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to obtain. Difficulties include leaks; the damaging of street
standpipes (sometimes left gushing for long periods); the seasonal
availability of alternative supplies such as springs and rainwater; the
reuse of water. and the impossibility of establishing the actual (sleepon-the-premises)
population - given inter alia the construction of
backyard shacks and accordingly. problems in determining the
number of "households·. Other factors are unauthorized
connections; defective water meters; the virtual breakdown of
services in many townships - and the real physical danger to service
suppliers. meter readers. and maintenance crews in certain areas.
The philosophy of "entitlement" where services are not paid for,
although expectations exist that much improved services should
nonetheless be provided. also complicates accurate measurements
of household consumption.
With the possible exception of older data. many of the consumption
figures provided in the engineering literature are "guesstimates"
based on total water demand for the area. divided by the estimated
population. (Demographic information may be seriously in error
especially in the major urban areas subject to high in-migration and
land invasion). It should be noted that water consumption from
unmetered yard or street standpipes in several black townships has
been found to be excessive with regard to actual needs*. It could
be argued that water consumption in many high income households
is also excessive in relation to actual (as opposed to perceived)
needs. However. water in high income households is paid for, which
is certainly not the case in many townships.
See Bekker, A.P., 1980. Need for control of water consumption in low income housing projects· a
technical report, Paper No. 19, Seminar on Water Supply and Drainage Services in Developing
Countries, National Building Research Institute, CSIR, 30 September' 2 October 1980, Pretoria, 3
p., as well as Davis, A.B., 1980. Factors of bulk water supply and main sewerage for low cost
housing schemes, Paper No. 15, Seminar on Water Supply and Drainage Services in Developing
Countries, National Building Research Institute, CSIR, 30 September - 2 October 1980, Pretoria, 11 p.
See in addition: Du P1essis, P.A., 1980. Water and sewerage in urban black communities, Paper No.
14, Seminar on Water Supply and Drainage Services in Developing Countries, National Building
Research Institute, CSIR, 30 September· 2 October 1980, Pretoria, 3 p., and Uys, W.J., 1980.
Water supply in the national states of South Africa, Paper No. 13, Seminar on Water Supply and
Drainage Services inDeveloping Countries, National Building Research Institute, CSIR, 30 September'
2 October 1980, Pretoria, 7 p. (Other papers presented at the seminar are also highly relevant). Uys
(1980) found that mean daily water consumption in the period 1967 - 1973, increased from 570·
737 r per stand in KwaMashu (metered connectionsl - probably reflecting higher standards of living
as well as increased household numbers due to in-migration. In the same period, mean daily water
consumption for Umlazi increased from 1 060· 1 420 I per stand indicative of (in reality), unmetered
conditions. By 1975, mean daily water consumption in Umlazi had reached 1 757 I per stand (Davis,
1980), whereupon numerous meters were installed (in 1976). Consumption declined in the interim,
rising again (although at a slower rate) in 1978 when reading of the installed meters commenced.
Davis observed however, that difficulties were encountered at that time with the reading of meters
and the collection of monies, which effectively resulted in higher consumption. (It should be noted
for comparative purposes, that the design stand consumption was 1 136 t day"}. Excessive water
consumption (whether due to .Ieaks and/or the waste of water), can have important design and
financial implications for required extensions to water and sanitation systems. In semi-arid areas, the
wastage of water by urban residents can result in a denial of water to other potential or existing
consumers, either in tenns of water 1!!1!: g. or due to budgetary constraints for the necessary
infrastructure.