The Contribution of cocoa additive to cigarette smoking addiction
The Contribution of cocoa additive to cigarette smoking addiction The Contribution of cocoa additive to cigarette smoking addiction
Page 84 of 207 RIVM report 650270002 Histamine In vivo The increased histamine level in the body induced by mediators may have important physiological and toxicological implications. DEPENDENCY No data available. Effects of smoking cessation No data available. Critical assessment Not possible. Conclusion Not possible. COMMERCIAL USE Histamine is used as a diagnostic and for therapeutic purposes. Intradermal injection of histamine produces the characteristic `triple response' of erythema, flare, and wheal. This is utilised as a control response in skin testing for hypersensitivity. Also, since it is mediated in part by axon reflexes, it has been used to test the integrity of sensory nerves, for example in leprosy. Inhalation of histamine causes bronchoconstriction and is used as a test of bronchial reactivity. Histamine has also been given subcutaneously to identify the causes of achlorhydria and intravenously in the diagnosis of phaeochromocytoma, but safer tests are generally preferred. Histamine is included in some combination topical preparations for musculoskeletal disorders. (4). BENEFICIAL EFFECTS Histamine dihydrochloride is under investigation as an adjunct in the management of acute myeloid leukaemia and malignant melanoma. It has also been tried as an adjunct to interferons and other drugs in the management of hepatitis C (4). Critical assessment Histamine is used as a diagnostic and for therapeutic purposes. It does not seem to have any beneficial effects on the respiratory system. Conclusion Histamine does not seem to have any beneficial effects on the respiratory system. SUMMARY AND FINAL CONCLUSION The potential daily intake of histamine from cigarettes (from added cocoa; 0.33 µg/ day) is about 500 times less than histamine intake from other sources such as chocolate or wine or Dutch cheese (185 – 2600 µg). Assuming similar bioavaibility, the plasma concentration reached after ingestion of histamine from chocolate sources
RIVM report 650270002 Page 85 of 207 Histamine or other food sources is expected to be significantly more, than after exposure to cigarette smoking. However, the different route of application via smoking as compared to other sources should be taken into account. Therefore, the systemic and the local effect of smoking related exposure to histamine might be a point of concern. Since nothing is known about the pyrolysis/combustion products of histamine in cigarette smoke, this may be an additional point of concern. Histamine is an autacoid that is closely associated with mast cells and functions as a mediator of inflammation. Histamine is a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It mediates its effects through three receptor subtypes with differential selectivities for both agonists and antagonists (e.g., mepyramine for H1, ranitidine for H2, and thiperamide for H3). Through these receptors, histamine evokes several physiological effects. Histamine characteristically causes dilatation of the finer blood vessels, resulting in flushing, lowered total peripheral resistance and a fall in systemic blood pressure. The released cardiac histamine is a major mediator of arrhythmias that occur during anaphylaxis and following the administration of histamine-releasing drugs. Histamine receptors are widely distributed in the CNS. The central histamine receptors may regulate the cardiovascular system, diuresis and food intake. Histamine also induces gastric secretion. Histamine provokes bronchoconstriction, but some conflicting results were found concerning the breathing frequency and the tidal volume. It seems that different mechanisms with opposite effects are acting simultaneously. The histamine dose causing a 20% fall in forced expiratory volume in one second (PD20) was shown to be between 0.73 mg -1.20 mg in young normal adults. In astmatics the histamine dose for PD20 was 0.23 mg. The estimated daily histamine intake through cigarette smoking is about 2000 times less than the PD20 in normal adults. 14 C and 3 H-histamine studies showed that histamine is absorbed through the pulmonary system. Almost all mammalian tissues contain histamine in amounts ranging from less than 1µg up to more than 100 µg/g tissue. Every mammalian tissue that contains histamine is able to synthesise it from histidine by virtue of its contents of L-histidine decarboxylase. There are two major pathways of histamine metabolism in man. The more important of these involves methylation and is catalysed by the enzym histamine-N-methyltransferase, which is widely distributed. Most of the product, N-methylhistamine, is converted by monoamine oxidase (MAO) to Nmethyl imidazole acetic acid. The metabolites resulting from catalysation are excreted in the urine. Histamine kinetic parameters determined in patients with melanoma’s had t1/2 12.7 min and Vd of 66.0 l. The small t1/2 seems to implicate a rapid histamine metabolisation. Hyperresponsiveness to histamine is a key feature of a variety of pathological conditions, including bronchial asthma, food allergy, colitis ulcerosa, and topical allergic disorders. Several mediators enhance the cellular reaction to histamine in cell types involved in patho-immunological histamine hyperresponsiveness. Epidemiological reports on food-borne diseases from different countries show frequent outbreaks due to histamine toxicity. Workers exposed to high histamine dose developed allergy-like skin, eye, gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiac
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Page 84 <strong>of</strong> 207 RIVM report 650270002<br />
Histamine<br />
In vivo<br />
<strong>The</strong> increased histamine level in the body induced by media<strong>to</strong>rs may have important<br />
physiological and <strong>to</strong>xicological implications.<br />
DEPENDENCY<br />
No data available.<br />
Effects <strong>of</strong> <strong>smoking</strong> cessation<br />
No data available.<br />
Critical assessment<br />
Not possible.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Not possible.<br />
COMMERCIAL USE<br />
Histamine is used as a diagnostic and for therapeutic purposes. Intradermal injection<br />
<strong>of</strong> histamine produces the characteristic `triple response' <strong>of</strong> erythema, flare, and<br />
wheal. This is utilised as a control response in skin testing for hypersensitivity. Also,<br />
since it is mediated in part by axon reflexes, it has been used <strong>to</strong> test the integrity <strong>of</strong><br />
sensory nerves, for example in leprosy.<br />
Inhalation <strong>of</strong> histamine causes bronchoconstriction and is used as a test <strong>of</strong> bronchial<br />
reactivity. Histamine has also been given subcutaneously <strong>to</strong> identify the causes <strong>of</strong><br />
achlorhydria and intravenously in the diagnosis <strong>of</strong> phaeochromocy<strong>to</strong>ma, but safer<br />
tests are generally preferred. Histamine is included in some combination <strong>to</strong>pical<br />
preparations for musculoskeletal disorders. (4).<br />
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS<br />
Histamine dihydrochloride is under investigation as an adjunct in the management <strong>of</strong><br />
acute myeloid leukaemia and malignant melanoma. It has also been tried as an<br />
adjunct <strong>to</strong> interferons and other drugs in the management <strong>of</strong> hepatitis C (4).<br />
Critical assessment<br />
Histamine is used as a diagnostic and for therapeutic purposes. It does not seem <strong>to</strong><br />
have any beneficial effects on the respira<strong>to</strong>ry system.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Histamine does not seem <strong>to</strong> have any beneficial effects on the respira<strong>to</strong>ry system.<br />
SUMMARY AND FINAL CONCLUSION<br />
<strong>The</strong> potential daily intake <strong>of</strong> histamine from <strong>cigarette</strong>s (from added <strong>cocoa</strong>; 0.33 µg/<br />
day) is about 500 times less than histamine intake from other sources such as<br />
chocolate or wine or Dutch cheese (185 – 2600 µg). Assuming similar bioavaibility,<br />
the plasma concentration reached after ingestion <strong>of</strong> histamine from chocolate sources
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