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226
336, figs. 723,726). An interesting example is the
replacement of a figure rendered in an octagon
destroyed by iconoclasts and repaired with a very
plain cross in the upper church of Massuh (Piccirillo
1993: 42, 252, fig. 443). Piccirillo assumes
that the cross portrayed on this mosaic, was the
work of a Christian mosaicist and the repairs were
carried out because the church continued to be
used after the iconoclastic event.
The cross—usually the Greek cross—appears
braided, jewelled, monogramatic, or isosceles
(fig. XI-2), sometimes set in a circle or in a band
of interlocking circles; its four arms occasionally
enclose four crosslets, or it is shown with an
inscription or the letters IC XC and AW.
The cross representation on church pavements
appears to be popular from the mid-4th century
on and was recognized as the emblem of Christianity;
the cross represented the triumph over
evil and salvation. On the early church mosaics
the cross was depicted on locations including
areas which were stepped upon by worshippers
(Tzaferis 1987: 50*-51*). The rendition of the
cross on floors proves that the symbol was utilized
also later despite the decree of Theodosius II and
Valentinianus, dated 427 and issued in Constantinople
(Avi-Yonah 1967: 53; Tzaferis 1993: 285;
Dunbabin 1999: 197). The edict forbade the use
of the cross and other Christian religious symbols
on pavements; they had to be removed if
they already existed. Scholars consider the date
427 as the terminus post quem for some of the pavements
with depicted crosses. Many of the crosses
were rendered on pavements before the decree,
and a few of the early pavements were covered
or changed.
Avi-Yonah (1933: 63) contends that the crosses
usually appear on pavements in small apses, in
front of or behind the altar, and in basins, which
are ‘almost exclusively in places not likely to be
stepped upon, or approached only barefooted,
or on which only the priest during the functions
could tread’.
Kitzinger (1970: 640) proposes that crosses
placed noticeably near or on the entrance have
an apotropaic intention, namely to protect the
building from evil forces. Tzafiris (1971: 63; 1987:
50*-51*; 1990: 285) maintains that even if most
of the cross illustrations were done before the
prohibition was declared, it is difficult to prove
that it was effective. The other part of the decree,
eradicating existing crosses, was implemented, for
instance, at Shavei Zion where an altar or table
was built on the location of the cross; the crosses
chapter eleven
in the central basilica of Pella were later covered
by the marble pavement. Tzafiris further proposes
two explanations for the existence of crosses on
the other mosaics: they were created prior to 427
and remained untouched, or they were made after
that date. His conclusion is that the prohibition
was not generally accepted among Christians. It
seems that crosses appeared before and after the
public edict and are indicative of its observation
in the Levant.
Other renditions such as lambs, peacocks, and
birds drinking water from a vase—on both church
and synagogue pavements—are considered by
some scholars to be Christian symbols (Dunbabin
1999: 197); but these are too common to be designated
Christian signs in particular.
Biblical Scenes
Biblical scenes occur in Jewish synagogue mosaics
but seldom on church pavements. In synagogue
art the earliest representatives, in the 3rd century,
are the wall paintings of Dura-Europos, with a
great variety of biblical scenes executed in detailed
illustrations. They are also found on synagogue
mosaic pavements from the 5th century on: the
Binding of Isaac at Beth ‘Alpha and Sepphoris;
Noah’s Ark at Gerasa; Daniel in the Lion’s Den
at Na#aran and Susiya, King David (as Orpheus)
at Gaza, and David with the weapons captured
from Goliath at Meroth; Sepphoris has additional
biblical episodes (see Chap. IV).
All these scenes were represented in a simple
concise narrative. They had a common theme of
yearning for salvation with reference to traditional
historical events; they might have had some symbolic
meaning associated with prayers, especially
in times of drought. The synagogue mosaics are
quite similar in their composition, while the artistic
depiction and style of each scene differ.
The Binding of Isaac (the Aqeda) appears on
the nave pavements at Beth "Alpha and Sepphoris
(pl. IV.1). The depiction at Beth ’ Alpha
on the third panel summarizes the narrative in
three parts: the donkey and the lads; the ram, the
thicket, and the Hand of God; Abraham, Isaac,
and the altar. On the Sepphoris synagogue nave
mosaic (Weiss 2005: 141-153) the Binding of Isaac
is depicted on band 6 in two panels; on the left
panel, two servants with the ass survived. Of the
right panel only a very small part is preserved: the
head of the ram tethered to the tree, below it two
upturned pairs of shoes, and in the centre only
traces of a robe and the blade of the knife.