***
Torkura u Madugu mo M er nan ee?
Wan u Tor Kyado M nau Ageba
Kahemban Nyam Tseke, Amishi Tor Ugô Igbyudu, Igbyudu kendem ve ee.
M ngu vaan juu!
Tsoughul a kakure yô ee yan‟ mo kpa me nyôr aeee.

AI. 70
M Gba Ikpyam i Karem
Mnder
Amimi je M gba ikpyam i karem;
Veunô Alya
485
Er kwase WanTuran meghmeghmegh a icombu hen uya;
Ngu a due i doo „pe kenger ee.
Tyoor Gber Ifan,
We shi kaam Doowuan a va se da kuha sereki kwase.
***
Or u ikyoo vende agbo ga ee.
A nam kpa me ngohol;
A nam ga kpa me yem ayaa.
Kwaghbula Azege ee!
Mrumun
Hoo ayio oo!
Mbanan nyôr shin tembe,
Lu vea nom na aa.
Tiv mba mase geren ikyuuu!
Veunô Alya WanBegha aa,
Tor a lu bembem ee eee;
We a ta nguhar kera u tee kulugh u sôu WanMbaIcôngu ôô.

***
486
Ngueigbya u Pila, Pila Hinda va nenge kwagh u doon o.
Yange mo venda tami ooo mu rumun igyankwan.
AI. 71
M ngu Civir Ior mba Taver Inja
Mnder
Dajo Mue oo!
M ngu civir ior mba taver inja.
M ngu civir Tse Agule vea WanIkyanyon;
Mbela mba teen kwagh mba tagher sha or ga.
Ka a lu iyôu kpa mba tsweren ga;
A lu kwagh u nan a na kpa mba tsweren ga.
Gema beem inja i Veunô Alya juu!
Man Mkohol Ivase,
Ngu a nenge a mo a de tom;
A tumbul a mo juu,
Hanmakwagh zende inya he‟ iya na, Nule Makyur.
Hoo ayio oo Tor Ibi aee.
Mrumun
Iorwa u Wouku
Adogo kaa ngôm WanUgô,
Kwagh u yan‟ M ôr a we la Ageewua Tor Biam venda;
Ter na kpe ee;

487
M ngu zungwen WanVagi sha ayange ne ee;
M ngu zan mape ga.
Vaa u Ngyeke
Ngyeke Agir Tough we shi kaam WanMbajima aa.
Yemen yam ne oo mu da kohol Mko shin inya;
Mo vea na se tema gar wase ee,
Atôndu Tiôn a lu iya na kuashi Kwaghbula Azege,
Man Amishi Tor Ugô.
Mvaaga Ashaver Tor
Kpa a tema iya na ee man Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam,
Tortya wen kpa kohol ne ve ee. Mue Ager Nortema
Kaa WanGbande a va yarem ku. Zaki Hil Agule ee
Tar wou kusu yemen a mo ve,
Avaaime ungwa kpa a?
Shiim Tor u Kon
OrHiinyam Abaaior ityô yam tam igyôôr i nor ve ngôm WanUdende.
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa
Lu vea WanAkôsu Igyaase ee,
Mba keren mo a kwagh;
Mnyam cier mo ye,
Er M tema sha zege kwagh. Josef Tor Bem Adam
Kuashi Josef Ikyongeri kua WanMbakombu oo,
OrHyarev lu cirin mo oo,

Saa me a za he‟ iya na ga mu za me hide teleghee er inyon a sem gbenda ga.
Damera Tor oo,
Er ishima i lum yô ityav ma mbi dugh
He‟ iya la keng:
Mba “hôôn-se-kpe, hôôn-se-kpe”,
488
“Ishima-yam-ngi-awambe-awambe” a or kpa ma a gbe ngun ma i lu se kposu ye.
***
Tsenzughul u Kur Torhyande Tsa!
We shi kaam WanTyuluv wan u Dajo Chive kuashi Mtsernyi:
M tôndu igbum, igbum ivav ngi been ga;
Ve va kôôm dera aa, gaze M gba iwan M bee, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Ikyiva Ura ande ve ee Sarin Ashwe tindi mo ve kendem kpese shinla, Nule Makyur
Aca.
Likici Agbe ee,
Atemba Agbe,
M kohol akpekpe kumam kohol ityungu ve;
Wan u Koko lam a ngôm WanMbakyon.
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke,
Ne gbam wuan a ishô yam iyol er mende ga.
Tar ka kwagh u wan ndor a mi ze, Adabo oo;
Ande Kwagh M ngu ku eee Ngueigbya u Pila Hinda
Or Mbaulaga vea WanIkpyajôu nenge a mo tsa yôrun iwer tugh;
Nam gbagir u ica vingir ve a kighir angel.

Emberga u Iormbameen,
489
Ityô you a wua nor shin ii? Ve a wua nor shin ii?
Ikyondu i saghen mo shin iwenge ee?
Ankpan kurun ga,
Imo ne kpa duem ishar eee.
AI. 72
Or a Zam a Loho Shin Aôrmôm
Mnder
Or a zam a loho shin Aôr-
Môm Ayagwa M ngu van ee,
Shin Akôvul a WanGbegba Atômigbya
Kua Mbanengen Aveil;
Se mba a ankwagh u ôrun we u doon ee.
Mrumun
Alahaji Mukaara,
Ngu a kômpeni u eren mato oo;
Ngu a kômpeni u dubulawa;
Ngu a er pijo man mesedi aoo, kua Bedefo.
Zaki Tyôver Ninga kpa nyen yam
Tiyota he‟ iya u DanSari ii;
Malam Iorpande
Biam Ala oo kpa nyen yam
Mesedi he‟ iya u DanSari ii;

Biam Azege,
Benjamin Biam Azege kpa nyen yam
Agbogbo mato he‟ iya u DanSari ii;
Wan u Dajo tee kofulodi na
Orimo na er a hendan aa.
Toryila Zôzô,
Fawe Agyo oo kpa ngu a umato kpishi,
Kpa a yam he‟ Mukaara aa.
Mba nôkun injin ga,
Ka mato mba doon tsegher;
Maanyi Pendatyo
Kwase M va ve ee.
M ngu zenden a imo
Shin Gbeji oo shin Tsua Gbeji ee,
490
Kpaa Chagem Ayange WanAsema cirim ica gba yum
Me za Aôndu shon a gba Tor Adabo ooo.
***
Tyoor Gber Ifan,
Gber M vôr oo;
Kaa Wantor Yôu a nenge er M lu iyol yô, Tsevende Agegha,
Lam a WanShitile oo kwase M er nan ee eee Ibi Adabo oo.
AI. 73
M Ungwa Ankwagh Shin Mo…

Mnder
Hila Jime Nev oo,
M ungwa ankwagh shin
Mo, Ande Kwagh ivaa ker kaan
Sha Ugondu sha keela.
Mrumun
MbaIkywe hee ve ee:
Ve de wuan ior
491
Gema mba wuan ikyôngugh ee: Iyôu-ki-acivin gba ngena ee,
Tor la kpe a agee iyol o.
M nyôr ke‟ iyou M nenge Tor wuha gemeen ngu a tsar sha zwa a kange ishigh
tsatsa;
Gbenger Kur ka nyi ne ee eee?
We her‟ kpaa anyam kôrugh aningyô,
Mase kperan yemen a min beel;
Icombutar yôhôl ô.
Tor Manger Awav Agbe,
Aningyô ngu ga ee;
A kohol we ve ee;
Wan u Udô vaa juu ashe mula ke‟ ikyôr tsatsa cii.
M ngu van ee;
A mem mlyam vaan a;
Ku yô ka kwagh u Aôndu aeee.

***
Mnder
Gbabo oo!
Mrumun
Bee er a ya mkem man se ungwa i yô Tor Ishimabyo Anule Ade kpa nyôr ô,
492
Lu yaven shin inya Adega u Orbiam Ningir kpa kpe M fa inja na ga aa;
Tor Manger Awav Agbe
Kpa guma kôr ngohol o.
Ka mo me tim Ugondu ze Mnguaor‟ u Makar a.
Yemen yam ne;
Mo ka yemen ne Shawon gaja.
AI. 74
Bula Azege Tar ngu Gban ee
Mnder
Bula Azege tar ngu gban ee,
Ga ze ma M ze ke‟ Gum Tor Na Ayu,
Ayu Lokoja ee ka or u ke‟ Mbaterem
Vea kwase na u WanMbatungwaper ee, wan u Viaga.
Ken ashe kpa wan doo ashe kenger gande;
Ieren kpaa ngi tsembelee – haba!
Gidion Aluga,
Da lam a Gidion Aluga;
Mnjiniya u vesen, lu vea Wantyôtyev aooo!

M va kpa ka u tsan ze ee;
Kwagh a lu yô i nam mo yem ee
Ziki Nor aboki, boki wam ee.
Mrumun
493
Kwagh kpa M cie ga tsô M da kpera imange yam i wuam
Hen iya u Tyoor Gber Ifan,
Teeshagba ooo –
Kpa ka Mbaterem tsô,
Gbabo ooo!
Wan u Toryôu nenge a mo tsa shirin ishima ape wen a er a doo yô ee,
WanShitile fa inja nom na.
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa oo!
M ngu zan u za sughun Zaki Tor Na Ayu Lokoja, Vande Abege;
Ikutô a lu yô i bughum kwa me nyôr ôô
Ape Tor a lu vea WanTyuluv
La, me za me da vaa ican.
Anu nga nyion mo Zaki kerem a kwagh u hendan
Gaze m ngu lun sha uma ga;
Tor ka kungureku u kpoughul Tor yô u yem a ihyuma keng.
Iortyer Tor Musa Agbe ee,
M va ve ee;
Aza u Gaase temem a tôm ashe gbem.
Ande Kwagh aooo Damera Tor Aza Biam Achileku

Kaa WanAhumbe ee,
M va.
Biam Azege dôkutô
Ser angev kua ican aooo,
Mo yô ka ican a kumam nula ye WanDajo.
Orhemba Cia Burya,
Burya a kaa Laraba M ta hwande a or ga,
Adoo WanAveil.
Har Abyem aooo!
494
Har Mata ka mngerem ma teghlee ma saan a or ye eee:
WanAkaa Nyagba teman viing;
Or fe ishima na ga ee.
Ityô yam mba tôngun mo agbatutu:
Wuhe ngum iyol oo ka wuhe orkpen
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa,
WanAganyi mirim imo;
Hide dugh imo.
Nor kar ayem M da zôr tur ve mtôm inyam kpe tur ga.
Tsua Gbeji Ukpaa Cagem,
Ayange ooo! or u shin MbaDwem ee,
Nor tesem wan ve WanAsema aa.
M nenge a kpamor Atule Uta kpa va ve Lele Ihywan aa.
Inyamkyume i hondun ikyon oo,

Ambe yisa ihyongu M ta cia M kar aa.
M nyôr he‟ iya na dem ishar ee.
***
Gbamve ee,
Atu Yawe vea kwase na welegida
Wan u Giikwa,
Nyôr ime ile saa jighjigh.
495
Begha nyuma wan wegh kpa wan sendegh norototo;
Mato saa kpa uma yô saa ga eee.
AI. 75
Sha Kwagh u Ityav mbi Nôngun
Mnder
Me lu van ooo!
Or a zam a loho shin Use Mue Azer Adi Nyam,
Wan u Duku Agemaji,
We a nenge a mo ga kpaa M yem a imo M ngu tôngun ityou sha ityô i
Tor u Cieve u Tsavbee Muri,
Peverga Nyaga-wan,
Nyaga-wan M gba van ve ee.
Mrumun
Kpa kwagh u a shim yô M nenge a kwase wam Mbanengen Aveil ga;
Kasar nandem kwase iya hia vindivindivindi;
Mato kpa Nyaga ngohol o.

Or u nan ngohol mo kwase mato la,
496
Nan a hôô ihyan kyansa a kôr nan u waren ka ga.
Ityav mbin buram ve Nule Makyur
Wan wam u iyunda kpa M nenge a na ga.
Ngueigbya u Pila Hinda
Lam a Wan Ikpyajôu aooo,
U nenge a mo u kavem ze ee. Tseeyol Kajo Gbermke
Ior la zenda yem dyelegh ee,
WanMbapoughul ka a tsa vaan kaka;
Nande riga i genegh la riga hia ga,
Riga i wa akper purugh ve Ugba u Iwevzer e.
Damera Tor Aza Biam Achileku,
Ka me a nenge a we i lum sha ape wuan iyol keng;
WanShitile za shin uagh shin ii?
Shin a yar a yar ityev e?
M nengen a na shawon ga. Shin a yem gbaaye u sangen shin ii?
M ngu ungwan hiin-hiin,
Er a yar a yar shin agbengatiev;
Mba gen‟ mba tunan er a za mape ga a kôr ikyav a gema a gema ijôu.
Vaa u Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agirtou oo ya tor a ikyav sha ityo ngu a shir ga.
WanAtoza,
Tyoor Gber Ifan kpa Nyaga zenda ooo;

Ilev nav hingir abishi tativ mba zôrun ô!
Wan u Toryôu zaan adua ee,
Mkurtar kuma;
Sena nengen ke‟ or ga.
Har Abyem M nenge a Wantor Bongu ga;
Ior ne kumbul acin yum,
Ngu yevese gbenda na shin?
497
Mbanengen Aveil oo ishima gba kwase awambe nyôr Ikyente,
Mase ndyaren sha agundu a ior nôngun ityav vea ijende na
Mbazendan nyôr shin Adakongu iyol na,
Kwagh shi ga.
[M] kera nengen ga kpa mu gbaa peven zan tsô;
Ve a kôr kpan yô me pev ave min, Vande Yongu.
***
Likici Agbe ee,
Likici Agbe ee WanKoko ityô yam er a mo „pe shin mo.
Ziki Nor aboki lu tsan ke‟ aboughultyumbe,
Vea WanMbatyan aooo,
Ziki tar u dem ishar ee.
AI. 76
Dajo Mue Kange Ikyondu Uya Fefa…
Mnder
Dajo Mue oo kange ikyondu uya fefa;

Kwagh er shin Akôndukpe doo kwav ga:
Ndur yôhôl shimi,
Ior hingir a awambe iyol demeen!
498
Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam yem da kohol Ikpyônkô,
Vea WanKuewe ve, Nule Makyur Aca.
Tar yôhôl ke‟ tine o Jee Gbabo oo.
Mrumun
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko,
Wan-wou-kem undu se ve;
Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam kpe ga a ov a ov Ageewua Tor.
Ngu her‟ taveraa. M za me me lam a na kpa gande:
Ior ngee yum. WanVagi shar he‟ inya lu vaan
Yilan Baba aa;
Baba Indyer u kendem a an wou ve u yemen ken akwati,
Imaamaa man uve piliaa; i da kaa Nule Makyur Aca.
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo Ahuku Tor Ishimabyo lu memen ga;
Kwase kpe WanYaga kende wan ka a shi vaan a WanYaga
Er “Asaar o, mama wam za hana M ma atumba?”
Ishima vihi WanYaga tema viing,
Kpa sena vaan yum ga;
Ku yô ka vande-hemen, ku ka myima-or oo.
Acinge Unzô Konjo ngu ga oo!
U vaa a an? Indyer Dugwer Tor ngu ga, u vaa a an?

Mase shin mba-i-nam-me-wa-sha-ho-ityo.
499
A lu aie yô i venda a mo, Angul u Ierve u Beneke ee.
Aerga u Gum Anar
Ityô yam tam kera kpa me vaa ga;
Yange me kpe tsô a pever mo iyol oo, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Tsenzughul u Kur Torhyande Tsa
We shi da lam a WanDajo Gir.
M va ve oo!
Zaki Hil Agule ngu a bee a mo ga M ngu a kuve imande ga;
WanDema ishagba ngôm oo o; M ngu a kuve imande ga Jooji Abyem,
Abyem Gaga Myaki M ngu a kuve imande ga
***
M zer ikyondu pupuu or ngu zendan mo oo Mkohol Ivase;
Ivase Chichi Agbe ka orMbayiôn,
Or i ke‟ Mbamterev,
Or u ke‟ Jemngbagh jighlaa.
Ka nula u korun tar;
Mo kpa wen a korum ee Mue Ager Nortema.
Usu va ve oo;
Mkurtar nyôr ve Utur kpa mba nôngun a Mbagen nanden wuan ayolave;
Jukun a Tiv kpa mba zuan ga,
Mba nanden wuan ayolave.
Ingila Bibilo vande ôrun:
Kwase a nom kpa mba zuan ga
Wan a ter kpa sha zwa la eee.

AI. 77
Ne Hee Ve Ityô Yam
Mnder
Ne hee ve ooo!
Ityô yam ôn mba Gar‟ aee;
Ne hee ve ee ityô yam ôn mba Garaka.
500
Ne mba kever avaan a ityô i shindi a akera kpa sha mi;
Ityav a gba ne er nan ee?
Ne gber nyinya u fan ityav ishôm ngu he‟ inya, Hil Agule,
Tor, kwagh a num tar a doo ga, Gbabo oo.
Mrumun
Mba a ta sha vanger,
Kpa i goom a mi
Man ior i fa ga ye, Ishimaior Tor Biam aa,
Lam zwa Uke kwagh a bee sha.
Se mba M fe ker ga,
Me gba ôrun ier yase i ukase tsô M fa nyi? Gôn Duku.
Kpa M ngu anzungweakaa:
Ambe a de or a nyuma kon.
Ityô yam oo!
A lu ne tee ihyom i ke‟ iyou ne ande a min sha tembe yô,
Ikyurior a se ne zun ôn mba Garaka aa;
Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam –

Ityô na tee ihyom na tsen sha tembe,
Mbela sen ve gedee la.
Ka we a ta inyam u kera nee ura ga;
Cimcicim doo ga Nule Makyur Aca.
***
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor
Biam aooo!
We kpa lam a iya wou eee;
Ga ka doon ze.
501
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo kpa a lam a iya na faafaa;
Ga ka doon ze;
Iya gba usu or pirin ngu ga eee.
AI. 78
Kwaghbula Azege M ngu Yilan We shin Ku
Mnder
Kwaghbula Azege M ngu yilan we shin ku;
Shi due va M nenge a we oo!
Ishima vihim ayange ne ker je M ule zuzu.
M ngu gbuu Tor Ishimaior u Tsofo lu pinen mo er e:
A lu me a gba kwaghbo yô M ôr a Wantor
Kyado a da paam; kwaghbo a de sena zurum a mo ga ee.
Mrumun

Ityô yam ham shosho iyol o!
Tor Msueaan Alu Gumtor,
502
M va me ôrugh we ee Zaki ka kwagh u inyar M ve ga;
Tor a nam kpa me ngohol oo.
Tor Ibi oo M va me me ôr Tor akaa a shin geri Zaki a lu ican viing;
M er a ityô yam dedoo kpaa hingir yongu oo;
U ngu sanen or too nan ngu tômun we ake,
Kpa ka hiin yam M fen e Beba Unzô ee.
Mkem gema yuan nase ve, Aciniya Norum,
Jooji Aciniya Norum
Or u shin Mbaagwa u mnyam cier mo a na ne.
Ayee! Ngôundu u Hambe
Ngohol mo ishima: kwagh u
Kpilighyol oo, Ana kpa va;
Lu vea Mbatinyam, WanMbatinyam kwase nyuma ishima ken atô hemba igbinde.
Ioryem Ikyaave oo!
Angula tenger tar, aburabur u ior hende akaa ga ne kpa
Wan ti vande hendan cii,
Kua WanIkyô Ukaan eee.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!
Cighan wan,
Aôndu tsegha wan na ver a yiman ior;
U er nan-nan kpa u ngu wuan ga

Mato gaase sha min mato hide gba ica.
503
Orti nyôr seeng ; Tiv, WanIkyume lu sen Tiv, Mpuuga Agule Yongu o.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
Ungwa imborkwagh ne ee,
Ne mba Aôndu A ver ne yô aningyô kpe hide nder ve!
Mu da mu da sugh wan u Kura Adasu a nam zege kwagh a.
Nahanga u Bede u Tarkywe!
Ngula kpa ityô na ver a na „pe wuan keng anyam unde sha wan kpa cia ngi ga
Mbaishamhira ndiir a na da yer;
Ve ger akenge a min;
Mba vendan mba vendan Nule Makyur.
***
Tseeyol Kajo Gbermke,
Kaa WanKighir a dan hunden ishima a mo ga ee.
M gba ikpyam karem ve Nande Shawa kua kpam-wan Gôr Shungu;
M ngu zenden a kunya iyol sha tar u Mbatsavazun ga.
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri Nyaga lu keren mo sha kasua Genyi;
M gba gban gban aguve teghlee tsô M yer Adetor,
Kpa lu pinen mo ivaavase er a nenge a mo yô i kôrum i yem a mo sha a na ee;
Nyinya kpaa ngi ibyan ga;
Kyekye kpaa ngi ibyan ga;
Bua kpa a za ibyan he‟ iya u Amindi ga;
M ngu timbir ashe iyol yam, WanAgashua kume sam ver shie lihe gande.

504
Ngula timbir sha kwagh ga; mba keren a ker
U vihin or ga mu za kwagh la a bee.
Kusugh Mnenga oo! or u ke‟ MbaDam
Ngula duran a dura kwagh na;
Yange wen a yilam ishor
Iyange imiôm oo! WanIkyagh Adogo,
We shi kpoughul nomugh eee.
AI. 79
Dajo Mue, M Nyôr sha Mbajirswange…
Mnder
Dajo Mue ee M nyôr sha Mbajirswange,
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri Nyaga kôr gbegba bum er tar u Mbaawam cii,
Or a unde sha kwase nan a mar ga,
Saa wen a mirim imo ve.
Or kaan a ku ga, wan u Tor Sankera
Lu lôhôn ityô na ôn Ngyenev zua teetee
Mba kôndun i ii.
Mrumun
Tor Beba Unzô
Konjo ahiin!
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo Aku ishima boubou!
Tor yav sha peta begha mase kenger ashe werwerwer ee
Mba peer iusa mba shi peer wan u Yaga aa;

Mba esen akôv mba shi esen.
WanYaga kpamkwase mase môngul kaaki!
Kaa er M za oo,
M za wen a nam awanda kwagh shon cii kpa M fa ga, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Kwagh u M fe yô ka he‟ Tyôver u Ninga
Zaki Tyôver u Ninga verem agugu
Man bua u il er M za Uhule a wam atindi:
M de sena teen ikyekye-usu ne ga;
505
M de sena teen bua la mayange mayange ze Ugba u Iwevzer.
Kwagh doom juu! M shir ishima kpa ga;
Mu da shir ishima shin iya u Ishimaior Tor Biam aa.
Wantor Kyado ikyume mena nor, alôm zôhô nor;
Ior i dem akpenger a gbenda Ishimaior u Tsofo mirim imo;
Mirim imo dugh kpaa hide mir ii.
I kaa Gôn Duku u Aligba oo!
M ngu vaan
Angul u Ierve u Beneke ee.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam wa ikyo a mo juu,
Kpa ngu a yilam he‟ iya na ga;
Wan u Vagi lu nyion ishima a na ngbaghngbaghngbagh.
Atôndu Tiôn va ve oo, Atôndu Tiôn u
Kasev ve kumbul wan a min ne a ar ve;
Ka saren mo u nengen a na oo Kenti u Wende.

Likici Agbe oo ishor yaren sha or M ngu kôndun sha zege igbyam Mnzughulga
Agede,
Agede Beeku ka Mbagen pioor,
506
Vea wan u Tor Biam nenge a mo lu sôrun ikyagh veren sha inja.
Kwagh er u bo!
***
Kaacivin Tor Ayati a kaa WanMbatyan wam,
Tule bua kor kor ga;
M nenge he‟ Ageva Nyaku kua he‟ iya u Vande Yongu Abege;
Ka or u Mbabookyo.
Anyam ker or ken mboho ga;
WanPaase M gba van ve eee.
AI. 80
Gbande Gba Imo Shinla…
Mnder
Gbande gba imo shinla ooo!
Indyer ngi yilan agumaior mba Mtsua Gbeji,
Gbeji Ukpaa Cagem
Ayange nenge a mo tsô jingir ityou,
Gema zwa se teghlee,
Kaa er M sura kwagh nan-nan kpaa
M gba iyôu ve, WanAsema aa.
Iti you kôrum mo war a or ze, Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena;

Or u ke‟ Kpav ka adeunee ee.
Mrumun
Kwagh er ve ooo!
507
Har Abyem va vea WanIngyenev ka wan u Zôr Akungwa aa,
WanAkaa Nyagba ngôm ee M ngu zan kpa cian we, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Or a nengem a ikyande iyol kpa me za shin tar u Tii Tii Zôzô
Fawe Agyo oo!
Ankpev a tav ambusu keng-keng Maanyi M va,
M nyôr tar u MbaWar ve, Nule Makyur Aca.
Damera Tor Aza Biam Achileku,
WanMbatyula nderem nena? Mo yô M yaven tugh ze Mnguaor‟ u Makar;
Biam Azege ee,
Benjamin Azege-wan ter na kpe iyevyev a undu wen iyevyev; ngô na saa kende
wan; Aôndu tee
Yem a min ke‟ Peradiso oo;
Tese wen akaa tsatsa lamen vea Ter Aôndu iyol na, kua WanDajo.
Kwagh u kpilighyol oo,
Angul u Ierve u Beneke ee.
Mlanga Adiko,
Ican a mo a mo oo WanAkpenwe M yam ishima ga,
Me gbaa zenden tsô ooo hanma tar, hanma tar kpa or de kulugh atse ga; i kaa Gôn
Duku.
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa M ngu ankpev u tsan won,
WanTsambe ee,
WanAkôsu Igyaase.

***
508
Kwase na Ukan kpe ku undu nom na a wan ka a tsa vaan a;
Or u kumbul wan ngu ga,
Ande Kwagh aooo! Se da kumbul Ande wan.
Un a er kwaghbo he‟ Ugondu yô ma i er a ôr a na, Vande Yongu,
Ma i woo a wua kwase ga.
M da nyôr kunya kôrum oo;
M da nyôr kunya kôrum ee;
U zuan ishigh a WanUkuna juu.
AI. 81
Gbande Gba Imo ngu Yilan sha Akpam
Mnder
Gbande gba imo ngu yilan sha akpam,
Gbande yer Shiim Tor u Kon u Hiinyam u Abaa mirim imo nam agugu tsembelee,
Er M de u civin kule inya, Adôm Agu Tiil Tema,
Wan u Igbinde Deke ungwa ga shin ii,
Ne nem mkurem ga?
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Mrumun
Nor gba ve ooo!
Ior mba wuan asôm
Shin Beba Unzô, ior mba burun a bur nor oo.
Mu kpa mu da tôô icômbu;

Wan u Yaga er ishima wua anor Uke
Kende he‟ inya gadeaa!
Ior num ayem ee.
Dasenda cir sha u pinen
Er ka nyi ikyaa ior i hembe ayem?
Or „Ba Unzô Konjo venda er ka kpan u
Ter na ve woo ye;
Tsô tativ hide yem;
Tsô tativ hide yem da nyôr.
Angol Ikyenge va vea wan u Damagudu,
Kua WanKpev;
Wuhe kôr je kpa kera kôr ga.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Tor Biam
Nenge ikyundu-ior ooo;
Wan u Vagi kpa nenge ikyundu-ukase –
Kwagh ve wa ganden ior.
509
Likici Agbe ee a kaa wan u Koko, imo ngi agher WanKoko:
Or a cihi a cihi tsô nan a due tembe nan a tser a i, Cado Akaaer u Adudu,
Cado Akaaer u Adudu Zaanaku,
Wua iyar yô wua iyar ityev,
Mase sôughun ijôughultyo,
WanSherev lu tan tu shin tembe cieryol jigh…jigh!
Akenawe Shashe Tartu uu nomor u ke‟ Mbakesa per gighirkiki!

Nyôr tar Tiv hingir jighlii;
WanAdi Gever we shi wuam or M nenge. Apeatim Kpaghkpagh Bia Agundu,
Inyamkyume ar ve WanAye Twar
Mou sange a sange ior
510
Mba lamen a min: sange Kusugh Mnenga Ber
Kua WanKyagh Adogo oo; lu ôrun kwagh
Ior mba shaala ga ka akôvul-akôvul Mnguaorga
U Wombu u Makar Agaku se je hingir yongu se je man hingir yongu.
Wan u Hwange ee M ngu yilan we ooo;
Imo yilau ica gba juu Mnzughulga Agede
Agede Beeku M ta gbaka ishima ngi hamen mo.
Vaa u Ngyeke
Or u ke‟ Mbayenge vea WanAtoza aa;
Kwase la puse zeren
Ikyondu maa môngul a mi er nom anyam!
Ande a ityumugh iyange i sagh ke‟ itine due booung!
Kunde Ager Wuhe
U Ashwa M va ve ee, wan u Tor Va
M va ve ee. Atôndu Tiôn,
Begha-or ne kpa yar amar ior mba osugh zun-kulugh;
Kenti u Wende kpa tange kobo ga.
Angule Deem
Deem Ifam Aju tagher vea kwase na u kiriki

Ashebee Ilyu uu,
Gema namben yô Ashebee hemba ior cii.
Zenda Agagu nyôr a ityô na ve
Nyôr a ityô na Mbagir ve oo!
Ka ape ungwan kera ze ee. Ku!
Doowuan Nyajo
Yange ior i de atam ishima ngi yinan mo
Ioryem Ikyaave M vôr gbedagbeda.
***
Wan u Ikyô Ukaan ee Aôndu A verugh;
Yar Kpindi u Dye
511
Ngu tar iyou, iyou tswer or ga kwase na kpa a ta
Shi a ta Tor u Kwaor Akosho
Ahuku ti man nande ikyagh aa;
Nande ikyagh la per MbaGar‟ ga ka kwagh u bo.
Vande Yongu
Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege ka akume man ayajôu;
M ngu sughun WanMbajirswange,
Shitile mba lahan ze, Ugba u Iwevzer:
Or a sena nengen ke‟ na ga ee.
AI. 82
Kpenyie Yeor, U kera Zende Ga yô

Mnder
512
Kpenyie Yeor Adam aoo! u kera zende ga yô ikyaa karugh ee
Va se za nenge tar shin Tyôtim Lanve u Malu u Azagwa;
Tor kaa er i kume icihe: hanma kwase a igyo i nan,
Hanma kwase a igyo i nan;
I mirim imo, Tor Ibi Adabo ooo.
Mrumun
Dwem ker akor da fa nor shin Tyuluv, shin Orya Anyakpa,
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa tume won iyange mile tugh ile, Wan u Gbagir Zer –
Ngula shaven amar a ishôm sha tembe la!
Kwagh doo anjôu sha tar wase,
Kpa se gosugosu.
Or a da kaam Mnder Cagh Mici,
Nyôr ingila kur ve ee;
Wan U Hyande nyôr ingila kur ve ee,
Nyôr a akpam a ôn mba Gar‟ tsatsa or hungul ga
Mba mase kenger sha a mo nyonyonyonyo!
Hanma gbor kpa nom ikya de ga.
Angwe Asen Ahura Adam aooo!
MbaCinge Yegh M hungwa ihyongu yen ne ve.
Wan u Gbôhô nenge a mo tsô a jingir ityou
Er M woo iyol yam yô wan u Gbôhô,
Nule ishima i tam kwe.

513
Ishima Zaki ee anakpishaikpya gba shin igbya you we!
Shin Toruv shin Tyôtim Lanve u Malu u Azagwa
Hen ape Tor a dugh ga la ee.
Hoo ayioo! Ishimagande Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
Iwenkyôn Agena aa,
Or u Shitile ar ve! Kua kpamwan Orhemba;
Mba mase lamen akenge a bo Tor Ibi aee.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala nyôr ve eee,
Wan u Ikyume saan ishigh sha ga, hanma iyange ka a ii or gengee;
Kwagh u igbyaa hemba ga ze ma a ve imo ne ga; lu namben ishor kpa ka ishima i
taver a.
Orya Anyakpa
Amber Doki Imbyarakem mirim imo,
Ikyekye-usu mase hamber ifan ke‟ iyou her‟ tutututu:
Saa Amee a va ga wen a yem a na kengkeng.
Angule Deem,
Iombur-or kpa va amar
Wuha iyol ikyondu i neer we nee gema nambe imo a min sha tembe.
Cirim gbagir
U ica-vingir a kighir angel e;
Kwase na WanIkyurior WanMbasaar
Kpa ongu wada ga ee.
***

Tor Tacia Adieku,
Tar na doo juu
514
Ka we a ndyar iyô kpaa i hingir tsarkyondu, tar doo leghlegh e.
Tor tile he‟ tembe yôô er i haa inya i nambe a nambe ishor oo;
Or a sena ve a ishima i bo her‟ ga, Nule Makyur Aca.
Tile u Amber Doki Imbyarakem kpa rumun sha zwa la ee,
Vea wan u Dura;
WanDura Doki kpa rumun yô M gba van ve eee.
AI. 83
Zege, M Nenge a Gbamwuan lu Van sha Mato…
Mnder
„Bula u Azege M nenge a Gbamwuan Tor Kum lu van sha mato oo,
Lu van vea Wan Tyôkuha Wanza;
M shir ishima ee,
A lu mo a kpe kpa a kera vihim ga M nenge a Yesu sha ashe am;
Ngula, Adoonyumbe.
Orya u Anyakpa ooo u yimam tsô ôô!
Orya u Anyakpa ooo u warem ve ee!
Wan u Gbagir Zer
Yem a mo he‟ tar wou;
M za M za nenge a kwagh;
Mo ku kumam ve!
Mrumun

515
Ihyom yam ne oo ka me a tsembe a yem nyiaan,
Kpa M ngu ilen zwa M sôngu iyol yam ve.
Kurakwaghga u Anyakpa
Ngu a wa ibyôr a posu sha or o;
Kwase na kpa fa;
Ngu a tsua ishôm yô a gber kwagh u ndor keng-keng,
Ishima i yav ye ee.
Angule Deem Ifam Aju zer kenger ior
Gbem tugh ile a min tsô nyôr ahan a;
Wan u Ikyurior kpamkwase kpa va ve ee.
***
Yarkpindi u Dye,
Kur, M nenge a we ga yum iyol kpem, Adabo oo.
AI. 84
Dajo Pav M Hide Ve ooo!
Mnder
Dajo Pav M hide ve ooo!
M za shin Gbamwuan Tor Kpen M hide ve iombur-or o,
Ngu a tser a mo he‟ gbenda kpa a vihi ikyundu sha a mo;
WanMbagen aooo nomugh ya gande ve eee.
Mrumun
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
M va ve ee;

516
Kwagh u yan‟ M ôrun a we la kuma ve ngôm WanAganyi.
Uma wam bee ve; M ngu zenden tuultuul kenden nguhar:
Iyô, tee; iyô tee jo kpa iyô tee ga;
M tem a ican shon nee e;
Kwagh la kondum iyol gboong.
Angwe Asen Ahura
Sha Jeecira nyôr gbuuka gba imo guukuku!
Hide huan viing
Yam televishen gema na or-imoo na ee.
WanUgôr ungwam imo lu pinen or u nan fe teren nom iti,
Sha dwel la oo nan a yem a kwagh keng-keng bunde ga yange ga;
Kwagh shon yô M fa ga aa –
Shin a lu mato ou? Nule Makyur Aca.
Jooji Aciniya Norum Agundô ooo!
M sugh wan sha ikyumior oo.
Mato zungwe wen a wuam or u doon mo,
Kpa ishamhira ndiir a na oo;
Ndiir a na da yer ee.
Wan u Hambe oo M va ve WanHambe,
Gwar ice tsô kpa tsua orya wou sha ityo ga, Ibi Adabo ooo,
Sena vihin ishima zeo,
Kwagh la ka Aôndu aee.
***
Tor Kange Ajev oo
Ajev Kile Gbaka,

Or kaan er huel nômbu ga,
Gaze ma M kaa me….
[…………………………]
Man WanHwange ee
U Mue Ager Nortema
Or u Mba[……]. Mou ve oo!
Anyi-nor kaha
Ôn mba Zenda cir mermermer.
Wan u Gbande va a ikyondu,
Ka we a kenger iyol i durau. WanGbande
Musan i genegh ee,
Gaze ishima ngi vihin Atôndu Tiôn:
Ngôôl heen or ze ee,
WanWende kpa ngôôl heen kwase ga,
Man Mlanga Adiko:
Ngôôl heen or ze ee.
WanMbabookyo
Kunya kôrugh eee.
AI. 85
Ior u Wa Adam Atse
Mnder
Ior u wa Adam Atse!
Mrumun
517

Ikyuve Abari oo!
A kaa wan u Tyônôngu imar ngim ga;
M ngu tôngun zwa
Kôndun sha iya u Banta-wan.
Moave Adi ooo mo M va ve ee;
518
Kwagh a lu yô i nam. WanKuewe kwase lu zenden shin tembe;
Kwase hua iyol mase zenden mungôô, Iorpande
Biam Ala ooo WanIkyume ngbôughum u kurun shin,
M nenge sha abeen e?
Hir kwamen lu van, Abyem Gaga Myaki, WanShitile,
Mo M er na ee ee?
***
Mue Ager Nortema
OrMbatyu ngula ka Babanduce,
WanGbaka aeee.
AI. 86
Atôndu Tiôn Kpe
Mnder
Atôndu Tiôn kpe e!
Mrumun
Akar a na a sha Ugbe kpa sen kwagh er iyange la,
Bee er tar a yôhôl ô.
***

519
Aôndu hungwa shi ura tugh ile a min, Tor Ibi Adabo oo, Ande Kwagh
Kpa kera ngua a mo ga M ngorun ye eee.
Shiim Tor u Kon u
Hiinyam M gba zan ve WanUdende ngôm ô.
Kumam yemen shin inya me za kohol Mko oo;
Ityô yam wa ibinga yum mba Tyôver u Ninga.
Ishima ndôhôl mo a mba keren inyaregh mba he‟ Isherev cii.
Alôm zou ijende a nor ga;
Ishima yam ngi haren mo agaga ishôm,
Ayange me kpe sha kunya aa, Jee Gbabo oo!
Mue Ager Nor
Angwe Dema ooo, WanGbande ngôm M va a zamber,
Lu wen a kuma ior ga kpaa i nam,
Sha iti tsegher. Aôndu A ver Tor
Beba Unzô Konjo kuashi welegida na WanUgondutyev,
Wan u Yaga ishagba ngôm mo i sôngum ve ee.
***
Abyem Gaga Myaki Jooji ungwam mlyam;
OrMbagen mase dorugh van a mato ihyundu maa gemegeme ee,
WanShitile M va ve ee.
Jooji Aciniya Norum Agundô ngula yav iyav i inyamkyume,
Penda gbem sha ave mase kenger
Sha a mo gbuagbua; Ngôundu u Hambe aooo!

Nomugh a wuam eee.
AI. 87
Mlyam sha Ku u Atôndu Tiôn
Mnder
Kwagh aooo!
Zege ivav gbam gbam ke‟ ishima je M ngu tool Angul u Ierve u Beneke ee.
Atôndu Tiôn kpe undu WanWende,
Ngu vaan zenden tembe zelôô;
Kwase nyôr a dankaba ve ee.
Indyer i gbe imo shinla gidigha-gidigha,
Ôn mba Tandyer nam kunya –
Imo ne kpa duem ishar eee.
Mrumun
Torkange Ajev ooo Ajev Kile Gbaka,
Kwase wou kpe kpa M ngu a zua
Ishigh a we ga ooo, ma M ve kpa Zenda Agagu kwase na kpa kpe ee se mba a
mlyam ashe cii.
520
M lu wan ayange mo vea Atôndu Tiôn nyiaan;
Ada sombum sha ikyuusu-byem ee ve M hidi ye.
Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen gba teman
A mlyam ashe jajaja, M pin yô anngô na ngu ga.
Atôndu Tiôn aoo ka han u yemen ve u lu lôhôn mo ga?
Use Mue Azer Adi Nyam,

Kpa wan lôhô ga;
Zaki Tyôver u Ninga,
Kpa kpamwan lôhô ga.
521
Ma u gba num a mo kpa ma u lehe Iorpande Caha vea WanKur aooo!
Ma ve tem ikyughul, Nule Makyur.
Ape u ze la waren sarem mimi, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!
Anula Gbande Nako ooo! tar kuven ave ashe ee.
Wantor Tyôshaôondu ishagba ngôm mo M ngu kaan we,
We vea wan u Ikpyavyungu Mata:
Ijende yam yem kendem oo,
Atôndu Tiôn nyôr,
Ôr mkehem a haa ityô na.
Mba maa kuran iuu,
Udorugh Nyam Dabul ke‟ Kendev e.
Ngôm WanMbajirswange,
Ishagba ngôm ka kwagh u a tserem a shawon je ne,
Eee.
***
Tor Beba Unzô Konjo Aku Tor ishamabo lu van mo ku,
Man Asaaryana Yaga aa;
Yenge kwagh nam M ya M kpe a mi ken uya ee.
Mu za me za ôr mba shin inya kwagh wou, Adôm Agu Tiil Tema;
Mase shin ka kunya M zenden a ven ye, Gôn Duku.

Jooji Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
522
Orasenge wen Atôndu Tiôn mba shin inya kôr yem a min
M ngu vaan aa;
Sen Dajo Pav, orasenge wen ne kange kwagh gemeen;
Mase yemen gemeen;
Ageewua Tor oo,
Anningyô ngu ze ee,
Gbabo oo.
AI. 88
Ngyeke Va sha Kwagh u Geman Akaven
Mnder
Vaa u Ngyeke!
Mrumun
Agir Tough shin MbaDam
Va sha kwagh u geman akaven oo, Gôn Duku;
Lu vea WanAto Mdenga
Shin mato gba karen zeel,
Yilan boki na u ishima,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke;
Er a kar oo,
A kar ve a za sugh Musa-wan.
Ciaman u or i ke‟ Gongola,
Tema vea Tor Anduru Tsukwa,

Tema mba ôrun kwagh sen;
Ior ne hôm tar ve tsôô!
Kurakwaghga Anyakpa.
Ma M za nenge jo kpa M ngu a kwagh u zenden mi ga. Tor Ukaa Ikyuan or
Mbagbesaku,
Ungwa mase sen murmurmur.
Kpe ahiin!
Ukura u Madugu,
Kansula M zamber,
Yenge kwagh nam ee, Gbabo ooo.
Nahanga u Bede Akutô Tor nyôr shin ii?
523
Kwen a shi yilan Ngukpen Kunde wan va amar a.
Iorkyaa u Kpan Adi sha Mbaikywe!
M kera nenge a Jooji Kum ga;
A yar ke‟ ityev shin ii?
Shin a yem a yem Anaca aa?
M kera nengen a na ga. Tor Mnder Cagh a,
Kaa WanHyande a mou sha M ngu yemen shin Mbajima ee;
M ngu yemen Mbangool he‟ iya u Use,
Use Wan Nyam Mtsôr Agule aooo!
Wan u Dema kwase nderem nana?
Hôngul-hôngul
Ngu a mo; ka M shi zamber ior ningir: mba Tyôver u Ninga

Or MbaGar‟ ityô you soou je gande ôrun;
Imo ngi gbe teren or ze, Adoo WanAveil.
***
Ishima Zaki eee wasem nen Aôndu aeee,
M da sugh Iortyer Musa.
Or Mbayenge ngula ka tor-tor,
524
Ken ashe kpa wan doo ashe kenger gande,
Ieren kpaa ngi tsembelee,
Kuashi kpamwan Kwaza.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
M za Waka kpa M tser a Adabo ga; M yem shin Anguwan Maramara,
Kpa M tser a Adabo ga;
M za Kororofa,
Kpa M tser a Adabo ga;
Mo kpa iyam bee ve:
Ku yilam M rumun;
Ku yilan M rumun uu.
Tor Ibi u Adabo,
Haan mo ahu,
Tor M gba van ve eee.
AI. 89
Imo-mirin i Kunde Ager
Mnder

Kwagh kohol mo ve oo!
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko ngu yilan mo he‟ iya na er un mir imo yam;
525
A dugh fele da kaa Tor u he‟ tar na Iorshagher Shiriki,
Ngu a ian ga kpa a tindi kwase na u ishimashima Wantor,
Wantor Ayati ngula van la ee.
Urum! Tar ngu gban ee,
Aôndu kper ikyer gburututu.
Ior i ver ashe ve a nenge kwagh u kpilighyol aeee.
Mrumun
Tor u Kwaor u Akosho Zaki mo ka mnyam ma lu cier mo ye ee, WanMbashor Amam
aa;
Ior mba nyen M zenden a ve cii ve nyôr uya;
Mbagen kpe a kpe;
M ngu zamber heregh tsô.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko! M za he‟ iya na kpa
Wan kperam a kpera ishôhô, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Sarem u lamen a Iba Kaatyo man WanMbaiase ve za verem
Sha Apeatim Kpaghkpagh Bia Agundu;
Udam mba cirin mo MbaGbande mbam cirin gbem ee.
WanAye Twar,
Sagh mou man u gbidyem a min ye; sena gbidim sha anyakpa ga,
Kera kpa M zurum nyôrun.
Ka an a za kaam Ikyiva Ura kuashi kwase na oo? Sarin Ashwe,

526
Ve da ungwa er M lu zamber a tar kpa tar ungwa ga aa.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa kua WanAganyi,
Ityô yam er a mo „pe shin mo. Ageewua Tor
M ngu anigbian a we ga shin ii,
U kaa a wan u Vagi we a yimam ga? M ngu anigbian a we sena eren mo ican ga.
Mbagenev yô u pinen mo kpa bunde ee,
Tseeyol Kajo ooo WanMbapuu Biam
Kaa loho a mo oo er M za M za tôngu ityou.
Ajo ooo,
Unumbe Ajo ooo,
Orhemba Cia Burya M ar ve WanMbatinyam aa;
Wasem nen Aôndu aee. Anula Gbande Nako oo,
WanMbayenge za han a? Ve M shi aver zwa sha ior a u zenden
Me M ngu gberen amo? Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen kwagh er e;
M tese ior amenge ke‟ zwa kumam ve, Gbabo ooo.
***
Josef Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
Inyamkyume i ongu wada ga kua wan u Orhemba:
Aôndu ka un a kume kpa a ta; Cieve u Tsavbee Muri kpa va amar,
Lu vea WanMbabookyo –
Mba kuhan karen wuhe saa virvirvir!
Mba kuhan karen a min, Jee Gbabo ooo.

AI. 90
Mlyam sha Ku u Ngô u Ayagwa
Mnder
527
Kwaghbula Azege M ungwa indyer hungwa imo ke‟ Ipav,
He‟ iya u Tyoor Takema;
Indyer la warem shin ee.
M pin yô er Ayagwa ngô na saa kende WanIdoma,
Karo‟ oo!
Karo‟ shi kumbul nomugh ee,
Vea welegida
WanGaav a;
Huan nen ee, Jee Gbabo ooo.
Mrumun
Ageva Nyaku oo!
We a nenge a mo ga kpaa M yem a imo M ngu tôngun ityou ke‟ Ipav,
Ke‟ Jemngbagh,
Sha ku u ngô u Ayagwa Cia;
Aôndu amimi la jo kpa sen
Sha wo u ken Mkar,
Lu ôrun kwagh er a ii kwase na leghleghlegh.
Ôn mba Nev ger ikyuu!
Er ve a ta atse
Ve a nande naagh sha min man a ii kwase ye, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!

Aôndu ta Agidigbe;
Ikyume due zaratata.
528
Ikombu-biam hungwa sha wuna ve ee, Gôn Duku.
Azeaze Lim, Dôkutô Azeaze Lim va vea wan u Avaan a,
Ku ne yar a yar je!
Ngu za nan itiôn-taav ke‟ tebul vea Datso Awav Adugba;
Shi huam ikyondu iyol ve (er M tav ga yô ka me a kar i tôvum sha hwange a),
Er M vaan ikyu a min, Nule Makyur u.
Madam Ashitile,
Wankwase ke‟ Mbatierev
Ngu yemen ku ke‟ Ipav –
Aôndu wa ura
U nôô ior i posu akondu shin u kua a kua ijande.
Iornumbe u Abeke huam ikpya anyam
Ga M ngu dyelegh shiashia –
Kunya kôr mba Mkohol Ivase, Ivase Chichi Agbe ee ka or Mbayiôn Ikyor;
Ku ne hingir amar shin M ongu kwagh
Kuhan he‟ iya u Tyoor Ayagwa: mba genev mba kuhan giranyi – WanIkyôive ooo!
Nyiavaa we shi hide ee;
Kpa orti venda va ga seeng;
Ngu jingir ityou wen a za kohol
Ior nav shin inya.
Culecule M zamber kpa

Ngula yemen la…
Pili-ii tsô a uve.
529
Mo gbide ikyondu ityô me mou me yem aniyaa tsô;
Ingila kpa bee ve ee.
Nyôrun yam iya ze oo! me za kohol icighan wan Dyorugh oo,
Dyorugh Akaaka!
Lu vea kwase na Wantor u Shongu man Hajia Udookwase,
Wan Tijani Agôvul tser sha tar cii,
Lu vea ijende na Mzamber Waji oo!
Kômishina va shin amo a hee gudugudugudu,
Ngu yemen ku ke Ipav ke‟ ice Ugô;
Poloshi yisa gbenda, M ta gbenda M tile shin akpa-igbyudu.
Me me nenge a na tsô hembam ve;
Kua foto na tsô kpa or nam ga;
Alahaji Mukaara eee.
***
Doomo u Nyagba aooo!
Ka u lun ke‟ iyou la M soo ga ye;
Me due ke‟ won tsô me kaha ikyenge.
Chive Kaave ngu a fam ga;
Mo kpa M ngu a zua ishigh a na ze ee.
Zege Igbyam Akange Ikyagh Bashi,
Or Ukusu, M ta gbaka ishima ngi hamen mo.

530
Tyôapine Vembe Alum sha MbaDuku oo, M va ee.
AI. 91
‘Bula Azege M Nenge a Amishi Ugô ga
Mnder
„Bula Azege M za kpa M za nenge a Amishi Tor Ugô u Igbyudu ga;
A da kohol we shin ii?
M nenge a WanNyam Tseke tema lu viing,
Lu kpiren akaa he‟ inya; M sugh je kpa orti bughum zwa ze ee,
Lu pinen WanKyegh:
A lu u tee ishima i ke‟ ityev u kur a min,
U ya kwagh u na or ze ee;
Me ôr a lu ie yô i pine Dôkutô Bosua Uga ee.
Mrumun
Ma M wer a ishima yam kpa me war ga;
Yange Malu Bawa lôhôm zende vea Kinabo u Shondu shin guma ase nyiaan,
Kpa me ve tile Kurakwaghga Anyakpa a wam amar
Tar u ungwa cii;
Kpa a timbir yum yô ishima yinam ve;
Ka we a tsa yum u hee.
Ishima Zaki ooo ican yô i hoo ga;
Ka me a yav kpa ishima i yavem ga; i hembe nyion tugh cii.
Likici Agbe, Agbe ityô yam mba kor wan ga;
Nôngu a mo shien wam kumam u yemen kohol Mko ee;

531
Jooji Aciniya Norum Agendô Andyar, M gba van ve ee.
Ter a ilim; WanHambe ngôm ka „pe i tserem ne.
Tyôver u Ninga,
Zaki Tyôver Ninga oo,
Tor shi yua mato nam ee.
A lu u i tsenen kpor a min la kpa i nam mo za tese
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa kua WanAganyi kpa ve nenge ishima i lum leghlegh.
Angol Ikyenge,
Ikyenge nenge a mo tsô a yem idyu i tumen vea ijende na Ageewua Dugwer Tor
Biam a;
Wan u Damagudu nenge a mo tsô a yem idyu i tumen vea ijende na Wan u Vagi
ooo:
“Amee va a er a na nena?”
Iba Kartyo lu nônguin u wuan iyol o.
***
Mnguhenen Tor
Badageri a kaa or yô nan a mou sha Nenger Utim Gile Gisa inyamkyume ingila mo
M cian wen ee;
Veror Bamun oo,
Agirkwa za han a?
Ve M lu zenden ave WanKyekye a korum iyol;
Ican ka kwagh u wan ndor a mi ze Adabo ooo.

AI. 92
532
Azege, Ugô man Ngyeke Nyôr Ihyungwa Imiôm
Mnder
Kwaghbula Azege, Amishi Tor Ugô u Igbyudu oo, man Vaa u Ngyeke!
Ior ne nyôr ihyungwa imiôm vea Adôm Agur Tema;
Kwagh hembam ooo!
Veunô Alya
Kpa ityô na ta ombul a min inya –
Ngula zunezune la, Gôn Buruku Duku;
Mo kpa M ngu zenden kpa ka ikyôvugh, Igyohia Butu,
Kanshio u Kpen ee, mba shin inya kôndu ve Wantor Biam
Va ku ne shi ii
Ior i tan ônuv acin?
Mrumun
Ihyom yam ne ooo!
Ka me a lôô ijôndugh kpa ki gba inyômbugh;
M lôô ijôndugh yagh ke‟ Mbayenge kpa Aôndu venda;
Ukaave u Tsua
Kpe ku ke‟ Mbakyav ve!
Vaa u Ngyeke,
Ngyeke mtôm-nyam kpe tur ga;
Nor kar ayem M da zôr tur ve,
Tor Agwaza oo, Zaki kaa imo i due sha;

533
Anom a ke‟ ijime ne doo kwagh ze ee, mba zendan Gôr,
Gôr Yiyee lu wan ikyura kpa zuan ga.
I za kaa Nule Makyur,
Ziki Nor aboki, boki wam ee.
Ioryem Ikyaave oo!
Angula kpa iyongu-tser-ga ngi a na zanzan gbem;
Wan u Ikyô Ukaan ee,
Nomugh yuha ishima ken atô gande ôrun;
Hemba idyelegh girgir: Aôndu u Maakye ne vihi kwagh juu.
Tor Bede Akundô jo kpa ungwa rumun,
Kaa er M ôr amimin;
Ape mba i er a la ga ee.
Tor Agbabee Kajo oo!
Zaki Tor de gbe wer a tar ga;
Kohol ne Yeke Bôgô sôr nen tar,
Tar u doo:
Ancôvul kpa a tsa tembe;
Mba karen wegh ke‟ ijime kpa ve de.
Mande Agboughul ungwa lu sen,
Zua ishigh a mo tsô se je kaa ikyenge,
“Amee Ijôr‟ aoo!
Amimi u ngu anpaseakaa; mimi u ngu anzungweakaa”.
***

Orban Jan ar ve oo!
534
A va ku u umbur boki na or Mbayenge, Vaa u Ngyeke
Nyôr aa Mbatinyam suuluu;
Ve wa nongu er ka agase a,
Mba yiôn i haa inya a nenge a nenge kwagh.
WanAto Mdenga shar he‟ inya lu vaan
Yilan nom na ee,
“Icôvul i ter man i nom kôrum ve”;
Kpa Aôndu nyer ze, Ugba u Iwevzer.
Tyônem Ikyôhô kpa va shin ii?
Tor wuha iyol tswam hua ijôu-mkir,
Mase gohon zende er wananyam a,
Lu vea wanTabar u Kaki lu ôrun kwagh:
Tar u MbaImbyarakem yô,
Iortyer Tor Musa tema yande la gang;
Ken iya yô M mande a mande imande je;
Kwagh ngu eren Imbyarakem ga,
Mba wuan ior
Kpa mba zendan ikyontamen. Damera Tor o,
Igbya you mba wuan kwagh u bo;
Mba timin igyumior oo,
Iormanger Amonko, Amonko ungwa rumun.
Kwagh mimi kom ee Ibi Adabo oo. Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke

535
Ka me a nenge a we M umbur Tor Vaa u Ngyeke tema ke‟ mato oo;
Sôôn duen jo kpa gba viing,
Tsô M ngor mlyam;
Aôndu nam kpa igyuve ngohol.
Tyoor Gber Ifan
Teeshagba oo ne mba kuhan mo adidiagenga kpa kwagh ga, Adoo WanAveil.
Iorwa u Wouku!
Anigbian na u kwase kpe;
Bee er a ii ga,
Kpa M ngu a zua ishigh a na ze ee.
Ken iya wam kpa ka côvcôv:
Hanmayange ka M ii or gengee,
Hanmayange ka M ii or gengee.
Cieve u Tsavbee Muri ooo!
Vaa u Ngyeke kpe kpa u ngua vaam ku ze eee.
AI. 93
Ikyôr Yam ngi Doon sha Ayôôsu
Mnder
Kina Shondu kpe M ngu vaan!
Kwagh hembam Atôndu Tiôn undum;
Ikyôr yam ngi doon sha ayôôsu:
Anorhyundu tema sha gbenda nenge a or lu van a ake;
Nenge a or lu van a ishange;

Nenge a or lu van a ikyer ee.
Orhyundu yua gbou gba gbiden or:
“Shi u ngu van amar;
U ngu wan tswen shin ii?”
Ior num ahan mba sen, Vande Yongu o;
536
Ne mase kaven ke‟ ishima o, Jee Gbabo oo.
Mrumun
Aerga u Gum Anar Yawe
Shie ku iyol er ka kpagh yô;
Mba uman ashe he‟ iya na ga:
Hanmashie ka mlyam,
Hanmashie ka mlyam ku! WanMbatinyam vaa je kunya kôrum ee.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala ooo!
Or u sha hunda kpe mnyim ga kpa mo yô M ngu nôngun u kpen;
Kwase a kpe kpa ne kpaa shin ii?
M nenge M kaven ga, Zenda Agagu idyorugh orakombu!
M ngu yemen ku u Tor
Musa Agbe Cafa aoo!
Tor sule sha use indyer i kaa;
Gbagede gbide na ian ga;
Tor tema sha kujira panda ityou sha nom anyam;
Haa angahar sha peta-begha; kwagh
Er ve ooo!

Aye! Mba peer Tor
Musa sha tumbu uu, Nule Makyur.
Tor maa iya na ooo,
Ka iya u ibyabya;
537
U nyôr keregh daang un a kurau tou, kwagh
Wam a lu sha min ga; M kaa ne M de ee.
Iortyer Tor Musa Yongu
Nyôr a ajav uya mase ôôn akônduakôndu eee;
WanMbatyam ngor mlyam inya i tenger
Nyôr shin awen a il,
Angul u Ierve u Beneke.
Veunô Alya nyôr ve oo!
Lu vea boki na
Vaa u Ngyeke man Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke;
Mba za kumbul Musa-wan.
WanAkombu lu vea WanAto Mdenga
Kua Kukighir Baki,
Mba da kumbul WanMbatyam aa.
Kwagh er iyange la doo kwav ga aa;
Tar tenger je bee er ka hwembe yô.
Maakyee u Shazwa kpa va vea Wantor u Tyôndu, aburabur u ior hende akaa ga ne
kpa
Wan ti vande hendan.

Gbabo oo,
Kôrum kpan sha akombu oo.
Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee,
Ngôm WanMbaura nderem nan ee?
538
M ngu kuan senen shin MbaImbyarakem Ziki Nor aboki,
M va ve oo,
Kpa me gba zan tsô.
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa
Shi verem M da nenge inja i Tor Musa Yongu aoo.
Ande Kwagh ku ne yô M vaa a an wam ee?
Ku ne yô M vaa a an wam aa?
AI. 94
Zenda Agagu, Zenda Mandaki
Mnder
Zenda Agagu M va ve oo!
Zenda Mandaki
Kaam Doowuan Nyajo
Ijombu a unde ikyon kpaa ijombu nyagh acikpado Nule Makyur Aca;
M kpen civir
Ujijingi me ka ior oo.
Chif Udorugh Ada oo, wan u Gyusa we shi ungwam imborkwagh ne;
Ityô yam mba kaa, Vande Yongu,
Kon môm ngu lu ikyô ga ee,

Tor Hil Agule, kon môm ngu lu ikyô ga ee.
Mrumun
Apeatim Kpagh oo!
539
Kpaghkpagh Bia Agundu nyôr tsuaar tsô undum a ngô ican ne,
Orya Anyakpa
Amber Doki Imbyarakem
Kpaa mbatugh kôr sôngu kende Ngueku M shi vaan ye;
Ageewua Tor Biam kpa
Ngu vaan ku u ter na.
Wan Mbagen a mem mlyam vaan a;
Ku yô ka idyako: or tsôrun ze eee.
Use wan Nyam A-
Gule aoo, Zaki kaam WanDema yô a mou sha
Tar ngu nôngun u gban;
Yenge kwagh nam M ya M kpe a mi ken uya ee.
Sen Dajo Pav
Nyôr a ajav uya kighir sha ishima!
Ka me a pine kpa a ungwam ato a kulem a kule wegh tsetse:
M fa me zege kwagh er u bo ve;
Tôôm-wan due iyange i kar miren.
Ngu a senda a tume sha guma u ter na Dajo Pav;
Shi a senda a tume sha guma u wan u Azagwa,
Kuashi Mbaseer ee.
Aerga u Gum Anar i wan an ve igyo a vughul kungul he‟ iya u Dajo Pav
Er M er nan, Nule Makyur Aca?

Kwase kpa ka ilyagh ee;
Wan kpa ka ilyagh ee;
Anigbian kpa ka ilyagh, Gôn Buruku Duku.
Veunô Alya nyôr ve ee,
540
Tyôba-wan nyôr yô nomgbande tôndu iwa;
Mbela mba tse a asôm ave er ve dondu ken Udam,
Lu vea kwase na Mtilve u Iorbo,
Wuha iyoltswam puse ijôu-ikyondu;
Ityô na mba kuhan a kuha girinya,
Orhemba Cia Burya, Burya ahoo oo,
Gbabo oo.
***
Tsenzughul u Kur Torhyande Tsa
Ngula ka tinge bagu u tamen
U zenda nan-nan kpa u ya ruam sha mke;
M man M de iyol i nyion, WanDajo Gir.
Tiv mba wuan ayolave,
Or ka ishima, Ngueigbya u Pila Hinda,
Kwagh u a erugh la M ungwa jo kpa,
Ikyu ngi a mo m-mem ngu ga, WanIkpyajôu,
Sena yuen aa mo ga eee.

AI. 1
541
APPENDIX B
THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF AMEE IJÔRPO'S POEMS
Zenda Agagu should Tell Daughter of Mbatyula,
Call
I will be coming oo!
Zenda Agagu should tell Daughter of Mbatyula,
I have come Doowuan Nyajo.
The Tiv are gathering their aya tried yam tendrils [in readiness for rainy season];
I have overstayed at the outdoor evening relaxation [so] I will catch a slave in the
house of Nor Adiôgô Gumtor.
Daughter-of-Jabi should wrap [meat] in a leaf for me that I would take away ee;
I have not come necessarily for money,
But if any one gives me I would collect oo –
Thou Alhaji Mukaara ee.
Response
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo aii!
Zaki the Chief headed this way for my song with tears in his eyes;
[His] heart was bubbling with blood [for action]. Asaaryana Yaga,
Now had to start calming her husband down ee;
The husband too now had to start calming his wife, Nule Makyur.
But I will not talk of that anymore; I have got a letter of blood

From Cieve of Tsavbee Muri
542
His clansmen have gathered altogether, waiting for me oo,
That I should go so that they would mix dance.
The children of Ijir are iyou-kor wild bees oo,
The children of Mcaa are inyamazôu sprites‟ meat:
They do not like shame like other people.
My sun has emerged ee [my day has come],
Chief Bosua Uga should tell Daughter-of-Abaver:
Your maternal kinsmen are killing me;
Right in your presence your maternal kinsmen will kill Ijôrpo.
Chief Gbaeren Torugh Korbyaa will not let you go free [if you kill me].
It is the hulugh-hulugh roaming-about with
Which the pig survives that Adetor rejects [concerning me].
She was with God-has-oiled, her husband e:
I happened on Daughter-of-Agashua
On the road, strolling, [and] I asked:
How did your husband wake?
How did his wives wake ee?
How did his money-chest wake?
As for me, it is Poverty that has burnt my house, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Luck granted that I met Michael of Shazwa; [he] was with Daughter of Chief
Tyôndu in a motor car o;
I am rushing to them: the young man should pick me out of poverty Gôn Duku.

Iortyer Chief Musa Agbe Cafa oo!
543
Has the Chief arrived that I am hearing [rushing footsteps] gudugudu?
Aza of Gaase too does not have a good heart.
Mue Ager Nortema,
Daughter of Gbande has greeted me but I am yet to hear.
Moave ee!
Iorhemen Moave Adi Baaka!
Man from Mbatyam is about to arrive.
He was with Daughter-of-Mbalihô, [and he] bought a turumi [gown], for me,
Mcivga
„Civga Kang!
Kule Nyakpa was speaking a thing,
Saying that when I return I should visit him for a familiarity call ee;
He would give me a surprised package oo. Angol Ikyenge,
Ikyenge Avii Tyav, ask Daughter-of-Damagudu [whether] I should go or should I
not go?
The children of Gbeji‟s hearts angered within them ee:
Tsua Gbeji Ukpaa Chagem
Ayange oo [he] was with Daughter-of-Asema, they have beaten people
In this song and have taken the pot [to go and host the next song-party] –
How they drum their way away with it! but Atule Uga snatched it from them
With his wife Lele Ihywan aoo:

The world of the Tiv has returned!
Iorkyaa Aye oo!
544
Since I have seen you, it is now time for me to sing my song;
Daughter-of-Azege Zômun
Too does not last in the sheath
Like Angul Adem Ifam Aju.
Angul Adem Ifam Aju oo,
The man gave me a cloth
The cloth has stripes on it like a he-tiger,
Daughter of Ikyurior, aeen-bravo to you people!
Nahanga of Bede Akutô, tell Daughter-of-Mbatinyam
I am greeting you Daughter-of-Kunde;
Toryila Zôzô too has come with Daughter-of-Ukum oo.
Daughter-of-Ucha arrived dressed in a cloth on which Takuruku sits smiling
werwerwer!
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri
Hosted a song-party for me;
All peoples became my enemies [out of envy].
But money finishes, it is man that does not finish ee.
AI. 2.
Proceeding to Go and See a Young Man at Mbakumba
Call
Here I proceed to go and see a young man at Mbakumba oo:

Cieve of Tsavbee Muri.
545
That inyamkyume wild beast! I dread him ee;
That inyamkyume wild beast! I dread him ee.
Even in looks the scion is too good to behold.
His character too is neatly in line!
Daughter of Gôgônongu Kpam oo, I have come ee;
Come and welcome me. I am with my wife Adoonyumbe,
Nobody should delay me.
Baka oo, Chief Ibi Adabo oo, Ande Kwagh
Too is no longer with me for which I mourn ee.
Who would help me a?
Response
The-lion-does-not-fall-in-a-trap has arrived ee:
Alhaji Tajar aa!
[He] was coming with that his most senior wife:
How the world is turning about jingee Iorpande
Biam Ala oo was with Lahadi
In a brown motor car.
Has Madam Charity arrived
That I see a motor car lioon?
Heading over there
To the land of Tyôsugh Tyônem,
Where even when you step on a snake it turns into a rag.

546
The scion came out and was announcing a thing;
Accurately accurately, he went that way and sprang to this way.
Every time
* * *
I keep showing people the tartars in my mouth in the name of singing dance oo;
Help me for God‟s sake aee.
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri oo.
The Lion has torn the net and emerged ee.
The brash-scion was with Daughter-of-Mbatyam aee.
AI. 3.
A Shenshen Mark has Turned to Leprosy
Call
A shenshen mark has turned to leprosy oo;
I reached to the centre [of the plate] for my gruel in the house of Tsavbee
Muri, (where
Pigs feed on chicken) and Daughter of Agashua –
Am I not a sibling to you?
Do not take [my troublesomeness] to account,
If you leave me alone you husband will kill me ee.
Response
Kwaghnzughul of Naakyo oo!
I am calling you by the ford agitatedly that I should be ferried across;
Else I am tired oo;

547
[And] one who would save me I don‟t know,
Except you, Daughter of Mbalam aa;
Show your heart let people see; after all your heart is not deep,
Angul of Beneke ee.
Amishi Chief Ugô of Gbyudu is not around, who will lead me to go to Mcaa‟s
children?
To Cieve of Tsavbee Muri the inyamkyume wild-beast,
Ande aoo,
He desires [to do] a famous thing to me oo,
Together with the noble Daughter-of-Agashua.
Orhemba Cia Burya,
God gave me but the igyuve eagle snatched [the gift] o;
Else I would not have been the half-filled one among Garaka‟s children
But I have become the agbenge fake kind e:
Without a wife,
Without a child;
This is all about me that is sitting here Vande Yongu.
Mbanengen Aveil oo,
No one gets beyond the reach of handicap; me too I have got one now.
The children of Nyaga oo!
The elephant-like household called me that I should go necessarily,
I have cried too much for a wife;
I should go so that they will give me a young succulent lady aa,

548
Whom I will be showing [to people] from year
To year oo.
Nyaga‟s children have already helped persons
Numbering up to two or three, I know, Gôn Duku.
* * *
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
You have shamed me among the Shitile; you and Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
As if I have shit on my body.
Kpadoo Dogo,
I have arrived ee,
Nobody will sleep [my song would not let it]; Chief Mnder Cagh a!
Come and you will see this thing among the Mbajirswange:
They only shook their bodies but I am saturated with seeing happenings!
Ishima Zaki, Chief Tsofo has died and returned to life
Along with Daughter-of-Chief-Kyado –
Those [two] are inyamazôu sprites‟ meant.
Someone, help find an ishimbe civet-cat-skin bag for me;
There is too much kobo here for me.
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri hosted me to an anakpishaikpya ceremony.
I carried so much kobo that I developed a hunchback;
Adetor aoo!
I am lost oo Gbabo oo; Nguegbya of Pila Hinda,
Man of Mbabookyo oo,

549
You people are only looking and looking and the world is disappearing.
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe is a man of Mbayiôn ee;
He rewarded my song to the point of throwing away his [now empty] bag:
A bad-skinned thing happened that day.
AI. 4.
Dajo, How would I have Known...?
Call
Dajo Pav how could I have known that the world would be this peaceful?
Dajo Pav how could I have known that the world would be this peaceful?
He was announcing in the loudspeaker
That nobody should mess up at the occasion
Not at all – else they would take him and lock up at Abetse ee.
The Chief has called me so I have come ee.
Kwa‟bula Azege ee:
Response
Hoo ayio ooh!
I saw Chief God-has-oiled e!
[He] was with his most senior wife,
Daughter of Boiue Agashua,
[They] emerged in the arena: ululations deafened ears; how I just went there
petrifiedly
As though I am a fool ee.
* * *

But it is nothing;
Where I am sitting ee,
550
Whenever a thing hits me, I just grab it to my chest straight on ee.
Has Mbazendan come?
Madam Charity has arrived!
The lady slapped her chest
And said all that there is to say in the world.
Aôndu God began to rain without even rumbling!
My noble mother oo; what have I done [to deserve such respect] ee?
Tor Ibi Adabo oo.
AI. 5.
A Horse Dies in the Battlefield...
Call
A horse dies in the battlefield Ande Kwagh aooo!
Inyamkyume wild beasts faced each other today at Shitile, Nule Makyur Aca.
Antyo of Gaji is with his most senior wife,
A scion from Turan-of-the-honey-fetching-axe, Veunô Alya –
See him dancing with a matchet there in the arena!
[He was boasting that] he would cut down whoever [dare] comes into the arena.
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri
Rose and snatched the matchet;
The matchet broke jivajiva.
The scene too serious for me so I ran away;
I got away by gafa eagle‟s knowhow – God saved me ee.

Response
551
How I am incautious! I almost embraced problems from Puu‟s children
In the house of Kule Nyakpa,
The children of Adim shouted on me [in warning] as though it was in trouble.
The man that I do call Mcivga, that man is an anyam-mhmhm tiger– Daughter-
of-Shitile oo!
I arrived at his compound accidentally,
But I met the Chief in dôu-soup enjoyment oo:
Chief Kwaor Akosho,
Tell Daughter-of-Mbashor to come out [to where Amee has arrived, for]
He is not staying for too long.
Anza Gbem from Ngor Atu at Mbatsavazun
[Also] come with Daughter-of-Ugye who dressed in a cloth that fell zeel.
Somebody should tell Tyôapine Vembearum from Mbaduku oo –
(He was with Daughter-of-Kunav,
Her husband too is a Kunav man
That lady too is from Kunav: she should make up her mind for them to
demonstrate [song-rewarding] skills).
Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku!
Begha lion bit the scion‟s hand but the
Scion insists onwards norototo!
It is the heart that makes a man: a thing happens to a man,
It does not happen to a bush animal ee. Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam,

Daughter of Duku Agemaji oo aye!
It is you people that I am waiting for, Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
* * *
Aciniya Norum Agundô oo the man of Ukan has not seen me for a long time;
552
I am in a hospital: I no longer go about, Daughter of Hyande oo!
Vaa of Ngyeke, Ngyeke Agirtou oo;
The man has crossed the sea –
How he waves us good-bye ii;
Till we come. Orhemba Cia Burya,
I will no longer bet with Mbaterem people.
Aayaaya!
AI: 6.
Coming, I am Coming
Call
Coming oo,
I'm coming oo.
Response
I went but I did not see my brother
[For which] I mourn continuously, Dajo Pav oo.
* * *
I saw Shagba Akpam
My dear Akpam practically sympathized with me over the death ee;
Even Chief Beba Unzô Konjo visited me over the death ee;

Even Anza Kule from the land of Tyôkuha Abunku visited me over the death ee;
Likici Agbe
553
Even Agbe‟s scion visited me concerning the death ee;
Atôndu Tiôn,
The noble scion practically sympathized with me over the death ee;
Even Shiim Torkon
Man of Hiinyam Abaa too visited me, concerning the death ee;
I have not seen Hil Agule,
[So] my heart is becoming impatient oo.
* * *
I did not know that my clansmen played the warawara game over me;
Now I have known that
The filled stomach does not pity the hungry one.
My clansmen have slaughtered me with an agagambe raffia-piece;
Ishimaior of Tsofo should be told
[That even] with him around, God has rejected me ee.
Kpe ahiin!
It is no longer possible for me to cry [so] Mko of Ijôrpo,
Brother, just go [peacefully to your grave] eee.
AI. 7.
Calling Mlanga Adiko...
Call
Calling aoo o Mlanga Adiko,

Adiko Gbangir ee
Is it not well with you?
554
[That] I have not seen Daughter-of-Mbaura;
You people have become discouraged about me ee.
Orhemba Cia,
Cia Burya too has turned his back on me oo, Laha Kpan Yakubu,
Daughter-of-Aya oo –
[She] carried an anyam live tiger on her back and was coming on an agugu
motorcycle
Leaving clouds of dust behind. They are celebrating that Chief
Woman on a guitar eee.
Ooo!
Response
Faasema of Tarwa oo,
A promise is a debt oo;
Daughter-of-Aganyi, has the issue turned to dôgôri nonsense?
Ziki Nor friend, I bought patience but
I have now been overcome ee.
Amishi Chief Ugô,
If corpses came back from their graves you would have seen surprises;
But the Chief was sleeping [in his grave]
Kpungkpung, Zaki did not hear anything.
The land of Mbajir' too has joined

555
The worn-out ones, my wife Adoonyumbe.
Wagburgbur the-smoothly-built-one, my wife, this is how the world is.
Song has exchanged itself and gone to Uke people at Mbaadiegba,
And I am standing afar ee.
Veunô Alya oo,
Alya Tyôba‟s scion hosted me to a song-party:
Horses lined up, up to Isherev land;
Even a cow gave birth on the road.
Daughter-of-Akombu oo you people are unconquerable!
Mkohol Ivase.
Ivase Chichi Agbe o! God has matched my blood with yours ee.
Chief Mnder Cagh Mici Karku,
Man of MbaGar‟, Chief I have arrived in this [your] Under-Bridge [abode] ee.
But I have tears in my eyes really because Daughter-of-Hyande has left me.
As I arrived at Alyewe, I began seeing the telltales of when she was around;
My heart boiled with anger beyond compare ee.
* * *
Daughter of Baki saw me and began crying and calling on her co-wife but the later
completely refused coming.
Chief Ukaa Ikyuan, Chief,
How you people have handled the world!
I heard the indyer jumbo-slit-log drum
At Mbawar; when I asked, they said Gbamwuan

556
Chief Kpen and the elder of his compound have died; for which the indyer drum is
rolling.
The Haa-azembe people
All gathered; his father came out from his grave and was announcing a thing:
[That] whoever has killed my child oo,
An old woman would strike someone with her enormous pipe causing an incurable
wound,
But Chief Gbamwuan
Was calling out on Aôndu God ee;
God of Gbayange Atô ee!
God of Ibyaver!
God of Gbegba Dwem ee!
Acoco has already gone,
No one dies and carries the world away
He [the father from the grave] should [forgivingly] just let matters be eee.
AI. 8.
Mourning over Iorkyaa Aye's Imprisonment
Call
Kwagh ooo!
Even if it were death, this is how I would have been mourning for Aye‟s scion ee;
Now that he has only been imprisoned,
I am already eating feces, Daughter-of-Shangev.
When I request for anything from anyone, he looks at me with gbononono
disregard,

557
That I should go and get it from Aye‟s scion.
Pleading-to-be-given-things has hindered my manliness oo:
I'm often bigger than certain persons in both body and heart,
Yet they would be dirtying up my back ee.
Response
I have wandered over all of Ukumland,
But I will not be ashamed;
I will go over to Mnder Cagh a,
Daughter-of-Hyande, Daughter-of-Mbamenaka, do show me the way, let me
reach Mbawar aa.
Once I reached Mbagen at [the house of] Tyôkuha Wanza,
But he died and abandoned me ee.
I next reached Mbafesakum at Zaki Wantyôu Aguu [„s place],
Even Wantyôu Aguu too died and abandoned me ee.
Orya Anyakpa Ambe Doki Imbyarakem ooo!
Song has called you for too long; if it mentioned that a specific reward to be given,
you would be liable to blame ee.
Ngueku too is always sulking e;
Daughter of Gbagir Zer,
The lady too keeps sulking ee.
Kwaghnzughul of Naakyo oo!
Kidam Agoho oo!
The begha-kwase lion-lady mounted a horse,
She alighted from the horse [and entered] into a car oo,

558
And used [the horse] to reward [my song] –
The radio keeps broadcasting the news.
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri Nyaga is a man of Mbajirswange; I keep calling Adetor [his
wife, who] saw me and became koomkokoom confused:
She lifts that and throws to me;
And carries this and throws to me:
How I am [loaded and] going away gongoo! Vaa of Ngyeke,
Man from Mbaavav a.
Whenever the dorughdodorugh rough-and-rugged Daughter-of-Ato Mdenga
sees me in her place,
Even if it is in the night, I do leave that very night.
I have dug and they have opened up;
I have dug and they have all opened up, Gôn Buruku Duku.
Great father, great father Judge Aciniya Norum, as for me, I have not sworn an
oath with anyone:
Even if I am given only a little I will collect:
Daughter of Hyande oo, I am not pricing an airplane, Adoo the beautiful one,
Daughter-of-Aveil.
Mlanga Adiko, Daughter-of-Mbabookyo, Daughter-of-Akpenwe brought down a man
of Mbadwem and caused pandemonium in the ibiamegh ritual hut!
A nor elephant fell and landed on
One fellow there such that he could not rise up at all.
* * *

559
Ioryem Ikyaave Kyusen: an anyam tiger mhmhm!
Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan gave me a cloth, the cloth has a head;
That I should enjoy Christmas with it;
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko gave me a horse in addition to a cow,
That I should enjoy Christmas with it.
Daughter of Chief has no joke about her, she stops at nothing, Igyohia Butu
Ikyamgba!
Nahanga of Bede oo!
Bede Akundô oo.
Ask the Daughter of the Mbatinyam aa,
Am I in shame?
AI. 9.
Lost My Load, My Walking Stick...
Call
Kwaghbula Azege, I have lost my load, my walking stick too is lost oo;
I lost my song on Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko; I am looking for it in
I do jest [for]
vain, Daughter-of-Chief.
People [to] drink msôrum millet beer [and laugh over it] but the man has refused it
now;
I do make fun,
The Tiv burst into laughter at drinking joints but the man has refused it now.
Nobody laughs at drinking joints again ee.

Response
Alhaji oo,
Makaara has gone to Mecca.
560
He has gone to see the grave of Mohammed:
He went over to Jeddah,
Gave alms [there] that God has consented;
He flew and landed at Kano,
Gave alms [there] that God has consented;
Flew and landed at Makurdi
Blend Response: Kpough!
He again gave alms [there] that God has consented with all.
He arrived at Zaki-Biam, his own very town,
And, again, gave alms there: people gathered, even Taratu herself came out:
The most senior wife, Daughter-of-Fulani.
Tyôver Ninga ooo! I am calling you,
You and Daughter of Mbayenge
The world has covered me in acho grass for which I keep mourning all through the
night,
[But] nobody bothers about it ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Would have rescued me but shushushu discouragers are persistent all over him;
How he once picked a motor car to give me straight away
But Nearness stopped him altogether

And Daughter-of-Shitile began
561
To be angry with him with ngbavngbavngbav ferocity!
* * *
When it is my thing, my enemies are joyous to discuss
So that they do not even ask me before going to talk about it;
Some day the ikyungun pest will infest their alakpa yam.
I have not invited anyone to my harvest, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke;
Tell Daughter-of-Mbasar, Daughter-of-Mbatungwaper ee,
Kukighir Baki:
See her coming ee!
Your song-man is worn-out with his drum on the road; Ageewua Tor
Help me tell Alu of Vagi that I do not have a thing to ride about;
[She] should give one of the motorcycles ee.
AI. 10.
I Said I Will Never Mourn But I will...
Call
I said I will never mourn but I will indeed mourn,
I said I won‟t mourn, but I will indeed mourn.
Chief Ibi of Adabo oo,
It is because you are not around that I mourn all nightlong ee.
How will my Daughter of Ikpyajôu be these days?
Already I do not have a big body [how will I look if overcome by grief concerning
her?]; I‟ve been overcome and burst out in tears
[And] Daughter-of-Ikpya Adagba [too]
Threw herself on me such that I fell down with my grey hairs.

Response
Use Gagu oo!
562
I heard that you buried Daughter-of-Chief aooo!
Ku! Doowuam Nyajo!
Do not mourn too much, it is the end of the world.
Chief Tyôver of Ninga,
Zaki, it is no longer time to hold one's breath on anybody ee.
Everyday I do hear of somebody‟s death,
Me too I am on fire ee.
Uhule ee,
Take the key of a motor car and give me so that
When I go down into the earth I will tell Ninga
How things are going on among the humans ee.
The foolish dog told his heart that it is with his skilful looking
That he eats;
The foolish dog told his heart that it is with his skilful looking
That he eats;
Me too I will persistently look [at those eating] and will eat with [my looking] Chief
Ibi Adabo oo.
* * *
Moave Adi oo escort me over there;
Let me go and behold the grave of Iorember aoo.
Tser Igbyudu Angula I have come ee.

Tell Daughter-of-Mbayengeajir
563
[That] the world is about to collapse – have you not seen
That you are trying to cry?
The Lord God has taken away the [actual] world and hidden it in heaven;
We are just managing to survive [down] here, Adabo ee.
AI. 11.
Abyem Should Sew My Head...
Call
I am coming oo someone [help] tell Iortyer Abyem
Gaga Myaki to sew up my head for me,
Else it is paining me for which I am crying.
Response
This gugugudu-restless world of yours does not attract me ee.
I do become friends with some people,
But before long we break up,
Ishimaior of Tsofo, perhaps,
Perhaps, it is due to my character.
But I am not sure.
Or is it because I am too full of requests that people have abandoned me with
Bosua Uga
And Daughter-of-Abaver?
* * *
But I do not care ee.

Mlanga Adiko,
How you people are indignant with me;
564
But you shouldn‟t have allowed your face to fall at me ee.
You should have only told me [my fault].
The elephant eats even a child‟s corn.
Daughter-of-Akpenwe, Daughter of Mbaura
Thinkig it was a Chief, I greeted a monkey in a cave;
But Zaki the Chief did not hear it.
I am saying [this] but not out of the desire to make trouble,
You people have abandoned me too much, that is why I am crying.
Chief Ukaan Ikyuan, the inyamkyume wild beast, begha the lion still has his head
intact.
Daughter-of-Mbaleva oo,
You husband is still around and very very strong too.
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe man from Mbamterev ee;
The scion came in a motor car lioon…
I looked [at it] but was not satisfied with looking;
Someone give me a sokpo iron, let me go and smith a new mouth
So as to go and see him ee.
Noble scion of Madugu, I have come ee;
Daughter of Chief Kyado should please give me a kobo.
How my clansmen of Nigeria have treated the world!

They have embarrassed us; how pitiable!
Ordorugh Nyam aee.
AI. 12.
565
My Clansmen Took Away My Raffia Sticks...
Call
Gbenyie Yeor Adam aoo!
My clansmen took my raffia sticks away thinking they had messed things up for me,
But I rather dipped my mouth on dôu soup in the children of Sende‟s [compound].
Veunô Alya has given me the world and I am eating it with both hands, eating with
impunity.
How Daughter-of-Akombu so treated me [favourably]!
The news spread and reached even the [land of] Uvaamyande
That woman has forbidden me from stealing ee.
Response
Chief Hil of A-
Gule aoo!
Zaki; my clansmen have not held me by the hand and introduced to the world.
[But] Veunô Alya entered into his house and folded a bundle of cloth and came
outside again.
The akôsanger bird perched on the man's head [as a mark of honour],
And immediately gathered itself together.
He was calling me [but] I said he should leave me alone;
The snake that is so long at night is never eaten with only pepper;

566
As for me, he should stop seeking to trouble me,
That matter is not my kind [of thing];
Hôôn! That imatter is not my type [of thing],
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke.
The man stood in the courtyard and announced that my song should be
rewarded,
For the sun is not waiting aoo.
[He] called Kukighir Baki
The woman emerged and began to advance luaa…luaa,
[She] saw me and worked plentifully on my appearance; [she] and Daughter-of-
Chief Biliji.
Angol Ikyenge Avii Tyav
Came with Daughter-of-Damagudu: how drumbeats have fruited forth lowly, lowly!
Udorugh Nyam Dabul aoo!
I want to talk with you but have not been able
I am going for a dance ceremony dressed in an ibyôr loincloth like the Bafum
people.
Daughter-of-Atue my mother, it is to you people that I am speaking.
Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa,
Ngueku sent a message to me;
Daughter of Gbagir Zer,
The lady sent a message to me
That I should go, there is nothing [to worry about].

Iortyer Musa Zaki should be informed…
567
The matter has climaxed, Daughter-of-Mbatyam aa.
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe is man of Mbayiôn, Senior-money
Alighted from his car and took his seat;
His wife [gorgeously] garbed,
Alighted from the car and took her seat;
I want to sing but my lips are getting confused!
Shiim Tor-
Kon of Hiinyam is about to arrive.
I see the sign [of his arrival] in the perendoki escorts;
[He was] garbed in an mkirim-bird skin bag,
He arrived with Daughter-of-Udende,
They have stopped at the outskirts of the compound, discussing
How they will do with innocent me.
Kwaghnzughul of Naakyo Kidam Agoho oo!
That woman ground her heart – mixing potent mtsem potash on it;
[She] carried a motor car sukutun and gave me that I should quiet down for her to
say a thing:
When we leave [the present occasion] we should camp in her home;
When we leave [the present occasion] we should camp in her home.
The woman‟s heart was so full of blood that no one could delay on the road.
Torkange Ajev oo Kile Gbaka,

Song is calling you in the arena.
568
Mary of Gaga Laji, Daughter-of-Mbadwem,
[Her] heart flames byughbyugh; that heart does not quench down.
Angule Deem, Deem Ifam Aju has began to come oo;
If you see him, he looks very young but his heart is not young –
With [his wife] Daughter-of-Kacha. Joseph Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
Man of Shitile oo,
The Shitile are never found wanting; Daughter-of-Igyusa
Bai. Atôndu Tiôn, I am now rolling my way to you, Datso Wav Adugba
Adu' Dyege oo D. O. of Tiv.
Daughter of Mbahile, this is how I am trying to help myself.
Ishan Bede too, the star of Bede heard and was laughing murmurmur,
That I am so lucky she did not bring her machet;
That they do not mention the name of her late father anyhow, Adabo oo,
Otherwise she would cut somebody down.
When my foot strikes anything I do invoke Iorpande Caha
Biam Ala (and Daughter-of-Uva Vaase). I have got a rugged thing [there] that does
not reserve himself:
Even Nguyan has concurred…
How that thing [that he is bringing to give me] resembles a car to me!
A bad-skinned thing happened over there:
Veunô Alya hosted me to a song-party,
Gave me a thing that roars: I should stop bruising okra oo [with my feet], Gôn

Duku;
I should be going about with his name in the world; Ziki Nor [my] friend
569
Was with Daughter-of-Mbatyam, Daughter of Zugu Agaagba –
They do not stay for long before calling me to their home ee. Mue Ager Nortema,
Daughter of Abaandyar is near to arrive,
The ingyuran bird announced it at the road: how she arrives with gighirkiki prestige!
It was too much for me, for which I ran away.
Use, scion of Nyam Agule aoo!
Zaki, my clansmen have abandoned me with you ee;
Daughter of Dema, they have abandoned me with you ee.
* * *
Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
Come and you will see this going-on at Dan-Anacha
So that you would be talking about it, Daughter of Vambe ee.
The he-goat does not go to [...] and return. Ugba of Iwevzer
Tell Daughter of Agaku I have landed myself into trouble, let trouble kill me;
I am with Vande Yongu Abege.
Daughter of Paase oo,
The biinebi insect has flown away with my rope, I am chasing it but my clansmen
are not helping me ee.
Blend Call: What should I do?
Response: Wende Adatso oo Daughter-of-Avenda my mother, what should I do?
Nule Makyur Aca,

Let me just go [to my grave] ee.
Blend Call: What should I do?
570
Response: Wende Adatso oo Daughter of Avenda my mother, what should I do?
Nule Makyur Aca,
Let me just go [to my grave] ee.
AI. 13.
I am Not Sitting Comfortably...
Call
I am not sitting comfortably oo,
Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege oo [he] was with Daughter-of-Paase;
I am not sitting comfortably.
Who will go tell Simon Musa for me?
Aza of Gaase
Come and see how my ribs are showing:
Nothing is in my tummy ee.
Response
How the moon is shining and fit for telling a tale!
Once the asôhô toads gathered together and went to God to be given a Chief.
God took a log of wood and made it their Chief; it was not long after,
That the asôhô toads again gathered; teetee they went and met God oo,
That, “You have given us a Chief,
We love the Chief really but the Chief does not talk so we are not happy ee.”

571
Again, God chose Menasôhô the toads-swallower-snake and made him their most
Senior Chief.
How he swallows them when he sees any! Look at how the world is:
They are now crying for the gungurkon log of wood, Adabo oo.
If you people reward a mad
Man‟s dance with a spear, nobody will be left in the dancing arena.
The world defeated the sheep and it went about with goats so it picked a fresh
grass head-pad but the goats have beaten it up and collected the pad.
With the same mouth, the Mbagbera people have called for an ibyem hunt;
With the same mouth the Mbagbera have cancelled the ibyem hunt.
Iortyer Musa, I have come ee.
Terna called me but my ears are deaf; I do not hear.
Somebody is finding trouble with me;
I am not the one that told him to appear in the newspaper;
I won‟t just be sent away from my own land like that.
Children, boo like in sacred functions, that man is passing ee.
Give me a seat, let me sit and see how Iorpande
Caha will administer the world.
Saremkaan, on seeing me, gave me a piece of advice:
I should not listen to foolish things,
Foolishness has no medicine ee.
* * *
I am pleased with Angule Dem Ifam aoo.

Adende oo,
Chief Ibi aee!
AI. 14.
Elegy for Tor Tiv Gondu
Call
572
I‟d be coming oo Joshua Tor Tiv Gondu oo
I‟ve been hearing journeymen saying that the Tor is not ee.
Tor Tiv Gondu Aluor has gone in[doors].
I keep denying [and saying that it is] perhaps a dream;
I asked so that someone would deny but nobody denied for me to be comforted,
Nule Maryur.
[I] have walked across the river (whose waters reached my neck) to this side ee;
If I go [to his palace] and it is true, I will not return home.
Response
I paid attention to Zaki Ishimaior Tsofo but he only chewed his words;
He has a mourning cloth round his belly.
All of Tiv burst into tears – including even the Mbakuv ghosts.
Joshua Tor oo,
Do not weep oo;
Console the children.
Even the stool that the Tor used to sit on has disappeared,
Disappeared from the dwer relaxation hut oo;
The ndur tree has collapsed that is why the birds are flying away.

Daughter-of-Aligba began to weep,
573
[So that] when I arrived there, I felt pity for her ee;
Is anyone ever too big for the mbatsav wizards [to kill] at all, Gôn Duku?
The Tor had no enemy; women too he talked with them amicably,
Men too he talked with in keeping with their status.
Ahiin! Kwaghnzughul of Naakyo oo Kidam Agoho, the Tor packed his loads and
headed into the ground, even the Udam [people] were in tears.
The Uke [people] too were in tears, “What shall
We do ee?”
* * *
As the Tor died, Tivland also died;
I am lost oo, I burst out in tears and called Kôr‟ Agera,
Kôrshima Agera Kushi oo,
Where has our father gone?
They are announcing that those in their farms should be called back home:
A thing has happened in town that is too bad.
The Tor packed his loads and was heading into the ground: the Udam [people]
were in tears,
The Uke [people] too were in tears, “What do
We do ee?”
* * *
Use Mue Anzer Adi [too],

His very beloved son has died!
574
How bad this year is to me: Daughter of Duku Agemaji has sat on the bare floor [in
weeping mood], I shook my
Head and tears seized my chest!
How the Mbabookyo people have maltreated her!
Judge Aciniya Norum, let us go and pay a condolence visit for the death of Gondu
Aluor oo.
The man left us and has gone
To heaven oo.
AI. 15.
The Stone in Search of the Shin...
Call
A [thrown] stone has hit somewhere and has commenced searching for a shin ee;
I am greeting Vaa of Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agirtou from Mbakyahan:
A colony of deer does not devour; a slave has shot an icôngu fox who will chase it?
With all the delicacy of an icôngu fox, who would chase it?
I am overcome oo!
There is no one to save me ee.
I am waiting for the day the Lord God has appointed for me;
Once it comes, I will go
Quietly down to my grave.
There is none to save me ee.

Response
Chief Hil Yakua Agule,
Zaki, may God judge my case ee;
How my clansmen‟s hearts abhor me as if they would use me to ferment nune
locust beans with!
575
When I am passing, people keep wishing for my meat.
It does not just stop at that, they are desiring to bury me alive.
My matri-kinsmen, [members] of Tombu [district] have not heard,
Or they would have ago to take me away long ago
To go and stay there with them, Gôn Duku.
I am remembering my mother‟s invocative words over me ee:
[She] said that she arrived in Ingyenev [clan when] the Gyenkus were [still] alive,
And the Muewuaze Adums were still alive, repairing the land, and the Torkasuas.
When did they meet her outside at night [practising witchcraft]? that the lion is
trying to devour me?
Is trying to devour me? Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke,
Tell Kukighir Baki that
She should come quickly and pack me to her place,
The world is treating me with hatred,
My clansmen are bad without limit.
It‟s as if my mother was married for threshing purposes.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko,
Poverty is not a disease,

If you see me do not hide;
Do come near me,
And we will both be excited oo.
The true scion of Chief Va,
576
Iorkyaa of Kpan Adi from Ugondu the idyorughor carefree man!
Daughter-of-Udo my mother oo, this is where God has placed me.
Vaa of Ngyeke,
Ngyeke! The scion‟s heart jumped as if he should tell me something [concerning his
hosting me to a song-party],
But another heart is saying no;
Daughter-of-Ato Mdenga, my body has been weakened Mbayenge;
My body has been weakened Mbayenge;
Ku! My in-law, what should I do?
* * *
Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa oo!
My clansmen have a saying
Concerning you and the Daughter of Gbagir Zer,
Song so fits on your body more than a cloth. Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen, the
inyamkyume wild beast
Is doing things in a rough fashion: even yesterday he bought a motor car.
Today too he bought another so that the Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan would be driving
to her farm,
And if there is an errand – maybe it is salt [that is needed] –

577
The car should be used to go and buy salt at Genyi, Nule Makyur Aca.
Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
Whenever I see you, I become like the horse that has drank akase beer-chaff. The
noble Daughter-of-Hambe
Met her hand with mine [in a gift] and my luck was so greatly enhanced [that]
throughout the whole year, I did not know poverty again, Igyohia Butu
Ikyamgba.
Nahanga of Bede oo!
Bede Akundô oo!
Akundô, it is one man that makes another to feel that a dance ceremony was well
attended:
Look for a thing and give me,
You and Ngukpen Igyundu aoo!
Children of Ingyenev ee.
AI. 16.
Shiim Torkon, Man of Hiinyam...
Call
Shiim Torkon, man of Hiinyam Abaa oo,
Shiim Torkon, man of Hiinyam Abaa oo,
The way things are happening with me!
Pick-that-and-come-and-give-me has gone where ee?

578
Pick-that-and-come-and-give-me has gone where ee?
Daughter of Udende began to quarrel with him
Together with his clansmen Mbatyou that they would go to Mbayongu let them host
a dance for me;
Shame is not good.
When Yar Kpindi of Dye laughs,
Response
The whole world laughs and laughs altogether,
When he frowns the whole world frowns too;
My mother Daughter-of-Shitile too has come for this dance and asked me to
present my plea.
Daughter of Zungu, my noble mother,
My head is [heading] deathwards ee;
Send a cloth for me, I have no cloth;
Let me be given so that I would be dressing in it for the time being.
Chief Ageewua
Biam should give his helping hand,
Atôndu Tiôn [too] should give his helping hand;
I have persisted and come up with a dôôl three-in-one groundnut seed,
* * *
Adoonyumbe.
[He] treated Vande Yongu
At the market place in such a [fantastic] way that I keep talking about it;
[He] treated Daughter-of-Paase [too] in the same way.

That man does not give room to excuses; even when the time he sees me is at
night,
579
He [still] exhausts himself [trying to satisfy me],
But my heart is not strong enough [so] I have come back ee.
AI. 17.
Kina Shondu's Death, Tyôkuha Wanza and Akaaer of Dogo...
Call
Kina Shondu has died; how when I think
Of the troubles I am in now, Tyôkuha Wanza and Akaaer of Dogo with Chief Zaki
Wantyôu Aguu –
All these are no longer in my reach.
I am now left with Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa,
But soup that is delicious does not last;
They have finished it ee.
Ande Kwagh my brother ee,
He has left Daughter-of-Gbagir Zer
[Who] is weeping about
With zelôô frustration in the courtyard of the compound.
For me, this is not a good sight;
I pitied [her] ee.
Response
Ugba of Iwevzer aoo!

580
Your clansmen do not do things in a good way;
Daughter of Gbanor aoo!
Your husbands do not do things in a good manner;
[That is why] Chief Mnder Cagh Mici is burning his skin to set things right.
However pleasant the land is, it is because of Daughter-of-Igbinda ee;
If there is celebration, it is because of Daughter-of-Igbinda ee.
Daughter of Baki has kept a whole human being for me,
That [woman‟s] heart is raw, raw, raw!
Wende Datso aoo, Daughter-of-Avenda do send for me in her own rights,
You [too] do send for me in your own rights;
So do I divided myself or what? Nule Makyur Aca.
Ziki Nor my friend,
I salute the world‟s dear scion and repeat [the salutations];
Daughter-of-Mbatyan aoo,
Whenever I befriend anybody, evil befalls him or her necessarily;
It is my ill luck
That has crossed over to you.
That thing is God‟s work aee.
Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee is a man of Mbadwem ee
His household-elder so died that I almost eschewed talking
With the people from that area ee.
Ukaave of Adusa too has tears in his eyes;

His most junior wife is no more, she has gone and her figure disappeared;
Daughter-of-Una was weeping about in [their] compound‟s backyard ee.
Tell Acivin Chief Ayati,
Ayati Yager, I have arrived;
I have arrived so much that the rainbow has emerged in the sky zaratata aa.
Daughter-of-Mbatyam aoo!
The beloved of her husband Bur,
As for me, I am only a drummer of dance;
581
If there is a thing [gift], let me be given so that I would go ee.
Iortyer Chief Musa came with his most junior wife;
Terna of Akpagher has arrived, [hilarious] cries have filled the air.
An evil thing has happened today!
I too am running about with tenantenan unsteadiness;
I had covered myself with a godo cloth: it fell off [in my present flight].
How I sprang in flight and am going about the compound‟s backyard as though I
have gone and collected [witchcraft] paraphernalia [from somewhere]!
Iorwa Adogo oo, Iorwa Uwouku,
'Wouku held the sky and pulled it down that I should climb thereon; I climbed;
What a surprising thing ee!
Daughter-of-Udo hung a lion-skin! I have come to town ee,
I have come to the house of Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe where they excavate cement ee. Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam,
Daughter of Duku Agemaji, I have shot a gbaka python, my heart is restless.

582
Bosua Uga! Was he [coming] with Daughter-of-Abaver at all?
Chief Bosua Uga was with Daughter-of- Abaver, Tyôzendu Igbyawua Zenke;
A lion has stepped on the gado bed; no one should shake his body;
If you shake your body the lion will devour you ee –
He was with Daughter-of-Baki ii.
* * *
Iortyer Abyem Gaga has come for the dance so let me be allowed to thresh dance;
Daughter-of-Shitile oo!
My clansmen are too full of games [so] whenever they make a turn, I too do make
one, Gôn Duku.
Chief Ulamve of Malu has also come for the dance;
People should stop beebebee play and pay homage to the Chief.
A Chief is God‟s finger aee,
Daughter-of-Kule Cakpa ee!
AI. 18.
Ishima of Tsofo, I Missed My Way...
Call
Ishima of Tsofo oo,
I missed my way and people were laughing at me gedee,
But I have come back to the way now, Mkile Daughter-of-Azande.
When certain persons gulp the white man‟s alcohol plentifully,

Plentifully, they begin to deceive me that they would declare a song-party for
Ijôrpo‟s son.
Yet, I do not see a sign [of fulfilment] oo;
How I am in trouble with people ee.
583
The one who pumps the bellows does not do the smithing;
The igbe religious totem once boasted and found itself put on the wuna cornstore
of the ingbianjôu religious objects;
The babysitter does not look after the baby overnight, Adabo oo.
Response
Torkange Ajev oo Cile Gbaka,
How birds have eaten a lot of millet yet they have not raised an ilyum religious post
[for good millet harvest] oo;
Tell Daughter-of-Gaga Alaji,
[That] she should not be angry with me,
I am sending messages through people to you ee:
Look for some bashi brass rods for me ee,
Else I am joining the agbaca [society];
I am overcome by circumstances. Ugba of Iwevzer ee;
Daughter of Gbanor aoo,
Iorwa of Uwouku,
Adogo has sent a message to me oo,
That I should visit him oo I should not be afraid; Daughter-of-Ugô has invited her
co-wives,

584
That I should come so that she would declare a song-party o.
For her to keep hearing
Her name [sang about afar ] for so long is not pleasing for her:
I bought patience but [the situation was too much for me so] I gave it up,
Angul of Ierve of Beneke ee.
Simon Musa,
The chairman has arrived ee Iortyer Musa,
How the idyorughor rough-man has worn a bende amulet over there!
Aza of Gaase aoo, does anyone bet against a mountain at all?
I am having a dream oo
[As if] Use, scion [of] Nyam Agule
Hosted a song-party for me; he with Daughter of Dema: the woman turned a man
into a sprite with only a hold of the hand –
For which I am trembling. I have eaten and eaten and have now eaten a rotten
one. Orhemba Cia Burya,
He was lying beside the fireplace: I wanted to go [and see what was amiss with
him] but someone nudged me
That I should not bother to go: it was a useless thing [that was amiss with
Orhemba],
A useless thing altogether,
It is only the blood [‟s turbulence] in his body oo.
When a thing [that is not so good] befalls your associate, you do go to meet
your face with his [in condolence] aa,

Laraba ee,
I am on my way coming to see you ee.
585
I have broken the Chief‟s spears so my clansmen won‟t let me alone.
Likici Agbe ee,
I saw Daughter-of-Koko weeping and throwing herself on the tumulus of Anaca;
She was weeping and calling,
“Atemba Agbe ee,
Your scion has joined you ee;
He descended earth-under, his head [hairs] still black.”
* * *
Ageva Nyaku oo!
Nyaku Agba have a word with Likici of Agbe:
Let him stop weeping;
Beings do not get weevil-infested [they die].
Even Gbayange Atô died oo,
Cia Cile Tali too died ee,
Aba Kume also died as well ee;
Death has an appointment with all of us humans.
Ordorugh Nyam Dabul oo,
Daughter-of-Atue, do take care of me for people to see ee for when I die, I will not
be able to see [your generosity] ee.

AI. 19.
Song has Become Business...
Call
586
Song has become business! See how they sing it in every village oo! I am tired of
singing ee.
Song is composed in accordance with wisdom, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
Ande Kwagh aoo!
I have come but am at the precincts of the compound;
People recognise the good yam by its tendril.
Response
But I will not pursue that issue further,
Someone go tell Tyôver of Ninga and the noble Daughter-of-Ikyum Kpeese,
[That] since Atôndu Tiôn‟s death, nobody has tampered me with a kobo;
It is [only] Iorpande Caha
That is aware that I and him are brothers, Daughter-of-Gule.
I woke early this morning and went to Ageva Nyaku
But his cow had broken its thong and gone off so he had gone in search of it.
That is why I am returning with a hand on my cheek.
Oh Gafa eagle!
I am now on my way;
Orhemba Cia Burya I am going ee,
It‟s so hot for me;

587
Laraba, I divined but the divination fingered Poverty [as the cause of my troubles].
It is you that will help me out; there is nobody else to save me ee.
My clansmen are butchering a kaka animal:
Nobody cuts kaka meat for his brother.
Angule Dem,
Dem does not remove the mourning cloth form his abdomen;
Daughter-of-Ikyurior‟s eyes are never dry of tears. Adende too burst out in tears;
How he cried and cried
So much that pity overcame me concerning him ee: multiple deaths have occurred
to him beyond measure.
Enmity after me, after me oo;
Someone tell Iortyer Musa [that]
Me too I am going about with a weapon shot into me,
I am at the mercy of the megh poison.
Chief Ageewua Biam aoo!
A crocodile caught me right at the spot of this song;
My clansmen have balanced a too heavy load on my head, Daughter-of-Vagi;
The world is no longer good for anybody ee.
What should I do that would satisfy Aliabya?

588
Daughter-of-Ajaver saw me and turned away with koonoon casualness,
Burst into her house closing the door behind her.
She waited in there gbooung for a while;
When she came out, she declared a song-party altogether [for me]; how this
pleased the Kparev my maternal kinsmen who are rehearsing the girinya war
dance,
[And] boasting of how they must come [to the occasion] necessarily oo, Gbabo oo.
* * *
Even if anybody beats me, I will no longer cry again oo:
[For] I have preserved my ikyontamen big trees, they are at Mbatyan aoo;
I have preserved my ikyontamen big trees, they are at Ugondu –
Even if anyone beats me now, I will no longer cry.
Children do beat me about
That I do not have a child.
Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa,
Ngueku, I have not betted against anybody;
That is my cia invocation.
Iorwa Uwouku
Adogo oo aye!
Adogo has arrived ee, Daughter-of-Ugô my noble mother
Do not forget me ee.

AI. 20.
589
I am Now Ready to Go over, Ande Kwagh...
Call
I am now ready to go over, Ande Kwagh aoo,
I desire to go over to Nule Makyur Aca
And [his wife] Daughter-of-Mondu.
Has this dangerous beast basked itself in the sun that
The heavens are growling uuu?
This akumecii senior beast has arrived ee.
Dajo Mue, people should stop pleading of their poverty with me.
Response
Iordyem saw me and motioned with his hand,
How [his] crowd of wives came out!
Saying: I should collect; I should collect; [the gifts] were uncountable.
Daughter-of-Wombu oo I have not betted with you people.
I carried the damned thing [gifts] so much that I became sick with chest pain.
I did not even inquire of the way before crossing the big river by its side oo.
A group of thieves were after me gudugudu;
They wanted to collect it by all means;
Without an option, I escaped by gafa prowess.
I ran and hid at Nyian Lali;
How I ran!
As though my toenails would fall out. Ikyiva Ura should bring a car quickly,

590
Otherwise the thieves will overtake me ee.
Kusangen Ashwe,
Where I went, horses fly there; how I looked at the horses!.
Gbenyie Yeor Adam oo,
That my wife – where has she gone to?
Witches caught her and slaughtered
Right when I was still in the military ee.
[But] you did not inform me, Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
Even Ioryem Ikyaave Kyusen too, have people spoilt his relationship with me?
That I do not see any sign [of welcome] on his forehead?
No one spoils one person's relationship with another; it is one‟s heart that decides
[to mar the relationship].
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo,
Nyôr Tarwa oo –
He was peaceful with me but the affairs of the Tiv are too pressing, Gbabo oo;
[They] needed his head and had to cut it off.
I now count only on Iortyer Musa,
The Chief gave me a whole bicycle.
Aza of Gaase oo tell Daughter-of-Mbatyav,
The junior one ee,
Terna of Akpagher aa.
Even begging is no longer appropriate for me, Mnguaorga of Wombu Makar a;
Daughter of Manger ee. I am calling on you,

591
Nule Makyur Aca and Daughter-of-Gunduor;
Those ones do not give way to anything just like Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam Agoho
oo,
Daughter-of-Manger aooo!
Laraba, since I have seen you people what will I cry of again?
Even a woman, the man has married one for me: I am becoming responsible;
That is all about the world ee.
Nahanga of Bede oo!
Akundô‟s scion saves me [with his greatness] ee,
And Nguher Kunde.
Even if the lion devours people, it should exclude the scion of Bede,
The man of Mbakyeren oo,
Let him perform dance oo.
Even if the lion devours people, it should exclude the scion of Bede,
The man of Mbakyeren oo,
So he could perform dance oo.
* * *
Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
Has this great beast come over that a motorcade is [going about] making an
announcement
That the Chief has arrived, people should warn their children!
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko
Climbed on a he-horse, the horse rose up-front with him zengaa,

And landed back gently.
Daughter-of-Chief-Ava! Look at her coming: people should cease their chatter.
592
She arrived [and caused the] sun to disappear from the sky quckly.
Nobody-asks-for-the-lion Iorkyaa of Kpan Adi, Iyôu-ki-acivin the red-hot-iron Kpan
Adi,
Is garbed in a terrible cloth oo;
Fireflies are on that cloth, Daughter-of-Udo has carried a lion on her back –
How she sweeps the courtyard be-eel with it!
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala oo,
Do not maltreat, do not maltreat me for all this long length of time
Since I am lucky to be alive, I will see the world so that when I die I will no longer
AI. 21.
see it ee.
A Grave should be Dug and Kept in Waiting...
Call
A grave should be dug and kept in waiting oo,
My life is finishing aoo;
My rod on which I leaned has broken, Vande Yongu:
Atôndu Tiôn died; my song also died.
Atôndu Tiôn be going, I will be following aee.
I am still holding on here because I survive on food at Simon Musa[„s house];
[Simon Musa] has married Daughter-of-Mbatyav [people]: that district is a
stone-roasting one.

593
Me, I do slap my chest because of you people ee.
Zaki, wherever you are, Chief
Do remember me ee.
Response
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa and Daughter-of-Aganyi,
This my bad luck is killing me oo;
Whenever I mention someone in my song,
He becomes my enemy, Ku! Daughter-of-Aganyi.
This world is flowing in the manner of a tyeku ocean;
Where it is flowing to,
Nobody knows, Iortyer Abyem.
My goodly maternal kinsmen, the Likici of Agbes are there, yet
Whenever I marry,
Jealousy is the first to arrive there with the angwe nuptial proclamation:
That woman ends up divorcing me.
* * *
With which of you have I boasted that I am unconquerable?
As for me, my clansmen have overcome me oo,
It is other people that I only pity now.
Chief Vaatyough, Chief Ananum oo
Of the Mbajir';
I would have come to visit you over there but God has refused me oo.

Daughter-of-Wombu oo, deaths have besieged me; I do not go out eee,
Udorugh Nyam Dabul ooo.
Iorkyaa Aye!
594
Aye Igbon Nyam has the [mourning] cloth round his belly over there,
That his mother has also died.
His wives burst in tears, when I arrived there,
It was true: Asabe had gone and lain in a coffin: she lay gbedaa motionlessly.
But I asked him to stop weeping.
When the new has germinated, the old does rot away, Adoonyumbe.
Jenmee Iorvaa, the world is making trouble with me.
Chief Mnder Cagh Mici
Was also groaning concerning his clansmen;
[I] sat for the open-air dusk-time relaxation, when I began listening to the radio,
They were announcing
That Daughter-of-Hyande has died ee.
My heart jumped within me; sweat covered me all over.
I entered into my house and carried my arrows to end my life but Iorpande
Biam Ala ooo, the man snatched them away from me ayio ooo!
He also took me away to his place
[So that] Daughter of Uva Vaase
Would console me to stop my mourning.
Ishima Zaki ooo,
Zaki, God be with you;

And Daughter-of-Azande;
I have arrived ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor Kuji ooo,
595
Zaki, God should bless you with his right hand eee.
When you have given birth and your earlier baby is not matured enough yet for it,
you do cultivate a big, big heart;
Do not heed to the akpenger birds on the way, Mbasôrun aoo.
No one helps another in the wilderness now eee. The rainbow has emerged and
stopped rain for which the Tiv have applauded ikyuu.
* * *
Chief Ukaa Kyuan too has agreed:
That mouth [words] of yours [about matters] has come to be true ee!
Daughter-of-Mbaleva ooo,
My mother, I do not climb the donkey;
I do climb the war-wise horse, Chief Ibi Adabo oo.
Moave Adi oo I am tired ee;
Tell Mbalihô ooo I am tired ee.
Iorwa Uwouku,
Adogo, what has happened that I have not seen Daughter-of-Ugô?
My patience is almost giving way:
I‟m already on my way away
Eeee.

AI. 22.
596
Here I Go to Iortyer Musa the Honourable Man ...
Call
Here I go ooo, I will go to Iortyer Musa
Musa Agbe Cafa oo.
The-man-of-honour came out such that God [in honour] gathered rain-clouds.
The Tiv are drumming [in celebration of] the Chief
[And] coming along with him in their group.
Children of Ukum:
Response
Ukaa Ikyuan too was repairing his land;
He was putting people in their proper positions;
Nobody should complain.
He was with the senior Councillor Madugu's scion, [how their presence] scares me
ee.
My sun has emerged, Adabo oo;
My sun has emerged.
Chief Tyôver of Ninga,
You people should help me ee.
It is the enmity persistent after me that
When I burst out in tears, nobody
Pays attention to me, Adoonyumbe.
Alhaji Makaara, once the man

Saw me, he lowered his head;
He was discussing
With Taratu his wife and turning and looking at my [pitiable] appearance ee.
Orhemba Cia,
597
Cia Burya I have managed my way slowly, slowly,
And arrived in your compound ee.
Daughter-of-Mbatinyam should rise up:
Noble mother mine, this is how I have couched.
Me, it is the round and round dar game that I am gathering [without winning].
Iortyer Musa oo Zaki I have come to this your town ee;
I will go and drum in celebration of the Chief, the peaceful-hearted Chief;
The senior wife should waste no time in telling Ishima, Chief Ibi Adabo oo.
* * *
Ishima Zaki oo
Do at least tamper your akombu religious objects
With mumu powdered food – stop your pretence;
You do not lack a thing. Or have you drank the alagudi medicine?
You do not lack a thing;
You people have abandoned me with
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo but I agree to be [thus] saved.
Daughter of Yaga my clansmen are still after me,
So much that they have not loosened the ropes [with which they have tied me];
let the noble man Hil Agule he informed ee.

AI. 23.
Elegy for Many Patrons
Call
598
Kwaghbula Azege, a hyena is having bad wishes for my scrotum; Ioryem Ikyaave,
Brother, I have stepped on an ikyememe thorny-bush; I go about no more,
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba;
Since Atôndu Tiôn died I have not laughed.
Dorughnyam the-rough-beast Dabul oo;
I keep mourning for the dead.
The Chief Ibi Adabos,
And the Chief Amishi Chief Ugôs,
My Ugô Igbyudu has left me lonely ee.
Response
It is no more possible for me to mourn to you people so I have stopped;
The Lord God apportioned my suffering for me right from my womb-days;
He also apportioned mourning for me; how I have mourned for people till my eyes
are blinded [with tears], Vande Yongu Abege.
Daughter of Paase oo!
The wizards have killed me in a deceptive fashion ee;
The witches have killed me in a deceptive style ee.
Uer Ajio oo!
Ajio Bunde, a thing has happened to me:
All my song-patrons are dying;

599
Adega of Orbiam at Ugondu too have died; Kinabo of
Ishondu too has died for which I burst out in tears.
Zaki Chief Amishi Ugô Gbyudu too has died,
Died with Daughter-of-Atakya [his wife].
Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa oo,
Orya Anyakpa,
Since Atôndu Tiôn‟s death, I am not sleeping one bit;
My chest is almost bursting oo, Mue Ager Nortema.
Who would console me?
I have come, Daughter-of-Gbande,
Console me practically over the death ee.
Hoo ayio oo!
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko
Is trying to console me, he and Daughter-of-Chief Va:
“Child, lie still
Some day I would give one to you who would replace those gone ee”.
Angol Ikyenge,
Ikyenge Avii Tyav tell Daughter-of-Damagudu that guilt has caught up with me:
I have not come over to see you;
Guilt has caught up with me ee.
* * *
Ikyiva Ura oo discuss with Sarin Ashwe my mother, discuss with Sarin Ashwe my
mother;

I have tears on my cheeks.
600
Madam Kpadoo Dogo send a car to come and pick me quickly, let me go over there
and rest.
Kpadoo Dogo ou, death is too painful.
When you lose somebody and a beloved of yours does not come to condole
with you, it seems as if your friendship is not sincere ee.
Ugba of Iwevzer,
Faasema Nyôr did not come to condole me ee,
Chief Ibi ee.
AI. 24.
Panegyric for Iortyer Musa
Call
I desire now to go over there, Ande Kwagh aoo!
You have not seen me [because] I have gone with my song these days to
Mbaterem, Gôn Duku,
In the house of Iortyer Musa
Agbe Cafa oo!
The Chairman has arrived in town, Daughter-of-Mbadema;
The Uke people are happily drumming [in celebration]
Nightlong, Ciawa ee.
Response
The scion has blocked the pond with a rock; there is no way any water could drop
pass.
Fire has crossed the marshes, Ande Kwagh, bush animals have become
gugugudu [in flight].

If it is good, let it be good; if it is bad, let it be bad, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba;
Weeping is not done in style!
601
The moment of truth has come! Tsee' Kajo Gber Mke.
Anula Gbande heard and laughed and laughed, and inquired whether I am telling
tales
In the afternoon, why don‟t I wait for night?
Ikyiva Ura oo do escort me to go and celebrate Chief
Musa Agbe ee!
Agbe‟s scion!
Aza of Gaase your husband has completed all things on earth:
The scion attended a university,
The scion became a millionaire,
The scion is again in charge of a whole Division.
God has done general sharing and given me a good man [as benefactor];
He is with Chief Andrew Tsukwa; they are administering the land
They have joined hands and are administering all of Wukari Division.
This is not a partisan affair;
My clansmen I plead,
Have one heart ee;
Repair the land, let it be good for us to eat; for nobody will be living for ever.
Radical Judge Kum has forbidden me [from the city],
I no longer go to Genyi o Ibi Adabo oo.
Iorwa Adogo oo tell my mother Daughter-of-Ugô Akighir I have close to making my

trip to the wet underground cave!
602
If there is a thing [gift], let me be given that I‟d go my way ee.
Orhemba Cia Burya forbade me that I should stop that joke,
Daughter of Manger should first call me to his house.
* * *
Has Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam
Arrived that my cloth is loosening off from my waist?
Will the sons of Biam kill an elephant that
His clansmen are sharpening their matchets and looking at me oo?
Use Mue Anzer Adi oo!
Tell my mother Daughter-of-Duku [that] I am going to Mbaterem
To the house of Iortyer Musa. I won't come back there with teleghee emptiness.
My finger has pointed there
Like when the ikyato bear has discovered a honeyed beehive eee.
AI. 25.
Akpam, Akpam is Coming...
Call
Akpam, Akpam,
Akpam is coming.
Ishagba Akpam,
Akpam is coming ee.
Daughter-of-Ikyoona has arrived ee.
They are celebrating Daughter-of-Chief Boagundu Azaigbyaga and bringing her

e-eel in their crowd;
603
But as for me I do not have a wife so as to go for the nuptial call.
Kwaghbula Azege ee!
Response
Ishima Zaki oo,
The issue of woman is bothering people oo.
Mbanengen Aveil has so treated me that I am discouraged about women;
She fooled me such that I almost resigned from the army.
But it is Dajo Pav that encouraged me.
I am weeping,
Angul of Ierve Beneke,
Kwaor Akosho and I would be separated only by death;
Nobody should exhaust himself for nothing [trying to cause division between us].
* * *
The Chief wore an agundu cap: how its splendour is poking nyonyonyonyo in the
eyes!
Daughter-of-Ugô, Daughter-of-Mbashor I am coming near ee.
But I do not have a cloth in my waist ee.
AI. 26.
Chief, that is What I have Said...
Call
Chief aooo!

That‟s what I have said:
604
Daughter of Yaga set her cow-pen on fire that I should go and eat to my fill: how it
surprises me o!
Vultures gathered, perched on an akinde tree lowering it to breaking point.
This your bad world
Daughter of Yaga has repaired all of it.
Now it is time to eat o!
Response
Hoo ayio oo!
Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo was coming on a horse;
The Chief is wearing a riga gown, the riga gown has a head!
Dajo Mue do you know that cloth?
As for me, I do not know.
His wife Daughter-of-Yaga hung a peta-begha lion-skin ee,
Hung a peta-damsa lion-skin on her body; the children of Nevkyon moved
About gbuegbuegbue menacingly with their matchets respectively.
* * *
Ishima of Tsofo, a matchet has got me ee!
The children of Unzô would slaughter me.
My wives broke down in tears e;
[That] where I‟ve gone is where I‟d not return, Vande Iyongu Ikyô I have come ee.

AI. 27.
Shiim Torkon's Song-party
Call
605
Kwaghbula Azege since you are no longer with me
Things have hooked up for me,
Things have hooked up for me in the land of the children of the Shitile-of- black-
hue [clan]: Shiim Torkon of Hiinyam aa,
This inyamkyume wild beast has slept and jolted awake,
Jolted awake and it is devouring people a;
With Daughter of Udende; me too I will go let them devour me to my [eternal]
peace eee.
Response
Chief Hil of A-
Gule oo Zaki Chief tie up [your] horse immediately [for a trip],
For the laketa woodwind has sounded in the morning,
In the morning so it seems to me that it is Kunde Ager
And Daughter of Chief Va that are coming over to Shiim Torkon of Hiinyam [who]
has hosted a dance oo.
God spread an umbrella [for the event] Himself; how Daughter-of-Udende is
pouring forth the aluabiam song!
Akpema gave birth to that child and poured the ifan pronouncement on him
tyutyutyu.
Even if you see him you won‟t recognize: the man has used his body to buy a

heart –
His heart is bigger than an elephant.
606
Cado Akaaer Adudu, Daughter-of-Jukun was the first to arrive.
The children of the Mbatyula crowded their way coming after her be-eel.
They arrived with threats in God‟s name
That “today if any group of people troubles us, we would die
Hôôn! We would die”,
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Daughter of Ikyômke heard it and sent a message to me oo;
[She] said I should go, for her son-in-law Cieve of Tsavbee Muri too to show his
heart with Daughter-of-Chief Sankera;
They should show oo,
They should show oo. Kase Gagum, how did Apeilu wake today?
* * *
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo joined the dance in a spectacular fashion:
After a while, there is a GUGU sound [of rewarding spree]!
After another while, there is a guukuku [sound of rewarding action]!
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo is a he-akaca rattles' dancer at Ukum together with noble
Daughter-of-Yaga [who has] unsheathed a tokobi sword and is searching
menacingly for the slaves
Of her father, Nule Makyur Aca.
Apeatim Kpav oo,
Kpav Kpabi Agundu too is a he-akaca rattles' dancer among the Shitile ee,
And Daughter of Ikyanyon oo.

I have tied an elephant to a hippopotamus, someone tell Ter Igbyudu Angula,
607
Together with Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan ee;
These people have arrived over here ee.
Call: Do catch a person for me!
Response: Ahie ooo aye! this song has given birth to twins!
Call: Kpamberakpa thorny-creeping plant, catch a person for me.
Response: Ahie ooo aye! this song has given birth to twins:
The song of birth and of death
Chief Uhaa Akpema has been caught and taken away by death – concerning which
I am crying aa;
That is what has hindered me [from obtaining] an electric bicycle.
Ahieooo aye! this song has given birth to twins!
AI. 28.
The World has Returned...
Call
The world has returned oo!
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Kuji has brought the Tiv world back, Gôn Buruku Duku;
The man emerged as a Chief due to his good cia invocation, Mbasôrun oo,
God has poured sweet-smelling oil on the body of your husband ee.
Response
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!
Has the inyamkyume wild beast reclined to bask in the sun ii

608
That birds have been celebrating around the python?
The man bought vehicles plentifully and put them on the road;
He again bought a private car [in which] to be riding with Daughter of Kura –
When you look at it
Your eyes turn in your head like those of Indian
Hemp smokers.
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo Aku Chief when I see you
I no longer imagine that death exists; Asaaryana Yaga
Knows how to massage my ligaments; she massages with leghlegh effectiveness
indeed, Ugba of Iwevzer.
Daughter of Gbanor aooo!
But what I find lacking is that Atôndu Tiôn is no more ee;
How I keep mourning all night-long!
I will mourn and mourn till my own death will come and I too will go ee.
Kwaghnzughul of Naakyo ooo Kidam Agoho oo,
Has returned from London. The lady went to London,
And brought an aeroplane;
She then turned his Peugeot [car] over to me
That I should go with it
And be spreading her name in the earth ee,
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
She swore by her husband‟s grave, swore by Akaaer, swore by her mother,
Daughter-of-Ugondu,
She also swore by the Head of all of Benue:
Aku Kisô who also approved that I should stop trekking oo Gôn Duku.
* * *

609
Kpe Ahiin! Zaki Ishimaior of Tsofo I will then need to stop begging e.
I would have gone to have a word with my mother, Daughter of Chief Kyado,
but
J. Gbabo oo,
Dogs are barking at me due to the rags that I have on me ee.
Judge Aciniya Norum,
Give me a thing so that I will eat that I‟d die some day [for] my eyes are no longer
beholding clearly ee.
Tell Daughter of Hambe for me
[I‟m] no longer beholding clearly ee, Chief Ibi aee.
AI. 29.
Bula Azege, a Snake once Bit a Slave...
Call
'Bula Azege oo [once upon a time] a snake bit a slave,
And a scorpion [also] stung a free-born then all the people gathered and are
treating the free-born of the scorpion sting.
Honourable man Ishimaior of Tsofo do save the slave
That the snakebite will be healed ooo.
May God place you on his right hand side ee,
But since people have reserved no pity for me, let me be let to go aee.
Response
Ugba of Iwevzen Agôv!
Was with Daughter-of-Gbanor;

610
They do not stay for long before calling me.
The Chief has called me so here have I come ee;
Someone tell Ibi of Adabo to discuss with Daughter-of-Ikpyayugh,
My heart is not with me ee:
Amishi of Ugô Igbyudu died, the world became quiet viing;
How asôhô toads express surprise when the atungwa rocket-frog is [caught by men
and] crippled.
Chief Manger Awav Agbe ee,
I have also gathered myself to go away ee.
Atôndu Tiôn aooo!
This is what we used to talk about ee.
Tyôver of Ninga!
The truthful scion was repairing the land as if
He is an adult ôô.
He threw jealousy away in water ee;
He was putting sand for the world‟s roots, Hil Agule, the horse-drank-akase
beer-chaff, he was honouring his clansmen aa.
Nobody knows about tomorrow, Adoonyunbe.
* * *
Uer Ajio oo!
Ajio Bunde's scion has gone where
With Daughter of Ikyuravtyev aoo?
Wiwiii!
J. Gbabo ooo.

AI. 30.
611
Mbanengen Rejected Being My Wife...
Call
Kwagh aoo! Mbanengen rejected being my wife at the wrong time.
The woman had no pity on me else she would have seen Gbamwuan
Chief Kpen Ashar oo,
With Daughter of Mbagen,
How I would have been so proud ee!
Indeed enjoyment has bypassed me ee!
Response
Orya Anyakpa Ambe Doki Imbyarakem
Has gathered rain clouds that won‟t fail to fall; they are announcing that people
should raise daar platforms,
Water will fill the earth. Daughter of Gbagir Zer
Has boasted with the senior wife Daughter-of-Mbatinyam;
It is not an empty boast, let me be going with laughter ee.
John Agande Agev,
Man of Mbadwem‟s wife is not around
Else I would have drank millet beer in his house and danced long ago aee.
Kwaghnzughul of Naakyo Daughter-of-Mbaterem the lady has
Began coming ee!
Her steps are in order
How her steps are mungôô like when the lakumi camel has rejected the

Atsonka-man's load at the road;
612
How [she] beats her tail about with noble casualness!
Angol Ikyenge, has this inyamkyume wild beast reclined to bask in the sunlight
That birds have kept celebrating around
For Daughter of Damagudu aoo? I have come ee:
Even if it is the ripest ipyungwa fruit, do pluck it and give me ee;
Even if it is an unripe ipyungwa fruit, do pluck it and give me ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor Kuji oo
I am calling you ee;
A brother is crying and calling you.
Mbasôrun,
Certain things fit on certain people, my eyes are on the road: who would help me
concerning this my mother-of-all poverties?
Even Likici Agbe‟s heart is no longer with him: thieves
Have washed the scion‟s body neatly,
And his father died on top of that oo;
How I sympathize a lot with Daughter-of-Koko, Gbabo ooo.
* * *
She should maintain her kind of heart, Ashi of Jabu Sôngu Vambe;
As for me, what have I done
Really, Chief Acivin o?
Really what have I done ee?

AI. 31.
Bula Azege Uer Ajio...
Call
'Bula Azege ee,
613
Kwaghbula Azege Uer Ajio oo, is Daughter-of- Ikyuravtyev
Not around that
I am begging for a cloth o?
Even a cloth is beyond you?
Anza Kule from Mbatyakpa gave me a heavy gbagir cloth that I should cover the
bones of my body for which I burst out in song ee.
Adôm Tiil…
Response
Ishima Zaki oo tell your clansmen
That they should kill me rather than tormenting me;
For I have experienced too much shame in the land really,
The reason I am still going about before people is not known to me ee.
* * *
Not even a wife do I have;
Not even a child do I have, if I go down to the earth, you people will not talk
About me for even three days before keeping quiet.
Call: Atim Tiônsha!
Response: Brother, you people should come out and turn your faces and look at
God;

Help me!
614
Help me, you and your friend Ageva Nyaku.
Zenda Agagu oo I‟m almost dying with no one to leave behind me;
My wife left me; I‟m alone ee.
Mbanengen Aveil my dear aa,
I said she should come and be my wife but she refused and did not come;
I said she should come and be my wife but she refused and did not come.
AI. 32.
How this Year is Luckless for Me...
Call
How this year is luckless for me, someone tell Kwaghnzughul Naakyo
Gberndyer
Kidam Agoho oo, you are the one for whom I am waiting ee;
Else I would have gone on exile to far-away Gongola,
You would have not seen me again eee.
Response
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor Kuji forbad me saying I should not chill their world,
Mbasôrun is trying to call me oo;
I got ready so much that I bought a pair of socks.
It is only yesterday that Mlange Adiko called me;
The man called me and gave me a thing,
Whenever I spread it, the chests of many Tiv almost gets burst [with envy] –
What should I do, Daughter-of-Mbabookyo?

Gbamwuan,
615
Chief Kpen Asha, the wanbegha-lion‟s offspsring,
With Daughter of Chief Gyuse Wanza, came out comet-like
And landed in the south of the world [so much that] the Tiv sprang into running,
Gbabo oo.
[I] saw Akume Atôngu coming so people should stop their noise;
Let us all keep quiet;
Akume Atôngu does things hour
By hear oo Daughter of Makar Agaku,
Daughter-of-Wombu Makar Agaku has gathered rain clouds in the direction of
the-woman-who-came-out-
Naked [in the morning] aoo. It rained so much that would people removed their
clothes; it almost drowned the mash-land.
* * *
Zaki Tyôver Ninga I have come oo;
Ninga should look for a thing for me which I will be riding; knees do pain me Uhule
ee,
Has Uhule not heard?
Chief Ageewua
Dugwer Biam Ala: the man do give me a senior thing;
He also gives me money;
He also talks with me in a pleasant manner ee.
Daughter-of-Vagi oo Iorkyaa Aye,

616
Aye Igbon, this enormous beast has come ee.
He was with his wife Pati [Patricia],
Pati I have come with my plea;
Daughter-of-Shangev called me so I have come ee e.
AI. 33.
The-One-that-is-Good-to-Sleep-with...
Call
The-one-that-is-good-to-sleep-with:
Response
Dajo Pav, how I am coming with such a mother-sized plea;
I am weeping for Kina Shondu in the red-earth ee;
I am weeping for Malu Bawa who has also gone to the red-earth and left me alone
e;
Sunda Boiue Agashua,
The true scion too has gone indoors and left only a deadening silence.
I do call yet he does not respond;
What should I do? Gbabo oo.
* * *
Call: I am overcome so I will let [matters] be:
Response: Ishima Zaki oo rumours do not pick a walking stick [before embarking
on their journeys]
I heard that they have chosen you as Chief;
Noble scion of MbaGar‟ aa.

617
Daughter-of-Chief Kyado, my mother, do make some mumu native beverage so I‟d
be drinking on the way: I am not staying with you people;
I am heading to where Mko has gone [in the earth] to go and talk with him ee.
I desire to go and discuss with
Tyoor Amishi the sereki the Chief,
I desire to go and discuss with Kwaghbula of Azege and Adega of Orbiam Nimbir
Before I would come back ee.
Day after day I am wearing the mourning cloth round my belly; day after day I am
wearing the mourning cloth round my belly;
I am never ever to rest from tears.
What does witchcraft to?
Witches and wizard do not achieve anything.
Someday some person would die with his chest full of wizardry,
Yet he would not come back..
Faasema of Tarwa oo!
I am going about but it is only the skin, Ngucian Aganyi should give me a senior
cloth; I am going
Into the ground, my brother.
Likici Agbe,
Agbe‟s scion when I die, open up my chest [to check if I am guilty of witchcraft];
I have already informed you
About everything concerning me and all the MbaGaraka [my clan]:
Enmity began with me right from when I was just a child and could only listen

about it – I with Atôndu Tiôn;
My things do not end in time ee.
618
I do not even have anything my dear Mbanengen,
Dear wife, I have brought trouble on myself by choosing song-performance [as a
profession] so I am in for it.
Chief Ageewua
Biam aoo,
Tell Daughter-of-Kendev that the clansmen have chased me away but there is no
problem,
My home is in the ground ee.
Ande Kwagh should be marking the roadway for me [as he has gone ahead];
I am coming aee. Katsina Zer:
Whenever she sees me, she covers her eyes with her hands ee;
My wife, is it my shame or
Is it yours?
You rejected me beause I am not a rich man.
AI. 34.
Bula Azege, I am Tired...
Call
'Bula Azege ooo I am tired ee:
Response
Ngueigbya of Pila Ihinda,
My man of Mbabookyo is there ee;

619
He has not gone anywhere oo I am coming ee.
Welegida the most senior wife, I am coming but
Delays have detained me on the way,
In the house of Laha Kpan Yakubu
But I am coming ee, J. Gbabo oo.
* * *
Ugba of Iwevzer,
Iwevzer died and left me, I turned my eyes
And looked at God– how far away He was [in the sky] hiinaan…
Ugba of Iwevzer, the earth [where graves are dug) is just so nearby ee.
But the Tiv do not like death, Chief Ibi Adabo,
Or I would not have dwelt anymore with you people; go tell my in-law
Veunô Alya Tyôba,
Use, scion of Nyam Agule,
Zaki talk with my mother, Daughter-of-Dema:
Barrenness is an angering experience: Mko of Ijôrpo left me so I just go about,
That is why somebody may abuse me some day that his child is sleeping.
Emberga of Iormbameen look for a true woman and give me,
Let me go and sleep with her;
Cold is terrorizing me, Chief Ibi Adabo oo. Ande Kwagh,
Somebody go and tell Chief Ukaa Ikyuan over there
Together with Daughter-of-Ugô oo,
Ugô Igyila ee.

620
How the woman thunders her way towards me to reward my song;
It scares me
Her [plentiful] cloth is just falling jingee [as she moves] ee.
* * *
Iorwa Uwouku, you have been angry with me but just let it be;
Please, please, I plead;
Let it be, my brother ee.
The-fearful-thing should not look sad
For there is only one heart [for everybody].
I am saying it, it is left for you people to understand [my words].
Chief Muder Cagh Mici, how could I have known that
Someday I could get a worthy man [like] Chief Na of Lokoja
Together with Daughter-of-Tyuluv?
Now I am coming eee.
Iortyer Chief Musa Agbe, do talk with Daughter-of-Mbatyan aoo,
Aza of Gaase: look at her coming Adoonyumbe
Baka oo, J. Gbabo oo.
AI. 35.
I am Beseiged by Trouble...
Call
I am beseiged by trouble oo!
There is never ever a single day for me to laugh;
I keep mourning over deaths,
And going about like gbensôôr the cicada ôô.

621
Have I killed Death's child that I would not ever rest?
Ahiin! Am I neighbouring the Udam [people] in Death‟s sight?
Use scion of Nyam Agule,
Zaki quieten your mourning;
Rumours do not take their walking sticks [before embarking on their journeys] I
heard that Chief Agule died.
The Chief died with steam [coming out of his corpse] tutu;
He was entering [the grave] with steam all over him; what a fearful thing ee!
But it is nothing; let it be; death is a creation of God ee.
Response
I saw Daughter-of-Dema weeping and throwing herself on the tumulus of her father
Mne,
Mne Dema oo,
God has taken him away ee.
Ishima Zaki was [also] weeping for the death of his father-in-law;
He wept and wept and even slept in the bush, Adabo oo. Kunde Ager Wuhe
Ashwa Amonko, do escort me to go and celebrate Ishimaior of Tsofo
In the wilderness [to where he is now staying].
When I went there,
I saw Agbom Ngou with his friend
Malu Adôôr Atsenge – they held Use scion of Nyam zerzer,
And were consoling him behind the house:
“The way you are doing

622
Women may kill themselves.” He should just let things be ee.
Once God created the earth, He also created Death: he should stop weeping ee.
Wet things do not last forever ee; everybody is just here for a while. Aerga of Gum
Anar,
My clansmen have picked me up like a tortoise is picked [without effort so] I passed
the night [doing] ajai menial jobs for pay in the house of the noble man
Use scion of Nyam Agule.
I passed a wake-keeping night in the house of the honourable man;
The wake-keep turned into a dance ceremony; all the greats of Mbajima children
gathered and were consoling their brother ee.
Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena!
This world is spoilt oo Daughter of Gyusa my noble mother it is to my shame that I
still
Linger about with humans, for even Adôm Tiil is no more;
Adega of Orbiam Ningir too is in the ground ee.
* * *
Who would give me food? God has refused me [food] oo.
Use scion of Nyam Agule
Has tears jajaja on his eyes
With Daughter of Dema : twin deaths have occurred to them Chief Ibi Adabo oo.
AI. 36.
Gbenyie, the Horse was Tossing with Veunô...
Call

Gbenyie Yeor Adam oo!
The horse was tossing with Veunô Alya in the precients of the compound: cries
deafened ears.
623
Daughter-of-Akombu carried so much cotton [in dress] that she almost collapsed
with chest pain aa.
Some were saying Cieve of Tsavbee Muri would emerge the best,
Some were saying Anza Gbemshin Ngou Atu from Mbatsavazun
Would emerge the very best dressed man that day completely;
The-Lion-does-not-fall-in-a-kper-trap
Chief Ishimaibyo the dangerous-hearted Unzô Konjo Aku must emerge as the best
dressed man that day without fail!
Response
As this dance ceremony has been attended,
Those with evil spirits are going around telling people
That Amee is not our own. I have not come here for politics;
And I do not engage myself in politics;
I have brought my little [song] plea for the sake of only Chief Na Ayu,
The Chief Customs Officer, and Udoo [his wife].
Iortyer Chief Musa Agbe,
The Governor has [also] said I should go
I should go and mourn for his father Chief Musa for him [Iortyer] to hear ee.

624
He was with Daughter-of-Mbasaav as well as with his most junior wife, Daughter-
of-Mbatyav.
Ziki Nor aoo!
Luckily, Lim too has come aa;
Has Doctor Azeaze Lim arrived that rumours have stopped?
Kwaghnzughul of Naakyo oo!
The begha-kwase lion-lady killed a deer while she was away in her farm,
She killed a deer so,
They do not just pass about in front of her, Gôn Buruku Duku,
Except it is Andrew Tsukwa– that one too is a young beast.
Shiim Torkon,
Man of Hiinyam Abaa, proper people are not selfish towards anyone;
Yet; among the Ugondu [people], Mnder Cagh has emerged as the greatest [in
generosity].
Even when it is on the road that he gets me, he spends a twenty on me
With Daughter-of-Mbasar.
I find my sitting with you very enjoyable but it is more enjoyable for me with the
group of Iortyer Chief Musa Agbe ee,
Those ones do not do mbimbimbi-unclear things just like Orhemba Cia Burya
Who would have even buried me but
Since excuses are never lacking on anything,
He was going around telling people that
His wife just finished her menstruation so he won't come near my grave.

Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
625
This zege nar big-thing has arrived with Daughter-of-Mbabyon,
Unenge of Igbeve ee sat her buttocks on a manly horse;
How her clothes are reflecting about jingee!
Chief Nyishima of Gberndyer,
I won't waste my mouth any longer ee;
I will reserve it for your praises only. I sat with the children of Biam who farted
through their mouths for me,
Ande, the malodour is disturbing me, Nule Makyur Aca.
I am so unlucky that even women reject me as though I have a handicap,
Aerga of Gum Anar Tsar
Yawe aoo!
Daughter of Gyuse sent a message to me oo,
But I am yet to get the chance [to come] –
My clansmen are really tossing me about,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
The python is lengthy but it sleeps in just one swem emptied-anthill ee,
Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku!
That one has dammed the pond for me on the other side, that is why I am busily
packing out the water this side [to catch fish] ee;
Famkyôr should discuss with her husband ee:
Has the horse torn its stable [and gone out] that Ugba of Iwevzer
Has chashed it and chased and disappeared completely;

The thing has scared me oo.
626
Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen, a dangerous thing has happened;
Ande Kwagh aoo,
The world is collapsing ee;
The world has indeed collapsed.
* * *
The Chief of Kwaor Akosho Ahuku
And his most-senior-wife, Daughter-of-Mbashor Amam,
I would have come but I am yet to get a woman who, to my pleas about poverty,
would
Be listening ee. Aye Igbon Anyam
Tell Daughter-of-Mbatyam, Daughter-of-Azege Zômun Diôr ee.
Let me alone, the drum sounded persistently very early, that is why birds are
reacting, Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
Joseph Chief Dwem Adam
Kanyi Tso came with Daughter-of-the-Ukan,
How dew [in recognition of their arrival] descended with kôrkôrkôr steadiness!
Ngueigbya of Pila Hinda came with Daughter-of-Ikpyajyôu,
Fire has made me to run into trouble; let the trouble follow me
Tsevende Chief Ageghaiyô!
Aaii!
Uhule I have arrived;
Come out and see me oo;
Let me also see you ee.

AI. 37.
Dajo Mue, I Coming but Fearing...
Call
Dajo Mue oo!
627
I am coming but fearing [at the same time]:
Ngueigbya of Pila Hinda with Daughter-of-Ikpyajôu.
I would have come but the jiagba inspiration drink is tossing me about in the house
of Damera Chief Kogi,
It has not yet permitted me to pass on.
The children of Biam have eaten absence-of-shyness and drank water in ten basins
ee,
Yet people are laughing at them gedee:
Response
Iorkyaa Aye oo!
Igbon Anyam should tell Daughter-of-the-Mbatyam to host a song-dance
ceremony for me;
I crave for a Tiv native cow, my big maternal kinsman Ageva Nyaku.
Tell Daughter-of-Mishe to tie a mourning cloth round my belly concerning the
death of Chief Mvaaga Ashaver Biam.
Also, she should wrap a mourning cloth round my bosom concerning the death of
Ugba of Iwevzer.
In the same month ô,
Toruv [clan] is weeping for their own scion;
In the same month ô,

628
Ingyenev [clan] is weeping for their own scion.
How it has became kuukuku on all sides for me as though it is sheep that I have
lost [to death].
Orhemba Cia Burya,
Some day, a sprite might punish someone o.
I no longer desire this land eee,
Ziki Nor my friend I have come;
Do come and give something to eat,
Gbabo ooo.
Death is trailing me Vande Yongu;
Some day a snake, hanging on a groundnut pot-store, might bite me.
When your child is beaten by someone [and the child] cries and comes to you ooo,
Do you also fetch whips and beat him [on top of that]
Or do you console him so that he can sleep aa?
My clansmen beat me and I ran so much
And fell before Likici Agbe.
Yet he does not give me attention; see how I am dressed in the manner of an
ancanakopa ragged-dance performer!
Ande Kwagh aooo!
Rats dig their holes towards the bush;
Your eyes stand in your head in a manner that you could kill even an inyamkyume
beast;
I am angry, Nule Makyur Aca.

629
Ikyiva Ura oo man from Kwande is both the lion and the tiger to me;
He was with Sarin Ashwe: they were threatening me ooo!
They have regard for even mere me as though I am anything worthwhile.
Veunô Alya ooo!
Alya Tyôba‟s scion has the face of an inyamkyume wild beast.
How the Chief looks at me [with] nyanyanyanya [fierceness]!
Daughter-of-Akombu, my comfort is you, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba,
Ngueigbya of Pila Hindan,
Ageba-Tagita-commotion broke out in the arena today in a manner that no one
would remain stable in there.
Daughter-of-Ikpyajôu!
How she looks at me with bulged eyes!
Will she finish me up?
I have gone about too much with my song
So song has now brought me down ee.
* * *
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
Daughter-of-Baki oo!
Do rise up, I do not have a bet with anybody.
Vaa of Ngyeke ee!
Ngyeke Agirtou oo,
Littleness does not eat itself, it should be given to me;
Daughter-of-Ato Mdenge, I have made a guess [and I am waiting as to whether it is
true] ee.

AI. 38.
Ande Kwagh aoo Aye!
Response
Ande Kwagh aoo aye!
Ikyiva Ura oo aye!
630
Iorhemen Moave Adi Baaka, I have respected the children of Biam to the point of a
slave,
But they are not being satisfied, Daughter-of-Mbaliva oo,
So what else do I do? Chief Nyishima of Gberndyer
Was also coming for this your dance ceremony.
He was with his most-senior wife – see how they are manipulating their horse-tail
dance-custumes in the dance arena! How Chief Na is pleased,
Chief Na Ayu,
Ayu Lokoja,
The scion came in a car [that was moving] liooon;
The car stopped jigh, the scion alighted from it and began talking imbywase
With his wife, Daughter-of-Mbatingwaper ee, Daughter of Liaga.
Likici Agbe man of Ipav,
Of the clan of Mkovur Jagera Tyôtsum Vambe Adam has declared a song-dance
party [for me];
Daughter of Koko gave me a bicycle there,
[She] and Daughter-of-Mbaterem.
I said I would not collect but they insisted
That I should collect so I collected oo.

Tsevende Chief Ageghayo,
631
Help me tell Uhule that the year has ended ee.
Here I now go, I will go and meet Governor Chief Musa at Gongola: if there is a
thing [gift], he should give me
So that I will go and show it to Zaki Tyôver Chief Biam.
Tyôver Ninga Zaki Biam I am now back;
Uhule should give me whiskey,
She should also give me brandy let me drink and talk of my poverty [in song].
Vingir-or the rounded-man put me to some shame but there is no problem
His heart is only yet to spring [towards rewarding me].
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa has arrived now ee
He is with Daughter-of-Akôsu Igyaase they are making an announcement
That they dreamt that the Uke [people] have disappeared in his house so
The man-of-Ukan demonstrated his temperament all through that day till nightfall.
He was announcing [still] that people should settle down
For him to [further] show his [song-rewarding] disposition ee.
Vaa of Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agirtou too was ill for a long time.
That is why I now go about only looking desirously at people‟s food.
Ayange of Dagi Agôv bought a cow and kept [for a song-party for me]; it is almost
dying of fatttening o;
Daughter-of-Dagba called me but I am yet to get there, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke
Announced a message [to me] ee I am [therefore] coming now ee.
A shenshen mark has turned to leprosy ee Mkohol Ivase,

Ivase Chichi Agbe ee,
632
He should take the child to Barakur [his wife];
Yesterday I talked night-long about you in my house, Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam
Agoho oo;
If you say I should be lost, I‟d be lost.
* * *
Ande Kwagh aoo aye!
Ikyiva Ura oo aye!
Peter ooo!
Anôngu eee!
Peter ooo Anôngu‟s scion has arrived Gideon, senior Engineer was with Daughter-
of-Tyôtyev e,
How they reward [me with] big money on the tarred road chachachacha!
Aluga has arrived so people should warn their children.
AI. 39.
Bula Azege, a Big Wound in My Heart...
Call
'Bula of Azege I am now on my way coming ee,
A big wound is in my heart: when I think of how
Chief Musa has died
And I am weeping
And going about with zelôô sadness
Well, no problem, let him go ee;
Chief Ibi of Anyam has died:

* * *
633
God is too far away else I would have gone to him eee,
I would not have been with you people again.
Response
How enmity has dogged my path oo! I am going [for the burial] but my going is
not pleasing to me; I have seen Chief Musa Agbe, the Chief is heavily dressed.
[He] wore a gown, a gown that hung a child on its back, Adoonyumbe.
Let the grave be dug and kept oo, it is the military that would be burying him the
Chief is above burial by perenkaya commoners;
It is the military and the police [that would bury him].
Chief Na Ayu, Ayu Lokoja do rise and come and see ee.
* * *
[I] call Gbabo oo, Julius Gbabo oo Ibi Adabo oo.
AI. 40.
Elegy for Musa Agbe Cafa
Call
[I] heard a lamentation at Mbayenge [sub-clan]
And asked who it was that died that
The indyer jumbo slit-log drum lets go its sounds gighirkiki.
They said it is Chief Musa Agbe Cafa aoo!
He dressed up and covered himself with the angel traditional cloth,

634
He turbaned his head – covering up all of even his face;
I called yet there was only silence.
Aye! the Mbadam [people] have put me to shame ee who would be our adviser
again?
How I used to sneak and go to him and he would tell me the things of my
clansmen!
Now that he is no longer here who would be saving me?
Dajo Mue ee, [true] people are no more available ee!
Response
Iortyer Chief Musa should stop mourning; let me mourn on your behalf and on the
behalf of Aza of Gaase;
An inyamkyume wild beast does not mourn its father‟s death.
Terna should stop mourning;
The junior one should stop mourning, nobody is going to live forever, Chief Mnder
Cagh a,
Come let‟s go and see his grave.
That man died, the Udam [people] stopped coming for Tiv markets [for fear of
being caught and sacrificed for the Chief‟s burial].
Since I have grown into a man,
I have not heard of where
Musa [wickedly] abandoned hot food into the hand
Of somebody‟s child, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba;
Since I have grown into a man,

I have not heard Chief
635
Musa pick a block and hit the limb of someone‟s animal so that
It could go and miscarry its pregnancy. If it is a lie oo,
When we begin to talk about it, we would be swearing by the Swem sacred
preparation:
[That] since he has died
Nobody will take his ityôbar posssessions in a rude fashion,
Nobody will snatch his bow, Ugba of Iwevzer Agôv.
Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku
Also agreed with those words ee;
And sent a yandegh leaf [with the message] to
Chief Yeke Bôgô at Mbaavav a;
That man [too] sent a yandegh leaf [with the message] to Chief Mka of Uyam.
[That the] Chief should prepare the kor sasswood ordeal for his people oo,
Else things are getting out of hand ee.
Anula Gbande Nako oo!
Man of MbaGar‟ that is how God does His things [sometimes] but
Harden your heart like King Pharoah and you will feel better.
Your child has gone,
He will not return; Daughter-of-Chief-Tyôshaaôndu, stop weeping;
What God has given you, collect ee;
If you please, just collect it and let your heart be at peace about it Daughter-of-
Chief;

You are not going to ever see him again.
636
Do come back and look after my siblings [your other children].
Some day when some other person would die, even a cricket's hole would be a
better sight [compared to his grave]ee.
Aerga of Gum Anar,
Tell Daughter-of-Gyuse ee I am congratulating you with your big heart ee.
* * *
That matter is from God aee!
Laha Kpan Yakudu aoo,
You have abandoned me so the Udam have captured me and are playing the
girinya war dance;
I no longer sit to relax with anyone; Michael Shazwa should tell Daughter-of-Chief
Tyôndu let her not forget about me,
I am mourning over the death of Chief Musa.
Musa Agbe Cafa oo!
Things are not in a manner that I would forget mourning for you ee.
AI. 41.
I have Come, Zenda Agagu, Doowuan Nyajo...
Call
I have come oo someone tell the noble man Zenda Agagu – he was with Doowuan
Response
Nyajo: the prestigious woman; I have brought my plea ee.
No matter how it is, let efforts be made [and something be given to me];
I desire to go and see Faasema Nyôr‟s face aee!

637
Unenge of Igbeve ee rumour does not take a walking stick [before embarking on
its journey],
I heard that
The snake is older that you so it bit you ee;
You are hospitalised in a bed at the Mbaadiegba.
They arrived with morning rags round their bellies and are heading to Mbabyon so
The overgrown scrotum is too much for the ibyôr loincloth now, my brother;
The woman came ”back backwards” from the hospital bed: I was very afraid oo.
I would have come but I am slightly discouraged about Amishi Chief Ugô
Igbyudu, Igbyudu is no more ee – I am not encouraged about all of Mbajir land;
Even if I come who would help me?
I would only be put to shame, Adoonyumbe.
People have no shame in their bowels Adabo oo.
That is what I have said oo,
Aciniya Norum Agundô, that Chief has become the gungun great snake;
How he is sounding iuuu –the beast was coming with Daughter-of-Hambe [in such
a way that] one cannot hear anything else.
Mlange Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee he is coming, let me see.
He is stepping with the nobility of a guntu short-height–
Will he bounce on me? Adabo oo Daughter-of-Shitile too has arrived ee.
Yarkpindi of Dye
Was with his friend Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege, the Mbabookyo [people] have

threatened me for too long;
I will go, let Daughter-of-Paase pound millet and soak [for a song-dance
638
ceremony]; I desire to go and perform
Dance in her house over there ee.
Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
I heard that you have been made Chief ee;
Daughter-of-Gyusa bury me now that I am alive
For when I die, I will no longer know.
* * *
Moave Adi oo do escort me to go and see the world
At Simon Musa‟s place.
Aza of Gaase,
Has called me to go there ee.
I am coming ee J. Gbabo ee.
Unor Diôgô is the kogi big sea of all of us the Tiv;
If [you think] what I am saying is a lie go and inquire [further] from
Daughter-of-Jabi, let her give you news;
That man is next to God aeee.
AI. 42.
If I am Groaning, a Thing has Happened to Me...
Call
If I am groaning, a thing has happened to me about which I can never stop
weeping.

Mko Ijôrpo died ee,
639
He died with his offspring oo he left no picture of his behind;
Malu Bawa too died ee,
He died and left not a kid ooo he left no picture of his behind;
Ande Kwagh,
Too died and left not a kid oo he left no picture of his behind.
When I go in at night I hardly sleep, Ageewua Tor;
Kpe ahiin! How these people have left me ee!
Response
Kinabu of Ishondu too died without dropping a child behind in the land of the
Mbabiam;
Sunda Boiue Agashua too I have not seen his face in Mbabiam,
Daughter of Gberusu ahoo!
Amishi Ugô Igbyudu too since he has not got a child through Kahemban
Nyamkyekye
When I die ee his name would chill down and chill, Nule Makyur.
As for Kwaghbula of Azege, the man has achieved things in the world:
Young men are going about with his name: those interested in cars are buying aa;
Those interested in the white man‟s job and doing it are most numerous ee.
I have not seen him but there is no much problem, Mpuuga Agule.
Song has mentioned Ashim Tyôkuha the Staff-Chief of Sôngu Vambe.
He treated me in a manner that I almost forgot those underground, Gbamwuan,
Chief of Kpen Asha, how did the true woman Daughter-of-Mbagen wake for

me this morning?
640
As for me, I am left only for mourning over deaths, my eyes are blind [with tears] I
no longer see. Iorpande Caha pitied me and began to come in his car.
The man was coming from a great distance;
He was asking Daughter-of- Kyume that, "What thing is that?”
Kunde Ager Wuhe
Of Ashwa, I did not bet with Daughter-of-Chief: she should not remind me [of same
ugly things] with [non-native] beer, I am pleading.
When I drink it, I do get too drunk, Vaa of Ngyeke
Help me tell Daughter-of-Atoza that my plea is about poverty; not for beer.
Nahanga of Bede Akundô do ungirdle the inyagba mourning clothes from me in the
world,
Or it is heading with me to where I am not prepared, Ngukpen Kunde;
Orya Anyakpa Ambe Doki Imbyarakem
Rumours [of your plans for me] alone have sent me performing the kwan dance
and calling Daughter-of-Gbagir Zer.
* * *
Shiim Torkon,
Man-of-Hiinyam Abaa was with Daughter-of-Udende,
I am telling you ooo!
That my horse [that you promised]
The law enforcement agents arrested me on it and jailed in the prison of Gberndyer
e.

If you go, help me tell Judge Acin‟,
Help me tell Ngoundu of Hambe,
Tell Daughter-of-Duku Agemji oo that I am sweating profusely in prison.
Maave ee,
Iorhemen Moave Adi‟s scion
641
Even Daughter-of-Tse of Kuewe did not hear [of my ordeal], even Ioryem Ikyaave
did not hear.
Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan I have killed myself in the name of song composition,
Ashim the Staff-Chief of Sôngu
Vambe, I did not see you ee.
AI. 43.
Ibi Adabo, I do Sit with Knowledgeable People...
Call
Chief Ibi oo Adabo I do sit with knowledgeable people, the Ishimaior of Chief
Tsofos,
That see things from afar, Gôn Duku.
Azeaze Lim,
Doctor Azeaze Lim,
These are those that see
From afar Gôn Duku
* * *
How enmity has dogged my path! The world does not like me very much Gbabo oo;
See, has Laha Kpan gone hunting that I do not see him at all?

Response
Go tell Ande
Kwagh aooo!
I am going about fixing akura leaves on the door-posts of my clansmen;
642
The lion is terrible but it does not slap its kin ee, Beba Unzô
Konjo ahiin!
You people have abandoned the woman in labour and are busy looking at her
vagina;
The foetus will die in the woman's womb.
If [your] world is all about looking for excuses [to avoid responsibility],
The Lord God will punish you people ee the children of Biam aa.
You people are roasting the ishoho legumes with raffia fruits-seeds; the legumes
are not cooking,
Too much smoke is [rather] fuming about;
Even Chief Demi Fiam Aju has concurred.
It is letting-be that is [the mainstay of] the world, Zaki Tyôver of Ninga.
You people should drink in the same gourd at the same time [as a sign of
reconciliation] let me see before I go [to my grave], the rounded-man
Iorpande Caha.
Tsofo Biam Ala, anger always eats without soup; my eyes are now on you, my
Daughter-of-Mbatyam
Ande Kwagh aooo!
Shame is not good.

643
When I am to go [to my grave] what shall I tell those there:
People like Mko of Ijôrpo
And Atôndu Tiôn – that they would be happy with me? Vande Yongu.
Day after day, I go in at night without sleeping ee
I am almost killing myself so as
To be free ee.
Gudugudu I run southwards ee;
Gudugudu I run northwards so I am now crying and calling my maternal kinsmen –
It is people like Mkohol Ivase;
Let him come and take me away oo;
I am now tired of the world ee.
* * *
My clansmen are performing the ifan-hamber ritual with the ityukwa dirty water and
they are finding the water bitter;
Now they have turned to doing night fights [of witchcraft]; they have slapped even
the bundle of apitan already-used grass-thatch:
A dangerous thing has happened,
Mvaaga Ashaver Biam
Chief, announce so that the world would be calm;
Even if they have sworn by the abengamtende ritual, let them stop;
It is a truthful thing that I am telling you people ee.
Gbem from Ngor ooo,
The norototo-iyô-bo-wan fearless-and-dangerous-snake-scion of Mbatsavazun,
Give me something to eat so that I will die with it in my stomach ee.
Ziki Nor aooo!
I am lost, Gbabo ooo.

AI. 44.
If Poverty does not Leave Me...
Call
If poverty does not leave me ooo, I too will not leave people like Iortyer Musa
alone.
How I do sit for a while,
And go ever to Iortyer Musa,
644
And returns in a manner that does not displease me.
That is all about brotherhood ee,
Aza of Gaase, that is all about brotherhood ee.
[Your people should] keep on helping me, some day, I would die and you will rest,
Ibi Adabo ooo.
Response
My clansmen have covered up my eyes with their palms:
How they have killed Atôndu Tiôn!
And left me eating shit! Yet, they are not done ee.
What should I do to satisfy you?
Veunô Alya,
Tyôban aooo,
Tyôban sent a message that I should visit him
[So that] Daughter-of-Akombu would console me till I am no longer bothered by
the death, Adoonyumbe.
As I was about to rest [there], I heard a tôôm-wan cry of absolut desperation on till

sundown
645
In the land of the Mbabookyo. My body shuddered [when I was informed] that Gôn
Duku too has died ee.
How Daughter-of-Anyam wept,
All her throat dried up.
Now she motions
To people with her hand and shows towards her kinsmen:
“Shitile, the Ukum people have chased me away oo
So I now have to go ee.”
Ishimaior of Tsofo,
Zaki Ishimaior of Tsofo should tell Daughter-of-Azande here I am weeping and
going about.
Who would console me ooo?
Even Iortyer Abyem Gaga Myaki has gone on a course in the white man‟s land
With Daughter-of-Maashim – that is why I am besieged by poverty ee.
Ordorugh Nyam Dabul oo.
I am sick with agina small-pox so everybody has run away from me ,
But Daughter-of-Atue
Has not avoided me, she is still with me ee.
Orhemaba Cia
Cia is hospitalized but Laraba is still with me ee.
Angule Dem Ifam Aju,
The canoe [of life] has began carrying me away ee, Daughter-of-Ikyurior

Talk with Adende ee;
I have come ee.
Ukaa Kyuan
646
The Chief heard my cries in the forest and gave an order:
Daughter-of-Ugô should go and see what has troubled me that I am shouting.
Yaakpindi of Dye
Was there with his most beloved wife Daughter of Zungwe;
He was with his most junior wife Daughter-of-Abwa ee,
I am surprised oo. Ior' Bosua Uga ee,
Daughter-of-Abaver I am tired with song ee.
Chief Beba Unzô
Konjo ahiin!
You people have killed my friend Atôndu oo the scion went into the ground and lay
there forgetfully;
Igba Kartyo should Daughter-of- Mlaleva ee; that is how I am in trouble.
When I burst in tears in the akinde forest,
Likici of Agbe too bursts out that side,
Mnguaor of Makar Agaku too bursts out this other side ee.
Tyôver of Ninga
You people have covertly killed me ee;
Even Aciniya Norum Agundô did not hear [about it] ee.

AI. 45.
Nenger Utim Gile Gesa has Arrived...
Call
Nenger Utim Gile Gesa has arrived oo!
People are scrambling to see him ee,
647
So much that they are even stepping on one another;
If you have no strength in your body you won‟t see him,
But in a short while, the man went back
With Daughter-of-Chief Badageri Ugba Gwar [his wife] ee;
May God say.
Response
Dajo Pav oo the ashwe leaf is bitter but it does not know that by itself aa;
How another person‟s load has so heavily weighed me down!
Daughter of Ayagwa, some other person has carried loads
And I have developed a hunchback [because of its weight].
Iorwar Adam Ate
Ikyuve Abali oo! he is a man from Tombu oo; he is of the Mbalagh aee,
Daughter of Tyônongu brought a cloth that talks; Anula Gbande Nako oo,
Gbande Abege,
The goodly scion [of] Gbande Abege,
Saw me passing at the road,
[He] blocked the road that I won‟t pass, let Daughter-of-Chief Tyôshaandu pound
her heart and hit Daughter-of-Ikpyavyungu somewhere [for]

648
Daughter-of-Kendev too to show her heart: he has rejected the issue of [my going
to] Ugondu eee.
Defeated, I ran and took refuge in Vaa Ungyeke‟s house: it was worse there.
Daughter-of-Ato of Denga does not stop at anything; she was talking anyhow
That I would not go to Ugondu at all ee – what would I go there for [when they
have everything]?
Nobody should start trouble with me unnessarily; how you people have delayed me!
the sun has gone far.
The Chief of Solozo oo the-red-hot-iron Kpan Adi.
Caught a leopard, reined it and climbed on its back, riding; Daughter-of-Udo
Hung a peta-begha lion‟s skin: [Mbamegh people]shouted kyuu; it was so good to
my sight beyond compare.
Has Angol Ikyenge Avii Tyav, my co-dancer married a new wife
That nuptial acclamations are being cried up and down?
The angwe nupial-proclamation is calling Daugther-of-Damagudu
The are bringing her to the song-party:
The woman is GAANG! In appearance like Daughter-of-Damagudu.
Ageewua Indyer Duger Chief Biam rouse to go to her maternal kinsmen;
He was garbed in martial gear, he wore a martial face:
Nobody should play with him –
[He was] with Daughter-of-Vagi –
I won‟t be part of whatever befalls such a person;
He would be fully bathed in his blood.

Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
Nyôr Tarwa,
649
You the people asking for Tarwa‟s scion: he is now coming ooo he is unmistakable ;
Even his wife – if you look – has her own car differently.
* * *
Have the children of Dam arrived
That God kept heaving sighs all through the night. How he kept [sighing heavily]
KAANG! KAANG! it must be Zaki Kusugh Mnenga Abev,
The Chief came on a manly horse,
[He] came on a manly kungucur horse.
The Chief has arrived oo!
Akume masquerades were beating
People to give way, Daughter-of-Ikyagh Adogo
Has arrived [too]– the climax [of the event] has come ee.
The children of Uncircumcised gathered in a group;
Those of Circumcised [too] gathered in a group and competition was let loose.
Nobody has brought a baby!
Chief Manger Wav Agbe should tell Gôn:
I desire a horse ee,
Daughter-of-Môngul,
What should I do ? How should I handle myself?
If I trek back home, it won‟t be good ee.

AI. 46.
650
Gbenyie Yeor, I did not See Daughter-of-Chief Amadu...
Call
I will be coming oo Gbenyi Yeor of Adam Aju ooo I did not see Daughter-of-Chief
Amadu;
Has Aya my mother gone for a an angbem long-stay trip?
Or has she traveled for the bad journey?
Or has she gone to the agbenga-tyev bad farm?
But not one answered me eee,
But I will not blame you people; it is the igyo pig‟s choice that it shudders its body
[when walking];
Let Igyohia Butu of Mberev be informed that
Whenever a thing befalls Daughter of Chief Ngoukyaa
He does not mention it to me
So if I [just hear it somewhere and decide on my own to] go, I‟d be beaten Ande
Kwagh aooo!
Brother, [in such a situation] I‟ll be the one at fault eee.
Response
Iorkyaa of Kpan Adi ooo!
Zaki, my clansmen have put me to utter shame, my mother Daughter-of-Udô,
My maternal kinsmen have collected my hoe, that‟s why my paternal clansmen are
farming many heaps ahead of me,
Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.

651
Brothers' fight is not done with real arrows;
It is done with the acaikpyum mock-arrows aooo!
But my clansmen the children of Gar‟ have declared an ibyem hunting expedition
Against me ooo I am going down, down, down Iortyer Musa Zaki,
But I will not complain further Mnguaor' of Makar;
A dog has not eaten up my country eee:
My country is in the ground. Nule Makyur Aca
Tell Daughter-of-Mondu aooo I have come to bid you people farewell;
If there is anything [for me], let me be given so that I‟d [have it and] go ee.
Shima Zaki, I have set the abume trap at my mother Daughter-of-Azande aa
Even if nothing is trapped, I will never stop looking expectantly eee;
Perhaps they may pity me at some point eee.
Even Mbanengen Aveil, my dear beautiful woman has rejected marrying me;
By now she would have been by my side and kept me focused [in performing].
Ioryem Ikyaave Kyusen is a fit-looking man ooo:
How he is ramrod like a raffia offshoot oo [and he belongs] with his dark-hued wife,
Daughter-of-Udô ee.
A thief‟s bride does not stay for three days
Before she begins to sulk; I too am now sulking;
Doctor Uga should tell Daughter-of-Avav ee;
The sprite has seen the smoke so the fire will never quench ee.
* * *
I went on a trip but it was a stupid trip.

652
It is when I come that I‟ll tell you [peope about it properly].
Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam Agoho oo,
Orhemba Cia Burya,
Nudge your wife Laraba, let her come out in the arena;
Let her come out and not doze; I am with Vande Yongu Abege, Vande has come to
invite you for the new year‟s song-party,
Daughter-of-Paase gave the order that all roads should be repaired –
[She] was with Daughter of the big eagle; the climax has been reached!
Someone help me tell Atôndu Tiôn
In the ground, let him come ee;
But I did not see him eee.
AI. 47.
Bula Azege, Amishi is no More...
Call
'Bula Azege, Amishi Chief Ugô of Igbyudu is no more ooo;
He should have been seeing how I am handling the world ooo, Gôn Duku,
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko
Has done every other thing to the finish:
He gave me a she-cow and money;
As for that pig, he only forgot [giving it to me].
I forgot my song [in his place] too;
I am yet to go and pick it, my dear Daughter-of-Mbatyam,
My beloved one,
Do embrace me, let me go in [for the night] ee.

Response
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
I sent a message; did it not reach you?
Deaths have so crowded you that even your heart is no longer as it used to be.
653
Please, do calm your heart like Daughter-of-Aganyi,
Else, brothers will no longer flee [from danger] in the same direction, Nule Makyur
Aca.
My luck is in Ikyiva Ura and Kpadoo Dogo who are helping me.
Orhemba Cia Burya Kidam, it is still waters that drown people ee;
I have come to Daughter-of-the-Mbatinyam.
Laraba I greet you people.
Where you are God should bless you;
Whenever you are God should bless you. Chief Ukaan Kyuan!
Has the Chief arrived that I hear guukuku rumblings.
He was with Daughter-of-Ugô Igira oo,
Daughter-of-the-Mbanev, my mother, I am playing the agbadenger game
Behind [the compound], I no longer go out in the courtyard, Gôn Duku.
I have no cloth ee;
I am going about with a rag as if
Madness has overtaken me ee.
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Built his compound ooo,
Built his compound roundabout with bricks from Galilee;

I just went there dazedly
As though I fool about:
I went and fell inside there tiing!
654
Once I tried and escaped, I stopped playing with death
Right from that day. Mbasôrun oo,
When you go, tell your husband
[That] it is the state of the heart [that] has kept me away from your home.
* * *
Orkura of Madugu
Tell Daughter-of-Gberkyon Kyado:
Of a truth you are fit for a Chief;
Lies are not good eee.
Abyem Gaga Myaki ooo!
Man of Mbamena aooo!
Judge, my head is [heading] deathwards eee,
Daughter-of-Maashin tell your husband eee;
I am not in a shape to eat in a utensil.
Use scion of Nyam A-
Gule aooo! Zaki that‟s how it is eee Daughter of Dema,
My mother I am pleading my poverty with the children of Tiv,
But I am not yet different from yesterday.
Udorugh Nyam Dabul ooo Udorugh Nyam

655
Daughter-of-Atue my mother, it is God that has not
Given me, so what [else] should I do ee?
AI. 48.
Tsofo, Where am I hearing Weeping...?
Call
Ishima of Tsofo ooo!
Where am I hearing weeping in the direction of Mnguaorga of Wombu Makar ['s
place]?
To my utter ignorance,
He was commemorating the death of his mother and that of his eldest son,
As well as the death of Daughter-of-Ugondu ooo;
Even Daughter of Kukpu Aso's child has died with a breast right in his mouth.
Mnguaor‟ of Makar,
Did you bring death from Swem sacred region?
That is not how things should go with someone‟s child ee.
Response
A kpishi shock shuddered my body, I will go and tell Chief Zaki Hil Agule but
[there], I only reminded him of the death of his own eldest son,
Andrew Hil, Avaaime wept all through the night.
Zenda Agagu ooo I am calling you eee;
Zenda ignored me, he was mourning the death of his most senior wife,
Daughter-of-Atelyu, and I was completely overcome with shock.
Nahanga of Bede Akutô met his face with mine and looked down [in sorrow];

656
He was mourning over the death of his elder brother
Nongu of Bede ee;
Bede – the scion's heart boiled without rest.
It is not fit for me to stay with you people;
Let me go over to Ayati,
But Acivin Chief Ayati Ager was sobbing about
In the courtyard [of his compound] zelôô; he was weeping and calling his most
junior wife Daughter-of-Aligba Duku but the wife did not hear [because she
was dead].
Teryima Mbapuun Gbor
Too was mourning over his son‟s death;
He was commemorating the death of his son, Vande Yongu Abege,
On that same day oo Mnguaorga of Wombu of Makar A-
Gaku has started it so people have followed suit: commemorating their deaths on
that particular day ee.
* * *
Kahemban Anyam Tseke too was commemorating the death of her husband Amishi
Chief Ugô,
Ugô Igbyudu ooo!
Mko too has gone in [into the ground] after you eee.
AI. 49.
I will Never Abandon Song...
Call

657
As for me I will never ever abandon this song:
Things do happen to me in a manner that I will never stop composing eee.
A car hit Anula Gbande, Chief Iorpande
Caha Biam Ala! They are the children of God properly;
If [you think] I am telling a lie, let Chief Hil Agule and Shimaior of Tsofo be asked.
They are the ones that are the atonkô supporting-poles
Of this world; Ugba of Iwevzer Agôv
Is a man from Toruv [clan] ooo!
Response
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo my clansmen have no kindness in their bowels, Daughter of
Yaga;
I desire to go over to John Agande Agev, let him save me;
Daughter-of-Kuse, I wasted my time on a tricky baboon, my clansmen butchered an
elephant in the valley without me;
They packed all of its meat.
I do stay together with my clansmen the children of Gar‟ but they do not remember
me concerning anything good.
Loneliness is a handicap;
Ande, loneliness is the most painful handicap in all the world.
My mother died without my knowing the taste of her breast;
My father died without my knowing the taste of his breast in my mouth, Nule
Makyur Aca!
Somebody should help me carry a message to Chief Mfe, go tell Gbamwuan

658
Chief Akpen Asha as well as Daughter-of-Mbatera.
Nahanga of Bede of Tarkywe
The dance has now been attended to the full eee I saw Anule Gbande come in a
motor car sounding iuuuu!
It fell down [in an accident] with him tiing!
But it‟s nothing;
His drivemanship is only too tough.
Daughter of Chief Tyôshaaôndu, do console me, Ashi of Tortô of Sôngu
Vambe, I came to have a word with you but
Daughter of Chief is hospitalised [so I won‟t talk again] oo.
Likici Agbe ooo!
I am leaving you with Daughter-of-Koko and Shiim Torkon,
Use Mue Azer Adi Nyam,
Daughter of Duku Agemaji ooo Kwaghbula of Azege died, I am mourning a.
How Daughter of Kur Chekpe mourned for her husband,
So much that she lost herself in the bush and is yet to come back home!
Nahanga of Bede of Tarkywe! I am respecting you people [with my song],
Still I have not amounted to anything yet ee,
[So that] I almost desired to
Stop singing but Ioryem Ikyaave refused my stopping with kpumkpum insistence.
* * *
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
Nyôr Tarwa,

Daughter-of-Aganyi, deceit weakens the body but mine has not weakened you
people.
AI. 50.
They are Not Inquiring from Me...
Call: They are not inquiring from me.
Response: Sanker Ajav aa!
Call: They are not inquiring from me.
Response: Tell Likici of Agbe eee.
Call: They are not inquiring from me.
Response: Sanker Ajav aa!
Call: They are not inquiring from me.
Response: Tell Likici of Agbe ee.
Call: If Ali of Abya desires,
Abya desires [to see] me, I have come,
659
Tell Daughter-of-Chief Biam that I am coming on the road
I am with Julius Gbabo ooo,
Kwaghbula Azege!
Response
Zaki Iortyer Musa too has come ooo;
The Chief dressed up and was coming in a car ooo.
Aza of Gaase lady was coming on a motor-cycle
[Which] she gave me to take away:

The man of ican poverty should not cagh thresh atuu okra [with his feet as he
treks];
I should collect ee.
660
Iorwa Uwouku is a brother to Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing of Anyakpa ooo;
It is the some snake that has lengthened that way ee.
Hil Agule, my clansmen are demonstrating their personalities in kpamberakpa
extremity fashion:
I have grown up in the day of dogonlaba [so its signs will be on me].
* * *
Ishima of Tsofo as for me, I won‟t sent a child;
Do go and tell Chief Ibi Adabo ooo.
AI. 51.
Azege, an Elephant Chased Me...
Call
Kwaghbula Azege, an elephant chased me ooo, I fled and broke the eggs of an
ikyange guinea fowl, Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko;
But that thing is God‟s work:
That is why when people gather, I keep opening my mouth at them, Ugba of
Iwevzer should tell Daughter-of-Gbanor oo.
I said I‟d stop song but I could not;
I vowed
To stop singing but could not [keep the vow];
That is why when the Tiv gather, I keep showing them the tartars [in my mouth].

661
Someone help me tell my big maternal kinsman Ageva Nyaku;
I‟ve excrated and am sitting with it o!
J. Gbabo ooo.
Response
Vaa of Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agirtou oo;
Your car burnt but your heart has not burnt ee.
* * *
Further Response: Kwagh aooo!
God has protected me [till] I have grown grey on my head,
I praise God [for that] aeee;
My father gave birth to almost more than ten of us;
They all died – the domestic mouse [witches] picked them all and ate;
I am the only remanant,
That is why people beat me about freely ee.
When those who have siblings gather for their things [occasions],
They just look at me with hileoo disregard;
They just look at me with hileoo disregard, Gôn Duku,
Even my things do not amount to anything: if it were possible to change clans, I‟d
have left the clan of the chidlren of Garaka;
I‟d have joined the clan of Faasema Nyôr Tarwa.
As for the matters of daylight, I too would be a big tuber;
It is during night matters [of witchcraft] that I would become only the peelings. Mko

of Ijôrpo
Is not with me eee;
Else our chests would have matched [since both of us were not wizards].
662
Aerga of Gum Anar, I do slap my chest for you people‟s sake ee,
Daughter-of-Mbatinyam
Has forbidden me from going about oo;
I should stop asking people for food anyhow;
If I have a need even late at night, I should go [to her] that nighttime;
She would save me eee. Udorugh Nyam
Dabul Mbangi is an iyar-asua deer-of-weaver-birds;
He emerged in the arena with Daughter-of-Atue,
The woman rubbed the mngbakpa pepper all over her excepting the eyes –
The whole world ceased noise. Emberga of Iormbameen,
Daughter-of-Kar of Ugande Shenge ooo,
How did my dear Daughter of Mindi the lady wake [this morning]?
I am too entangled at home to come [to your place],
Man of Mbatsavaja ooo!
The Chief butcher I am tying the inyagba mourning cloth [round my bowels],
Do tell Daughter-of-Ukan
To come and take me away ooo;
Else I am not safe.
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
The man from Mbawar was sending me a dream;

I had a dream that pleased me really;
663
When I sprang awake! I only found myself on the bed,
But I will not blame dreams;
They have been deceiving me before. Azaatsar Imadu,
Man of Mbaakune ooo!
He should have a word with Dookaan, song is calling you
At Ukum, the noble man has arrived;
People should rest their comcocom chatter; Mnder Cagh a
Mici Karku drew an ihywa line [on the ground]:
No one dared to cross it;
[He was] with Daughter-of-Baki ii.
No one knows a dog‟s hunting skills on a bag [that is at home],
[But]Iorpande Caha
Biam Ala has known a dog‟s hunting skills on a bag concerning me; so too do
people like Nule Makyur Aca!
Tyôba ooo!
Veunô Alya Tyôba,
The man pursued a lion and captured it with his bare hands;
Mtilve of Iorbo,
Too does not hear stop-stop ee.
Kwaghbo Kura ooo,
The-Tiv-have-blessed Kwaghbo Kura ooo,

The twenty-hearted Kwaghbo Agundu
664
Came with Daughter-of-Ikyurior Sabe; these people kept a night vigil of rewarding
[my] dance
Till daybreak;
My heart is not big [enough for me to have expected this much] I accept.
* * *
Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku!
Even when a kill is made that is fit for throwing into the nose
Once the kill is down, they begin to butcher it;
Famkyor should give me so that I‟d eat,
I‟d eat and go and show Chief
Chief Biija
Agula is an ivshôhô frogs' pond;
Daughter-of-Ajon sent a message to me ooo.
If I go there, I will not come back wretchedly for birds to laugh at me on the
road
I will bring back a rideable thing.
[For] the heart of Turan is a heart of the mngbakpa pepper.
They sting [like] iyoukor honeybees ooo.
AI. 52.
Azege, Did a She-baboon Drink Water...
Call
Kwaghbula Azege, did a she-baboon drink water earlier than me [in the waterhole]
at the break of day today

That bad luck is trailing me? Ande Kwagh, if it is like this, I will abandon dance,
Let the damned thing be.
665
Once I am friendly with someone and could vouch for him,
He then turns against me oo;
Iortyer Chief Musa what should I do aa?
But I will blame my parents ee;
They did not give birth to me favourably:
They fixed the eyes of a snake for me:
No one befriends me, Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Gbangir ee
Tell Daugher-of-the-Mbayenge that [my] clansmen have inflicted the ishekyô covert
pain on me;
[That's why] I go about groaning.
Response
Veunô Alya ooo!
Alya Tyôba, man from Mbasende has now come;
He is with his most senior wife, Mtilve of Iorbo:
How the sky [in recognition] developed clusters upon clusters!
A thing happened in the [dance] square today that was scaring:
Mvaaga Ashaver hung
A jenjen muffler and emerged in the market-place;
The market square exploded [with commotion] kpugh!
Nobody followed a sibling's path; Daugther-of-Yashar was announcing:

“Kembe-kembe [trouble]!
666
Kembe-kembe [trouble] has arrived!" Orhemba
Cia Burya Kidam Agoho ooo ;
Laraba, I have come ee. Has Mnder
Cagh Mici shaken his body?
The Sun has held the Moon and they are drumming away?
Me too I have not just stayed put of the event; I'm drumming [in celebration of]
Daughter-of-Baki ['s greatness] eee.
Daughter-of-Baki is now up to demonstrate her heart!
She was stepping on a peta-begha lion-skin! what a surprise ee Igyohia Butu
Ikyamgba!
The dog that licks cooking oil desires death; if you people do not shoot it, Iorpande
Biam Ala, you people will not rest.
Daughter-of-Kura has kept more than ten things in her heart
For me aaa, Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
I have amounted to nothing,
But I do respect you and Daughter-of-Mbasar [with my song],
Daughter-of-the-Mbatungwabee, Ziki Nor
Friend, my friend ee,
Tell Daughter-of-Mbatyan that they have arrested me over tax oo;
If circumstances are too hard [for you people] let me go to Anza Gbem at Ngou
Atu from Mbatsavazun.
When you are [physically] handicapped, you do cultivate peace in your heart,

Otherwise when someone curses you,
667
You will not have the power to beat him up ee, Iortyer Abyem;
As for me, they are cursing me but let it just be. Likici Agbe, tell Daughter-of-Koko
to give me a cloth to dress in and celebrate the Chief
Chief Mvaaga Ashaver Biam:
The Ruandaadi Chief
The Ruandaadi Chief, people are all are clapping [for him] aa!
Even azôu sprites are clapping [for him], I am not the only one eee.
Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam
Tell Daughter-of-Duku Agemaji that an uga galore has fallen in the town my dear
Daughter-of-Mbatyan;
They are celebrating Ashaver‟s scion, so
Dew fell [in recognition of the Chief with] Kôr ! Kôr !Kôr ! thickness.
* * *
It was too flashy for my sight!
Adula took off his drum; shook hands with me and laughed and sounded a voice;
[He] met his eyes with mine and laughed to the point of sounding a voice,
With Daughter-of-Mbaura – whenever you are, may God bless you.
I‟ve been pleading with Mnguaor‟ of Makar,
But he has not been listening to me.
Oh, how enmity has trailed me oo:
I‟ve mentioned Aerga of Gum Anar‟s name in my song at a destructive time and has
stood with nothing as a reward,

Devaa ahooo! Gbabo oo!
668
Ishimagande, the-over-sized-hearted, Ordorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
Agena Nyikyaa, man of Shitile, it is you that I am aiming my words at;
Daughter-of-Igyusa, my clansmen are engaged in too much magic practice with me.
Shiim Torkon,
Man of Hiinyam Abaaior, do not give up on me;
Daughter-of-Udende the world has spoilt but you [people] are excluded eee.
AI. 53.
Zenda, the Elephant Displayed its Child...
Call
Zenda Agagu I have come ooo!
The elephant has displayed its child in the land of the Mbamena, Mbaayagher
[people] do not leave a thing with their brother.
I have realized that from Aerga of Gum;
Aerga of Gum Anar held nobility and emerged in the arena,
And all his age-mates took to their heels.
Some [of them were] saying, “ I won‟t involve myself with the scion of Ukum;
He has an aberaba matchet.
He does not even listen
It is only Daughter-of-the-Mbatinyam
That when she refuses a thing he listens,” Nule Makyur Aca.
But let me just go [there];
I am his brother;

Even if evil befalls me [from his hands],
I will not weep:
669
A brother sometimes kills another brother eee
Response
But I will [first] raise a cia invocation before Mbamena [people] ee,
I am going but I do not find it pleasurable: Tyungu Gum Anar is indoors together
with his immediate younger
Brother [because of sickness].
What type of world is this [that you people have brought about] ee?
Oh, the children-of-Mena oo, what type of world is this ee?
Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe is man-of-Mbayiôn ee
He is of the Jemngbagh of the centre of the [Gboko] town–
[He too] has come for the song-party declared by Aerga of Gum Anar, Adoo the
beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil
[Song rewarding] competition began right in the compounds precincts up to the
courtyard. How Mvaaga Ashaver Biam
Is stepping gômômômô in keeping with the gait of a noble scion!
Mere play has made me to get a dôôl multi-kernelled groundnut shell, Môvihinze
should help manage things for me that I may go;
A worthwhile scion from Mbamena has called me.
Someone get an ishimbe civet skin bag for me ee,

Kobo money is too plenty [there] for me , Devaa captured a big hoofed animal
And is bringing to give me.
Ata Ushe ee,
670
Man-of-Mbabookyo arrived: night came up at noon, Dajo Pav oo
I could not see the sun! Daughter of Nyam
Was asking after me,
Gbabo ooo;
Ôrmôm Ayagwa was coming with meghar...meghar steps
[He] was with Daughter-of-Akôsu Igyaase ee
[He] vowed that if
He does not kill somebody, he must have just forgotten it
Dorugh Nyam Dabul aooo!
Man of Mbajija I am now calling and coming, let Daughter-of-Atue be informed
A mere play has cut off Alôm the Hare‟s gbomsha necklace ee.
* * *
I am coming ooo Mlanga Adiko
Adiko Gbangir ee he is [man of] Mbadwen, the inyamkyume beast that devours
people in their beniseed [farms], Daughter-of-Mbaneenyam aa
I am roughening dance in the house of the children-of-Gum Anar
The Mbailakor too have come
The Mbagbaake too have come
Chief Tyôver of Ninga
Arrived with Daughter-of-Mbaterem
What happened that day did not have a good skin!

AI. 54.
Bula Azege, I Saw Ver Ikyav...
Call
'Bula of Azege, I saw Ver Ikyav oo!
Ver Ikyav,. man from Adikpo London;
He is a true buter whiteman ee.
My wife is dead that‟s why I‟m coming
671
To cry for a wife before Daughter of Pev ee.
The hen does not scratch at night – how it pains me oo!
Katsina of Ama!
Response
Wuam Gambe Dajo Sabe ee!
Gambe Dajo Sabe ee!
Since the canoe has broken, should the ford of the river also be closed down?
Once God created the world; hunger, emerged.
* * *
Kwaghbula of Azege, am I going about with death on my body?
AI. 55.
The Lion Does Not Fall in a Trap...
Call
The lion does not fall in a [mere] kper trap,
Even if my clansmen will break my foal‟s backbone in the house of 'Cici Agbe,
[And] in the house of Mkohol Ivase,

I will weep before Tyôver of Ninga,
672
But it would not be faking, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba;
I would have fought but nobody has knocked on me ee.
Response
How orphanhood is so bad!
Some day when I die
Someone would put his foot on my coffin that it should be paid for before I‟m
buried;
My death has no chief-mourner;
I know it right now that I am still alive, Gôn Duku –
Except for Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô
And Daughter-of-Hambe aoo.
I am indeed scared oo Ade of Tsofo,
Chief, I have dressed as though I am an ancanakopa ragged-dance performer;
Not a thing do I possesses, man-of-Shoruv ee,
Azaatsar Imadu!
Tell Dookaan to manage things for me oo;
Defeated, I am at Bologo Ashav [„s place].
You people should save me aeee;
Orhemba Cia Burya,
The he-goat has rejected alufu delicious feed
In the house of Mkohol Ivase,
It has gone to eat kpoo-maakye less-delicious feed

In the house of Mue Ager Nortema;
673
But I will not cry blamingly with you people; one does not send himself
And turn to hiss back at it ee Mnguor‟ of Makar.
Catarrh does not block both nostrils, but as for me, both are blocked.
Azeaze Lim, Doctor Azeaze –
Even [his] mere asking after my wife, Daughter of Chief Biliji, alone
Is usually [done by giving me] a surprise package ee.
Daughter-of-Avaa
Nor Benga, true Daughter, you have given birth!
Ormbatsavaja oo!
Ormbatsavaja Maku is a he-hippo of the forests!
Has this beast basked in the sun?
Once Atishar, Daughter-of-Ukan, saw me,
She spranged up and went into her house and opened her iron box:
I saw so much cash that
Though I generally do fear anything, I now had to begin pleading [in fear].
Ziki Nor friend, the world is almost collapsing
Would it collapse? ahoo!
It is actually collapsing [already] but people do not know, Igyohia Butu
Ikyamgba.
* * *
Abyem Gaga Myaki,
Man of Mbanyamatsor has arrived ee;

674
Even in neatness that man has emerged at the best
With Daughter of Maashin ee.
Ande Kwagh aooo! I have slapped the iyugh porcupine, Angul of Beneke,
Dajo Pav, how do I weep of this ordeal? Aerga of Gum Anar was wiping away my
tears for me
In [the land of] Mbamena.
I have mentioned so many Mbamena people in my song
As though I will mention all of them,
But nobody bothers about me – except Daughter-of-the-Mbatinyam aa.
Timve Kwaghbo Kura oo – these are the Mbawuadi [people] that
When they step on a snake,
It [rather] turns into a rag;
Daughter of Daaior, Daughter-of-Ipav, I came to have a word with you but it was
not possible;
I have no cloth [to put on and come] ee Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
Zenke do remember me eee.
AI. 56.
Adabo, I Did Not See Laha Kpan...
Call
[I am ] coming oo Chief Ibi Adabo oo!
I went but could not see Laha Kpan Yakubu ee.
When I asked they said the guma red-earth fell upon him ee;
[That is why I am] coming back with my hand on my cheek ee.
Daughter-of-Agya saw me and burst into lamentation.;

675
I too began weeping and both of us were in tears.
The world has given me the igyôôr knock [with the knuckles of its hand], that is
why people have exclaimed “gông” Nule Makyur Aca,
Chief Ibi aee.
Response
Kinabo of Sho' oo!
It is only recently that Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing of Anyakpa
Has left me ee.
These deaths have occurred in twin fashion for me:
Should I go to Mbaterem?
Or should I go to Tyuluv u?
Ajo ooo,
Unumbe Ajo oo,
Ajo, where do we go?
Even Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen has not seen me – [he] and Daughter of Ikyô Ukaan
ee; I am mourning over deaths;
Even tomorrow I will go to mourn over the death of Wouku Adogo who has also
disappeared completely into the guma red-earth!
How the mbatsav witches-and-wizards are bad!
Iorwa of Wouku,
Iorwa of Wouku, I am mourning [for you] a:
With who have you left me?
With dear who has baba left me? Anza Gbem from Ngou Ato from Mbatsavazun,

676
Sound out your word [of warning] else the land is crumbling ee;
Of a truth J. Gbabo oo, even Gôn Duku does not have life any longer,
Angul of Ierve of Beneke ee.
If not for Damera Chief Aza Biam,
The Jukun would have plundered
The house of Laha Kpan aa;
Kpan Yakubu ooo aye!
A war would have broken out necessarily; Mkohol Ivase
Would have crossed over [from Gboko] with an army
They would have gone over there ee;
[And those people] would have seen trouble but Doctor Azeaze Lim,
The man of Tombu was forbidding it aa
That things should just be allowed to be oo;
Since the matter has come to his notice, things should be allowed to just be.
Orhemba Cia Burya,
Burya, tell Laraba [that] my eyes are hardly drying up.
Vaa of Ngyeke ee,
Even Ngyeke Agirtou‟s mother has entered the coffin,
But I am yet to go there [to console him], I‟ve been going about concerning
[other] deaths.
When she [was alive and] would see me, she would rush about for my sake
And discuss with me in a soothing manner ee,
Discuss with me gently gently e.

A man is usually honourable because of the people he has behind him ee,
[But] as for us, we are just numerous [for nothing] like the Fulani‟s cows:
677
We hardly help each other. Chief Ageewua,
If you encouraged me,
I would have bought an igywegwe supernatural ability [with which to protect
myself]
[Otherwise] my clansmen have so many hurdles in my way: I have avoided so
much of them but I have stepped on one now and am groaming ayuu!
Its pain is deep
And bitter too,
Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
Fire has engulfed me eee,
Iorhemen Moave Adi Barka
Inform Daughter-of-Mbalihô ôô.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko!
Man of Mbakyahan, have you emerged in Chief hare's style
Or have you emerged in Chief goat's style?
The day that the sun would rise and I would laugh with people I do not ever know.
Mvaaga Ashaver Biam
Too does not eat his food and look away from me [in selfishness],
With Daughter-of-Mbabyon,
Môvihinze of Yashar ee tie a mourning cloth round my bowels,
Let me go and mourn for Laha Kpan Yakubu aee.

* * *
Iortyer Musa ee,
678
Iortyer Chief Musa stood and was saying a thing:
“See with me,
[In] the land of Toruv,
Mnder Cagh is still a alive and healthy;
See with me again,
[In] the land of Ngyenev too, Iorpande Caha Biam Ala, see him there, alive and
healthy;
See with me once again,
[In] the land of Ucha, Michael Shazwa the iombur-or dried man too is alive, hale
and hearty –
Ku! [people of] Mbaterem,
Whenever a man [who is truly a man] emerges, you people always kill him;
You people are committing iniquities;
Some day God will punish you eee."
AI. 57.
Anza, I would have Come but...
Call
How enmity is after me oo!
Anza Gbem from Ngou Ato, I would have come to visit you but
I have no cloth [to wear] – this is not pretence ; neither do I have the transport
fare ee.

679
[I would have] come to talk with Daughter of Adi of Abughul
To help find a thing [a piece of cloth] for me which I'd use to cover the bones of my
body.
I desire to go to Ioryem Ikyaave
So that he'd help me think over a matter a;
[He] with Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan ee : a man respects another because of that
Response
other's character ee.
Ageva Nyaku oo Nyaku Agba, my clansmen have abandoned me but I will not
mourn. Chief Hil Yakua Agule
Zaki, it‟s not my fault, they are after me for nothing, even my head is gone bad
completely.
What would I have done ee?
Iorwa of Wouku,
What would I have done ee?
Daughter-of-Ugô, my noble mother I am really in trouble;
This is just how I have sat and folded my hands [looking on in bewilderment].
Vande Yongu,
I desire to go to [the place where] akôvul plants [have grown] to Aôrmôm
Ayagwa,
[He] with Daughter-of-Tsambe ee, Daughter-of-Akôsu Igyaase!
The man threatening me at Mbajir' must certainly be a man of Mbatyou,
It is the husband of Daughter-of-Aganyi and Unenge of Kpev ee;

I am afraid to call his name that he might perhaps kill me [with rewards] a;
I need be careful for I have not bought the dufu invisible magic [with which to
escape].
Unor Adiôgô has arrived,
Ande, it is not mistakable; [he was] with Daughter-of-Jabi [who was] dressed in
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martial gear with a lion ['s skin] hung on her shoulders.
How they blow about their nobility like high harmattan winds ee!
Ah, hiar the whirlwind is just twisting about [in the atmosphere] casually! Iortyer,
Musa Iortyer Chief Musa ee!
Even if everybody put me to shame in my song [profession],
As for you, I am expecting that you‟d host a song-dance party for me
[That's how] your name would be popular ee.
Buit it is going as if, Iorpande
Biam, my plea has not invoked compassion, Ordorugh Nyam Dabul aoo!
Do tell Daughter-of-Atue to come and take me away or poverty will kill me. Chief
Mnder Cagh
Mici should tell Daughter-of-Baki that Apeatim Kpav Kpabi Agondu died a death
[indeed];
The children of Beekon
Have broken a major arrow;
They have not killed a human being;
They have killed a wilderness ee.
Daughter-of-Ayetwar,

681
Console Daughter-of-Ikyanyon to stop weeping;
Humans do not get eaten by weevils [; they do die].
* * *
Veunô Alya oo!
Has Alya Tyôba‟s scion arrived that
The indyer jumbo slit-log drum kept vigil with its sounds calling on Daughter-of-
Iorbo, the-terrible-people [in terms of ceaseless rewarding of song],
Mtilve of Iorbo
Has hung a sword with a sheath of amina-decoration flaming byugh!
[She] spread her heart in the square such that no one could match her.
Vaa of Ngyeke,
Nygeke Agirtou is [a man of] Mbadam aa, Daughter-of-Ato of Denga, join your
husband.
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
Tell Daughter-of-Mbasaa that I just tried you and instead of hanging a chicken on
me, you hung its feather –
I am even a brother to him Gôn Duku;
Even if people put me to shame, you people would have given me respect.
Ada Ushe ee,
Abera tell my mother, Daughter of Nyam, [that]
The cloth that you once gave me has torn completely ee;
The money that you once gave me the Chief tax-collector has snatched it oo,

682
[And] torn a receipt and given me with which I am singing about in my pocket.
Aerga of Gum,
Gum Anar saw me and was telling me a dream [of his]
That it won‟t be long
Before the gberusu flint-lighter will light my kungu tinder, Devaa was talking and
mentioning a he-cow that I should go so that she‟d host my dance o.
Ziki Nor friend, my dear friend eee.
AI. 58.
Kina Shondu Is No More, Malu Bawa...
Call
Kina Shondu is no more oo;
Malu Bawa is no more ee:
The Tiv should eat their things and refuse to give me, Biam;
If you people take the amar ceremonial dress and are engaging in sua fishing
with it,
When a ceremony comes up, what would you use as dress? You people have
slaughtered Acusa‟s son,
In the zaratata fresh rising of the sun.
A noble man does not deserve to die a swende accidential death.
Ukaave Utsua,
Look at him [also] going [to the great beyond].
I held on his clothese but the scion, ignoring, went in with norototo insistence;
Leaving Daughter-of-Nawa [alone] in the courtyard [of their compound].

683
She was shouting [in cry] and gathering herself and falling on the tumulus of her
husband.
Dajo Pav oo!
The mbatsav witches and wizards have eaten a bag of pepper:
Nothing nauseates them concerning anybody;
How I feel pity [for the situation] eee.
Response
As though it was a joke, the lion has caught him away to the bad journey from
where no one ever comes back ee.
Laha Kpan Yakubu aooo!
Your brother has followed you Laha Kpan a.
The person who has killed Utsua's scion,
On the last day will sit in hell fire;
That day I will laugh and throw back my head like Mbavendan Atso.
But I‟m not saying someone has killed him ee,
It is God that has taken him away ee.
Vaa of Ngyeke ee,
Agirtou, the mbatsav witches and wizards are beyond conquering but they are
not beyond death ee;
Death is nobody‟s sibling; Anza Gbem from Ngou with Daughter-of-Abivegun,
You people, rest from your mourning ee;
Death is God's thing ooo,
Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.

Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku!
As for me, I always keep vigil mourning
684
Your mother who has gone into the earth and met
Her husband ee,
Aza Biam Ashileku;
Prayers are being offered for you ee,
That you should sit in peace oo,
Angul of Ierve of Beneke ee.
* * *
My heart is angering, let Iortyer Musa be informed, [my] clansmen have tied me
with some foolish baboon.
I had a hair-cut even in the baba fashionable style before going to court a girl, yet
My courtship was not successful, Ziki Nor oo,
Ziki Nor friend, my dear friend ee.
Aerga of Gum Anar, deaths are occurring for you like the hatching habit of
doves;
Everyday, he buries a worthwhile person:
Only yesterday he buried a beloved child of his;
He has also buried Igbya Kartyo;
He has also buried his sister ee.
Devaa, my noble mother, do not worry, it is God ['s work] ôô.
How enmity has trailed me oo!
Angor Ikyenge Avii Tyav, Daughter of Damagudu should take me oo;

She should go and console me
Else I'd die, Daughter-of-Mbatinyam
How I now weep about in shame ee.
Man-of-Mbatsavaja oo!
Tell Daughter-of-Ukan to rise up;
Let her not doze with sleep;
Culecule I beg.
685
Death has [already] cast its giddyness on me aoo!
If you people delay, when you [finally] come, you‟ll reward my grave eee.
AI. 59.
The Year has Ended, Emberga Adula...
Call
The year has ended oo Emberga Adula Angbande of Mbapyer,
Chief Driver I‟m calling you,
You and Daughter of Chief Ayati [who] arrested me to sleep in her compound.
Everything is abundant in her compound ooo.
Someone go tell Nule Makyur Aca ;
I was overcome [by that abundance of everything] for which I ran away.
Response
My clansmen are pursuing me and throwing avishigh clubs at me [showing their
viciousness];
[They are shouting] that I should be ambushed and captured,
But there is no problem; my cia invocation is in the eaves [of the compound, so I

686
am not bothered at whatever they are doing].
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala ooo!
Iorpande Caha,
Biam Ala my brother I am asking you
That since God has rejected me, you too will reject me? Daughter of Gula my
noble mother, what should I do [to earn your regard] eee?
Ayange of Dagi Agôv came with a suuluu line-up of his clansmen; [he] held me by
the hand that I should rise up,
Even if it is by force he must take me away
[For] Daughter-of-Dagba [his wife] to host a song-party for me;
All his clansmen are already gathered and waiting for me eee
Even Mvaaga Ashaver came.
Daughter of Yashar is it because of my song [party] that you keep [leaving your
husband and] running away to you father‟s house?
A woman too do advice her husband;
Come back and host a song-party for me before you go on with you ambitious
running about.
Anula Gbande Nako oo!
The man of Mbabookyo threatened me thoroughly –[he] with Daughter-of-Chief
Tyôshaaôndu aooo!
My [lucky] day has arrived eee Ku! Chief Mnder Cagh Mici Karku,
Since you hosted a song-party for me, I have not slept;
A lion has taken away my goat at the back of the house –

I keep night-vigils, mourning over deaths.
Daughter of Baki ii, someone should give me a gift and I will become his or her
slave;
687
Chief Ba of Ikpyughul Hwembe, you did not give me [any gift] ee.
If I were selling [mere] firewood,
I would have been beloved among the children of Garaka ee;
If I were digging up gbache rootstocks and selling,
I would have been beloved one to the children of Garaka.
Zenda Agagu, the-rough-man of akombu religious ritual!
Daughter-of-Mbatyula ee Doowuan Nyajo ku! Doowuan Nyajo,
Your father died but I did not find one who'd accompany me to come [and console
you] –
That‟s why it may seem as if we eat with each other in the manner that death eats.
Ugba of Iwevzer Agôv
Too his most senior wife has died:
Daughter of Gbanor has left me and gone to gudu-
Gudu [where everyone is going], Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
* * *
Likici Agbe ee,
Likici Agbe ee, Daughter-of-Koko greeted me but I am yet to hear. Iwyarwyar
Anyamgwa
Came with Daughter of Ugondu oo,
Daughter of Yaga has arrived ee,

People should warn their children.
688
Aerga of Gum Anar the true scion has arrived ee no one will sleep; [he was] with
Daughter-of-Mbatinyam aa.
If Poverty kills me, I too must go down with someone:
I must go down with Ageva Nyaku and Vande Yongu the gafa eagle,
Aciniya Norum Agundô oo!
[He] came with Daughter-of-Hambe ee – how the earth is shaking and shaking!
The true man does not fear anything,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
Tell [that to] Daughter-of-Mabsaa. Who are those passing like [the group of] Musa
Yongu?
Ioryer Musa!
[He] was with Aza of Gaase;
Truth has come out ee.
Venunô Alya,
Alya Tyôba I am calling on you
Tell Daughter-of-Akombu ooo
That I have started coming [to your place] eee.
AI. 60.
Bosua Uga, I have Started Coming...
Call
Bosua Uga I have started coming ee,

Ior‟ Bosua Uga;
689
[He] was with Daughter-of-Ikyuravtiev aee.
Ior‟ I have come to have a word with you
Inform Daughter-of-Abaver!
Response
Chief Ibi, Adabo oo!
* * *
Further Response: The children-of-Biam so fought a war with me that I vomited
blood,
But due to to my courage, God did not abandon me;
He is still with one ee.
Jealousy is not a thing to indulge;
A true man does not engage in jealous acts eee.
Jealousy is ashes;
Someday it must turn back on the pepertrator; it must turn back on him without
fail ee.
When one gets a good thing, he looks for his child [to enjoy it]; when it is a bad
thing, he turns it over to a brother [of his] a.
Orhemba Cia,
This world is spoilt ee, no wonder the annar comet no longer comes out in the sky
aee; I have come ee.
It is recently that Chief Mvaaga Ashaver Chief –
How he moves with feline steps daalaa! –

Said that I should go, let Daughter of Mbaibyon pound icihe seeds [and] host a
song-party for me;
He would give me a senior gift,
690
He has bought it from Makaara [the car dealer] aa.
That thing brings out smoke; that thing has a shade under which to sit ee.
The Tiv applauded kyuuu!
Anyam the lion has arisen ee, Vingiror the-rounded-man arrived in the arena –
Has Iorpande Caha Biam Ala attended this song-dance ceremony
That I have seen worthy children of Ukum passing?
They are discussing in an intimate tetatet with him in the dressing room ee;
Daughter of Kura too is there with them.
Luck has smiled on me, Adabo oo.
Shim Torkon of
Hiinyam I am sick with akpev scabies, people are avoiding me.
Emberga Adula Angbande ee,
Man-of-Mbatyerev, I am headed deathwards ee;
Tell Daughter-of-Chief Ayati I have come:
That your name is good to me yet I have a but:
That you husband has a heart capable of killing someone [with gifts],
Even in play he exhausts his heart [of generosity];
Baka oo, J. Gbabo ooo.

AI. 61.
Beba Unzô's Song-party
Call
Dajo Mue ooo tell Daughter of Azagwa ooo a thing has happened [in the
691
compound of] the children of Unzô Konjo Aku – how the world is heaving up
dishidishi there!
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo cut off the head of Nobility and is doing the kwan dance
[And singing] that “ I dreamt that the Uke have gone
My heart is full of blood, full of blood."
The Daughter of Yaga
Was also performing the kwan dance [and singing] that: “Aya you have given
birth to Adibobo dangerous beasts; they should be dreaded ee.”
Response
Atôndu Tiôn aoo, Atôndu Tiôn!
Declare a drinking galore for me to drink, I am going to Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo;
Perhaps, I may go and never return:
Daughter of Yaga was sending lightening kwegheer [in readiness to thunder]
Maybe she will strike on me [with her bolts].
Daughter of Yaga my noble mother,
Do calm your heart gently, gently.
Declared a song-party for me but I am fearing to go.
Acinge Unzô Konjo oo I came but have remained at the gate sitting on the ground;
If you permit, I will come in with my clansmen a;

If you do not permit, I will turn back ee.
[For] that your brother‟s heart is not clear to me, it is not clear to me; I always
tell that to Chief
Hil Yakua Agule,
692
As well as Daughter-of-Tema – how her hen likes the fireside! – she should plead
with Daughter-of-Yaga gently gently;
Let her allow me to come in, no matter what, let it be inside the compound ee.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!
Has arrived with his people, arrived with his company gighirkikiki ii;
Daughter of Kura Adasu lost her temper and remove the key from her car and
gave me,
That I should take it, even Nguyan Kyume has concurred,
That I should take and be driving it away with zouloo slowness.
Even the money for fuel she'd give me;
Even the money for the driver she‟d be paying till the death of calender months,
Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!
Kunde Ager Wuhe
Of Ashwa should tell Daughter-of-Chief Va and Daughter-of-Gyuse Wanza:
Send a cloth for me, I am going for a song-party at Zaki Beba Unzô Konjo [„s
compound].
How Daughter-of-Yaga is blowing her wealth about!
Like kwamegh-hir high hamattan ee. I am pegging my expectations on Zaki Chief
Kwaor Akosho

693
Ahuku does fearful things – I have come for this dance indeed!
* * *
Ishimaior of Tsofo the chief has arrived with his neatness, Daughter-of-Chief of
Kyado,
Was dressed in a same-coloured cloth: how the whole environment was saturated
to the full [with the force of her glamour]!
How they throw up their ica horse-tail dancing customes in the arena!
To Ioryem Ikyaave's pleasure and murmurmur-smile!
[He ] and Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan ee:
That one too is an angum inyamkyume young beast [and dangerous].
I have come oo Judge Aciniya Norum has arrived,
With Daughter of Hambe, Dajo Mue it is unmistakable!
The asôngu ancient sacred woodwind sounded in the compound of Beba Unzô;
Matters climaxed and settled down to the finish eee.
AI. 62.
Angol Ikenge has Arrived...
Call
Kina Shondu has died and when I think of how I am
In trouble – it is in this month that I would have died [too],
But Shiim Torkon of Hiinyam forbade me oo;
[He] said I should not [die]:

694
Daughter of Gbinde has a thing to do with me oo so I should hold on for a while.
Response
Angol Ikyenge has arrived oo, Angol Ikyenge has arrived with Daughter of
Damagudu;
Arrived and was doing kombul-aga-tar moves [that do not waste time on
calculating of details],
Sanker Ajav aa.
See Judge Acin',
Aciniya Norum came in a car!
His heart jumps within him [to do memorable things]
And Daughter-of-Hambe, as well as Ngôundu of Hambe:
That woman is really a woman;
She does [things] in a manner that if care is not taken she would slaughter
someone someday.
Chief of Kwaor Akosho Ahuku, the inyamkyume beast ! the begha-wan lion's scion!
the iyar-wan deer's scion!
No one dares come near where he sleeps o, Daughter-of-Mbashorama.
Iorpande Caha ooo Biam Ala has come eee,
People should rise and offer prayers,
Let God keep Caha‟s scion
To have a heart full of peace eee.
There is another inyamkyume wild beast in the land of Mbayongu aooo!
His name is I-do-not-like-boasting Ugô oo,

695
His name is let-us-prove-ourselves-by-our-deeds Ugô oo.
Daughter-of-Anyamhur the lady has beaten everybody [with rewards]
At the song-party [hosted by] Shiim Torkon!
Angule Deem, Deem‟s scion arrived there
So uga the wall gecko has eaten the tsur gum!
If someone talks to me, I will talk to him aa;
Deem‟s scion is around ee nobody will dare me –
[He ] with Daughter-of-Ikyurior o.
* * *
Iorkyaa of Kpan Adi from Mbaikwe!
Has arrived with Daughter-of-Udo ee.
Kunde Ager, I am in death ee Daughter-of-Chief Va should assist me to go [to her
place] so that my poverty will be over;
Mnguaorga of Wombu Makar aa,
Daughter of Hwange ee! See her coming, people should stop chattering;
Everybody should warn himself or herself aa.
Ioryem Ikyaave oo Ikyaave Angula
Has been threatening me about [his ensuring my] coming to his house;
Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan has made a bet with her husband [about which of them
would treat me better when I come].
J. Gbabo ooo,
I am calling on the Mbabookyo [people]: I call on Vande Yongu Abege
And Daughter-of-Mbajirswange,

696
If you people do not carry me on your back,
A toad would eat off my feet Adôm Agu Tema, give me a word for people to hear,
Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam,
Daughter-of-Duku Agemaji oo Shiim Torkon of Hiinyam arrived and thick
darkness descended [in his honour] with ngighngihngigh thickness.
AI. 63.
Tsofo, Since I have Seen You...
Call
Tsofo, since I have seen you, I do not care about the world, Daughter of Chief
Kyado, the woman has become a gungun snake.
People are drumming [in celebration] and dancing after her.
I too am dancing among them,
Kwaghbula Azege ee!
Response
How enmity trails me!
Mnzughulga Agede,
Agede Beeku resembled a child to Death so I have tied the inyagba mourning cloth
and am coming
To Zaki Tyôver Ninga that Zaki Tyôver Ninga should show me the road so that I‟d
go to the children-of-Tarndyer.
Atôndu Tiôn
Is a true scion of Tandyer ee,
A wealthy man is usually a mad man;

Kenti I have come ee;
Atim Tiônsha,
697
Ashiemar is no more but your [strong] heart is present ee.
* * *
Tor of Kwaor Akosho Ahuku I do respect the children-of-Kosho but it is because of
their character. How Akosho has given birth indeed! People should remove their
J. Gbabo ooo,
shoes [in respect].
Too is not a joker ee.
AI. 64.
Shiim Torkon's Song-party
Call
Chief Ibi ooo a terrible thing has happened among the Ushitire [people] ee;
It‟s as though pepper would be eaten before the matter would be heard:
ShiimTorkon
Of Hiinyam of Abaa hosted a song-party for me,
Hosted such a song party for me that Udam people stopped coming to Tiv markets
[for fear that they would be seized and slaughtered as rewards to me].
[For] killing a person is a little thing to him eee.
Response
A thing has happened, has happened indeed:
Torkon of Hiinyam, has given birth to his own sons aa;
They are not play-things; it is a fireballs that he has flamed forth ee.

[Their] fame has so spread that it has reached even the Uvaamyande people.
698
Daughter-of-Udende drew the buci sword and made a turn with her fellow wives a –
They are stinging [in the] honey bee [style]:
All the people ran helter-skelter and left the square empty, Vande Yongu.
Has Daugher of Paase came for this amar dance ceremony at all?
They said she has come;
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri too, people are inquiring whether he has come for theamar
dance ceremony?
They said he has come: he should come and behold the world as it is conducted in
the [clan of the] Mbavyuu.
Hindan of Gbôhô emerged like a mother hyena and her young – people like Agbe
Dajo [forming a long line] suuluu [behind him];
[He] arrived and the sun got lost [in the sky] bivee.
Daughter-of-Anyamhur has certainly come to this dance ceremony with a [a
dangerous] motive;
The way her eyes are doing in their sockets is not clear to me ee.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
Nyôr Tarwa,
The man of Mbatyou in an mngbakpa pepper
Even one fruit would be too much for you people;
Atôndu Tiôn‟s name has became famous but it is because of that his coco ishima
courageous heart;
[He] and Daughter-of-Wende.

Has Ishima Zaki shaken his body?
That the kwen metal gong has sounded and the sun has emerged [in the sky]
zaratata.
699
Daughter of Chief Kyado has dressed in a cloth of the mkir sacred bird style – how
she turns about mungôôôn with it!
Shim Torkon hosted a song-party for me and caught the sky and gave me.
I have known all the people that are real people at the party:
I have known [that] Daughter-of-Udende is pleasurable to behold, the noble woman
is not a dead weight.
She catches a human and gives as a reward for song;
She gets a bicycle and gives as a reward for song;
As for money, there is no need talking of it in the land of Mbagunduba eee.
As for Tyôver Ninga Biam from MbaGar‟,
Chief Tyôver Ninga gave me so much to enjoy beyond compare,
Daughter of Mbayenge Ajir, I am greeting you people.
Apeatim Kpav Kpabi Agundu Chief of Donga has arrived with his character,
Daughter-of-Ikyanyon saw me
And closed in mbiôôl on me,
That I should turn [and follow her] ee;
I should not waste her time, Gôn Buruku Duku.
Likici Agbe ooo I am coming but waiting for Yarkpindi of Dye,
Yarkpindi was with Daughter of Zungwe, and they so arrived over there that God let
down raindrops [in their honour].

Has Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam
Arrived that people have stopped their camcam chattering? Ioryem Ikyaave was
700
talking and gesturing with his hands
That whoever [dares] should put up his hand, Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan would
devour him a.
Ageva Nyaku oo! Nyaku put up his hand and said that the thunderbolt fall, the
thunderbolt fall, he has arrived;
Even if it is a matter of night-time, there is still no problem.
AI. 65.
Money Goes with Death
Call
It has death oo!
Money has death ooo I have had a car accident at the road and my waist has
broken eeo.
Daughter-of-Paase aa,
Help me tell Vande Yongu
I am walking in the akuku slant farm-line style these days;
I am hospitalised and am yet to know my fate.
Response
I am lost ooo!

701
Even Ishima Zaki has not heard of it, see me going
To meet Mko inside the earth.
Atôndu Tiôn
Saw me on the road but could not recognize me;
[I] was already completely garbed in death‟s gear.
Likici Agbe ee,
I will not mourn about [my]death, I‟m not its only victim ee.
* * *
Chief Ageewua
Dugwer Biam Ala o zebo are after me;
Jealousy is after me that I should go into the earth and I am going.
Yarkpindi of Dye
Be coming with speed ooo, let me see your face and go my way.
[My] clansmen have struck me oo I am going about with the impact of their
weapon [heavy on me].
AI. 66.
Tell Ande, Zenda Agagu Came...
Call
Go tell Ande
Kwagh aoooo!
Zenda Agagu came – how cries [of jubilation] filled everywhere;
And the he-drum ascended to its peak

In the house of Atôndu Tiôn;
702
Zenda Agagu jumped with a kungu-icur-bidi horse over the akinde tree and landed
in the [dance] square,
With Daughter of Chief Melabu.
Zenda Agagu's maternal kinsmen are the Ushitile [people] ee;
Atôndu Tiôn,
Atôndu Tiôn's maternal kinsmen are also the Ushitire [people] ee;
Hil Agule ee,
Chief Hil Agule‟s maternal kinsmen too are the Ushitile [people] ee:
These persons together hosted a song-party [for me].
They all brought out their Ushitle hearts [in rewarding my performance].
Response
Chief Beba Unzô
Konjo too has come oo!
The Chief wore a tungul-decorated shoe and sat on a stool, Daughter-of-Yaga wore
the gbum beads
On her neck with the ijô-angel cloth roughly tied round her waist.
Matters have gathered momentum!
How igenge drum-crowds chorus ceaselessly Dajo Pav a!
I will tip-toe and behold ooo;
If it is true I will go and tell Ishimaior of Tsofo to get ready,
Daughter-of-Chief of Kyado should get ready.

703
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri the inyamkyume dreadful beast
Too is coming for this your party.
Daughter-of-Agashua oo the [poisonous] zwar-pot bees aa!
Oo the [dangerous] zwar-pot bees aa!
Ishagba Akpam
Has arrived eee.
The children-of-Ishangev,
[The] Kwande [people], are rewarding my song and mentioning Tyôver of Ninga
[Who] turned his mouth to a corner and was smiling murmurmur,
[And] calling on Uhule ee;
Uhule came out gendôô,
And went and sat on a stool: a terrible thing happened!
The world stopped its chattering.
Atôndu Tiôn too has come;
How the scion hooked on his bow-cord and people scattered helter-skelter ee:
Some [of those fleeing] are stumbling and falling in their flight, my mother
Daughter-of-Wende ee.
Atôndu Tiôn is water-with-which-to-wash-away-dirt.
* * *
Matters have reached their climax! Mnguaorga of Wombu Makar aa,
Tell Daughter-of-Hwange ee [that] I have no cloth to put on.
Hindan of Gbôhô arrived with Daughter-of-Anyamhur ee;

704
Daughter-of-Anyamhur does not give way for things. Man from the
Mbaikwanyongu,
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam
Has been threatening me
About [my coming to] his house so much that I have constructed a drum and kept;
Daughter-of-Vagi,
Show your heart for people to see; Gbabo oo,
Bosua Uga ee,
Uga‟s scion should sew my head for me.
Not even a kobo with which to scratch my body have I got someone who would
give me; it is Atôndu Tiôn that is helping me.
Nande Ishawa came with Daughter-of-Mbayengejir,
Luckily for me, Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam too has come,
With Daughter-of-Duku Agemaji oo!
Daughter-of-Duku Agema aa!
I‟m lost, Gbabo oo!
AI. 67.
Kwaor Akosho's Song-party
Call
Kina Shondu is no more; Adega of Orbaim too [is not around];
This is how they would have seen the world at Ikyuravtiev [district]:
Chief Kwaor Akosho

705
Has loads on his head yet he hosted a song-party [for me] oo.
That man emerged as a Chief with the breast still in his mouth
Because of the insideness of his heart ee.
Response
Zaki Tyôver of Ninga oo!
It is the heart that makes a man, Tyôver of Ninga,
A bad thing has happened to you but there is no problem;
Money does finish, man does not finish eee.
Uhule ee,
A woman does advise her husband.
Chief Kwaor Akosho Ahuku
Invited his paternal kinsmen the chidlren-of-Chôngu [who] gathered gbing-
gbing in their crowds;
[He also] invited his maternal kinsmen the MbaIpyusu who also arrived gighirkiki in
their crowds.
The Terrible Chief Ngibo Azua Ikyase Biam!
The Chief shouted [an order] in his palace [so strongly that] God performed the
agiigbe drum [by rumbling in the sky];
The sun rouse and set [at the same time in awe].
[He] said that let [my] song be rewarded and rewarded: he himself is around [so
there will be no problem] ee,
His m-monkwav age-mates stood up and approved his words in unison.
Among the Mbanyam too an inyamkyume beast is not lacking: Mpuuga Agule

Yongu,
Daughter-of-Akundu, your husband was talking with jangjang loudness in the
706
arena: nobody dared chip a word into his words.
Nahanga of Bede ooo!
Bede Akundô eee ku!
Has Daughter-of-Mbatinyam come for this dance ceremony
That the hiar whirlwind has kept sweeping the sqaure?
How the sqaure is neat like that of mbukuv sprites! Judge Acinya Norum
Was with Daughter-of-Hambe – even in looks, that scion is too good to behold
And his actions too he measures them in accordance with his generous weight.
Ioryem Kyaave has hosted me to a song-party indeed;
Daughter of Ikyô Ukaan, I am going over with my song to Chief of Kwaor Akosho,
It is in his place that I will go and enjoy myself to the full.
Tell Acivin Tor Ayati ee,
I saw Daughter-of-Mbayengejir in a dream handing a wife to me
That is should stop opening my mouth and going about before people [begging for
a wife] Mnguaorga
Of Wombu of Makar Agaku is a man of Mbajima piooor.
His father too is aTonguv man;
His mother is from Ukum, from the lineage of Kunde Ager Wuhe,
Daughter of Chief Va does not pick a thing and look at the door [like a selfish
person] before giving it to a fellow brother ee.
* * *

Kusugh Mnenga oo!
I am in trouble that‟s why I‟m crying
And calling on Daughter-of-Mbakyon,
Daughter of Ikyagh Adogo oo,
707
If your people do not help me, I will die for peace to come aeee.
AI. 68.
Tsofo, Begirdle Yourself Quickly...
Call
Ishima of Tsofo oo begirdle yourself quickly,
A thing's limbs are straightened in the land of Ikyurav as though a kor sasswood
test ordeal has been declared.
Chief of Kwaor Akosho Ahuku uu,
The inyamkyume wild beast,
They do not wake him with [bare] hands,
It is [usually] with a spear, my mother Daughter-of-Akô,
Is also an inyamkyume beast among women – see her coming ee.
Response
Someone excort me to go to 'Puuga Agule Yongu,
Someone excort me to go to Daughter-of-Akuundu,
Daughter of Mbasaa has become a kontamen big tree:
I will go and rest under her [shade] and experience some peace ee.
Shiim Torkon of Hiinyam aa,
This pilaor carefree-man too has come with Daughter-of-Udende ee –

708
How the world is just crashing itself [in recognition] Gôn Duku uu!
Tor Kwaor Akosho Ahuku
Has so invited people for this my [song-party] affair that even the red ikyura tree
[representing women] has been reached; the black ikyura tree [representing
men] rushed to the venue first.
They are announcing that people should take their seats, and focus on rewarding
my dance ooo.
Song is calling Daughter-of-Ako, Daughter-of-Ako;
The woman so shocked her body that the kusugh electric fish could not
Compare,
Even trees are falling [from the shock effects]. Daughter-of-Akô dressed in
A cloth that is flaming fire on and off, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!
These are those whose horns itch;
Daughter of Ikyume does not promise and fail
She and Daughter-of-Kura Adasu promised
So I am [certain of hope and] raising my shoulders and walling about proudly Nule
Makyur Aca.
Bosua Uga
Too came with
Daughter-of-Amena;
Where they are sitting
Dew has [in respect] fallen, Daughter-of-Amena aa.

Kunde Ager Wuhe
709
Of Ashwa rouse – the children-of-Mbaterem were with him –
People are variously pointing at him [in respect ias they discuss about him].
This inyamkyume beast sighed so [strongly] that the elephant trumpeted [in fear];
He was with Daugther of Chief Va, me too I am crying over my [impending] death
[from the strength of this beast] ayei!
But they said I should fix my eyes on Chief of Kwaor Akosho;
Chief Kwaor Akosho Zaki wherever you are, may God bless you Zaki;
Wherever you are, may God bless you.
Apeatim Kpav Kpabi Agundu,
Is Daughter-of-Aye Twar coming that
The sun has got hold of the moon and they are drumming [in celebration]and
dancing? Ioryem Ikyaave,
Ikyaave, have you killed an elephant
That my cloth is loosening off from my waist [out of my dread] ee?
Daughter of Ikyô Ukaan, I am calling you;
Vaa of Ngyeke,
This inyamkyume beast rouse and the mbeli stringed instrument sounded and the
gbande drum sounded.
Daughter-of-Ato Mdenga was giving a warning that nobody should make noise in
this gathering for she has arrived.
* * *

AI. 69.
With Whom Do I Cry? Chief Ibi...
Call
710
With whom should I cry? Chief Ibi Adabo oo.
Dajo Pav, with whom should I cry? Chief Ibi Adabo oo.
Judge Abyem Gaga Myaki – the Chief
Came in his full regalia with his wife,
Anapine ee.
There is the Chief ee,
Zaki you will host a song-party for me
That one is a concluded matter.
Response
Chief Shima Zaki caught a pig to slaughter for me,
But the pig escaped into the fence and was lost aa.
Bending down does not go for nothing
But mine has done so ee.
Whenever Daughter-of-Azande sees me, she spits away heavily but there is no
problem.
How my things hardly end in friendliness! Ayio oo!
Dajo Pav that issue is not good to be rumoured
In some foreign land ee.
For me, it is casual things that annoy me.
Ande, I don‟t like deceit ee.

* * *
Torkura of Madugu what have I done ee?!
711
Daughter of Chief Kyado I have given you the Ageba-praises.
Kahemban Nyam Tseke, Amishi Chief Ugô Igbyudu, Igbyudu has abandoned me oo;
How I am weeping [over the abandonment]!
When the tsoughul hawk perches to rest, I too would go in [to my grave] aeee.
AI. 70.
Of a Truth I Fell, let Me Miss...
Call
Of a truth I fell so let me miss the ikpyam antelope;
Veunô Alya,
Married a graceful Daughter-of-Turan with a beautiful icombu navel.
When she comes out, it is a pleasure to behold!
Tyoor Gber Ifan,
Do help me tell Doowuan to come so that we can go and celebrate the Sereki
Chief‟s marriage.
* * *
The begger does not reject even agbo water-yam ee.
If I‟m given, I will collect;
If I‟m not given, I will go my way.
Kwaghbula Azege ee!

Response
Hoo ayio oo!
Mbanan arrived in the square;
She was with her husband aa
712
How the Tiv are shouting ikyuuu [in celebration]!
Veunô Alya, the wan-begha lion‟s scion aa,
May the Chief be in peace;
Even when your foot strikes against a stone, may you only pick a tortoise and
exclaim [the name of] Daughter-of-Ichôngu oo.
* * *
Ngueigbya of Pila, Pila Hinda come and see a good thing o.
Someday I will reject the tami bad soup ooo and accept the igyankwam good one.
AI. 71.
Respecting People withComplicated Characters
Call
Dajo Mue oo
I am respecting people with [interestingly] complicated characters;
I am respecting Tse Agule and Daughter-of-Ikyanyon.
Those ones do no pick any gift and hold it back concerning anyone;
Even when it is [an] iron [weapon], they do not hold it back;
Even when it is a material gift, they do no hold it back.
How [their character] resembles that of Veunô Alya to me!
As well as Mkohol Ivase:
Whenever he sees me, he abandones his job

And tosses me about without end [treating me with especial generosity].
713
Everything is abundant in his house, Nule Makyur.
Hoo ayio! Chief Ibi aee.
Response
Iorwa of Wouku
Adogo tell my mother Daughter-of-Ugô
That the matter which I discussed with you has been rejected by Chief Ageewua
Biam.
His father has died ee;
I am grieving for Daughter-of-Vagi these days ee,
[So much that] I am not travelling anywhere.
Vaa of Ngyeke,
Ngyeke Agirtou, do help me tell Daughter-of-Jima aa.
Here I go oo I will join Mko in the earth;
I and him will stay in our compound ee;
Atôndu Tiôn should stay in his compound with Kwaghbula Azege
And Amishi Chief Ugô.
Chief Mvaaga Ashaver
Too should stay in his compound with Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam.
Your war-chief too has joined you people ee, Mue Ager Nortema,
Tell Daughter-of-Gbande to pay me a condolence visit. Zaki Hil Agule ee Zaki Hil
Agule ee,
[This] your world has began to carry me a drift –

Has Avaaime heard at all?
Shiim Torkon,
Man of Hiinyam Abaaior, my clansmen have given my head the elephant style
714
igyôôr knock [with their knuckles], my mother Daughter-of-Udende.
Ôrmôm Ayagwa
Was with Daughter-of-Akôsu Igyaase ee.
They are looking for me with a gift;
I am dreaming
As if I sat my buttocks on a big thing. Joseph Chief Bem Adam and Joseph
Ikyongeri with Daughter-of-Mbakombu oo;
The man of Hyarev was threatening me oo
That unless I do not go to his house, I would not return empty-handedly for birds to
laugh at me on my way.
Damera Chief oo,
The way my heart is, a war must have broken out
In that house.
The shouts of “yaah-we‟d-die! yeah-we‟d die!”, “My-hearts-is-boiling-over-with-
blood-boiling-over-with-blood for someone" too would have broken out before
* * *
it would have been good for us.
Tsenzughul of Kur Torhyande Tsa!
You, do help me tell Daughter-of-Tyuluv, Daughter of Cive, and Mtsernyi [that]
I have got a cut on my toe and the wound is not healing;

715
They should come and treat me or I‟m already almost handicapped, Igyohia Butu
Ikyamgba.
Ikyiva Ura has emerged ee, Sarin Ashwe has sent for me: they have reserved a
kpese basket for me over there [so that I could pack the rewards that they
Likici Agbe ee,
Atemba Agbe,
have planned for me], Nule Makyur Aca.
I have fished enough at the coasts, now I desire to fish in the ityungu deep pond
[itself];
Daughter of Koko talk with my mother Daughter-of-Mbabyon.
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke!
You people won‟t just kill me with my innocence like the mende lizard.
The world is not a thing to befriend Adabo oo;
Ande Kwagh, I am in death eee Ngueigbya of Pila Hinda
Man of Mbaulaga with Daughter-of-Ikpyajôu [who] saw me and kept cooking all
through the night.
Gave me a round tasselled gbagir [cloth] as well as an angel [cloth].
Emberga of Iormbameen,
Will your clansmen kill an elephant [for me]?
Will they kill an elephant [for me]?
That my cloth is loosening on its accord off from my waist ee?
A slave does not rest from work;
I am saturated with even this song [art] eee.

AI. 72.
716
Someone Take a Message for Me to Aôr...
Call
Someone take a message for me to Aôr-
Môm Ayagwa [that] I am coming ee
To the akôvul plants; [me] with Daughter-of-Gegba Atômigbya
As well as Mbanengen Aveil.
We have a thing to tell you that is good ee.
Response
Alhaji Makaara,
Has a company that manufactures motor vehicles ee;
He has a company in dubulawa thousands.
He manufactures peugeot [cars] and Mercedez [car] aoo as well as Bedford.
Even Zaki Tyôver Ninga yesterday bought
Toyota in the house of the Dansari man of many-things ii;
Even Mallam Iorpande,
Biam Ala oo also yesterday bought
A Mercedes [car] in the house of the Dansari man of many-things ii;
Biam Azege,
Even Benjamin Biam Azege yesterday bought
A jumbo motor car in the house of the Dansari man of many-things ii.
Daughter-of-Dajo picked a Kofuludi [car] and gave
Her poet [me] to be riding aa.

Toryila Zôzô,
717
Fawe Aigo oo also has a lot of motor vehicles,
But it is from Makaara that he bought them.
Their engines do not fail;
They are all good cars.
Maanyi the pendatyo the trusted wife,
Dearest woman I have arrived ee.
I am going about with my song
In [the house of] Gbeji oo, in [the house of] Tsua Gbeji ee
Ukpaa Chagen Ayange, the Daughter-of-Asema has threatened me for too long;
Let me go for that thunderbolt to descend Chief Adobu oo
* * *
Tyoor Gber Ifan,
Gber Ifan I am tired oo;
Tell Daughter-of-Toryôu to see how my body is. Tsevende Agegha
Talk with Daughter-of-Shitile oo lady what have I done [that you have neglected
me] ee eee Ibi Adabo oo.
AI. 73.
I Heard a Thing that Dissatisfies Me...
Call
Hila Jime Nev oo
I have heard a thing that dissatisfies
Me, Ande Kwagh cries have been on

Over there among the Ugondu [clan].
Response
718
The Mbaikwe [sub-clan] have put themselves to shame ee:
They have stopped killing people;
They are rather killing the ikyôngugh wilderness ee Iyôugh-ki-acivin the-red-hot-
iron has fallen ngena ee,
That Chief died with his body still strong.
I entered in the house and saw the Chief heavily dressed gemeen with a tsar
cloth-shred round his mouth and round all his face.
Gbenger Kur what is this ee ee?
With you present, the lion has still caught your brother,
How it is dragging him away be-eel:
The icombutar navel-point of the land has collapsed o.
Chief Manger Awav Agbe!
[Your] brother is no more ee;
He has gone to meet you ee.
How Daughter of Udô so mourned [that] her eyes swelled up.
I am coming ee,
She should rest from her mourning
Death is a thing ordained by God aeee.
* * *
Call:Gbabo ooo!

Response: It‟s as if pepper would first be eaten before we would hear it Chief
719
Ishimabyo the terrible-hearted Amule Ade too has gone indoors
To sleep underground, Adega of Orbiam Ningir too has died without my knowing
the meaning therein aa.
Chief Manger Awav Agbe,
Too, the guma red-earth has snatched o.
It is not me that would kill all of Ugondu people Mnguaor of Makar;
Here I go,
As for me, here I go – oh, existence!
AI. 74.
'Bula Azege, the World is Collapsing...
Call
'Bula Azege the world is collapsing ee,
Else I would have gone to the Gumtor youthly Chief Mna Ayu,
Ayu Lokoja ee he is man from Mbaterem;
[He] with his wife Daughter-of-the-Mbatungwaper ee, Daughter of Viaga .
Even in looks, the scion is too good to behold
In character too is cleanly in line!
Gideon Aluga
[Someone] go inform Gideon Aluga
The senior engineer, [he] was with Daughter-of-Tyôtyev aooo!
I have come but it is not to pass the night ee.
If there is a thing, let it be given to me that I will go

Ziki Nor friend, my friend ee.
Response
I don‟t even have caution and have dragged trouble my way so let it kill me
In the house of Tyoor, Chief Gber Ifan
Tershagba ooo!
He too is still of the Mbaterem [sub-clan].
Gbabo ooo,
720
Daughter of Toryôu saw me and kept a night vigil sighing over what she would do
and it would be good [enough] eee,
Daughter-of-Shitile knows her husband‟s heart.
Ôrmôm Ayagwa ooo,
I am going to greet Zaki Tor Mna Ayu Lokoja, Vande Beke
If the ikyutô gate-men are around, let them open the gate for me to go in
To where the Tor Chief is with Daughter-of-Tyuluv
Where I will talk of [my] poverty.
My knees usually ache Zaki find a rideable thing for me
Else, I am not going to live
The Tor Chief is the kungureku aromatic plant, if you touch the Tor Chief you
must go always with a scent..
Iortyer Tor Musa Agbe ee,
I have arrived ee
Aza of Gaase has always wished to see me
Ande Kwagh aooo Damera Tor Aza Biam Ashileku

Tell Daughter-of-Ahumbe ee
I have come.
Doctor Biam Azege
Treats both sicknesses and poverty aooo;
As for me, it is against poverty that he should give me an injection, Daughter-of-
Dajo .
Orhemba Cia Burya,
721
Burya tell Laraba I have not had a bet with anybody,
Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
Har Abyem aooo,
Har Mata, it is still waters that drowns people eee:
Daughter-of-Akaa Nyagba sits still;
Nobody knowns her heart ee.
My clansmen are playing the agbatutu pipe for me
Wuhe, the cursed-air, is around me, a corpse‟s wuhe cursed-air.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa!
Daughter-of-Akanyi declared a song-party for me;
But cancelled it again.
An elephant began to flee and I have [foolishly] gone and plucked the tur leaves
[for soup]; meat that is only desired does not cause the death of tur leaves.
Tsua Gbeji Ukpaa Chagem
Ayange ooo man from Mbadwem ee,
The elephant has displayed its child for me Daughter-of-Asema aa.

722
I saw the noble man Atule Uta too in attendance with Lele Ihywan aa.
The inyamkyume beast that shaves trees oo,
An ambe crocodile blocked the ihongu ford [but] I declared my cia invocation and
crossed aa;
When I arrived in his house, I was overwhelmed ee.
* * *
Gbamve ee,
Atu Yawe with his most senior wife
Daughter of Giikwa
Arrived and darkenss descended with jighjighjigh steadiness.
Some lion bit the scion‟s hand but the scion would not give up:
[Your] motor car was lost but
Your life is not lost eee.
AI. 75.
On Inter-ethnic Wars
Call
I will be coming ooo,
Someone take a message for me to Use Mue Anzer Adi Nyam.
Daughter of Duku Agemaji,
Even if you do not see me, I have gone with my song, I am blowing my [my] head
among the clansmen of Tor the Chief Cieve of Tsavbee Muri
Peverga Nyaga's scion
Nyaga's scion, here I come ee.

Response
But what I find lacking is that I have not seen my wife Mbanengen Aveil
Kasar has burnt my wife‟s entire house
723
Even her motor vehicle the Nyaga have collected o.
The person who have snatched my wife‟s motor vehicle,
Will have a rotten side; cancer must devour him – he will not escape.
This war has dealt with me, Nule Makyur;
Even my eldest son I have not seen.
Ngueigbya of Pila Hinda
Have a word with Daughter-of-Ikpyajyôugh aooo!
If you see me you won‟t recognize me ee. Tseeyol Kajo Gbermke
Too those people chased, he escaped naked ee.
Daughter-of-the-Mbapuu always keeps mourning vigils
[She] burnt one of her blouses [in anger] but the blouse did not burn,
The blouse [rather] developed wings and flew away Ugba of Iwevzer e.
Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku!
Whenever I see you, I feel like killing myself [in my performance] as a must.
Has Daughter-of-Shitile gone to the stream?
Or is it to the farm that she has gone
[That] I am not seeing her at all? Or has she gone to pick the gbaaye plant's seeds
[in the bush]?
I am hearing hiinhiin slightly slightly
That she has gone to the agbengatiev bad-farm [where no one comes back];

Others are denying that she has gone nowhere but has only transformed into a
sprite
Vaa of Ngyeke
724
Ngyeke Agirtou oo became a Chief with loads on his head, he is yet to put the loads
on the ground,
Daughter-of-Atoza.
Even Tyoor Gber Ifan the Nyaga have chased away;
His livestock have become abishi [plant fruits] – how they are plucking them freely!
Daughter of Toryôu, be going to church ee,
For the end of the world is near;
Do not wait for others to begin before you join.
Har Abyem I have not seen Daughter-of-Chief Bongu;
These people [fighters] have been too much about
So is she running her way to another direction or what?
Mbanengen Aveil oo the woman‟s heart so filled up with rage that she entered
Ikyente [town],
And was stepping on corpses and fighting [in the war] along with her friend
Mbazendan [who also] entered Adakongu [town] herself [so]
Nothing was left remaining.
[I] do not see again but I will grope my way [to the battlefront].
If they catch a slave, I will touch it with my hands, Vande Yongu.
* * *
Likici Agbe ee,

Likici Agbe ee Daughter-of-Koko my clansmen have treated me in a suspicious
manner.
Ziki Nor my friend was sleeping in an agboughul-tyumbe dilapidated hut,
With Daughter-of-Mbatyam aooo;
725
Ziki, I am fully saturated with the world eee.
AI. 76.
Elegy for Indyer
Call
Dajo Mue oo begirdle a [mourning] cloth round your stomach quickly;
A really frightful thing has happened at Akôndukpe:
The ndur tree has collapsed there,
There is blood all over people‟s bodies!
Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam has gone and met Ikpyônkô [in the earth]
And Daughter-of-Kuewe, Nule Makyur Aca.
The gar fortification has collapsed from its roots oo, J. Gbabo ooo.
Response
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko!
Your in-law has left us;
Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam has not died, he has only sloughed Ageewua Chief.
He is still strongly available. I went to have a word with him but it was too tough:
There were too many people. Daughter-of-Vagi was sitting on the floor in tears.
Calling papa aa,
Papa Indyer, with whom have you left me that you are going into the coffin,

As though it were a joke but he really disappeared; let Nule Makyur Aca be
informed.
726
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo Aku Chief Ishimabou the-terrible-hearted was not resting:
Daughter-of-Yaga‟s wife has died and left a baby that keeps crying with
Daughter-of-Yaga
Saying, “Asaar o, where has my mother gone? I need to suck.”
How Daughter-of-Yaga‟s spirit is low [over the situation] and she is sitting quietly.
But do not weep too much;
Death is for everybody; death is [even] a salvation.
Acinge Unzô Konjo is no more oo,
With who would you weep? Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam is no more, with who would
you weep?
Those remaining are only the-give-me-let-me-put-in-my-head‟s-hollow.
If it is a lie, let me be proved false, Angul of Ierve of Beneke.
Aerga of Gum Anar,
My clansmen have thrown me away but I will not weep;
When I die someday, I would experience some peace oo Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Tsenzughul of Kur Torhyande Tsa,
Do go and have a word with Daughter-of-Dajo Gir.
I have arrived oo,
Zaki Hil Agule has not finished with me yet, I am yet to embrace an imande post
[showing my completion of everything],
Daughter-of-Dema, my noble mother oo I'm yet to embrace imande post Jooji

Abyem,
727
Abyem Gaga Myaki, I am yet to embrace an imande post.
* * *
I have dressed in a white cloth [so] someone is pursuing me oo. Mkohol Ivase,
Ivase Chichi Agbe is man of Mbayiôn;
Man from Mbamterev;
Man from Jemngbagh exactly:
He is a needle with which the world is sown; me too he will stitch me ee, Mue Ager
Nortema.
Fire has come oo;
The end of the world has come: Utur [district] is fighting with Mbagen and burning
and killing each other;
The Jukun and the Tiv too are not seeing eye to eye,
They are burning and killing each other;
As for [all] that, the Bible has already said [it].
A wife and her husband will not see eye to eye;
A son and his father too [will be] in the same condition ee.
AI. 77.
Shame on You, Children of Gar’...
Call
Shame is on you ooo!
My clansmen the children-of-Gar‟ aee!

728
Shame is on you ee, my clansmen, the children-of-Garaka.
You people are, with jovial abandon, breaking the arrows that the [greater] clan
has preserved;
When a war breaks out, what will you people use [to fight] ee?
You people have matcheted a battle-ready horse and it is lying flat on the ground.
Hil Agule,
Chief, if this thing disrupts the land, it won't be good, Gbabo oo.
Response
Even when the shot is on the chest
It is still usually said to be elsewhere,
Then people do not know [what really happened] Ishimaior Chief Biam aa,
Do speak Uke language so that the problems would be over.
People like me who know nothing about the [secret] happenings [of the wizardry
world]
Would just be talking
In our womanly fashion of talking – what do I know? Gôn Duku.
But I am Anzwungeakaa the griever-over-matters [so I can still say a word]:
Let the crocodile let go the man [it is pursuing] and bite a tree instead.
My clansmen oo!
If you people take your domestic enmities out in the open,
Other people would laugh at your thinness [of heart], the-children-of-Garaka aa.
Use Mue Azer Adi Nyam,
His clansmen have exposed their enmity on him in public –

729
See how people everywhere are laughing gedee at them!
When you shoot an animal, you no longer cause rain to fall at the same time;
Cimcicim indecisiveness is not good, Nule Makyur Aca.
* * *
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief
Biam aooo!
You should have a word with your household eee –
Else things are not being well;
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo too should have a word with his household quickly quickly;
Else things are not being well.
The whole house is in flames and there is no one to quench it eee.
AI. 78.
Azege, I am Calling You from Death...
Call
Kwaghbula Azege I am calling you from death;
Do come out that I may see you oo!
Else my heart is so raging within me these days that I have become downcast.
I am so gbuu sad-looking that Chief Ishimaior of Tsofo was asking me that
If I have landed myself in trouble I should tell Daughter-of-Chief
Kyado to go and rescue me: let the trouble not draw near to me ee.
Response
My clansmen have poured the shosho spiritually-disabling-force on me,
Chief Msueaan Alu Gumtor,

730
I have therefore come to let you know, Zaki, it is not a money matter that I have
come for;
[But] if the Chief gives it to me, I would nonetheless collect.
Tor Ibi oo! I have come to tell the Chief the goings-on in the town: Zaki, I
conducted myself befittingly,
I treated my clansmen well but it has turned to trouble oo.
You are thatching a man‟s roof; he is busy having bad wishes for your scrotum –
This is my first time of seeing the manifestation [of these words], Beba Unzô ee.
Mkem pepper has now turned to gingering [even] the nase grinding stone, Aciniya
Norum;
Judge Aciniya Norum,
Man from Mbaagwa of whom I do dream daily.
Ayee! Ngôundu of Hambe,
Has collected my heart [from me] – what a
Surprising thing oo! Ana has also come.
She was with Mbatinyam, Daughter-of-Mbatinyam – how that lady has a heart more
poisonous than an igbinde adder!
Ioryem Ikyaave oo!
Angula has shaken the world: even accidental happenings that people often find
impossible to control,
The scion does control them readily;
[He] with Daughter-of-Ikyô Ukaan eee.
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala!

The sacred scion,
731
God has anointed His scion and kept so he would be saving people;
No matter what you do, you cannot kill him:
A motor vehicle hit him; the vehicle [rather] fell off very far away!
The man arrived cleanly; Tiv,
Daughter-of-Ikyume was laughing at the Tiv [witches that were after him],
Mpuugaa Agule Yongu o.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
Hear this frightful thing eee,
You people that God has blessed, a brother has died and risen from death!
I will go and greet the Daughter of Kura Adasu [so] she would give me a big gift a.
Nahanga of Bede of Tarkywe!
That one too his clansmen are poised to kill necessarily: an anyam lion climbed on
the scion but there was no cia invocation:
The mbashamhira people caused him to disappear to safety.
[People] raised shouts [against the lion];
Those who can, are forbidding it, Nule Makyur.
* * *
Tseeyol Kajo Gbermke,
Tell Daughter-of-Kighir not to become oblivious of me.
I fell and missed the ikpyam gazelle, Nande Shawa and the noble Daughter-of-
Gôr Shungu;
I am going about with azemba rags [for clothes] on my body in the land of the
Mbatsavazun.

732
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri Nyaga was looking for me at Genyi market.
I sneaked my way about gently and called Adetor;
She too was asking after me in whispers that if I am seen, I should be caught and
brought to her ee:
A horse is not in lack [with which to reward my song],
A bicycle is not in lack,
A cow too is not in lack in the house of Amuli;
I am the one who is wasting my time. Daughter-of-Agashua has made
preparations long ago for my song-party –
That one does not waste time over anything. You do not look for ways to spoil a
person [‟s virtue], I will go, so that the matter would be settled.
Kusugh Mnenga oo, man from Mbadam!
That one does his things in thunder fashion;
Some day he would invite me for a song-party,
Some certain day oo! Daughter-of-Ikyagh Adogo,
You do nudge you husband eee.
AI. 79.
Dajo, I Arrived at Mbajirswange...
Call
Dajo Mue ee I have arrived at the Mbajirswange,
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri Nyaga held the gbegba sacred tongs and swore that in
all the land of Mbaawam,
If any man climbs on his wife, she would not give birth
Unless he [Cieve] first hosts me to a song-party.

733
For one does not argue with death [over when it should come], Daughter of Chief
Sankera.
[He] was inviting his clansmen the children-of-Ingyenev – who all gathered
And began to move, coming in procession for [the song-party] iii.
Response
Chief Beba Unzô
Konjo ahiin!
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo Aku ishima-bou-bou the terrible-hearted [man].
The Chief reclined on a peta-begha lion-skin; how he looks on with werwerwer
fierceness!
Those for fanning off his sweat are fanning on and on, Daughter of Yaga aa;
Those for cleaning his shoes are cleaning on and on.
How Daughter-of-Yaga the noble lady is conducting herself with the kaaki catbird‟s
grace!
[She] said that I should go oo,
I should go so that she would give me an awanda – whatever that is, I do not
know, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!
What I know is from Tyôver of Ninga,
Zaki Tyôver of Ninga has kept a motorcycle for me,
As well as a black cow that I should go so that Uhule would give me rules:
I should never sell this powered bicycle;
I should never sell that cow, Ugba of Iwevzer.
How I sighed and sighed with happiness but was not satisfied;
I will go and sigh some more in the house of Ishimaior Chief Biam aa.

734
Daughter-of-Chief Ikyado the boa has swallowed an elephant;
Alôm the hare has thrown nor the elephant [in a wrestling bout].
People should leave me alone with their akpenger birds‟ style gossip at the roads,
Ishimaior of Tsofo declared a song-party for me;
[He] declared a successful song-party for me, yet he re-declared another one.
Let Gôn Duku Aligba be informed oo,
I am weeping [for]
Angul of Ierve of Beneke ee.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam is so concerned about me
But he has not yet invited me to his house;
Daughter of Vagi has [for that] been getting angry with him seriously.
Atôndu Tiôn has arrived oo, Atôndu Tiôn whom
Women use [his name] to calm down their crying babies has arrived;
I desire to see him oo Kenti of Wende.
Likici Agbe oo, it is one person that makes another to know that a dance ceremony
has been well attended;
I am going over to my big matri-kinsman Mnzughulga Agede,
Agede Beeku is an accurate scion of Mbagben –
[He] with Daughter of Chief Biam [who] on seeing me, was preparing a seat
properly for me –
A great thing has happened!
* * *
Tell Acivin Tor Ayati to inform Daughter-of-Mbatyan,
A young cow does not safeguard a rope,
I have seen [that] in Ageva Nyaku as well as in the house of Vande Yongu Abege,

He is a man of the Mbabookyo.
735
The tiger does not devour one who [has taken refuge] in mbohom thorny plants,
Daughter-of-Paase I am coming eee.
AI. 80.
Gbande Drum Sounded Its Notes over There...
Call
The gbande drum sounded its notes over there oo,
The indyer jumbo slit-log drum is calling youthful men like Mtsua Gbeji, Gbeji Ukpaa
Cagem
Ayange saw me and shook his head [in celebration];
And turned his face away with a casual smile.
[He] said that I have been too smart [like a cunning animal avoiding the hunter‟s
trap],
But have finally landed myself in an iyôu trap now, Daughter-of-Asema aa.
Your name has caught me I will not blame anybody, Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn
Agena,
Man from Kpav [clan] is an adeunee masquerade ee.
Response
A [marvellous] thing has started ooo!
Har Abyem has come with Daughter-of-Ingyenev, she is the Daughter of Zôr
Akungwa aa.
Daughter-of-Akaa Nyajo my mother ee, I am going but fearing you at the same

time, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
If anyone sees the thinness of my body, I will go to the clan of T. T. Zôzô,
Fawe Agyo oo!
A he-goat‟s sides must certainly [be] broadened out [for me]. Maanyi, I have
come;
736
I have arrived in the land of Mbawar, Nule Makyur Aca.
Damera Chief Aza Biam Ashileku,
How did Daughter-of-Mbatyula wake today? As for me, I never sleep at night,
Mnguaor‟ of Makar.
Biam Azege ee!
Benjamin Azege-scion, his father died young and left him young; his mother [too]
died and left the child: God took [him]
And went with him to paradise oo,
And showed him everything, he talks with the Lord God himself – he and
Daughter-of-Dajo.
What a surprising thing oo!
Angul of Ierve of Beneke ee.
Mlanga Adiko,
Poverty is so persistently after me oo;
Daughter-of-Akpenwe, I have not bought any magic for patience:
I will just be going about oo,
In whatever land, whatever land at all, they never stop digging up the old
homestead [for burials], let Gôn Duku be informed.

737
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa I am the he-goat that sleeps outdoors,
Daughter-of-Tsambe ee,
Daughter-of-Akôsu Igyaase.
* * *
His wife Daughter-of-Ukan has died and left her husband with a baby who keeps
vigils, crying;
There is no one to cuddle the baby.
Ande Kwagh aooo! Let us go and sing lullabies to Ande‟s baby.
If he did a bad thing among the Ugondu [people], he would have just been warned,
Vande Yongu;
His wife would not have been killed.
As I arrived there, pity overpowered me oo;
As I arrived there, pity overpowered me ee
To meet my face with Daughter-of-the-Kunav‟s really.
AI. 81.
Gbande Drum Notes Calling the Nobles...
Call
The gbande drum has sounded its notes calling on the noble ones.
The drum calls Shiim Torkon of Hiinyam of Abaa [who] declared a song-party for
me and gave me a motorcycle neatly,
That I should stop going about with my feet. Adôm Agu Tiil Tema,
Has Daughter of Igbinde Deke not heard that
You people are not giving me fuel?

Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba.
Response
An elephant has fallen ooo!
People are sharpening their matchets
738
In the place of Beba Unzô; people are butchering the elephant oo.
I too will go and get its icômbu shit.
Daughter of Yaga demonstrated her heart by killing an Uke man
And leaving him on the floor gadeaa!
People started running away ee.
The dasenda policemen crowded about with questions
About why people were running.
The man 'Ba Unzô Konjo said it is his father's slave
That they have killed,
And they [the police] turned back;
And they turned back [to their station].
Angol Ikyenge came with Daughter of Damagudu,
As well as Daughter-of-Kpev:
Even though the weather was chilling, its chill was no longer felt.
Ageewua Indyer Dugwer Chief Biam
Fights twenty-people ooo;
Daughter of Vagi also fights twenty-women:
That their nature has exceeded most people.
Likici Agbe ee should tell Daughter-of-Koko – song is itching on Daughter- of-Koko's

739
body [so she wants to rewards the poet]:
Let any one dare come out in the arena! Such a one would see danger. Cado
Akaaer of Adudu,
Cadu Akaaer of Adudu Zaanaku,
Killed a deer, killed a deer when he was away in his farm;
How he invokes the ijôughultyo religious emblems!
Daughter-of-Sherev was displaying her character in the arena – how it [the display]
was truly frightful!
Agenawe Shase Tartu uu the he-man from Mbakesa has crossed over with his
heavy weight gighirkiki;
He arrived so nobly that Tivland became still.
Daughter-of-Adi Gever, do kill someone for me, let me see. Apeatim Kpagh Kpabi
Agondu,
The inyamkyume beast has arrived; Daughter-of-Aye Twar
Rose and selected people with whom to talk; [she] selected Kusugh Mnenga Ber,
As well as Daughter-of-Kyagh Adogo oo; and [she] was saying
[That true] people are no more over there; it is only semblances that are left.
Mnguaorga
Of Wombu of Makar Agaku laughed to a point that it turned into trouble; he
laughed to a point that it turned into trouble.
Daughter of Hwange ee I am calling on you ooo,
Song has called you for such a really long time, Mnzughulga Agede,
Agede Beeku I have shot a gbaka python so my heart is restless.

Vaa of Ngyeke,
740
Man from Mbayenge with Daughter-of-Atoza aa:
How that lady has rough-tied
Her cloth in style! How she conducts herself in it with noble carriage like a he-tiger!
[She] emerged with an ityumugh weapon [so fiercely that] the sun loosed from its
roots and came out shining to the full!
Kunde Ager Wuhe
Of Ashwa I have come ee, Daughter of Chief Va,
I have come ee. Atôndu Tiôn,
This begha-or lion-man has also attended this song ceremony: people are sneaking
and leaving [out of fear];
For Kenti of Wende too is no miser with kobo-money.
Angule Dem,
Dem Ifam Aju is in competition against his junior wife,
Ashebe Ilyu uu,
Regarding rewards for song, Ashebe beats everybody.
Zenda Agagu has arrived with his clansmen,
Has arrived with his clansmen the Mbajir oo,
It is not possible to hear anything else ee. Ku!
Doowuan Nyajo,
Forbid the firing of atam cannons, my heart is missing beats because of the
sounds.
Ioryem Ikyaave, I am altogether tired [with the goings-on here].
* * *

741
Daughter of Ikyô Ukaan ee may God bless you.
Yarkpindi of Dye
Is stinging [like] iyoukor weaponized bees; the bees do not exclude anybody: he
stung even his wife;
He also stung Chief of Kwaor Akosho
Ahuku who went ahead and burnt the hive;
He burnt that hive but did not cross over to MbaGar‟: that is the trouble.
Vande Yongu,
Vande Yongu Ikyô Abege is both the akume and ayajôu [masquerades].
I am greeting Daughter-of-Mbajirswange;
The Shitile [people] are never found wanting, Ugba of Iwevzer –
Let no one delay himself by waiting for him ee.
AI. 82.
Kpenyie Yeor, You Do Not Go About...
Call
Gbenyie Yeor of Dema oo! you do not go about so you have missed something ee;
Come let us go and behold the world at Tyôtim Lanve of Malu of Azagwa's place.
Tor the Chief said that let song-party preparations be made: every woman with her
pig,
Every woman with her pig.
Let a song-party be hosted for me, Chief Ibi Adabo ooo!

Response
Dwem the hyena‟s crave for meat has led it to discovering an elephant in Tyuluv
[clan], at Orya Anyankpa [‟s place].
Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakya came outside: the sun disappeared,
night fell; Daughter of Gbagir Zer –
742
See her dancing in the arena with a matchet.
The matter pleased an anjôu sprite in our land,
Who also laughed gosugosu.
Someone go help me tell Mnder Cagh Mici;
[He has] arrived, [so] that matter has concluded ee;
Daughter-of-Hyande has arrived, that matter has concluded ee.
[They] arrived with all the nobles of MbaGar‟s children, nobody was left behind;
How they are looking at me nyonyonyonyo!
In every forest, a nomkya he-monkey [to lead the rest] is never lacking.
Angwe Asen Ahura Adaam aooo!
Mbacinge Yegh, I have come down this your river-ford.
Daughter of Gbôhô saw me and shook her head
About how I have committed suicide [by daring to come around], Daughter of
Gbôhô:
[She] sprang up in such a way that my heart missed a beat.
Ishima Zaki ee an anakpishaikpya abundance has occurred in the land of your
mother's kinsmen!

743
In Toruv land in [the house of] Tyôtim Lanve of Malu of Azagwa
Where a Chief is always producedee.
Hoo ayioo! Ishimagande the over-size-hearted Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
Iwenkyôn Agena aa,
The man of Shitile has arrived! along with the noble Daughter-of-Orhemba.
How they talk in dangerous voices, Chief Ibi aee!
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala has come eee –
Daughter of Ikyume‟s face never experiences happiness – everyday he buries a
very weighty man gengee.
A matter of maternal kinsmen is supreme else he would not have come for this
song-party: he was rewarding my song but it was due to his strength of
heart a.
Orya Anyakpa
Ambe Doki Imbyarakem has hosted a song-party for me:
How a powered bicycle is spitting the ifan declaration indoors tutututu!
Except Amee does not come, he must go with him.
Angule Dem,
The iombur-or dried-man has also come for this dance ceremony.
He dressed and had a leftover cloth which he now used to reward [my] song in the
arena.
He covered me in a gbagir cloth
With rounded tassels, and added an angel cloth too to it.
His wife Daughter-of-Ikyurior, Daughter-of-Mbasaar

Too does not obey orders ee.
* * *
Chief Tacia Adieku
How good his land is!
744
Even when you step on a snake it turns into a rag: the land is so good.
The Chief stood in the courtyard and announced that people should take their
seats and reward [my] dance oo;
Nobody should come around with a bad intention, Nule Makyur Aca.
Tile of Amber Doki Imbyarakem too agreed with those words ee;
With Daughter-of-Dura,
Daughter-of-Dura Doki has also agreed so here I come eee.
AI. 83.
Azege, I Saw Gbamwuan Coming in a Car...
Call
'Bula of Azege I saw Gbamwuan Chief Kpen coming in a motor car oo,
He was with Daughter-of-Tyôkuha Wanza;
I sighed ee.
Even if I die I will no longer be unhappy for I have seen “Jesus” with my own eyes;
Look at him over there, Adoonyumbe.
Orya of Anyakpa ooo, you have really saved me;
Orya of Anyakpa ooo, you have really rescued me ee.
Daughter of Gbagir Zer,
Take me to your land,

Let me go and see something –
For I desire death now!
Response
How enmity is after me oo! No matter how clean I peel [my roasted yam],
745
My lips still contact soot! I have slaughtered myself.
When Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing of Anyakpa
Is dressed in an ibyôr loincloth, he undoes [the loincloth] on somebody –
Even his wife knows it.
When he unsheathes his matchete, he must cut a wet thing
Before his heart can rest [within him] ee.
Angule Dem Ifam Aju has been looking at people [to see what they will do to me]
Till nightfall and he burst into laughter [when he saw the little that they did].
Daughter of Ikyurior, the noble lady has also arrived ee.
* * *
Yarkpindi of Dye,
Come home from work, I have not seen you for so long that my body is weak,
Adabo oo.
AI. 84.
Dajo, I am Back from Gbamwuan...
Call
Dajo Pav, I have come back ooo!
I went to Gbamwuan Chief Kpen and have returned, the iombur-or dried-man o,
When he meets me even on the road, he spends a twenty on me.

746
Daughter-of-Mbagen aooo, your husband has eaten supremacy eee.
Response
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa oo!
I have come ee;
It is time for the matter I mentioned to you, my mother Daughter-of-Aganyi.
My life has finished I am walking about throwing my leg in a tuultuul limp:
Iyô snake, take; iyô snake, take; yet the iyô snake did not take it.
That is why I am still reclining here with my suffering ee.
The whole thing [has] really surprised me.
Angwe Asen Ahura
From Jecira arrived, the gbuuka gun boomed a shot guukuku!
Followed by a stone silence.
[He] bought a television [set] and gave to his poet ee.
Daughter-of-Ugô heard my song and was asking after the person that so knows
how to mention her husband‟s name [in song]
In the dwer native parlour-hut oo – that person must go away with a gift [, she
said];
Whatever thing it would be, I do not know aa;
Would it be a motor car? Nule Makyur Aca.
Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô ooo!
I greet the scion from the clan that is populous oo.
A motor car insisted on killing the man of my pleasure

747
But the ishamhila spear-grasses disappeared with him oo,
Disappeared with him and hid him away ee.
Daughter of Hambe oo, I have come Daughter-of-Hambe,
Not even a strand of hair is missing from your husband‟s head, Ibi Adabo ooo,
Do not lose your temper o,
Whatever happened was God‟s work aee.
* * *
Torkange Ajev oo,
Ajev Kile Gbaka,
Nobody tells huel the monitor lizard to straighten its spine
Else I would have said [….
………………………………..]
And Daughter-of-Hwange ee,
Of Mue Ager Nortema
Man of […………………..] has risen oo!
The teeth of an elephant differ.
All the children of Zende crowded mermermer all over the place,
Daughter of Gbande came with a cloth
Which when you look at, your body shocks. Daughter-of-Gbande,
Change into another cloth ee;
Else Atôndu Tiôn‟s is almost losing his temper [in retaliation];
He does not lose time to put someone to shame ee.
Daughter-of-Wende too does not lose time to put someone to shame;

As well as Mlanga Adiko,
748
[He too] does not lose time to put someone to shame ee;
Daughter-of-Mbabookyo,
You have pity [in your veins] eee.
AI. 85.
Ior of Wa Adam Atse
Call
Ior of Wa Adam Atse...
Response
[He] was with Abali oo;
He should tell Daughter of Tyônôngu [that] I do not have an imar flute
[So] I am blowing my mouth
[And] heading to the house of Banta‟s scion.
Moave Adi oo me, I have come ee.
If there is something, let me be given. Daughter-of-Kuewe-lady was going about
in the courtyard;
That lady dressed and was going about with mungôô noble carriage. Iorpande,
Biam Ala oo, is it close to the time Daughter-of-Ikyume will return from the farm
that
I see [signs] in the clouds?
Kwamen-hir high-harmattan winds are coming. Abyem Gaga Myaki; Daughter-
of-Shitile,
What have I done [to deserve so much respect from you people] eee?

* * *
Mue Ager Nortema,
749
That man of Mbatyu is a babanduce senior personality,
Daughter-of-Gbaka aeee.
AI. 86.
Atôndu Tiôn Died...
Call
Atôndu Tiôn died…
Response
Even his friends from Ugbe came [for the burial]: a thing happened that day
As if the whole world would collapse o.
* * *
God rained from morning till nightfall, Chief Ibi Adabo oo, Ande Kwagh
Too is no longer with me for which I am shouting [in mourning].
Shiim Torkon of
Hiinyam I am now going, Daughter-of-Udende my mother,
I desire to go into the earth to go and join Mko oo.
My clansmen are too full of ibinga carelessness – people like Tyôver of Ninga.
I feel nauseating with all the Isherev searchers for money;
Alôm the Hare does not befriend Nor the Elephant.
My heart is hanging a matchet on me that is too long;
Someday I may die in shame, J. Gbabo oo.
Mue Ager Nor

Angwe Dema ooo Daughter-of-Gbande, my mother, I have come with my plea;
750
Even if it is not satisfactory, let me just be given [a reward]
For the sake of the name I bear. May God bless the Chief
Beba Unzô Konjo as well as his most senior wife, Daughter-of- Ugondutiev.
Daughter of Yaga my noble mother, as for me, I have been slaughtered [by your
kindness]ee.
* * *
Abyem Gaga Myaki, the judge heard my cry –
How the man of Mbagen rough-drives his motor car, coming, with dust raised
gemegeme behind him e.
Daughter-of-Shitile I have come ee.
Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô, that one has reclined in the manner of an
inyamkyume wild beast.
His chin is resting on his hands as he looks
At me fiercely, Ngôundu of Hambe aooo!
Your husband would kill me eee.
AI. 87.
Elegy for Atôndu Tiôn
Call
Kwagh aooo!
A big wound is in my heart so much that I am groaning, Angul of Ierve of Beneke
ee;
Atôndu Tiôn died and left Daughter-of-Wende

Who is weeping and going about in the courtyard with zelôô helplessness,
The lady is loaded with a lot of sadness!
The indyer jumbo slit-log drum lets go its notes over there gidighagidigha!
751
The children of Tandyer have put me to shame –
Even this song art is no longer desirous to me eee.
Response
Tor Kange Ajev ooo Ajev Kile Gbaka,
Your wife died but I am yet to come
And see you oo. I would have come but Zenda Agagu‟s wife has also died ee; we
are all with tears in our eyes.
I was presently fixing a date [to come and see you] together with Atôndu Tiôn,
[But] my bow has broken at the [climactic] close of the ibyem hunting expedition
ee, that‟s why I am returning [home empty-handed].
Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen too has plenty of tears on his cheeks, when I asked, they
said his brother is no more.
Atôndu Tiôn aooo! where are you going that you are not telling me?
Even Use Mue Azer Adi Nyam,
The scion did not inform;
Even Zaki Tyôver of Ninga,
The noble scion did not inform.
Even if you were angry with me, you would have at least informed Iorpande
Caha with Daughter-of-Kur aooo;
And they would have sent me word through the grapevine, Nule Makyur.

752
I desire to go where you [Atôndu] have gone, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgba!
Anula Gbande Nako ooo the world has finished me completely ee.
Daughter-of-Chief-Tyôshaaôndu, my noble mother, I am telling you,
You and Daughter of Ikpyavyungu Mata.
My friend has gone and abandoned me ooo;
Atôndu Tiôn has gone in,
And counted some [ibiamegh religious ritual] pepper fruits and thrown for his
clansmen [as a sign of his departure];
How they are picking [the pepper fruits] in their crowds!
Udorugh Nyam Dabul from Kendev ee.
Mother mine, Daughter-of-Mbajirswange,
Noble mother mine, this is what trouble I have with existence eee.
* * *
Chief Beba Unzô Konjo Aku Chief Ishimaibyo the terrible-hearted was coming to
console me over the death,
With Asaaryana Yaga aa.
Search for a thing and give me to eat and die with it in my stomach e;
I will go and tell those under the ground about you, Adôm Agu Tiil Tema.
It is only in shame that I still go about with you people, Gôn Duku.
Judge Aciniya Norum Agundô oo,
You people‟s joke-fellow, Atôndu Tiôn, has been arrested by those inside the
earth,
I am weeping.

Sen Dajo Pav, you people‟s joke-fellow has dressed heavily [in burial attire],
And how he is going heavily dressed!
Ageewua Tor oo,
[Our] brother is no more,
Gbabo ooo.
AI. 88.
753
Ngyeke Arrived in a Thing that Turns Wheels...
Call
Vaa of Ngyeke!
Response
Agirtou from Mbadam
Arrived in a thing that turns its wheels oo Gôn Duku,
He was with Daughter-of-Ato-Mdenga
In a motor car and they were passing zeel,
Calling on his intimate friend,
Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke,
That he should come along ooo;
He should come so that they would go and greet Musa‟s scion.
The chairman of the people of Gongola:
He sat with Chief Andrew Tsukwa;
They sat and were discussing and laughing.
How these people have made their land interesting!
Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa,

754
I would have gone there to see but I do not have a thing [vehicle] with which to go
about, Chief Ukaan Ikyuan, man of Mbafesakum
Heard and was just smiling murmurmur.
Kpe ahiin!
Ukura of Madugu
Councillor, I plead;
Look for a thing and give me ee, Gbabo ooo.
Has Nahanga of Bede Akutô the Chief arrived
That the kwen metal gong keeps calling "Ngukpen Kunde‟s scion has [also] come
for the dance ceremony"?
Iorkyaa of Kpan Adi from Mbaikywe!
I have not seen Judge Kum again;
Has he gone to work?
Or has he gone to Anacha
[That] I no longer see him? Chief Mnder Cagh a,
Tell Daughter-of-Hyande to rise up: I am going to Mbajima ee;
I am going to Mbangool in the house of Use,
Use scion [of] Nyam Mtsôr Agula aooo!
How did Daughter of Dema the lady wake this morning?
Too many issues
Are with me so I keep going about pleading with people: people like Tyôver of
Ninga,
Man of MbaGar‟, your clansmen love you beyond words;

Song does not just mention anybody, Adoo the beautiful-one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
* * *
755
Ishima Zaki aee, you people should help me [in] God [‟s name] aeee!
So that I will go and greet Iortyer Musa.
That man of Mbayenge is really a Chief.
Even in looks, the scion is good to behold;
His character too is clean and appropriate –
As well as the noble Daughter-of-Kwaza.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa ooo!
I went to Waka but did not meet Adabo; I went to Arguwan Maramara,
But I did not meet Adabo;
I went to Kororofa,
But did not meet Adabo.
Me too my own is finished.
Death has called me and I have answered [affirmatively].
Chief Ibi Adabo,
Be keeping leaves for me [as road signs and directions],
Chief, I [too] have began coming eee.
AI. 89.
Kunde Ager's Song-party
Call
A thing has met up with me oo,
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko is calling me to his house that he has declared

a party for my song.
He went out early and informed the Chief of his land, Iorshagher Shiriki;
756
Who is occupied but has sent his dear wife, Daughter-of-Chief,
Daughter-of-Chief-Ayati – see her coming ee!
What honour! The land is collapsing [with the weight of her nobility] ee!
Aôndu God is making guttural sounds gburututu [in appreciation],
People should get ready; they will see a frightful thing aeee.
Response
Tor of Kwaor of Akosho Zaki, me it is dreams that I am dreaming [here] ee,
Daughter-of-Mbashoramar aa.
The people with whom I used to go about yesterday have all packed into their
houses;
Others have died;
As for me, I am still here with my pleas.
Kunde Ager Wuhe Ashwa Amonko: I went to his house but
The scion only extended limited generosity to me, Igyohia Butu Ikyamgbe.
I desire to talk with Igba Kartyo and Daughter-of-Mbaiase, let them excort me
To Apeatim Kpav Kpabi Agondu.
The Udam [people] are threatening me, the Mbagbande [clan] has been
threatening me for long ee;
Daughter-of-Aye-Twar,
Loosen the thread before you beat me; do not beat me with an anyakpa lash;
[For] I am already almost entering [into my grave].

757
Who will go and help me tell Ikyiva Ura and his wife oo? Sarin Ashwe;
They should come and hear how I am pleading with the world [over my poverty]
but the world is not listening aa.
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa and Daughter-of-Aganyi,
My clansmen have treated me in an unsatisfactory manner. Chief Ageewua
Am I not your brother that
You are not telling Daughter of Vagi to save me? You and me are brothers, do not
inflict suffering on me.
As for others, even asking after me again has become impossible ee.
Tseeyol Kajo ooo Daughter-of-Mbapuun-Biam has sent a message to me oo that I
Ajo ooo,
should go and blow my head [in singing].
Unumbe Ajo oo.
Orhemba Cia Burya, I have arrived, Daughter-of-Mbatinyam aa:
[You people should] help me [in] God [„s name] aee. Anula Gbande Nako oo,
Where has Daughter-of-Mbayenge gone? That I keep going about opening my
mouth at people
In the name of singing songs? Ioryem Ikyaave Ikyusen, a thing has happened e.
I am tired of showing people the tartars in my mouth, Gbabo ooo.
* * *
Joseph Udorugh Ada Iwenkyôn Agena,
The inyamkyume wild beast that does not obey orders, as well as Daughter-of-
Orhemba:

758
Even when it is the heavens that rumble, he stings. Cieve Tsavbee Muri has also
come for this dance ceremony.
He and Daughter-of-Mbabookyo –
People are following them with drum-celebrations: how chilliness is descending [in
the atmosphere]!
They are following them with drum-celebrations, J. Gbabo ooo.
AI. 90.
Elegy for Ayagwa's Mother
Call
Kwaghbula Azege I heard the indyer jumbo slit-log drum booming its notes among
the Ipav [district]
In the house of Chief Takema;
That drum [sounds] somehow bothered me ee.
When I asked, they said that Ayagwa's mother is no more – leaving Daughter-of-
Idoma,
Caro' oo!
Caro', do console your husband ee,
With his most senior wife
Daughter-of-Gaav a.
You people do calm down your mourning ee, J. Gbabo ooo.
Response
Ageva Nyaku oo,
Even if you do not see me, I have gone with my song; I am blowing my head

among the Ipav [people],
At Jemngbagh,
759
Over the death of the mother of Ayagwa Cia:
Even the true God came down
On Mkar mountain.
He was saying to Tyoor Chief Takema that he should bury his wife peacefully,
peacefully.
The children of Nev shouted ikyuu in applause!
[They decided] that they would build an altar
And burn an offering thereon before their woman would be buried, Igyohia Butu
Ikyamgba!
Aôndu God played the agidigbe wooden drum,
Ikyume the boa constrictor rose [in the sky] zaratata.
The Ikombu-Biam ancestral religious paraphernalia has stepped out from the wuna
storehouse ee, Gôn Duku.
Azeaze Lim, Doctor Azeaze Lim came with Daughter-of-Avaan a.
This burial ceremony has now been well attended!
He is going and giving a measure of tobacco at the table along with Datso Awav
Adugba;
He has also put a cloth on my body (since I am not tall whenever I pass anywhere,
I am traced by the marks I leave on my path),
That I should be mourning deaths with it, Nule Makyur u.
Madam Ashitile,

Lady from Mbatierve
Is going for a burial ceremony at Ipav:
760
Aôndu God gathered rain clouds [in respect of the lady];
It rained so much, people pulled their clothes and hid;
It rained so much as if the marshes will drown?
Iornumbe of Abeke, dress me in a lion-skin;
Else I am completely naked.
Pity for me filled the hearts of people like Mkohol Ivase, Ivase Chichi Agbe ee is a
man of Mbayiônkyor.
Has this burial ceremony turned into a dance ceremony that I hear
Musical instruments playing in the house of Tyoor Chief Ayagwa? Others are busy
drumming the girinya war dance. Daughter-of-Ikyôive ooo,
Nyiavaa, you, do come back [from the grave] ee.
But she refused and did not come at all;
She is shaking her head that she would go and meet
Her people under the ground.
Chulechule I pleaded but
See her going her way...
Pili-ii she is completely out of sight.
I will dust off my buttocks and rise and go my way;
That matter has been concluded ee.
But I will not go to my home oo! I will go and meet the sacred scion, Dyorugh oo,
Dyorugh Akaaka,

He was with his wife Daughter-of-Chief of Shongu and Hajia Udookwase,
761
Daughter of Tijani Agôvul has filled the world.
She [too] was with her friend Mzamber Wajir oo;
Has the commissioner come that I am hearing voices and steps are sounding
gudugudu?
He was attending the burial at Ipav at Ugô‟s homestead:
The police blocked the way, I gave way and stood far from the wayside.
I at least wanted to see her [corpse] but even that I cannot
Not even her picture has anyone given me;
Alhaji Makaara eee.
* * *
Doomo of Nyagba aooo,
It is remaining [idle] in [my] hut that I do not like,
I will get outside and have a different voice.
Cive Kaave is yet to know me
I have never met him either ee.
My big matri-clansman Akange Ikyagh Bashi,
Man of Kusuv I have shot a gbaka python and my heart is restless.
Tyôapine Vembe Alum from Mbaduku oo; I have come ee.
AI. 91.
Azege, I Went But Did Not See Amishi...
Call
'Bula Azege oo I went but did not see Amishi Chief Ugô of Igbyudu,

Has he gone to meet you [in the grave]?
762
I saw Daughter-of-Nyam Tseke sitting quite quietly;
She was drawing things on the ground; I greeted lbut she did not open her mouth
[in reply] to me ee.
She was asking Daughter of Ikyegh ee,
If you bring home the heart you had while farming,
You will not eat [your food] and give to anybody.
If it is a lie that [any thinks] I have spoken, let Doctor Bosua Uga be asked ee.
Response
I would have blamed my heart but I will not do so.
Malu Bawa once invited me for a journey with Kinabo of Shondu to the guma
red-earth,
But I said they should wait, let Kurakwaghga the-reserve-nothing Anyakpa first host
me to a dance ceremony
For the whole earth to hear;
But he has delayed too much so my patience is exhausted.
When you live for too long, you do come to shame.
Ishima Zaki ooo it is not possible to get used to poverty;
Even when I sleep, my heart does not sleep; [poverty] is usually more painful at
night.
Likici Agbe, Agbe, my clansmen are never protective of their child; do assist me, my
time is at hand for me to go and join Mko [in the earth]ee.
Judge Aciniya Norum Agendô Andyar, I hereby have began coming ee.

Let my father nourish me; Daughter-of-Hambe my mother, this is how I am in
trouble.
Tyôver of Ninga,
Zaki Tyôver Ninga oo,
763
Tor the Chief, do pick a car and give me ee.
Even if it is that one on which kpoo sliced-raw-cassava is dried, let me be given so
that I will go and show
Faasema Nyôr Tarwa and Daughter-of-Aganyi so that they too can see to my
heart's peacefulness.
Angol Ikyenge,
Ikyenge saw me and went to have an idyu tetatet with his friend Ageewua
Dugwer Chief Biam a;
Daughter of Damagudu saw me and went to have an idyu tetatet with her friend
Daughter-of-Vagi ooo:
“Amee has come – what do we do for him?"
Igbya Kartyo was almost killing himself [with efforts to satisfy me].
* * *
Mnguhenen Chief
Badageri should tell her husband to rise up. Nenger Utim Kile Gesa that
inyamkyume beast I do fear it.
Veror Bamun oo,
Agir Kwa has gone where?
That I am going about aimlessly, Daughter-of-Kyekye should stitch my body for me,

764
Poverty is not what to have as companion, Adabo ooo.
AI. 92.
Azege, Amishi, and Ngyeke Entered the same Pit...
Call
Kwaghbula Azege, Amishi Chief Ugô of Igbyudu oo and Vaa of Ngyeke,
These people entered in the same pit [died one day] with Adôm Agu Tema.
I am a defeated one oo,
Even Veunô Alya,
Has been thrown to the ground by his clansmen –
See how sickly he is, Gôn Buruku Duku.
Even me, though I am walking about, it is only my skin [that is moving] Igyohia
Butu,
Kanshio of Kpen ee, those in the ground have come. Daughter-of-Chief Biam,
Has she come for this burial ceremony that
People are warnings their children [to be ware]?
Response
How enmity has followed me ooo!
Even when I plant an ijôndugh calabash seed, it turns into an inyômbugh wild
plant.
I planted my ijôndugh calabash seed at Mbayenge but God has refused me;
Ukaave of Tsua
Has died among the Mbakyav [people]!
Gum Tor the Young Chief died among the Mbaavav!

Vaa of Ngyeke,
765
Ngyeke, the meat that is only desired does not kill the tur soup leaves;
Nor the elephant took to its heels and I have gone and plucked tur soup leaves.
Chief Agwaza oo! Zaki sound out your voice;
These he-ones behind [you] do not waste time e [to destry]; they are chasing Gôr,
Gôr Yiyee has been applying the sacred akura leaves but it is not being effective.
Someone go tell Nule Makyur,
Ziki Nor friend, my friend ee.
Ioryem Ikyaave oo!
Angula too trouble-does-not-last-forever, it is still after him;
Daughter of Ikyô Ukaan ee,
Your husband‟s heart is so heavy within beyond description
He defeated nakedness cleanly– how this God of Maakye is not a joke!
Even Chief Bede Akundô heard and agreed,
Saying that my words are true;
About how they do treat him ee.
Chief Agbabee Kajo oo!
Zaki Chief, do not give up about the world,
You people should join Yeke Bôgô and repair the land
Let the land be good,
So that the ancôvul orphan can sleep outdoors [without problems],
[And] those who do [evil] things behind [that is, in secret] would stop.
Mende Agboughul heard and was laughing,

His eyes met mine and he laughed loudly,
“Amee Ijôr' aoo!
Truly you are an anpaseakaa revealer-of-things, truly you are an anzungweakaa
sorrower-over-matters.”
* * *
Orban Jam has arrived oo,
766
He has come to console his friend, over death [that occurred], man of Mbayenge,
Vaa of Ngyeke,
Arrived with the Mbatinyam [people] in a suuluu crowd,
They lined up like agase millet stacks.
An announcement is being made that people should settle down so as to see
things:
Daughter-of-Ato Mdenga sat on the floor weeping,
And calling her husband ee,
"Orphanhood of a father and of a husband has caught up with me."
But God does not sleep, Ugba of Iwevzer.
Has Tyônem Ikyôhô also come?
Tor the Chief dressed in martial gear wearing a sprite-like mkir traditional cloth,
How he moves with noble casualness like a wananyam young tiger!
He was with Daughter-of-Tabar of Kaki and was saying a thing:
In the land of Imbyarakem,
Iortyer Chief Musa is sitting over there with gaanng dominance;
At home, I have erected an imande post [in him];

767
There is nothing [evil] that will befall the Imbyarakem [people].
They are killing people,
And they are chasing the ikyontamen senior trees; Damera Chief,
Your matri-clansmen are killing [people through witchcraft] in a bad manner;
They are rendering youths extinct oo.
Iormanger Amonko, Amonko heard and agreed;
The truth satisfies ee, Ibi Adabo oo. Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke
When I see you, I remember Chief Vaa of Ngyeke sitting in the motor car oo:
He is almost coming out, but it was only quiet;
So I burst out in tears;
God gave me but the igyuve eagle snatched it.
Tyoor Gber Ifan
Teeshagba oo you people are drumming the adidiagenga drums for me but there is
no problem, Adoo the beautiful one, Daughter-of-Aveil.
Iorwa of Wouku!
His sister died [so young and beautiful]
As if she would not be buried,
Yet I am yet to see him [to console him] ee.
In my household too it is very dirty:
Everyday I bury a very weighty person;
Everyday I bury a very weighty person.
Cieve of Tsavbee Muri ooo!
Vaa of Ngyeke died but you are yet to come and console me ee.

AI. 93.
768
My Luck is Usually Good in a Troublesome Fashion...
Call
Kina Shondu died and I am mourning;
I am a defeated one, Atôndu Tiôn has left me;
My luck is usually good only in a troublesome fashion.
A mad man once sat by a road and saw a man coming with scrotal elephantiasis,
He saw the man coming with an ishange bad-pupilled-eye,
He saw the man coming with a goitre ee;
The mad man picked his rod and began to beat this pedestrian:
“You are also coming for the dance ceremony;
Are you the only child?”
People burst out in laughter, Vande Yongu;
You people should understand this [tale] in your hearts o, J. Gbabo oo.
Response
Aerga of Gum Anar Yawe
Has rubbed death on his body like kpagh camwood;
They do not have dry eyes in his compound.
Every time they are in tears;
Every time they are in tears, Ku! How Daughter-of-the-Mbatinyam has so cried
that I feel pity for her ee!
Iorpande Caha Biam Ala oo:
The person at the door does not die of smoke but as for me, I‟m almost dying.

Would you people sex even a dead wife?
That I do not understand what I am seeing? Zenda Agagu the-rough-man-of-
akombu-religious-rituals!
I am going for the burial of Chief
Musa Agbe Cafa aoo,
Tor the Chief cooled to death during the wee hours, indyer the jumbo slit-log
drum boomed;
769
The gbagede small slit-log drum sounded its notes tirelessly.
Tor Chief sat on his throne and rested his head on a he-leopard
His feet were resting on a peta-begha lion-skin a – thing
Has happened oo!
Aye! They are fanning Chief
Musa with a large fan ee, Nule Makyur.
Tor has built his house ooo;
It is a house of ibyabya largeness:
If you enter into it anyhow it will cut off your ear – I
Will not be the one to blame, I have told you ee.
Iortyer Chief Musa Yongu
Arrived with rags round his abdomen – how he is breathing restlessly ee!
Daughter-of-Mbatyam burst out in tears [so loud] the earth shook
Reaching down to the black stones,
Angul of Ierve of Beneke.
Veunô Alya has arrived oo,

He was with his friend
770
Vaa of Ngyeke and Tyôzenda Igbyawua Zenke.
They have gone and are consoling Musa‟s scion
Daughter-of-Akombu was with Daughter-of-Ato Mdenga,
And Kukighir Baki;
They have gone and are consoling Daughter-of-Mbatyam aa,
A terrible thing happened that day.
The earth shook like a hwembe quagmire.
Michael of Shazwa too came with Daughter-of-Chief Tyôndu: sudden things that
people are usually unable to handle,
The scion handled it cleanly,
Gbabo oo.
Catch a slave for me with [your] akombu magic oo;
Mlanga Adiko,
Adiko Kpangir ee,
How did my mother, Daughter-of-the-Mbaura, wake ee?
I am floating towards Mbaimbyarakem [clan] Ziki Nor my friend,
I have arrived oo!
Yet I will just go
„Ôrmôm Ayagwa
Do escort me to go and see the character of Chief Musa Yongu aoo.
Ande Kwagh with whom do I mourn over this death ee?
With whom do I mourn over this death aa?

AI. 94.
Zenda Agagu, Zenda Mandaki...
Call
Zenda Agagu I have come oo!
Zenda Mandaki the senior man;
Help me tell Doowuan Nyajo:
771
The ijombu wild cat has climbed a lot of trees but the ijombu wild cat has avoided
the acikpado thorny plant, Nule Makyur Aca;
I have just been respecting spirits thinking they were humans oo.
Chief Udorugh Ada oo, Daughter of Gyusa, help me hear this frightful thing;
My clansmen do say, Vande Yongu,
One tree does not make a forest ee;
Chief Hil Agule, one tree does not make a forest ee.
Response
Apeatim Kpagh ooo!
Kpagh Kpabi Agundu went indoors [died] so early and left me with this jumbo
poverty.
Orya Anyakpa
Ambe Doki Imbyarakem,
Too the night-citizens caught and slaughtered and left Ngueku for which I keep
mourning.
Chief Ageewua Biam too
Is mourning over his father‟s death;

772
Daughter-of-Mbagen should rest from her weeping a.
Death is an idyako inheritance: there is none immortal eee.
Use, scion of Nyam A-
Gule aoo, Zaki help me tell Daughter-of-Dema that she should rise up;
The world is almost collapsing,
Look for a thing and give me, let me eat it and die having it in my stomach ee.
Sen Dajo Pav
Arrived with ajav rags tied round his abdomen reaching up to the level of his chest;
Even when I ask [what is amiss], he keeps quite to me and only motions his hand
tsetse to me –
[Thus] I know that a big bad thing had happened.
Confusion emerged till nightfall:
He jumps and lands on the tumulus of his father Dajo Pav,
And springs and lands on the tumulus of Daughter of Azagwa,
And Mbaseer ee.
Aerga of Gum Anar how is it that pigs keep ploughing the backyard of the
compound of Dajo Pav?
What should I do Nule Makyur Aca [over all these problems]?
[Having] a [good] wife is a matter of luck;
[Having] a [good] child too is a matter of luck;
A brother too is a matter of luck, Gôn Buruku Duku.
Veunô Alya has arrived ee!
Tyôba‟s scion has arrived so the he-drum reached its climax;
Those ones sleep with machetes in their hands as though they are neighbours of

the Udam [people] –
He was with his wife, Mtilve of Iorbo;
773
He was martially dressed in a sprite-like cloth:
His clansmen are playing the girinya war dance –
Orhemba Cia Burya, Burya ahoo oo!
* * *
Tsenzughul of Kur Torhyande Tsa!
That one is a tinge-bagu most-senior baboon,
No matter how you pursue it, you will eat your ruam food with [only] pepper [as
soup];
As for me, I have stopped torturing my body [for nothing pursuing him],
Daughter-of-Gbagir.
Tiv are killing themselves.
It is the heart that makes a man, Ngueigbya of Pila Hinda,
That thing that has happened to you I have heard but
Deaths are all about me, there is no rest [for me], Daughter-of-Ikpyajyôu,
Do not sulk concerning me eee.