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where languages lacked the vocabulary to do so. Thus, speakers were forced to rely on a word from another language to convey the meaning they intended to. In certain instances, codeswitching fulfils this function as well, but also serves a variety of other functions too. However, what differentiates codeswitching from borrowing is that the former only occurs in the speech of bilinguals, while the latter is evident even in the speech of monolinguals (Simango, 2000). Poplack (1990: 55) further distinguishes between nonce loans and borrowing, arguing that, borrowings “tend to be content words which take the same inflections and occupy the same syntactic slots as corresponding native recipientlanguage words.” This implies that borrowings are generally single words which belong to open classes and occupy the same position in a sentence in either language whereas nonce loans are single words in one of the languages used and are found in sentences otherwise consisting of elements in the other language. In relation to English/Afrikaans codeswitching, distinguishing between borrowings and nonce loans appears to be quite challenging as, in many instances, the sentence structures are alike. Therefore, one will only be able to draw a clear-cut distinction between the two in cases where syntactic structures differ. Poplack (1990) also argues that when a single word from one language appears in a sentence consisting of elements from another language, this word may be analyzed as an insertion of a minimal constituent if it occurs in an appropriate lexical slot. Thus, single words may be analyzed as borrowings, nonce loans or as the insertion of minimal constituents. For the purpose of this study, I will analyze borrowings as such, but will also regard them as switches in cases where there is a clear switch from one language to another. Earlier, I defined codeswitching as the use of two linguistic varieties (languages or dialects) in an utterance, or the use of both grammatical and lexical items from two different languages in a single utterance, produced by a bilingual speaker. Thus, while single words may be labeled borrowings, I believe that they should also be regarded as instances of 46
codeswitching as they do reflect the use of two languages within a single utterance. 3.2 Grammatical Constraints on Codeswitching A wide variety of constraints have been proposed by many different researchers, each focusing on switching across different sets of languages. Some of the constraints proposed may be language specific, whereas others may act as universal constraints for codeswitching in any language. Muysken (1995: 196) argued that switching is possible under the following conditions: 1. When no tight relation exists among elements: when there are no rules of government preventing a switch 2. Under equivalence: when the order of grammatical elements is the same in both languages 3. When the element undergoing the switch is morphologically encapsulated 4. When the first word of the switch can belong to either of the languages involved, such as ‘in’ which has the same meaning and is pronounced in the same way in German and English. Cook-Gumperz (1976) argues that, both co-ordinate and sub-ordinate conjoined sentences can be freely switched, but the conjunction always goes with the second switched phrase: John stayed at home because his wife was at work. ** John stayed at home because his wife was at work. This theory may very well be applicable to English/Afrikaans codeswitching. It makes more sense for the conjunction to agree with the second part of the phrase because it is likely that the conjunction would be a part of the phrase being 47
Page 1 and 2: GRAMMATICAL CONSTRAINTS AND MOTIVAT
Page 3 and 4: Abstract GRAMMATICAL CONSTRAINTS AN
Page 5 and 6: Declaration I declare that Grammati
Page 7 and 8: Table of Contents Key words .......
Page 9 and 10: 1.0 Introduction Chapter 1 Backgrou
Page 11 and 12: English is not the mother tongue of
Page 13 and 14: everyday communication. The nature
Page 15 and 16: While researchers and sociolinguist
Page 17 and 18: language of the court, education, a
Page 19 and 20: This, then, makes it apparent why C
Page 21 and 22: have always been exposed simultaneo
Page 23 and 24: ) I have eaten an apple. The past t
Page 25 and 26: also instances in which they do not
Page 27 and 28: providing a strong argument that co
Page 29 and 30: 1.10 Outline of the Study Chapter 1
Page 31 and 32: 2.0 Introduction Chapter 2 Social M
Page 33 and 34: “…codeswitching is a form of bo
Page 35 and 36: In this section, I attempt to provi
Page 37 and 38: eferred to as RO) sets between part
Page 39 and 40: example, Afrikaans speakers may swi
Page 41 and 42: Further, Franceschini (1998: 62) st
Page 43 and 44: context in which the speaker finds
Page 45: 3.0 Introduction Chapter 3 Grammati
Page 49 and 50: Constituent insertion differs from
Page 51 and 52: In these examples, the main verbs a
Page 53 and 54: 4.0 Introduction Chapter 4 Research
Page 55 and 56: Thus, qualitative research is an in
Page 57 and 58: However, contrary to Auer’s 1984
Page 59 and 60: The transcripts were then analyzed
Page 61 and 62: 5.0 Introduction Chapter 5 Discussi
Page 63 and 64: Turn Phrase Table 1: Switched conju
Page 65 and 66: In turns 22, 53, 59 and 63, English
Page 67 and 68: Unlike in English, when the past te
Page 69 and 70: similarity to that of Afrikaans due
Page 71 and 72: Table 7: Afrikaans determiners with
Page 73 and 74: possessive. However, it appears as
Page 75 and 76: indefinite articles, ‘a’ or ‘
Page 77 and 78: The following are examples from the
Page 79 and 80: Turn Mixed verb Afrikaans equivalen
Page 81 and 82: In turns 421 and 532, the host subs
Page 83 and 84: the violation of this constraint, p
Page 85 and 86: nouns) are used. I have selected a
Page 87 and 88: What follows are a few switches to
Page 89 and 90: The next switch is the insertion of
Page 91 and 92: has chosen to split the phrase into
Page 93 and 94: The discourse suggests that the hos
Page 95 and 96: speaker’s close association with
Page 97 and 98:
The next, and final, switch is to A
Page 99 and 100:
of proceedings throughout the show.
Page 101 and 102:
host is being somewhat sarcastic, b
Page 103 and 104:
also of the ways in which language
Page 105 and 106:
6.0 Introduction Chapter 6 Conclusi
Page 107 and 108:
• While conjunctions do agree wit
Page 109 and 110:
References Appel, R & Muysken, P. (
Page 111 and 112:
Hamers, J. & Blanc, M. (2000). Bili
Page 113 and 114:
Ponelis, F. (1993). The Development
Page 115 and 116:
Young, D. (1988). Bilingualism and
Page 117 and 118:
APPENDIX
Page 119 and 120:
First Transcript: Update Kaapse Vla
Page 121 and 122:
52. Clarence: Wilfred? 53. Suster:
Page 123 and 124:
[laughter] 62. Clarence: Die’s (d
Page 125 and 126:
terrace and so I couldn’t go up t
Page 127 and 128:
{So he got an sms back} to say, “
Page 129 and 130:
then you go from Notre-Dame up the
Page 131 and 132:
201. Suster: Yes Clarence, it’s,
Page 133 and 134:
258. Suster Ja {Yes}, my introducti
Page 135 and 136:
322. Suster = = Nou {Now}, Clarence
Page 137 and 138:
376. Suster Will do. Thank you my s
Page 139 and 140:
a short while. Music followed by ad
Page 141 and 142:
ecause … did I really say that, y
Page 143 and 144:
speaker}. En toe stoot hy nou die m
Page 145 and 146:
627. Suster [laughter] 628. Caller
Page 147 and 148:
699. Caller 13 Yes, uh, I know that
Page 149 and 150:
when I say that you do not have a,
Page 151 and 152:
853. Caller 16 = = maar jy en Clare
Page 153 and 154:
for} innerly = = 897. Suster = = ja
Page 155 and 156:
975. Caller 19 Hello Suster. 976. S
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