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MIGRATORY AGENCY 151 sadness. I could have chosen, however, to include a poem such as Cruz’s “Areyto” (Red Beans 1991), which is a sprawlingly inclusive, utopian vision of a multicultural, continental America joined by music, dance, and song. All of these poems, though, have at their cores a communitarian spirit in search of shared space—a nascent desire for a shared, multicultural America acceptable to (im)migrants, indigenous, English- and Spanish-speaking. After all, what these poems do is share—languages, cultures, and spaces. Whereas the poems of this chapter model (and lament for) potential forms of sociopolitical agency, most of their authors already have cultural agency generated by their institutional positions. I have claimed that poetry can be countercultural and counterinstitutional, but—with the exception of Baca—each of the Latina/o poets discussed here teach at U.S. universities. They garner state salaries or ones funded heavily by U.S. corporations and foundations. This fact raises some perplexing questions, not only for the ways that bilingual poetry challenges the English “tradition” taught in most U.S. universities. In writing about the testimonio’s introduction to literature classrooms and to critical inquiry, Georg M. Gugelberger asks: “What happens when modes of transgression become sanctioned and canonized?” He suggests that “if you are housed in academia, you will have lost the power” of independence and subversion (2). His question and conclusion are meritable; many transgressive modes, such as bilingual poems and progressive hip-hop music, are in some ways “sanctioned,” “canonized,” and “housed in academia.” But if the goal of much Latina/o activism (and poetry) is full immersion in U.S. culture (while retaining important elements of other cultures), then this institutionalization might begin to look more positive. In this case, bilingual poets at U.S. universities may begin to ensure that Latina/o poetry will reach students who may otherwise be exposed only to Anglo-American and some African-American literature. With over 40 million Latinas/os in the United States, many of whom are bilingual, and with immigration increasing, the United States may soon become one of the largest hispanohablante, or Spanish-speaking, countries in the world. Further, now that NAFTA and other global socioeconomic forces have made for more fluid borders in the Americas, Spanish- and English-speaking cultures are meeting on an unprecedented scale. The poems of chapter 3, then, foreground voices and a type of agency that will become increasingly more common and more important in U.S. culture. They foreshadow coming cultural exchanges and conflicts, protracted linguistic interchanges, and a latent, but powerful, shift to a bilingual country.
152 AMERICAN POLITICAL POETRY In chapter 4 I discuss one of the most popular, powerful, and selfreflexive poetic languages in the world—hip-hop language, which includes a collection of rhetorical strategies that also migrates between cultural codes. Although it is rarely acknowledged, Latinas/os were instrumental in the origins of hip-hop culture in the Bronx and Queens in the mid-1970s. Some of the community-based values and the skepticism about and resistance to the dominant Anglo culture cataloged in chapter 3 also inform much of the hip-hop discussed in chapter 4.
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American Political Poetry in the 21
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American Political Poetry in the 21
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To the poets of the fields, village
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Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments
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Preface When I began reading, writi
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PREFACE xi printed poetry and what
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Acknowledgments In writing this boo
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Introduction: Political Poetry in t
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INTRODUCTION 3 always will be prima
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INTRODUCTION 5 spectacle of man-cre
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INTRODUCTION 7 is always a danger w
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eceived less attention from theoris
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INTRODUCTION 11 “political” and
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INTRODUCTION 13 Though defining the
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INTRODUCTION 15 “impotent” to e
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INTRODUCTION 17 for personal as muc
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INTRODUCTION 19 chapter title doubl
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INTRODUCTION 21 for “alternative
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the extant criticism about the isol
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INTRODUCTION 25 Laureate (2001-2003
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INTRODUCTION 27 insistence on the
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INTRODUCTION 29 Alegría once comme
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INTRODUCTION 31 be seen as a counte
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INTRODUCTION 33 not want to establi
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CHAPTER 1 Embodied Agency Introduct
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EMBODIED AGENCY 37 for poetry even
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EMBODIED AGENCY 39 peach halves. Th
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EMBODIED AGENCY 41 the same event
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EMBODIED AGENCY 43 The speaker-poet
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EMBODIED AGENCY 45 themselves. Des
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EMBODIED AGENCY 47 The eighth in th
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EMBODIED AGENCY 49 In Rodríguez’
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EMBODIED AGENCY 51 stems from memor
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EMBODIED AGENCY 53 Frequently groun
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EMBODIED AGENCY 55 The rhetorical s
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EMBODIED AGENCY 57 of revolutionary
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EMBODIED AGENCY 59 entire civilizat
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people who manipulate them for viol
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EMBODIED AGENCY 63 themselves from
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EMBODIED AGENCY 65 Jesse Helms were
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EMBODIED AGENCY 67 in using “Who
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EMBODIED AGENCY 69 that speaks of
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Ramirez, / who after years of confi
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EMBODIED AGENCY 73 justice. These p
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EMBODIED AGENCY 75 the task of poet
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CHAPTER 2 Equivocal Agency Seems, m
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 79 events, the poe
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 81 reflecting but
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 83 trauma theory,
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 85 (Engelmann 46).
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 87 suggests an asp
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 89 Simic’s terse
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 91 what Hannah Are
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 93 tongues.” The
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 95 out, Palmer is
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atrocities she writes about. Even s
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EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 99 Vietnam War—t
Page 116 and 117: EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 101 This move is p
Page 118 and 119: EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 103 Edward J. Brun
Page 120 and 121: He continues that “he had identif
Page 122 and 123: EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 107 out, the lion
Page 124 and 125: EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 109 one that sees
Page 126 and 127: EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 111 and below). Th
Page 128 and 129: mandate or “solution” to make a
Page 130 and 131: EQUIVOCAL AGENCY 115 Simic’s poet
Page 132 and 133: CHAPTER 3 Migratory Agency Introduc
Page 134 and 135: MIGRATORY AGENCY 119 with his claim
Page 136 and 137: MIGRATORY AGENCY 121 the essences o
Page 138 and 139: MIGRATORY AGENCY 123 challenge the
Page 140 and 141: “English” poem disrupts “trad
Page 142 and 143: Poems of Migratory Agency MIGRATORY
Page 144 and 145: MIGRATORY AGENCY 129 but of nuestra
Page 146 and 147: MIGRATORY AGENCY 131 In this final
Page 148 and 149: MIGRATORY AGENCY 133 muertos. / Los
Page 150 and 151: MIGRATORY AGENCY 135 primary intere
Page 152 and 153: MIGRATORY AGENCY 137 comparing the
Page 154 and 155: There is great facetiousness in the
Page 156 and 157: MIGRATORY AGENCY 141 highlights the
Page 158 and 159: MIGRATORY AGENCY 143 that “commun
Page 160 and 161: MIGRATORY AGENCY 145 the existing l
Page 162 and 163: argues that these Modernist poets
Page 164 and 165: MIGRATORY AGENCY 149 illuminates di
Page 168 and 169: CHAPTER 4 Contestatory Urban Agency
Page 170 and 171: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 155 their
Page 172 and 173: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 157 “Th
Page 174 and 175: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 159 agenc
Page 176 and 177: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 161 When
Page 178 and 179: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 163 celeb
Page 180 and 181: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 165 with
Page 182 and 183: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 167 acqui
Page 184 and 185: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 169 the s
Page 186 and 187: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 171 can a
Page 188 and 189: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 173 greed
Page 190 and 191: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 175 enter
Page 192 and 193: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 177 relat
Page 194 and 195: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 179 rhyth
Page 196 and 197: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 181 world
Page 198 and 199: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 183 venue
Page 200 and 201: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 185 Summa
Page 202 and 203: CONTESTATORY URBAN AGENCY 187 to ig
Page 204 and 205: Conclusion Part One In this book I
Page 206 and 207: CONCLUSION 191 from what Muriel Ruk
Page 208 and 209: CONCLUSION 193 to evidentiary justi
Page 210 and 211: CONCLUSION 195 The debate about the
Page 212 and 213: CONCLUSION 197 For example, I write
Page 214 and 215: CONCLUSION 199 a citizen-poet becau
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Notes Introduction: Political Poetr
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For background on testimonio, see B
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16. See Ben Lee’s “ ‘Howl’
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NOTES 207 an epigraph indicate that
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NOTES 209 7. See Anne Shea’s “
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enthusiastic for, and knowledgeable
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References Primary Sources: Printed
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Villatoro, Marcos McPeek. On Tuesda
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REFERENCES 217 Folsom, Ed and Cary
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REFERENCES 219 McKenna, Teresa. Mig
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REFERENCES 221 Shetley, Vernon. Aft
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Listening: Poetry and the Performed
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REFERENCES 225 Hansen, Miriam. Fore
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abstraction, 78-80, 87, 92-3, 101-2
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Coetzee, J.M., 198-9 Colás, Santia
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institutionalization of hip-hop, 2-
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esponsibility and poetry, 28-9, 60-
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