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concluding remarks, comments, and observations 285
pavements of Hammath Tiberias, Beth Alpha,
Na‘aran, and Susiya (pls. II.1,2).
Judaism was indifferent to pictures and did
not ascribe to them any sanctity, so there was
no reason to prevent the depiction of representations
on pavements on which people walked
(Hachlili 1988: 285, 379). The Jews of this period
were indeed unafraid of idolatry (Urbach 1959:
204). No law forbids the depiction of religious
subjects in Jewish art. Furthermore, walking on
pavements with such depictions ensured that no
sanctity or sacred quality, which would cause
their being worshipped, could be attached to the
scenes. Such a depiction could not be treated as a
‘graven image’ prohibited by the law. This might
have been the reason why even pagan elements
such as the zodiac were used. Judaism attached
much more importance to the written word, as
may be deduced from the iconoclastic destruction
of the Na#aran synagogue pavement, in which
the letters, however, were preserved, and from
the synagogues at Rehov and ‘En Gedi, where
the floors paved with long inscriptions were left
untouched. Although these floors were trodden
on, the Jews still considered ornamenting their
synagogue pavements with images and ritual
objects. This might have reflected the concept
that an image stepped upon will lose its sacrosanct
quality. It will prevent the worship or idolatry of
such images: as long as the ‘graven images’ are
trodden on they cannot be considered sacred and
consequently no danger of worship could exist
(Hachlili 1988: 287, 300, 379).
Jews intentionally included biblical scenes and
religious symbols among the subject matter used
to adorn synagogue mosaic floors. Avi-Yonah
(1960b: 32) maintains that Jews of the Talmudic
period were ‘notoriously insensitive to images,
whether symbolic or Biblical’. However, it seems
more likely that this reflects Jewish avoidance of
the worship of ‘graven images’, proscribed at the
end of the second of the Ten Commandments
(Ex. 20: 15; Deut. 5: 1-9: ‘Thou shalt not bow
down thyself to them, nor serve them’. The concept
of neutralization of idolatry is attested by
the notion that stepping on an image necessarily
eliminated its sacrosanct quality. In this way the
Jews struggled against idolatry, acting on the principle
that as long as the ‘graven image’ was widely
represented on synagogue floors, and would be
trodden on, the pernicious influence of idolatry
could be neutralized.
The avoidance of rural genre and hunting
episodes intensifies the impression given by the
synagogue floor ornamentation of spirituality,
appreciation, and the place as a devout haven
far removed from everyday life.
The church mosaic pavements of the 4th-5th
centuries consisted mainly of carpets with floral
and geometric designs, which occasionally contained
a cross. Sacred figurative images were represented
on church mosaic pavements only to a
limited extent. During the 6th century church
floors included scenes of hunting, vintage, genre
subjects, animals, and birds, whose relevance to
the Christian context was not always clear. These
depictions might have been a representation of the
‘World as it is’ or the Earthly Paradise (Avi-Yonah
1972: 122). Yet it remains difficult to determine
the actual reason for the patrons’ and donors’
choice of such subjects (Kitzinger 1965: 8-11).
These designs could have been chosen from what
was available in the assumed prevailing pattern
books. As the Christians hesitated to tread on
sacred images, their iconographical and symbolic
images may have decorated wall mosaics, which
did not survive.
The church pavement decoration was a much
more down-to-earth setting. It reflects an evident
ban on symbols. Only few examples of a cross
appear in prominent positions. Biblical scenes are
rare—only a few biblical citations together with
confronting animals, and an aversion to the rendition
of saints is attested. Many church pavements
are rendered with farming scenes, beasts assaulting
animals, hunting and bucolic life vignettes,
architectural representations of cities and villages,
and portraits of male and female benefactors. The
church ornamentation on many pavements provided
a place with a sense of consolation, reassurance,
and ease, were people acknowledged scenes
from their own life, personifications of natural
forces, submissions of hope for a better future,
and gratitude to God for prosperity.
Animals and beasts, including combat or hunting,
birds, plants, and objects, are depicted on
both synagogue and church pavements, usually
filling geometric or organic compositions. These
domestic, wild, and exotic animals, and birds,
as well as a variety of plants, represent a rich
repertoire of the country’s nature. Biebel (1938:
301) explains their popularity ‘by their inoffensive
character and variety and decorative effect
which they add to the floors’. They were probably