Adjectives: A Uniform Semantic Approach - University of Windsor

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Adjectives: A Uniform Semantic Approach 333 Table 1. Missing properties Adjective Phrase Property missing from the default set of features Artificial heart e.g. not flesh-and-blood Artificial flower e.g. doesn’t grow Artificial light e.g. source Former senator e.g. temporal continuance False teeth e.g. not naturally grown Cloned sheep e.g. not naturally bred Virtual reality e.g. exists visually only Imitation leather e.g. genuineness Wooden lion e.g. “make-ness”—physical and non-living Fake statue e.g. originality Fake perfume e.g. substance/originality In short, intensifier/privative seem to be (semantically) intimately related. If viewed as functions, they can be thought of as functions and their respective inverse functions. Alternatively, they can be viewed as set partitions of the set N, which represents the denotation of the noun an intensifier/privative pair combines with. The latter view is adopted in the approach proposed in this paper. In our view, both “regular” adjectives such as ‘red’, ‘angry’, or ‘skillful’ and privative adjectives such as ‘fake’ or ‘former’ have one thing in common. They both pick out or further constrain the domain denoted by the noun of the compound. They differ in the means of doing it: regular adjectives by highlighting some property or properties of the noun, while privative adjectives by “masking” some property or properties of the noun. Once the argument of augmenting the denotation of common nouns is accepted, expressions such as that senator, that gun, and that heart are considered elliptic forms, respectively, for that current senator, that real gun, and that natural heart. However, privative-common-noun combinations should be explicitly specified 4 , i.e. that former senator, that fake gun, and that artificial heart. The view that privative adjectives are subsective, results in the following adjective hierarchy: • Intersective. • Subsective: o Pure. o Double. o Privative. This analysis makes it possible that a generalized set-theoretic approach to adjectives is attainable. 4 In some settings the opposite is true. For example, in a tòy store (i.e., a store that sells toys) the term gun would more plausibly mean a fake gun. Thus, fake gun is the default.
334 N. Abdullah and R.A. Frost 3 Our Approach Some authors (e.g. Strawson, see [2], and Jespersen, see [15]) argue that common nouns and adjectives are ontologically different. We believe that representing common nouns on a par with adjectives is “forcing” a behaviour on adjectives that is not in their nature. This behaviour manifests itself in the intersection failure of sets representing adjectives and sets representing common nouns, which leads to the conclusion that adjectives must be of complex nature. We argue that it is possible to represent all adjectives as sets, and yet capture their idiosyncrasies. This can be done by considering sets representing adjectives as having typed objects as their members. A schema for an adjective-representing set may look like the following: Set_name ={member: type1}: type2 (1) where type1 is a non-property type and type2 a property type For example, clever pet, clever man, and clever police dog in the sentences John is a clever man, Fido is a clever pet, and Fido is a clever police dog can be represented as follows: Clever={j: human, f: pet, f: policedog}: clever where j =|| John|| 5 , and || f = Fido|| This representation of the adjective ‘clever’ captures the intuition that although j and f are members of the set Clever, both are clever in their own way. John is clever as a man 6 while Fido is clever as a dog. What they have in common is “cleverness”. This is reflected by ascribing the type “clever” to the set containing them. This representation of adjectives makes it possible for an object to have more than one occurrence in adjective-representing sets, as done with “f: pet” and “f: policedog” in the set Clever. Common nouns may have the following representation schema: Set_name ={member: type}: type (2) where type is a non-property type The representation of (2) is different from that of (1) in that the members’ type is the same as the set’s type. The representation of (2) serves two purposes: 1) it makes the internal structure of common nouns similar to that of adjectives (i.e. “member: type” pattern); and, 2) it eliminates the co-extension problem. Regarding the latter point, if for example, as is the case in the actual world, the set of cordate contains the same elements as those in the set of renate (see, definition of set equality, below) the two sets are not equal. Hence, they do not mean the same thing. 3.1 Equality in Typed Sets Since sets now contain typed elements, set operations must take the type of set members into consideration. This can easily be accommodated as follows: 5 The symbols “|| ||” represent the interpretation function. 6 The correct type for the intersective reading for ‘clever’ is “T”, as explained in the next section.
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