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232 traditions and general repertoire of the Graeco- Roman calendars. Diversity of synagogue and church is perceived in the order of the months and their effect on the calendar, namely when the year begins or which is the first month of the year. The Jewish year began in the spring, the Christian year in autumn or the winter. In the ancient (biblical) Israelite tradition months are indicated by ordinal numbers in which the ‘First month’ is the first spring month (Ex. 40.2, 17; Lev. 23.5; Num. 28.16), sometimes named ‘the month of the spring’ (Ex. 13.4; 23.15; 34.18; Deut. 16.1). The Babylonian month names are alleged to have been brought back by the returnees from the Babylonian exile and occur predominantly in the post-exilic books, which refer to Nisan (the first month of the spring) as the first month of the year (Zec.1.7; Est. 3.7, 13; Neh. 2.1). The Jewish calendar continued to allude to Nisan as the month which begins the year. This is further proved by the ‘En Gedi mosaic inscription noted above, which lists the Hebrew names of the months and the zodiac signs in the same order, beginning with Nisan and the corresponding zodiac sign Taleh/ram/Aries (pl. III.4c; fig. XI-4b). On church mosaics the calendar order is different. The year begins either in January or in autumn. January as the first month appears on the El-Hammam mosaic pavement with a figure, almost completely destroyed, but the inscription survived (pl. VIII.7) (Avi-Yonah 1936: 22). The months’ representations (destroyed) on the Gerasa mosaics in St. John church and the cathe - dral chapel indicate that the year apparently began with Audnaeus, which corresponds to January. Wells (1938: 468-469, 480, inscriptions nos. 274, 295, 307) maintains, ‘The texts shows either that the Gerasene year did not begin with Hyperberetaeus, or that Hyperberetaeus was not equated with October. There seems no possibility at present of certainly resolving Gerasene month dates into Julian equivalents. Possibly the Macedonian year and the indiction had become coextensive’. The order of these months’ depiction possibly follows the calendar used in Antioch. The first month on the mosaic of Elias, Mary, and Soreg church is Gorpiaios, which corresponds to 2 The seasons on the mosaic of El Maqerqesh chapel at Beth Guvrin are not arranged according to the order chapter eleven September. According to Saller (Saller and Bagatti 1949: 288-9), in the province of Arabia this month was from the 19th of August the 17th of September, which means the year according to this mosaic began in autumn. 2 Personifications of Earth, Sea, Ocean, Nilus, the Four Rivers of Paradise, a country, or a city are depicted on secular mansions and church pavements but not on any of the synagogue pavements. On synagogue mosaics only the personifications of the zodiac elements, the four seasons, the zodiac signs, and the Sun-God appear. Inscriptions Short inscriptions usually accompany various personifications and biblical narratives. Hebrew inscriptions identify the biblical and the zodiac renditions on synagogue pavements, consisting of identifying names and short sentences explaining biblical scenes; on the synagogue mosaics the Hebrew names of the zodiac signs, and at Sepphoris the addition of the names of the months in Hebrew, accompany the images; the seasons on the zodiac design are identified by the Hebrew name of the first month of each of the four seasons. On Christian mosaics of Beth She"an the depictions of months are accompanied by their Latin names and number of days inscribed in Greek letters, whereas the Gerasa mosaics have the months with their Macedonian names written in Greek. Greek names identify personifications, such as Earth, Sea, rivers and seasons on church pavements. The dedicatory inscriptions found in synagogues and churches are mostly set in mosaic floors (though some can be found on lintels and doorposts, columns and capitals, and on chancel screens). These architectural and ornamental parts were donated by a private donor or by the community. Most church inscriptions are in Greek (a few are in Arabic, Armenian, Christo-Palestinian Aramaic, Latin, and Syriac). Inscriptions found in synagogues are in Aramaic, Hebrew (about 90, published by Naveh 1978; 1989: 302-310), and Greek (about 36, published by Roth-Gerson 1987). The common form of the inscription frame was the tabula ansata; other forms were circular and rectangular. The location of the inscriptions of the year, so they cannot indicate the calendar order or the month which begins the year.
etween synagogue and church 233 Figure XI-3. Synagogue inscriptions of donors: a. Gaza; b. Gerasa; c. Ma#on; d. Susiya. was probably not regulated; they are set in various places in synagogues and churches. Synagogue inscriptions are mostly dedications. In some of the inscriptions the donors or benefactors are mentioned (Naveh 1978: nos. 33-35, 74, 64; Weiss 2005: 202-208, 216-219). They usually begin with the Hebrew or Aramaic formula הבוטל רוכז or בוט ריכד to be remembered for good with the names of the donors following. The inscriptions include the donors’ names, occasionally their title or profession, the kind of the donation, and sometimes the sum. A blessing to the donors is at times added, and rarely the date. In the Greek inscriptions the reason for the donation might be included (Roth-Gerson 1987: 150-151). The donors have titles such as priests, rabbis and archisynagogos. Other inscriptions mention donors with titles such as lord and lady, and persons who have some tasks in the community (Naveh 1978: 12). Some of the dedications were given not by local people but by donors from other towns or villages (Naveh 1978: no. 4, 21; Roth-Gerson 1987: 163-180). Names of the donors on synagogues are mostly Hebrew. Greek and Latin names occur mainly in the Greek inscriptions. A few inscriptions mention the artists who probably made the mosaic or constructed the building (Hachlili 1988: 383-385). Some of the inscriptions include a blessing on the donors by the community (fig. XI-3) (Roth-Gerson 1987: 158-160). Some of the Aramaic inscriptions mention donors who ‘made’, that is, ‘paid for’, the mosaics: Beth "Alpha; a strangely written inscription on the Ma#on pavement, probably by a mosaicist who did not know or understand the language; Na#aran above the menorah; Hammath Gader; ‘En Gedi (Naveh 1978: nos.35, 43, 57, 58, 69); inscription 4 at Susiya (Gutman 1981: 127-28; Naveh 1978: no.75). A significant reference השידק הרתא “holy place” is used in several Aramaic inscriptions to describe the synagogue, see Beth She"an, Hammath Tiberias, Na#aran, as well as on a polycandelon at Kefar Hananiah (Naveh 1978: Nos. 16, 26, 46, 64); the same term appears also in Targums (Levine 1992: 221). Biblical names and explanatory sentences are rendered in the biblical scenes on the Beth "Alpha and Sepphoris pavements. Hebrew expressions such as, הלס ןמא, לארשי לע םולש, םולש Shalom; Shalom al Israel (taken from Psalms 125: 5; 128: 6); Amen Sela occur on some inscriptions
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294 glossary
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Ψ ή φ ο ς ס פ י ס פ Ancie
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contents To my beloved granddaughte
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contents CONTENTS List of Color Pla
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contents C Pastoral and Rural Scene
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list of color plates xi LIST OF COL
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list of color plates xiii V.4 Nilom
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list of color plates xv Mt. Nebo; g
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list of color plates xvii Authority
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list of figures xix LIST OF FIGURES
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list of figures xxi Figure IV-15. D
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list of figures xxiii Figure VIII-5
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list of figures xxv LIST OF TABLES
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foreword xxvii FOREWORD התדיב
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One of the most significant and fru
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pavement at Caesarea the word is sp
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mosaic pavements adorning buildings
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Introduction: Jewish Figurative Art
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Figure II-3. Beth "Alpha synagogue:
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to the Sefer HaRazim Yahoweh reside
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ut all served as repositories for t
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pomegranates and cups (Hachlili 200
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open ark with scrolls is depicted,
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are rendered in non-identical symme
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pavements of Samarian synagogues an
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of two columns surmounting an arche
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A group of ancient synagogues disco
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the zodiac panel and its significan
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the bust of the season Nisan (Sprin
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The Summer attributes, the sickle a
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Table III-1. Comparative chart of t
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Figure III-12. Part of a stone ceil
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A Roman villa at Odos Triakosion in
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the four seasons, representing the
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iblical narrative themes and images
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Noah’s Ark biblical narrative the
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Jonah biblical narrative themes and
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Nilotic scenes are a recurrent them
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iconographic elements of nilotic sc
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I.1 Masada mosaic pavements: a. ant
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I.3 Jerusalem, Upper City, pavement
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II.1 Torah shrine panels on synagog
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II.3 Comparable shrines on Jordan m
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III.1 Hammath Tiberias synagogue zo
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III.3 Beth "Alpha synagogue zodiac
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III.5 Sun God on synagogue pavement
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III.7 Zodiac signs on synagogue pav
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III.9 Zodiac signs on synagogue pav
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III.11 The four seasons on synagogu
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IV.1 Binding of Isaac on synagogue
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IV.3 David-Orpheus on the Gaza syna
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IV.5 The Orpheus mosaic, Jerusalem.
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IV.7 Sepphoris synagogue, The Conse
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V.1 Nilotic scene at Beth Leontis,
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V.3 Nilotic scene at Sepphoris Nile
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eagle. Another Nilotic scene appear
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shown standing on the river bank as
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The depiction of a putto riding a c
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Table V.1. Nilotic Elements on Byza
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Nile Festival mosaic, with the addi
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The ‘inhabited scroll’ became o
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donkey. Lively animal chase scenes
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naturalistic in execution, and unli
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which contains objects flanked by s
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Figure VI-7. Group II: Jerusalem, t
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the outer ones; the second survivin
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Table VI-1a. Composition and Repert
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Group III consists of the mosaics e
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the ‘inhabited scrolls’ mosaic
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Figure VI-13. Beth She"an, Monaster
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Figure VI-15. Sede Nahum mosaic fra
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Table VI-2a. (Cont.) Mosaic Date ce
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Table VI-2b. (Cont.) Mosaic Date ce
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In the south aisle of St. George ch
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four amphorae in the centre of the
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On Jordanian mosaics, in the acanth
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to have grapes of both styles (pl.
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ightly observes that the different
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grape harvesting, pastoral, and hun
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Rural activities and pastoral scene
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Table VII.1. Vintage scenes on vine
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Figures Treading Grapes and the Pre
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The forerunners for these vintage s
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Snake and Mongoose Confrontation Th
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Table VII.2. Animal chase and comba
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iconographic aspects of rural life
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scenes are found in the mid-5th- to
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Table VII.3. Big Game Hunting scene
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likewise surround the basin of the
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the cathedral at Madaba (Piccirillo
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443, 455-6, 466) holds that this ty
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Personification is a common theme o
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Rivers of Paradise, but only two of
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irds, apparently created by the Fou
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in an intercolumnar space (Church o
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the seasons with deliberate differe
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personification of natural forces 1
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crook Spring’s attribute at the B
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personification of natural forces 1
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while in mosaics of the Greek East
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Moon, as the partner of Sun, is a b
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Animals in a repeated antithetic sy
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designs of symmetrical antithetic a
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(Ovadiah 1987: 105) and at the Naha
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a bear, a lion and a destroyed anim
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long-horned deer drinking from a sp
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iconoclasm on mosaic pavements of s
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iconoclasm on mosaic pavements of s
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Page 315 and 316: VII.2 Transporting grapes: a. El Ha
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Page 323 and 324: Inhabited Vine Scrolls Pavements A
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Page 331 and 332: etween synagogue and church 237 Fig
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Page 335 and 336: time. They might have contained gen
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concluding remarks, comments, and o
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list of sites 289 LIST OF SITES Sit
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Site Date Centuries CE Jordan (Arab
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VII.10 Jabaliyah Diakonikon mosaic
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VII.12 Hunter/soldier on foot with
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VII.14 Feline with cub: a. Gaza syn
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VII.16 Shepherd: a. Be’er Shem‘
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VII.18 Figure leading camel: a. Kis
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VII.20 Fishing: a. Beth Loya, two e
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VIII.2 Seasons: a. Caesarea: Spring
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VIII.4 Beth She’an monastery, Hal
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IX.2 Flanking birds: a. Beth Shean,
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IX.4 a. Huseifa, unidentical menoro
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X.2 Susiya synagogue: a. panel Tora
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X.4 Jabaliyah church, north aisle.
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XI.2 Crosses on mosaic pavements: a
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XI.4 Tabgha, Church of the Multipli
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XII.2
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XII.4 Beth Leontis, Beth She’an:
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XII.6 Similarities between animals:
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XII.8 Similarities between animals
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glossary 293 GLOSSARY Aedicula Ston
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list of sites 295 ABBREVIATIONS ACR
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Abel, F. M. 1924 Décourvertes réc
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1969 Antike Mosaiken in Kilikien, I
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2001 The Nilometer, in Measuting an
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The Art of Byzantium and the Mediev
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1995 The Activity of the Mosaicists
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1971 The Secret of the ‘En Gedi I
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