The Contribution of cocoa additive to cigarette smoking addiction

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Page 6 of 207 RIVM report 650270002 1. Introduction Cigarette smoking is an easy way to administer multiple doses of the psychoactive drug nicotine. However, it leads to nicotine addiction and it is the most important cause of preventable death (1). Hence, prevention and quitting smoking are major public health goals. It has been suggested that cigarette smoking is more addictive than nicotine alone due to the fact that tobacco or smoke seems to contain compounds which increase the addictive potency of nicotine (e.g. ammonium compounds) (2) or may be addictive in their own right (e.g. cocoa) (3, 4). Craving for chocolate, which contains cocoa, is a well-known phenomenon and to emphasize its addictive properties the term “chocoholics” is used for individuals who report overeating chocolate. However, whether cocoa has addictive properties, remains debatable. There has been speculation that chocolate craving is related to organoleptic properties of chocolate and probably to rewarding effects of psychoactive compounds in chocolate. The organoleptic properties of chocolate improve the mood, leading to an increase in pleasant feeling and a reduction of tension. Chocolate is generally rated as highly palatable, which is attributed by high levels of carbohydrate and fat. The sensory characteristics and the palatability of chocolate attribute the organoleptic properties. However, there are other foods, which have similar palatable properties as chocolate, but are less craving (4). Michener and Rozin (1994) (5) suggested that sensory experience at one hand and palatability at the other hand satisfy chocolate cravings. There is no convincing evidence that eating chocolate leads to physical dependence to one or more of the psychoactive compounds it contains. The recent discovery of endocannabinoids in cocoa (6) suggested that psychoactive compounds in chocolate might attribute to chocolate craving. However, it seems that the level of the psychoactive compounds in chocolate is too small to elicit chocolate dependency (7). Cocoa is used at a level between 1 % (w/w) and 3 % (w/w) in the casing of tobacco products as a flavour enhancer (8, 9). The suggestion that chocolate may have addictive properties was extrapolated to the addictive properties of cocoa as an additive in tobacco products (9, 10). It is speculated (9, 10) that cocoa added to tobacco increases the addictive properties of cigarettes by the action of psychoactive compounds in cocoa. Although there is no indication that eating chocolate leads to dependency on the psychoactive compounds, some distinction has to be made to the addictive qualities between oral exposure to cocoa by eating chocolate and pulmonary exposure to cocoa by smoking cigarettes. Firstly, the different exposure route of cocoa may have different pharmacological effects on the body. The psychoactive compounds may exert a local pulmonary effect, thereby affecting the nicotine availability. In this case, it is argued (9, 10) that cocoa compounds, such as theobromine, may have bronchodilating effects, thereby increasing the level of nicotine absorption. Furthermore, by exposing through the pulmonary system, the rapid degradation of the psychoactive compounds by the liver is avoided. Secondly, the psychoactive compounds are combusted during smoking and reaction products of these compounds with other compounds are formed. These reaction products may affect the addictive properties of cigarettes. So far, the effect of cocoa on the addictive properties of tobacco products has not been investigated. In this study ten psychoactive compounds of cocoa are reviewed: theobromine, caffeine, serotonin, histamine, phenylethylamine, tryptamine, tyramine, tryptophan, octopamine and anandamide. These compounds are reviewed by their chemical, environmental and smoking exposure, pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, toxicological, interaction and dependency properties. These properties are discussed in relation to the pulmonary exposure by smoking cigarettes.
RIVM report 650270002 Page 7 of 207 The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether the psychoactive compounds of cocoa or their combustion products increase the addictive properties of cigarettes. The data on compounds used for this report were drawn from currently available literature. References (1) Benowitz, N.L. Drug therapy. Pharmacologic aspects of cigarette smoking and nicotine addition. N Engl J Med 1988; 319(20): 1318-1330. (2) Pankow JF. A consideration of the role of gas/particle partitioning in the deposition of nicotine and other tobacco smoke compounds in the respiratory tract. Chemical Research in Toxicology 2001; 14(11): 1465-1481. (3) Rozin P, Levine E, Stoess C. Chocolate craving and liking. Appetite 1991; 17(3): 199- 212. (4) Hetherington MM. Psychological and pharmacological explanations of chocolate craving. In: Hetherington MM, editor. Food craving and addiction. Surrey, UK: Leatherhead Publishing, 2001: 265-293. (5) Michener W, Rozin P. Pharmacological versus sensory factors in the satiation of chocolate craving. Physiology and behavior 1994; 56(3): 419-422. (6) diTomaso E, Beltramo M, Piomelli D. Brain cannabinoids in chocolate. Nature 1996; 382(6593): 677-678. (7) Rogers PJ, Smit HJ. Food craving and food "addiction": a critical review of the evidence from a biopsychosocial perspective. Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior 2000; 66(1): 3-14. (8) Roemer E, Hackenberg U. Mouse skin bioassay of smoke condensates from cigarettes containing different levels of cocoa. Food Addit Contam 1990; 7(4): 563-569. (9) Fowles J. Chemical Factors Influencing the Addictiveness and Attractiveness of Cigarettes in New Zealand. 1-3-2001. (10) Bates. Tobacco additives. 14-07-1999. See WWW.ash.uk/papers/additives.html.
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