The Contribution of cocoa additive to cigarette smoking addiction

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Page 42 of 207 RIVM report 650270002 Caffeine It can be concluded that caffeine exerts various pharmacological and toxicological effects in the body. There are no data available on the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and toxicology after inhalation exposure. Assuming similar systemic effects after oral and inhalation exposure, the additional risk for systemic effects of caffeine by cigarette smoking (estimated to be 0.5 mg/day) will be low compared with the oral intake via coffee, tea, chocolate and cocoa drinks (estimated 12 – 405 mg/day). Since no data on the toxicological effects of caffeine exposure through inhalation are available, the influence of exposure to caffeine through smoking on the respiratory system cannot be established. For smoking the bronchodilatory effect seems to be relevant, but the doses occurring in cigarettes seem not sufficient to evoke such an effect, and therefore it is unlikely that caffeine plays a role in taboaccoa addition via this mechanism. Of importance is the potential mutagenic effect of caffeine; the question is whether the low caffeine dose is able to display local mutagenic effects in the pulmonary system. Since no data on the local toxicological effects of caffeine exposure through inhalation are available, the shortterm and longterm effects of exposure to caffeine through smoking on the respiratory system cannot be established. Furthermore, its additive effects on other methylxanthines present in cigarette smoke are also not known and have to be studied. More studies are needed on: the determination of pyrolysis and combustion products of caffeine in cigarette smoke; the local (respiratory system) and the systemic effects of long-term use of caffeine alone and in combination with other xanthines via inhalation. Date this sheet was generated Based on literature available in May 2001. REFERENCES (1) Caffeine. Coffe, tea, mate, methylxanthines and methylglyoxal. Lyon: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1991: 291-390. (2) The Merck Index. Electronic version 12:1., 1996. Chapman & Hall EPD. (3) Brandweerinformatiecentrum voor gevaarlijke stoffen (BIG). Electronic version 9.0., 2001. Belgium. (4) Roemer E, Hackenberg U. Mouse skin bioassay of smoke condensates from cigarettes containing different levels of cocoa. Food Addit Contam, 1990; 7(4):563-569. (5) Tarka-SM J. The toxicology of cocoa and methylxanthines: a review of the literature. Crit Rev Toxicol, 1982; 9(4):275-312.
RIVM report 650270002 Page 43 of 207 Caffeine (6) Stavric B. Methylxanthines: toxicity to humans. 3. Theobromine, paraxanthine and the combined effects of methylxanthines. Food Chem Toxicol, 1988; 26(, 8):25-33. (7) Song S, Ashley DL. Sample purification for the analysis of caffeine in tobacco by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A, 1998; 814(1-2):171-180. (8) Eteng MU, Eyong EU, Akpanyung EO, Agiang MA, Aremu CY. Recent advances in caffeine and theobromine toxicities: a review. Plant Foods Hum Nutr,1997; 51(3):231-243. (9) Chou T. Wake up and smell the coffee. Caffeine, coffee, and the medical consequences. West J Med, 1992; 157(5):544-553. (10) Curless R, French JM, James OF, Wynne HA. Is caffeine a factor in subjective insomnia of elderly people? Age Ageing, 1993; 22(1):41-45. (11) Cook DG, Peacock JL, Feyerabend C, Carey IM, Jarvis MJ, Anderson HR et al. Relation of caffeine intake and blood caffeine concentrations during pregnancy to fetal growth: prospective population based study. BMJ, 1996; 313(7069):1358-1362. (12) Shirlow MJ. Patterns of caffeine consumption. Hum Nutr Appl Nutr, 1983; 37(4):307-313. (13) Rozin P, Levine E, Stoess C. Chocolate craving and liking. Appetite, 1991; 17(3):199-212. (14) Michener W, Rozin P. Pharmacological versus sensory factors in the satiation of chocolate craving. Physiol Behav, 1994; 56(3):419-422. (15) Max B. This and that: chocolate addiction, the dual pharmacogenetics of asparagus eaters, and the arithmetic of freedom. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 1989; 10(10):390-393. (16) Dekhuijzen PN, Machiels HA, Heunks LM, van der Heijden HF, van Balkom RH. Athletes and doping: effects of drugs on the respiratory system. Thorax, 1999; 54(11):1041-1046. (17) Brown DD, Knowlton RG, Sullivan JJ, Sanjabi PB. Effect of caffeine ingestion on alveolar ventilation during moderate exercise. Aviat Space Environ Med, 1991; 62(9 Pt 1):860-864. (18) D'Urzo AD, Jhirad R, Jenne H, Avendano MA, Rubinstein I, D'Costa M et al. Effect of caffeine on ventilatory responses to hypercapnia, hypoxia, and exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol, 1990; 68(1):322-328. (19) Dodd SL, Brooks E, Powers SK, Tulley R. The effects of caffeine on graded exercise performance in caffeine naive versus habituated subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1991; 62(6):424-429.
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