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Miletos may be due to an historical hypercorrection. 55 Finally, the close contacts of the Mycenaean Akhaians with the Hittites as attested for Hittite correspondence can be further illustrated by the fact that Homeros in two instances has applied a standard expression from Hittite texts in annalistic tradition according to which the chief deity, in the case of the Hittites the stormgod, runs before the king and his army in battle to secure victory. 56 Thus, in one passage Apollo, the chief god of the Trojans, mentioned in form of Appaliunas as one of the local oathgods in the Alaksandus-treaty, 57 precedes the Trojans with the aegis in their attempt to storm the Greek wall (Iliad XV, 307-11), and in another Athena, one of the deities on the Greek side, precedes Akhilleus when he conquers Lyrnessos and Pedasos to the south of mount Ida (Iliad XX, 94-6)! 55 Latacz 2003: 278 ff.; 339 f. See further section 8 below. 56 For the earliest example, see Bryce 1998: 135 (annals of Tud®aliyas I, 1430-1400 BC); Woudhuizen 1994-5: 181, note 131; Woudhuizen 2004a: 38, note 42 (the literal translation of Hittite píran ® uya- or ® uw(i)- is “to run before”); see Yalburt, phrases 4, 7, 11, and 32 for Luwian hieroglyphic examples. 57 Latacz 2003: 58; 138 (§ 20). 28
In this section I will present a brief overview of the main historical developments in the Near East with a bearing on the Levant from the catastrophic events at the end of the reign of Narâm-Sin of Akkad and during the First Intermediary Period in Egypt to those marking the end of the Bronze Age. In doing so, I will base myself on Redford 1992 (with chronology adapted to Kitchen 1989) and Bryce 1998, unless indicated otherwise. At the end of his reign, Narâm-Sin of Akkad (2291- 2255 BC) was defeated by a group of mountain dwellers called the Guti, who conquered Babylon and ruled it for a period of about one century. At the time of their onslaught on Babylon, these Guti came from the mountainous region of the Lower Zb in western Iran. A later source from the time of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) reports that part of their land was called Tukri. From this piece of information, W.B. Henning deduced that we may well be dealing with the Tocharians inhabiting the Tarim basin along the western border of China in the historical period, who addressed themselves both as Tugri and as Kui (< Guti). 58 If this is correct, we actually have here the first historical evidence about a group of Indo-Europeans. In about the same time as the Gutian onslaught on Akkad, at the end of Early Bronze Age II, there is massive evidence for large-scale destruction of settlements in Anatolia, especially in the Konya region and Cilicia later occupied by Luwians. The subsequent lack of reoccupation suggested to James Mellaart that the affected regions became the grazing grounds of nomads. 59 The origin of the nomads in question may perhaps be indicated by the evidence of the royal burials at Alaca Höyük, which are of similar type as those of the later Mycenaeans and Phrygians, and characterized by solar discs and theriomorphic standards recalling counterparts from Horoztepe and Mahmatlar in the Pontic region: all these elements have been attributed by Ekrem Akurgal to Indo-Europeans60 – nomadic cattle-breeders and herdsmen originating from61 the steppe zone north of the Black Sea, the Caucasus, and 58 Henning 1978. 59 Mellaart 1971: 406-10. 60 Akurgal 1992: 1-5. 61 Mallory 1989. 3. HISTORICAL SETTING 29 beyond. Accordingly, we appear to be confronted with two concerted invasions by Indo-Europeans in the 23rd century BC: one by the ancestors of the later Tocharians across the Caucasus into Mesopotamia and another by the ancestors of the later Hittites, Luwians, and Palaians across the Bosporus into the Anatolian highland and along the western and southern coasts into the plains of Konya and Cilicia – the latter event marked by the spread of Trojan IIg ware with as its “Leitmotiv” the so-called depas amphikupellon. The upheavals at the end of Late Bronze Age II in the 23rd century BC also affected the Greek mainland, Crete, and the Levant. In Greece, for instance the “House of the Tiles” at Lerna was burned down and covered by a tumulus – a burial custom characteristic of the Kurgan culture of the Russian steppe. This event is commonly associated with the arrival of the earliest Indo-Europeans in southern Greece (see further section 7). As far as Crete is concerned, the flourishing settlements at Vasiliki near the bay of Mirabello and Myrtos (Fournou Korifi) along the south coast were destroyed by fire and the ruins of the first covered by simple hovels and that of the second by a peaksanctuary – a completely new phenomenon for the island. 62 Against the background of the events in Anatolia and Greece, it seems not farfetched to assume that the Indo-European invasions also affected eastern Crete – an assumption which would allow us to explain the evidence for the Luwian language in Cretan hieroglyphic documents dating from the Middle Bronze Age onwards (see further section 12 and appendix I). Finally, the Levant bears testimony of a similar lapse to nomadism as Anatolia: if Indo- Europeans were responsible for this development, as Marija Gimbutas argued on the basis of Kurgan-like shafttombs (among which a twin catacomb grave) at Bâb edh- Drâ east of the Dead Sea, these have not been traced in the records which surface again from the Middle Bronze Age onwards. 63 62 Caskey 1971: 803; Best 1981b: 8-9. Note that according to Hiller 1985 : 127 there was no peak-sanctuary at Myrtos after its destruction, even though Warren 1972: 92 does suggest such a function for an Early Minoan III arc-shaped building. 63 Gimbutas 1973 groups these Indo-European migrations together as her “second wave of Indo-Europeanization”. As opposed to this, Best 1976: 218 associates these graves with the apsidal hou-
Page 1: The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples 1
Page 4 and 5: Promotiecommissie Promotor: Prof.dr
Page 7: CONTENTS Preface ..................
Page 10 and 11: profited from the collaboration wit
Page 12 and 13: Frontispiece. Rowers depicted on a
Page 15 and 16: In a work which deals with the ethn
Page 17 and 18: similar vein, to accuse Georges Dum
Page 19: upon a pre-existing local populatio
Page 22 and 23: certainty about the 8th century BC
Page 24 and 25: with the Heraklids Kresphontes and
Page 26 and 27: after the end of the Bronze Age. 43
Page 30 and 31: It lies at hand to correlate the fa
Page 32 and 33: more, he rearranged the western pro
Page 35 and 36: 4. AN HISTORIOGRAPHIC OUTLINE In th
Page 37 and 38: The view of Maspero that the Sea Pe
Page 39 and 40: ples as mere pirates goes Helck’s
Page 41 and 42: site or manoeuvring in mountainous
Page 43 and 44: The contemporary sources with a bea
Page 45 and 46: Enkomi cylinder seal (Inv. no. 19.1
Page 47 and 48: Tablet 1687 from Enkomi Side A (15)
Page 49 and 50: RS 20.238 ù dú-nu-na-ta dan-níš
Page 51 and 52: Libyans (year 5) as well as success
Page 53 and 54: Fig. 5. Land battle scene of Medine
Page 55 and 56: he said to me: “To be sure, they
Page 57 and 58: 6. LUKKA AND THE LUKKA LANDS Since
Page 59 and 60: 7. ETHNOGENESIS OF THE GREEKS The d
Page 61 and 62: the archaeological record by the Ma
Page 63 and 64: adopting the then modern Indo-Aryan
Page 65 and 66: Evidently, the Hyksos were a highly
Page 67: linguistic features from an hypothe
Page 70 and 71: have been Crete, since in the text
Page 72 and 73: war 199 - a suggestion further emph
Page 74 and 75: give and take a few dialectal reshu
Page 77 and 78: In Homeros there are three indicati
Page 79 and 80:
Models The problem of Etruscan orig
Page 81 and 82:
7th century BC, is, considering the
Page 83 and 84:
(proto-)Villanovan is attested (cf.
Page 85 and 86:
sumed that the Etruscans have borro
Page 87:
grave of North Pontic steppe type,
Page 90 and 91:
Trojans, nor will they change their
Page 92 and 93:
“Venel Atelinas has given this to
Page 94 and 95:
as follows: 370 1. M(arce) Vnata
Page 96 and 97:
Fig. 17. Settlement of the Sea Peop
Page 98 and 99:
salian Gyrtone. 406 On the basis of
Page 100 and 101:
of their foundation of Kume, the Ai
Page 102 and 103:
Asherah, Ugaritic y-, -m)!”. 453
Page 104 and 105:
inhabitants of the Mesara plain at
Page 106 and 107:
sociated from that of Mls, a predec
Page 108 and 109:
found here. 513 It is interesting t
Page 110 and 111:
Fig. 21. Distribution of Trojan gre
Page 112 and 113:
The story continues with the Sherde
Page 114 and 115:
On the basis of the combined eviden
Page 116 and 117:
our identification of the Weshesh w
Page 118 and 119:
(Histories I, 57) reports, adopted
Page 120 and 121:
lesh are geographically based, bein
Page 123 and 124:
APPENDIX I: ON THE DECIPHERMENT OF
Page 125 and 126:
36. 5 005 191 TIWATA, [ti] PF 2 (35
Page 127 and 128:
Evans CHIC CL value attestation 64.
Page 129 and 130:
identical to Egyptian bi’ty “ki
Page 131 and 132:
# 258 # 271 # 296 # 309 1 2 3 1. 'y
Page 133:
# 314 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. 'tá-PÁRA
Page 136 and 137:
52. “-ship” -®i- -c-, -- (pro)
Page 138 and 139:
59. 3rd pers. pl. pres./fut. -nt -n
Page 140 and 141:
pattern is formed by the G pl. in -
Page 142 and 143:
LUWIAN ROMAN INDIC GERMANIC F1 Tark
Page 144 and 145:
linguistic point of view, however,
Page 146 and 147:
meat) or as a sacred animal per se:
Page 148 and 149:
Behn, Friedrich, 1924, Hausurnen. B
Page 150 and 151:
tury B.C’. Orientalia 56. Pp. 1-3
Page 152 and 153:
Gardiner, Alan H., 1947, Ancient Eg
Page 154 and 155:
Ägäis und die Levante während de
Page 156 and 157:
terranean in the mid second millenn
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occidentale. Studia Mediterranea 8.
Page 160 and 161:
Sommer, Ferdinand, 1932, Die A®®i
Page 162 and 163:
--- , 2004b, Woudhuizen, Fred C., S
Page 164 and 165:
hele andere etnische groep rekenen.
Page 167:
CURRICULUM VITAE VAN FREDERIK CHRIS
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