Marloth Park Management Plan. - Nkomazi Local Municipality
Marloth Park Management Plan. - Nkomazi Local Municipality
Marloth Park Management Plan. - Nkomazi Local Municipality
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Ecological Associates<br />
Environmental Consultants &<br />
Wildlife Specialists<br />
P O Box 11644<br />
Hatfield<br />
South Africa<br />
0028<br />
ECOLOGICAL RESOURCE EVALUATION<br />
OF MARLOTH PARK, WITH MANAGEMENT<br />
Tel: +27 12 420 2828<br />
Cell: +27 83 400 7031<br />
Email: ben@wildlife.up.ac.za<br />
RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENSURE SUSTAINABLE<br />
UTILISATION AND INTEGRATION OF ALL<br />
NKOMAZI <strong>Local</strong> <strong>Municipality</strong><br />
Private Bag X101<br />
Malelane<br />
1320<br />
CONSTITUENTS<br />
Prepared by<br />
Ben Orban (Pri. Sci. Nat.)<br />
© Ecological Associates 2006
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................... iv<br />
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................... v<br />
LIST OF APPENDICES............................................................................................................ vi<br />
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................. 1<br />
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 6<br />
STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................................. 7<br />
SIZE.............................................................................................................................................. 7<br />
INFRASTRUCTURE..................................................................................................................7<br />
GEOMORPHOLOGY.............................................................................................................. 10<br />
GEOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 10<br />
SOILS ......................................................................................................................................... 15<br />
CLIMATE.................................................................................................................................. 19<br />
Radiation .................................................................................................................................... 19<br />
Temperature .............................................................................................................................. 21<br />
Rainfall ....................................................................................................................................... 21<br />
Frost............................................................................................................................................ 23<br />
Wind ........................................................................................................................................... 23<br />
VEGETATION.......................................................................................................................... 23<br />
VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION ON MARLOTH PARK<br />
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 24<br />
METHOD .................................................................................................................................. 26<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................................ 28<br />
VELD CONDITION ASSESSMENT AND THE CALCULATION OF POTENTIAL<br />
GRAZING CAPACITY<br />
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 34<br />
Veld condition assessment ........................................................................................................ 34<br />
Grazing capacity........................................................................................................................ 36<br />
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................................ 37<br />
METHOD................................................................................................................................... 37<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................................ 40<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> i
THE ASSESSMENT OF AVAILABLE BROWSE AND CALCULATION OF<br />
BROWSING CAPACITY<br />
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 46<br />
OBJECTIVE.............................................................................................................................. 47<br />
METHOD................................................................................................................................... 47<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 50<br />
ESTIMATION OF HERBACEOUS BIOMASS PRODUCTION<br />
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 54<br />
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................................ 54<br />
METHOD................................................................................................................................... 55<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................................ 56<br />
GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF MARLOTH PARK<br />
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 58<br />
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................... 59<br />
STOCKING RATES ................................................................................................................. 60<br />
SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................. 64<br />
STOCKING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MARLOTH PARK ........................................ 74<br />
SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING.............................................................................................. 81<br />
TYPES OF SUPPLEMENTATION ........................................................................................ 82<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>....................................................................................... 85<br />
DISEASE AND PARASITE CONTROL................................................................................ 87<br />
VELD MANAGEMENT ON MARLOTH PARK ................................................................. 89<br />
ENDANGERED, VULNERABLE AND RARE PLANT MANAGEMENT ....................... 89<br />
NOXIOUS AND INVASIVE WEEDS..................................................................................... 92<br />
UNDESIRABLE PLANT MANAGEMENT........................................................................... 93<br />
BUSH ENCROACHMENT...................................................................................................... 96<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>....................................................................................... 99<br />
VELD RECLAMATION ........................................................................................................ 100<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................................................................................... 102<br />
FIRE REGIME........................................................................................................................ 103<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................................................................................... 107<br />
SOIL EROSION ...................................................................................................................... 108<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................................................................................... 110<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ii
GENERAL MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MARLOTH PARK<br />
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 111<br />
OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................... 111<br />
WATER PROVISION ............................................................................................................ 111<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................................................................................... 114<br />
FENCELINE SPECIFICATIONS......................................................................................... 117<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................................................................................... 118<br />
ROADS ..................................................................................................................................... 118<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................................................................................... 119<br />
ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING......................................................... 119<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................................................................................... 121<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> iii
LIST OF FIGURES<br />
Figure 1: Location of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area ................................................................. 8<br />
Figure 2: Township design and layout on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>......................................................... 9<br />
Figure 3: Topography of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area ......................................................... 11<br />
Figure 4: Geology of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area ................................................................ 12<br />
Figure 5: Geological formations of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area......................................... 13<br />
Figure 6: Soil depth of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area ............................................................. 16<br />
Figure 7: Land Types of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area .......................................................... 18<br />
Figure 8: Land use in the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area............................................................... 20<br />
Figure 9: A climate diagram for the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> area ....................................................... 22<br />
Figure 10: <strong>Plan</strong>t communities of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area............................................. 29<br />
Figure 11: Schematised illustration of an ideal tree and the parameters used to<br />
calculate browse availability..................................................................................................... 48<br />
Figure 12: Sketch of Cyphostemma/Cissus species found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ......................... 90<br />
Figure 13: Design of a shallow, rectangular waterhole sunk into the ground ................... 115<br />
Figure 14: Cross section design of a shallow, round waterhole sunk into the ground ...... 116<br />
Figure 15: Location of the monitoring sites on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>............................................. 122<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> iv
LIST OF TABLES<br />
Table 1: Frequency occurrence of grass species in the various monitoring sites on<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ............................................................................................................................. 40<br />
Table 2: Contribution of ecological categories and veld condition scores, of the<br />
various monitoring sites on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> .............................................................................. 41<br />
Table 3: Grazing capacities for the various plant communities if all open areas<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is considered suitable habitat for game...................................................... 44<br />
Table 4: Grazing capacities for the various plant communities if landscaped gardens<br />
are excluded from potentially suitable habitat for game ....................................................... 44<br />
Table 5: Grazing capacities for the various plant communities if only parkland and<br />
road reserves are considered suitable habitat for game......................................................... 44<br />
Table 6: Browsing capacities for the various plant communities if all open areas<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is considered suitable habitat for game...................................................... 52<br />
Table 7: Browsing capacities for the various plant communities if landscaped gardens<br />
are excluded from potentially suitable habitat for game ....................................................... 52<br />
Table 8: Browsing capacities for the various plant communities if only parkland and<br />
road reserves are considered suitable habitat for game......................................................... 52<br />
Table 9: The current stocking densities, based on the September 2005 game count, if<br />
all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is accepted as potentially suitable habitat for game......... 61<br />
Figure 10: The current stocking densities, based on the September 2005 game count, if<br />
landscaped gardens are excluded from potentially available habitat areas<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ........................................................................................................................ 62<br />
Figure 11: The current stocking densities, based on the September 2005 game count, if<br />
only parkland and road reserves are accepted as potentially available habitat areas<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ........................................................................................................................ 63<br />
Table 12: The potential stocking densities if all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is<br />
accepted as suitable habitat for game...................................................................................... 76<br />
Table 13: The potential stocking densities if landscaped gardens are excluded from<br />
available habitat areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>................................................................................. 77<br />
Table 14: The potential stocking densities if only parklands and road reserves are<br />
accepted as available habitat areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ............................................................ 78<br />
Table 15: The recommended stocking densities of animals on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>..................... 80<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> v
LIST OF APPENDICES<br />
Appendix 1: A list of tree species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ............................................ 123<br />
Appendix 2: A list of grass species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> .......................................... 125<br />
Appendix 3: A list of forbs species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> .......................................... 127<br />
Appendix 4: Alien invaders found on <strong>Marloth</strong> park............................................................ 131<br />
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on each monitoring site ................... 133<br />
Appendix 6: Photographs of each vegetation monitoring site on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> ............... 148<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> vi
ECOLOGICAL RESOURCE EVALUATION OF MARLOTH PARK,<br />
WITH MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENSURE SUSTAINABLE<br />
UTILISATION AND INTEGRATION OF ALL CONSTITUENTS<br />
SUMMARY<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> resembles a horseshoe formation, nestled in a bend of the Crocodile River that<br />
acts as a buffer zone around the central Lionspruit Game Reserve. The study area consists of<br />
subsections of the farm Tenbosch 162 JU and extends over 1627 ha of tropical bush and<br />
savanna type bushveld. <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> consists of a development zone and a conservation zone;<br />
where the development zone of 1099 ha, consists of 6.9 ha utilised as municipal areas, 48 ha<br />
as road surfaces and 132 ha as road reserves. The remaining portion has been divided into<br />
approximately 4500 plots for residential development. The residential development portion<br />
currently has a development footprint of 28 ha, and landscaped gardens that constitute 289 ha.<br />
The conservation zone consist of the remaining 528 ha, remnants of the natural vegetation<br />
that is scattered throughout the area.<br />
Vegetation analysis identified five distinct plant communities, with sub-communities and<br />
variations that correspond to the initial vegetation analysis conducted on Lionspruit Game<br />
Reserve. The classification of the two additional plant communities is based on geological<br />
influence on the Spirostachys africana – Balanites maughamii Low bushland, and historic<br />
land-use practice on the Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland. The<br />
veld condition in all plant communities is moderate to good, with exception of the<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland community that is considered<br />
poor. The tree densities of the various plant communities are generally within acceptable<br />
range with an average of 1500 trees per hectare. However, the tree density in the<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland community again exceeds the<br />
recommended threshold of 1700 trees per hectare. In this plant community, it is apparent from<br />
the woody vegetation analysis that tree density is not the limiting factor in available leaf<br />
biomass production, but rather tree height. As much of the woody vegetation is mature sickle<br />
bush Dichrostachys cinerea it can only be deduced that the leaf biomass produced are now<br />
out of reach of the browsing animal species. The herbaceous biomass production follows the<br />
same trend, indicating that the Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
community cannot sustain a fire.<br />
The current stocking rate is based on the latest game counts conducted during September<br />
2005 and the grazing and browsing capacities calculated for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 1
Three different scenarios are analysed; the first is based on the assumption that the whole of<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, excluding the current development footprint and actual road surfaces, is<br />
suitable for utilisation. In this scenario only 38.15 percent of the ecological grazing capacity is<br />
being utilised, but the ecological browse capacity is exceeded by 25.44 percent. The common<br />
impala Aepyceros melampus melampus is the dominating contributor at 95.95 percent of the<br />
ecological browse capacity. In the second scenario the current building footprints, actual road<br />
surfaces and landscaped gardens are subtracted from the available area. In this scenario only<br />
46.96 percent of the ecological grazing capacity is being used, but the ecological browse<br />
capacity is exceeded by 54.07 percent. In the third scenario only the parkland and current road<br />
reserves are available for utilisation. In this scenario the grazer stocking-rate of 89.21 percent<br />
is approaching the ecological grazing capacity. However, the ecological browse capacity is<br />
exceeded by 195.29 percent.<br />
If it is considered that stocking densities for Burchell’s zebra Equus burchelli should not<br />
exceed four animals per 100 ha of suitable habitat, blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus<br />
seven animals per 100 ha, common impala Aepyceros melampus melampus 12 animals per<br />
100 ha, and kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros three animals per 100 ha, the following stocking<br />
options can be applied to the different stocking scenarios without exceeding the ecological<br />
capacities. In the first scenario, blue wildebeest can be increased to 108 individuals and kudu<br />
to 46 individuals. However, impala and giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis should be reduced to<br />
185 and seven individuals, respectively. In the second scenario, blue wildebeest can be<br />
increased to 88 individuals and kudu to 38 individuals. However, zebra, impala and giraffe<br />
should be reduced to 50, 150 and six individuals, respectively. In the third scenario, only blue<br />
wildebeest can be increased to 46 individuals. Zebra, impala and kudu and giraffe should be<br />
reduced to 26, 79, 20 and four individuals, respectively. Implementing these guidelines will<br />
result in the under-utilisation of natural resources. Improving this stocking deficit is hampered<br />
by suitable animal species that can be introduced to <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. However, tsessebe<br />
Damaliscus lunatus lunatus and waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus can be introduced as<br />
minimum viable populations and allowed to increase naturally. Although eland Tragelaphus<br />
oryx can also be introduced, it is recommended that this option not be applied before some<br />
sickle bush control and reclamation measures has not been successfully implemented on<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Although the reduction in impala numbers is considered compulsory, the<br />
giraffe numbers can be stocked at a higher level, however, stocking density should never<br />
exceed 12 individuals. An alternative option that can be used to increase stocking densities is<br />
by supplementary feeding of animals; however, this practice is not an ecologically viable<br />
proposition.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 2
Supplementary feed must be placed in containers, as the leaching of salt and other nutrients<br />
into the soil will result in permanent sterilisation. Protein and energy lick blocks may be made<br />
available from May to September. Salt licks may be made available throughout the year.<br />
Anthelminthic or deworming lick blocks may be supplied in July only. Although lick blocks<br />
can be mixed locally, it is recommended that a more reliable composition be purchased from a<br />
reputable company. Feeding game cubes to animals must be seen as supplementation only as<br />
this feed is not a constant resource and cannot substitute the natural ingestion of roughage. No<br />
supplementary feed must be supplied in the Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus<br />
Low bushland areas.<br />
At least one rare and potentially endangered plant is currently found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. If this<br />
plant is encountered on a development site, it is recommended that it be protected. Where the<br />
development footprint cannot be changed, a reputable botanist should be contacted to remove<br />
and transplant the Cyphostemma sp. Another plant of note is the summer impala lily Adenium<br />
swazicum that is restricted in its distribution on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. The same guidelines for<br />
protection are advocated.<br />
A number of invasive and noxious weeds occur throughout <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. It is recommended<br />
that all plants declared as undesirable by law be eradicated. However, it must be emphasized<br />
that success will not be achieved without co-operation of the property owners, where<br />
education and understanding of the implications is considered crucial, as many of these plants<br />
are still being planted as garden subjects. The presence of sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea<br />
is the only species currently exhibiting encroaching properties on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, and although<br />
not classified as an alien plant species, it is invasive and recommended that the number of<br />
individuals be reduced in an attempt to decrease the localized densities. The liase fair<br />
approach to this problem in the Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
areas has resulted in these trees becoming of age, thus exceeding the maximum browse high<br />
of 2.0 m, with effect that these trees have little to no browsing value. It is recommended that a<br />
combination of mechanical and chemical treatment of the sickle bush be initiated, where all<br />
trees rooted within a circumference of 5 m of each other, irrespective of age or size, are<br />
removed. To achieve effective control of the sickle bush infestations, initial, follow-up and<br />
maintenance treatments must be implemented.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 3
Ecosystems disturbed by clearing operations will be susceptible to re-invasion, usually due to<br />
the residual weed-seed bank that remains viable for a number of years. Therefore, where time,<br />
money and effort are spent on environmental weed control, commitment to rehabilitating and<br />
managing these areas correctly is essential. It is recommended that rehabilitation measures be<br />
implemented in conjunction with bush control applications, where branches from cut sickle<br />
bush be used in brush packing these areas. However, compacted soils should be treated to<br />
improve water infiltration and reseeded before brush packing.<br />
Due to the risks involved, the use of fire as a management tool is not recommended, as its<br />
application is strife with complications and potential high risks. An alternative method of<br />
simulating the effect of non-selective or bulk grazers on the vegetation structure is preferred.<br />
This can be achieved by manual manipulation of the herbaceous layer as part of the<br />
management plan for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. It is recommended that the herbaceous biomass<br />
production be measured annually and priority areas identified that require a slashing<br />
programme. Property owners must be convinced of the necessity of removing this excess<br />
material, not only for the health of the vegetation but to reduce the risk of natural or<br />
accidental fires that can damage or destroy their residence.<br />
The availability of water on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is not a limiting factor as many owners have<br />
constructed their own little waterholes on their properties. This effectively gives all wildlife<br />
access to water without much competition, reducing the concentration of large animal groups<br />
around waterholes and limiting the formation of piospheres. The disadvantage of this practice<br />
is the uniformed utilisation of the natural resources, without any areas with reduced impact. It<br />
is recommended that the owner’s co-operation be obtained in managing water access to<br />
animals, through education and guidance. All waterhole locations must then be recorded, and<br />
then opened or closed on a rotational basis to induce some form of rotational resting. It is<br />
recommended that all waterholes in the degraded Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus<br />
berteronianus Low bushland plant communities be closed, until after successful rehabilitation<br />
of these areas.<br />
As property owners generally do not have the equipment, labour or time to implement many<br />
of these recommendations, it is recommended that an independent consultant be contracted to<br />
measure the biomass production annually and identify those areas that require slashing. This<br />
can be combined with the sickle bush control programme, scarification of the compacted soil<br />
surface, reseeding and brush packing of the areas. Furthermore, eradication of other<br />
undesirable plant species can also be achieved during the same time.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 4
The current road infrastructure is well developed and maintained by the municipality, and<br />
although the fencing is also in relatively good condition, it apparently suffers from poor<br />
maintenance, thus loosing much of its functionality. Access control is also a matter of<br />
concern, as with the current lack of control through <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, the safety of the animals<br />
cannot be ensured. Uncontrolled poaching can affect population dynamics and reduce<br />
productivity of the wildlife populations on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
Despite implementing all the recommendations, it must be remembered that this is a dynamic<br />
system that constantly changes due to fluctuating environmental influences, and that success<br />
can only be achieved by applying adaptive management principles. These changes can be<br />
measured by surveying the vegetation at the monitoring points, distributed throughout<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, and comparing with the baseline data gathered during this study. Adjustments<br />
to the stocking rates can then be applied based on these findings. By implementing these<br />
recommendations it can be assured that <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> remain a viable wildlife sanctuary for<br />
future generations.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 5
INTRODUCTION<br />
Although only a few vestiges remained for wildlife in South Africa by 1960, this country<br />
produced some of the most venerated conservationist in history. It is thanks to these<br />
remarkable men’s visions that the true resource value of our wildlife came to its full potential.<br />
Today it is accepted fact that wildlife indigenous to southern Africa is better adapted to the<br />
harsh conditions than the domestic stock introduced from Europe, and that wildlife can utilise<br />
the available plant biomass more efficiently, and is less to prone to diseases. Currently more<br />
private land is being conserved and protected in South Africa than in any other African<br />
country. The wildlife industry had blossomed since 1960 to over 5000 game ranches, with an<br />
additional 4000 mixed game and livestock farms, covering some 13 percent of the country’s<br />
total surface area. And this trend is still growing. With this development came an increase in<br />
responsibility to manage these resources sustainably, especially where competition for land is<br />
placing additional pressure on the natural environment. <strong>Management</strong> based on sound<br />
ecological principles is a prerequisite in ensuring viability and success of integrating all<br />
constituents. Lack of expertise mostly resulting form lack of experience, considering wildlife<br />
ranching being a relatively young industry, is often the main cause of failure. This is where<br />
professional management become necessary.<br />
A well-developed management plan is increasingly important in wildlife ranches, because<br />
human interference is inhibiting natural ecosystem equilibrium and processes. The need for<br />
active management increases when animals are kept in areas smaller than those occurring<br />
under natural conditions. Definite objectives need to be defined and the extent of human<br />
interference within the natural system determined, to formulate a functional management plan<br />
based on accepted ecological principles, such as active adapted management. If the focus of<br />
the enterprise lies on eco-tourism, the least disturbance possible of the ecosystem is sought<br />
after. If emphasizing wildlife ranching for venison on the other hand, a balance between high<br />
production rates and deterioration of the veld condition is desirable. All conservation-<br />
orientated areas need some form of management, as total degradation and veld deterioration<br />
will invariably be the result of sustained utilisation and uncontrolled animal stocking rates.<br />
With a sound wildlife management plan, veld and wildlife can be exploited without exceeding<br />
the ecological sustainability, ensuring economic viability and long-term conservation of the<br />
natural resources.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 6
STUDY AREA<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is located in the Mpumalanga province of South Africa, about 20 km northwest<br />
of Komatipoort, between latitudes 25°15´ and 25° 30´ south and longitudes 31° 45´ and 31°<br />
60´ east (grid reference 2532 AC). The property is situated in a horseshoe bend formed by the<br />
Crocodile River that forms a natural boundary with the Kruger National <strong>Park</strong>. Centre to this<br />
development is the Lionspruit Game Reserve, a natural area wedged in the development zone.<br />
The reserve fence acts as inner periphery for the southern, western and eastern boundaries.<br />
Olifants Drive, with a tarred surface, traverse the property giving access from Hectorspruit<br />
and Komatipoort, respectively. Access through <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is not restricted or controlled.<br />
SIZE<br />
The property consists of subsections of the farm Tenbosch 162 JU and extends over 3049 ha<br />
of tropical bush and savanna type bushveld. The Lionspruit Game Reserve is approximately<br />
1422 ha in size, with the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> peripheral development zone (Figure 1) being<br />
approximately 1627 ha. Of the development zone, 528 ha are retained as parkland habitat for<br />
wild animals.<br />
INFRASTRUCTURE<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is a township development with basic infrastructure such as shops, restaurants,<br />
petrol filling station and other recreational facilities. The township development consists of<br />
approximately 4500 plots (Figure 2), each with access to water and electricity. Of the 1627<br />
ha, 528 ha is parkland excluded from development and retained as habitat for wildlife. The<br />
housing development currently only has a footprint of 28 ha; however, many property owners<br />
landscape gardens, some to such extend that little of the natural habitat remain. It is estimated<br />
that at least 300 ha has been modified to such extend that the habitat is considered unsuitable<br />
for wildlife. Although these areas can act as reserves during periods of feeding stress, many<br />
owners actively discourage wildlife from entering their property boundaries. Approximately<br />
180 ha of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are classified as road reserves along a 96 km road network. However,<br />
much of these road reserves are used by wildlife for feeding, nesting and resting habitat. Only<br />
an estimated 40 ha consist of road surface areas with no suitable wildlife habitat. Within this<br />
development zone a number of water points for animals have been constructed, far in excess<br />
of the wildlife requirements. Although this action reduces the formation of piospheres,<br />
vegetation utilisation is more uniform and no low utilisation areas exist as reserve during<br />
periods of drought.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 7
Figure 1: Location of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 8
Figure 2: Township design and layout on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 9
GEOMORPHOLOGY<br />
Looking down from the Drakensberg mountain range, the Lowveld appears to be a monotonous<br />
level stretch of bush covered country, but in reality consists of an undulating landscape with<br />
ridges and well-defined watercourses (Figure 3). <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is incorporated in this low-lying<br />
tract of country with an elevation of between 200 and 270 m ASL and a gradient variance of 1º to<br />
10º.<br />
GEOLOGY<br />
The distribution of geological formations of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> (Figure 4) includes rocks from a wide<br />
variety of lithological units ranging in age from Swazian to Resent. Included in these are the<br />
biotite-trondhjemite gneiss and migmatite of the Swazian basement complex, rocks of the<br />
Barberton Sequence and intrusions of Timbavati Gabbro and Dolerite dykes (Figure 5).<br />
Barberton sequence<br />
The rock formations of this area are among the oldest on earth and are collectively grouped as the<br />
Barberton Sequence, and exceed a total thickness of 16 km. This group consists as a succession<br />
of volcanic layers, overlaid by sedimentary rocks. The oldest rocks of the Barberton Sequence<br />
are the ultra-basic to basic igneous rocks of the Onverwacht Group. This includes ultra-basic<br />
high-Magnesium lavas, periodic komatite, intermediate to basaltic metamorphic rock,<br />
intermediate to acid volcanic rocks and a large variety of pyroclastic rocks.<br />
A succession of rocks, mainly pelitic, follows on the Onverwacht Group and is collectively<br />
known as the Fig Tree Group. A striking layer of Chert and striped iron-containing Chert, the<br />
Ulundilayer, is found about halfway in the Fig Tree Group. The top formation in this group<br />
consists of pyroclastic rock, mainly tuff and agglomerate. The beginning of the Fig Tree Group is<br />
recognized by the exposure of shale interlayered with Chert, a hard, extremely compact,<br />
semivitreous cryptocristalline rock.<br />
Granite and gneiss of the Swazian quaternary<br />
The geology of the largest area on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is biotite-tonalite. Tonalite exhibits a wide range<br />
in texture varying from non-exfoliated to lightly exfoliated, medium grained granite to gneiss and<br />
migmatite. The rocks are light grey when fresh but weather to a light brown colour. In the veld a<br />
low relief and relatively high degree of weathering characterize the rocks. Abrupt changes<br />
between textural variants and the presence of pegmatite veins are characteristic of this formation.<br />
Biotite is the only mafic mineral in gneiss that otherwise consists of plagioclase, quartz and<br />
potassium (K) feldspars.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 10
Figure 3: Topography of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 11
Figure 4: Geology of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 12
Figure 5: Geological formations of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 13
Tonalitic granite and gneiss<br />
A section of tonalitic biotite-trondhjemite granite and gneiss is found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. This rock<br />
is elliptic and is found to terminate the layered effect of the surrounding rock formation rather<br />
abruptly. The granite gneiss formations are usually lower than the surrounding rock formations.<br />
Many dykes traverse the granite gneiss formation and are found to protrude above this formation<br />
due to the difference in resistance to weathering. Although the tonalite exhibits a central massive<br />
structure, a strongly exfoliated edge is found parallel to the point of contact with the surrounding<br />
rock formations. Tonalites consist of plagioclase and quartz with subservient biotite and<br />
hornblende. Tonalites are characterized by a relative homogeneity and restricted variation in<br />
chemical composition.<br />
Nelspruit suite<br />
The Nelspruit Suite consists of granite, porphyritic and magmatic granite. The granite is a grey to<br />
white biotite granite characterized by its colour and grain size that varies from medium to coarse<br />
grained. Magmatic and gneiss-like variants of this granite are found along east to west dykes<br />
running through <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> and Lionspruit Game Reserve.<br />
Characteristic of the Nelspruit Suite is the general presence of coarse-grained pegmatite.<br />
Pegmatite being an igneous rock, with interlocking crystals, resembles granite in composition.<br />
The granite forms a coarse topography in contrast to the biotite gneiss and migmatite. The<br />
Nelspruit Suite consists of granite containing potassium feldspars, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and<br />
other minerals. Although the central granite area is mafic with no exfoliation, it may be found<br />
where contact is made with the surrounding rock formations. This exfoliation is accentuated by<br />
the parallel orientation of feldspar crystals.<br />
Intrusive rock formations<br />
Many dykes and plate formations are found as intrusions in the Swazian granite and gneiss. This<br />
includes plate formations of diabase and peridotite forming characteristic topographical features.<br />
Red, clay soils and plateaus with round boulders are usually found on these formations.<br />
These plate formations and dykes of peridotite consisting of olivine, dioptic augite and other<br />
minerals intrude through olivine gabbro (plagioclase, olivine hypersthene and augite) to<br />
diabase (plagioclase, augite transposed to amphibole, biotite and chlorite). Porphyritic quartz,<br />
diorite and quartz-diorite dykes are also present.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 14
Timbavati gabbro<br />
An area of Olivine Gabbro is found along the river bend, and extends from east to west through<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. This area is included in the Timbavati Gabbro formation and is characterized by its<br />
concave shape with a slope of 20º to 30º. The Timbavati Gabbro consists of plagioclase<br />
(labradorite to bytownite), pyroxene (both hypersthene and augite) and olivine. Biotite and<br />
chlorite can displace the pyroxene and serpentinise the olivine. Other minerals are quartz,<br />
potassium feldspars, biotite and oxide minerals. Biotite gneiss in close proximity to gabbro may<br />
change its colour to red. Hybridisation of gabbro due to assimilation of granite material is also<br />
found.<br />
Karoo dolerite<br />
Basic dyke formation of the late Karoo magmatic period is found throughout the area. Due to<br />
their relatively high resistance to weathering and erosion the dolerite dykes appear more<br />
dominant in areas.<br />
The dolerite dykes are generally fine grained, dark grey to black in colour with massive structure.<br />
These dykes consist of plagioclase (labradorite to bytownite) with augite and other minerals.<br />
Intrusions of dolerite dykes are due to weaknesses in the older rock formations and a definite<br />
north to south orientation may be identified.<br />
SOILS<br />
With the exposure of rock to a new environment - by the extrusion and solidification of lava and<br />
the upliftment of sediments - a soil begins to form. These sediments originate from parent rock<br />
by three major sets of processes - epiclastic (weathering), pyroclastic (explosive vulcanism) and<br />
cataclastic (crushing and grinding by differential movements along faults). The processes of<br />
weathering are the most important. Physical and chemical weathering, re-deposition of material<br />
combined with the activities of a succession of colonizing plants and animals, mould a distinctive<br />
soil body from the rock minerals in the parent. This process of soil formation culminates in the<br />
differentiation of the soil material into a series of horizons that constitute the soil profile. The<br />
horizons are distinguished by their visible and tangible properties such as colour, hardness and<br />
structural organization.<br />
The soils in the eastern Transvaal (lowveld) are residual and as a rule rather shallow (Figure 6).<br />
The thickness of the soil section rarely exceeds 750 mm with an average depth of 450 mm. A<br />
marked characteristic of these soils is the apparent absence of any secondary deposits like iron<br />
oxide concretions or calcium carbonate nodules in the soil section.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 15
Figure 6: Soil depth of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 16
Not withstanding the fact that these soils are shallow, the weathered products of the surface<br />
layers seem to be fairly well leached of its soluble ingredients. The decomposition of certain<br />
minerals of the parent material seems to be very intense but the surface erosion keeps pace with<br />
the weathering of the underlying rocks. The heavy downpours causing run-off, and the high<br />
evaporation associated with high temperatures in the summer months, reduce the efficiency of<br />
the relatively high precipitation. All these factors are responsible for the shallow soils.<br />
The soils occurring in this area are closely associated with the underlying parent material and<br />
may be divided into two different macro soil associations (Land type map 2530 - Baberton). The<br />
land types identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> and Lionspruit Game Reserve are from land types Fb 64<br />
and Ea 75 (Figure 7).<br />
Land type Fb 64 overlaying geology of Potassic gneiss and migmatite, Timbavati gabbro and<br />
Biotite trondhjemite gneiss is the most dominant and extends over most of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> and<br />
Lionspruit Game Reserve. Shallow, coarse, sandy soils of the Glenrosa form (orthic A-horizon<br />
over a lithocutanic B-horizon) occur on the extensive crests and mid-slopes. These soils are<br />
bordered by a narrow zone of moderately deep, bleached, coarse and sandy, Cartref soils (orthic<br />
A-horizon over E-horizon over a lithocutanic B-horizon). In the valley bottoms are areas of<br />
duplex soils of the Sterkspruit form (orthic A-horizon over a prismacutanic B-horizon). This clay<br />
complex has poor drainage with low leaching. The resultant high sodium concentration increases<br />
the pH to a level where calcium carbonate precipitates. The soils develop a hard impermeable<br />
structure, impeding internal drainage and causing seasonal build-up of surface water. Bleached<br />
sandy soils are formed under these conditions due to a reduction in iron oxide and the lateral<br />
removal of both oxide and clay particles. This distinctive down-slope pattern of soils is<br />
maintained by the subsurface through-flow of water. The sandy crestal soils allow rapid<br />
infiltration of rainfall and good drainage with down slope subsurface flow.<br />
Land type Ea 75, with geology of predominantly mafic and ultramafic lavas and schists with<br />
banded ironstone and chert of the Tjakastad Formation, Onverwacht Group, occurs only as a<br />
relatively small area on Lionspruit Game Reserve. The low hills are characterised as extremely<br />
stony, dark, calcareous clays of the Arcadia form (vertic A-horizon over an unspecified B-<br />
horizon) and Bonheim form (melanic A-horizon over a pedocutanic B-horizon). Lower<br />
elevations are characterised by moderately deep, dark, calcareous clay soils of the Mayo (melanic<br />
A-horizon over a lithocutanic B-horizon), Bonheim and Arcadia forms. Red, structured clays of<br />
the Shortlands (orthic A-horizon over a red structured B-horizon) and Arcadia forms are also<br />
encountered. These soil groups have a high magnesium and calcium content and are base<br />
saturated.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 17
Figure 7: Land Types of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 18
CLIMATE<br />
Climate, topography, soil and other biotic factors are considered as potentially restrictive factors<br />
in plant growth (Figure 8). Of the above factors, climate is considered as the most restrictive as<br />
vegetation is directly or indirectly dependent on climatic factors for the availability of minerals,<br />
growth and reproduction. These climatic factors are radiation, temperature and precipitation.<br />
Although the united effect of these factors exerts influence on vegetation, each may vary on<br />
macro-, meso- and micro-scale.<br />
The macroclimate of an area is considered as the long-term fluctuation of atmospheric conditions<br />
such as radiation, temperature, rain and wind. However, all atmospheric factors exhibit minor<br />
fluctuations over relatively short distances. These fluctuations may be attributed to variations in<br />
soil type and moisture contents, topography and vegetation of an area. The microclimate is<br />
considered as localised fluctuation occurring within the air layer directly above the soil surface,<br />
which is not influenced by meso- and macro-climatic conditions. The climatic data used for the<br />
evaluation of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> were acquired from the following three weather stations 1 .<br />
• Friedenheim weather station - Number: 0555866 5; Longitude: 25º26' South; Latitude:<br />
30º59' East; Altitude: 671 m a.s.l. Data were collected during a period of 76 years from<br />
1929 to 2005.<br />
• Malelane weather station - Number: 0556898 7; Longitude: 25º28' South; Latitude:<br />
31º30' East; Altitude: 305 m a.s.l. Data were collected during a period of 67 years from<br />
1938 to 2005.<br />
• Berg-en-Dal weather station - Number: 0556836 X; Longitude: 31º26' South; Latitude:<br />
Radiation<br />
25º25' East; Altitude: 380 m a.s.l. Data were collected during a period of 13 years from<br />
1992 to 2005.<br />
Photosynthesis is influenced by various factors such as latitude, altitude, humidity, terrain and<br />
light. Of the above, light is the most important factor, as it is this energy captured by the process<br />
of photosynthesis that is converted to chemical energy. These chemical energy compounds are<br />
essential in maintaining biomass production and form the basis of all food chains and thus energy<br />
flow.<br />
1 Weather Bureau, Department of Environmental Affairs, Private Bag X 447, 0001 Pretoria.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 19
Figure 8: Land use in the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 20
Suppression of radiation occurs in the atmosphere due to the deflection and absorption of energy<br />
by ozone, carbon- dioxide, water vapour, and dust particles in suspension. This diffused radiation<br />
shows the same tendency as global radiation, with a recorded minimum in June and a maximum<br />
in January. The total radiation shows an annual oscillation, with the lowest values recorded<br />
during the period May to August and the highest during December to February. Most of the<br />
absorbed energy is converted to heat, elevating the temperature of the earth's crust and increasing<br />
the rate of water evaporation.<br />
Temperature<br />
The average temperatures in the Lowveld of Mpumalanga are the highest in the Republic of<br />
South Africa, varying from 14.9ºC to 23.8ºC as recorded at the Friedenheim weather station<br />
(Station number: 0555866 5; Latitude: 25º26' South; Longitude: 30º59' East; Altitude: 671 m<br />
a.s.l.). The summers are extremely hot with a maximum-recorded temperature of 39.8ºC. The<br />
mean daily maximum temperature for this area during a period of 44 years is 19.9ºC and the<br />
mean minimum temperature is 0.9ºC. The weather conditions during the winter months are ideal<br />
with bright sunshine during the day. The maximum temperature amplitude is reached during this<br />
period, with the lowest recorded temperature of -2ºC.<br />
Rainfall<br />
The climate of the Lowveld is subtropical. The rainy season coincides with the summer months -<br />
September to April. The winters are generally dry. Apart from the dry winters, fairly severe<br />
droughts are sometimes experienced. Although the mean annual rainfall of this area is rather low,<br />
varying from 505 mm to 835 mm, the fluctuations in precipitation are enormous. The rainfall,<br />
which is rather erratic, generally occurs in thunderstorms and heavy downpours, causing run-off.<br />
The soils are light textured, grass- and bush-covered and rather shallow with a fairly poor water<br />
retaining capacity. Furthermore, the evaporation owing to the heat of the sun in summer is high,<br />
thus reducing the beneficial effect of rain showers. Hailstorms are rare, but occurrence may be<br />
rather severe.<br />
The precipitation for this area was recorded at the Malelane rainfall station (Station number:<br />
0556898 7; Latitude: 25º46' South; Longitude: 31º50' East and Altitude: 305 m a.s.l.) over a<br />
period of 67 years. The seasonal variance for the period 1938 to 2005 reveals a mean annual<br />
rainfall of 610.1 mm with a maximum and minimum recorded annual rainfall of 949.6 mm and<br />
203.0 mm, respectively (Figure 9). A variance in amplitude of 746.6 mm thus exists between the<br />
recorded extremes.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 21
A 610.1<br />
B 104.0<br />
C 7.4<br />
D 19.9<br />
E 39.8<br />
F -2.0<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
Rainfall<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
A - Mean annual rainfall in mm<br />
J<br />
B - Highest monthly rainfall in mm<br />
C - Lowest monthly rainfall in mm<br />
D - Mean annual temperature in °C<br />
A S O N D J<br />
Months<br />
F M A M J<br />
Rainfall Temperature<br />
Dry season Wet season<br />
E - Highest monthly temperature in °C (January)<br />
F - Lowest monthly temperature in °C (June)<br />
Figure 9: A climate diagram for the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 22<br />
50.0<br />
45.0<br />
40.0<br />
35.0<br />
30.0<br />
25.0<br />
20.0<br />
15.0<br />
10.0<br />
5.0<br />
0.0<br />
Temperature
Frost<br />
Moderate frost - screen minimum less than 0 ºC - occurs in 15 percent of the years, with a mean<br />
frost season length of 2 days. Frost may be expected to occur during the winter months of June<br />
and July.<br />
Wind<br />
The wind speed and direction recorded at the Friedenheim weather station (Station number:<br />
0555866 5; Latitude: 25º26' South; Longitude: 30º59' East; Altitude: 671 m a.s.l.) over a period<br />
of 30 years, was computed to determine the prevailing wind direction and average wind velocity.<br />
The most prevailing wind direction was determined as northeast, with an average directional<br />
frequency of 147 per thousand. The highest monthly average velocity recorded was 4.5 m.s -1 .<br />
VEGETATION<br />
The environmental attributes largely determine the graphical distribution of plant species and<br />
plant communities. A knowledge of the physical environment is thus a prerequisite for the<br />
understanding and ecological interpretation of plant communities identified during vegetation<br />
surveys.<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is situated in the lowveld, dominated by tropical bush and savanna veld types.<br />
This veld type occupies the plains between the eastern foot of the Drakensberg and the<br />
western foot of the Lebombo Range, where altitudes vary from 150 to 600 m above sea level.<br />
A large number of plant species are present, especially in the valleys and on rocky hills with<br />
sandy soils. The dominant trees are knob thorn Acacia nigrescens, marula Sclerocarya birrea<br />
subsp. africana, giant raisin Grewia hexamita, weeping wattle Peltophorum africanum, sickle<br />
bush Dichrostachys cinerea, common resin tree Ozoroa paniculosa, caterpillar bush<br />
Ormocarpum trichocarpum, red bushwillow Combretum apiculatum and silver cluster leaf<br />
Terminalia sericea. The grass layer is mixed and on the sour side, with iron grass Aristida<br />
diffusa subsp. burkei, hairy trident grass Tristachya leucothrix, broad-leaved bluestem<br />
Diheteropogon amplectens, weeping love grass Eragrostis curvula, broad-leaved panicum<br />
Panicum deustum, hairy love grass Eragrostis trichophora, herringbone grass Pogonarthria<br />
squarrosa, velvet signal grass Brachiaria serrata, common thatching grass Hyparrhenia hirta<br />
and red grass Themeda triandra as the dominant species. A profusion of forbs such as wild<br />
basil Ocimum canum, Oxygonum dregeanum, Felicia muricata, Rhynchosia densiflora,<br />
Zornia milneana, meidebossie Waltheria indica and spiny sida Sida alba are also found in<br />
this vegetation type.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 23
INTRODUCTION<br />
VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION ON MARLOTH PARK<br />
When exploiting an area for financial benefit, the preservation of the environment and<br />
sustainability of natural resources must be assured, by implementing a sound management<br />
plan and a monitoring programme to determine the effects of applied management techniques.<br />
Sound ecological principles should be the basis for any effective planning.<br />
A functional ecosystem is characterised by interaction between its abiotic and biotic<br />
components, including a flow of energy and biochemical cycles. These components can be<br />
measured qualitatively or quantitatively as variation in climate, geology, soil, drainage, water<br />
regime, topography, animals, fire, and disturbance.<br />
Vegetation is the base of the trophic pyramid in the ecosystem as it converts solar energy<br />
through photosynthesis and makes this energy available for other organisms. Vegetation has a<br />
huge influence on the ecosystem, and in itself is mainly driven and determined by the physical<br />
and biological environmental factors of the ecosystem. Because of this, ecosystem types are<br />
usually determined according to different vegetation types that are recognised by variation in<br />
composition and structure.<br />
In the different vegetation types smaller patterns are distinguished in the landscape indicating<br />
different plant communities. These are defined as groups of associated plant species occurring<br />
in their peculiar habitat characterised by a relatively uniform physiognomy or appearance. A<br />
plant community, therefore, reflects local environmental and vegetation variation of an area.<br />
Recording the habitat data such as soil, water regime, aspect, and geography as well as<br />
species composition can facilitate the identification of a plant community. Major distinctions<br />
for plant communities are made on the basis of physiognomy or growth form of the<br />
vegetation, which are qualitative properties. Furthermore, a plant community can be<br />
quantitatively described in terms of density, frequency, cover estimation and biomass yield.<br />
The species composition of the plant community is determined by identifying all plant species<br />
in a defined area that is considered to be representative of the vegetation. This is done as plant<br />
communities represent homogenous vegetation units. Within each homogenous vegetation<br />
unit, the probability to find a specific plant species at a definite place is more or less similar<br />
for the whole community. Climate, landscape, soil and plant species composition in this area<br />
are homogeneous to such extend that it will have the same grazing and browsing value, and<br />
potential for plant biomass production.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 24
For environmental planning not only the vegetation but also the habitat has to be considered.<br />
It is therefore, prudent that plant communities, rather than individual plant species, should be<br />
considered for management and planning purposes. <strong>Plan</strong>t communities summarise the entire<br />
floristic diversity and integrate the environmental variables such as distribution and<br />
occurrence of rare and endangered species, the degree of man’s influence, degradation and<br />
vegetation dynamics, as well as habitats for animals. The plant composition linked with other<br />
environmental factors such as soil, climate, temperature, geological factors and rainfall can<br />
explain why certain species occur in this special habitat and give insight to mechanisms in<br />
this special ecosystem. With this knowledge predictions can be made as to how the ecosystem<br />
might react to applied management actions.<br />
The development of vegetation in any area throughout a series of different plant groupings or<br />
communities from pioneer to climax species is called plant succession. Succession involves<br />
changes of habitat in the form of immigration and consecutive extinction of species, together<br />
with changes in their relative abundances. This biotic action happens because the<br />
establishment of new plant species changes the microclimate and makes the habitat more<br />
suitable for subsequent follow-up plant species. In primary succession development starts on<br />
bare ground, which is colonised by pioneer plants. Secondary succession is the rapid recovery<br />
of a disturbed habitat. A habitat is disturbed where vegetation cover is removed or modified to<br />
an earlier stage because of human interference, animal influence, fire or drought. Ultimately,<br />
development leads to a climax community, which represents a relatively stable stage.<br />
Equilibrium is reached with either regional climate (climatic climax) or other inhibiting<br />
factors such as soil types, topography or nutrient content (edaphic climax) or biotic factors<br />
such as the influence of animals, humans or fires (biotic climax). It is important to determine<br />
the seral stage represented by the plant community, and to monitor for changes, to achieve the<br />
desired objective in manipulating the environment using adaptive management.<br />
To facilitate management of an area, it is divided into units of similar characteristics and<br />
manageable size. Areas that are influenced by different environmental factors such as<br />
geology, geography and climate react differently to natural changes or human interference<br />
and have to be considered independently when devising a management plan. The<br />
homogenous vegetation units occurring within the area define the management units. Each<br />
homogenous unit is identified by its plant composition, where a plant community is defined as<br />
a group of associated plant species occurring in a particular habitat with a relatively uniform<br />
physiognomy or appearance.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 25
METHOD<br />
For an initial and broad scale differentiation of vegetation units of the area, vegetation types<br />
and veld types are identified using criteria for classification of South African vegetation. The<br />
property boundaries are delineated from aerial photographs 2 , from which homogenous<br />
topographic-physiognomic areas are identified and delineated. The differing patterns or<br />
shades of grey on the aerial photograph, define the homogenous units. To refine these, further<br />
environmental factors are taken into account. Geological formations and land types are<br />
obtained from geological and land type maps 3 . Geographic factors such as terrain form,<br />
aspect, drainage lines and rivers as well as artificial factors as roads, fences and dams are<br />
obtained from topocadastral 4 and hydrological maps 4 . Climatic factors such as mean rainfall<br />
and mean temperature are reflected in the different land types and represented in the land type<br />
memoirs 5 . Superimposing the different layers on the aerial photograph shows a more detailed<br />
partitioning of the homogenous topographic-physiognomic units.<br />
After identification of homogenous topographic-physiognomic units, areas for survey plots<br />
are chosen using a randomly stratified sampling method, where plots are evenly distributed<br />
throughout the homogenous unit. A survey plot distance of at least 100 m away from<br />
disturbances such as roads, structures and waterholes has to be implemented.<br />
Analytical phase<br />
In the field the location of homogenous topographic-physiognomic units are verified, to<br />
ensure that the survey plots are representative of the surrounding area. A survey plot size of 4<br />
x 4 m in grassland, and 10 x 20 m in bushveld is considered sufficient in size to be<br />
representative of the environment and record most variation.<br />
The visually dominant species and the physiognomy of the area, according to Edwards’s<br />
classification, are recorded where structural description of the area is required to ensure<br />
structural homogeneity. Other environmental factors that can influence plant community<br />
development are also recorded:<br />
2 Available from: “The Surveyor General, 240 Vermeulen Street, Pretoria Central 0002 Pretoria“<br />
3 Available from: “Council for Geoscience, 280 Pretoria Street, Silverton 0184 Pretoria“<br />
4 Available from: “The Government Printer, 149 Bosman Street, Pretoria Central 0002 Pretoria“<br />
5 Available from: “Institute for Soil, Climate and Water, 600 Belvedere Street, Arcadia 0001 Pretoria”<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 26
• The aspect differs in its´ exposure to sunlight and therefore, in dryness. Areas<br />
with northern aspect are dryer than areas with southern aspect in the southern<br />
hemisphere.<br />
• The slope is mainly described as flat, average or steep. It differs in the amount of<br />
water runoff and proneness to erosion and therefore, in the availability of water<br />
and soil as a growth medium.<br />
The terrain form is documented as crest, mid-slope or valley which in this study.<br />
It influences the availability of water and the soil profile.<br />
• The geomorphology is described as flat, concave or convex, while the topography<br />
is described as mountain, ridge, plain, valley, pan or riverbank. Both influence the<br />
drainage of water.<br />
• The degree of trampling influences plant re-growth and proneness to erosion.<br />
• The degree of erosion influences the top layer of the soil and therefore, the<br />
availability of growth medium.<br />
• The drainage is recorded as wet or dry, as it influences the occurrence of plants<br />
that are adapted to these conditions.<br />
• The geology and rock cover influences the soil profile and soil type with soil<br />
being important as the growth medium.<br />
• The soil colour can indicate clay content and thus leaching of nutrients.<br />
• The clay content of the soil influences the availability of minerals and water to<br />
plants.<br />
• The canopy cover consists of the following groups: large trees, small trees, shrubs<br />
and forbs. Canopy cover influences suitable shaded habitat and therefore, the<br />
occurrence of specific plant species.<br />
• The biotic influences such as termites influence the habitat and the occurrence of<br />
plant species.<br />
The soil and its profile are of importance as they are the growth medium for the plants,<br />
supplying nutrients and physical support.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 27
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
Analysis and synthesis of data collected on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> result in a classification of the<br />
vegetation. A total of 275 species were recorded. However, not all of the identified species<br />
were used in the classification of the plant communities. Those species, which occurred in<br />
low consistency, were omitted, as these species do not influence the interpretation of the data<br />
or the classification of the plant communities. A complete list of all tree (Appendix I), grass<br />
(Appendix 2) and forbs species (Appendix 3) encountered on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> has been<br />
compiled. The following plant communities were identified:<br />
The five major plant communities identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> (Figure 10) exhibit a close<br />
association with the study conducted of Lionspruit Game Reserve. However, two more plant<br />
community have been identified; the first is associated with the gabbro formation that<br />
traverses <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> from east to west, and the second is based on historic utilisation.<br />
Fragmented variations also occur, but are relatively small and localised. Where these<br />
variations are considered of importance or warrant protection, they are discussed in more<br />
detail.<br />
The five plant communities on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are:<br />
1. The Chloris virgata – Acacia grandicornuta Low thicket<br />
2. The Trichoneura grandiglumis – Combretum apiculatum Short bushland<br />
3. The Themeda triandra – Acacia nigrescens Low bushland<br />
4. The Spirostachys africana – Balanites maughamii Low bushland<br />
5. The Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1: The Chloris virgata – Acacia grandicornuta Low thicket<br />
This plant community consists of relatively small fragmented areas, characterised by the<br />
presence of deep sandy plains with well-leached soils. This leaching of soils is attributed to<br />
sub-surface, down hill, water-flow that transports minerals and clay particles to lower lying<br />
terrain forms.<br />
The most conspicuous tree species are red bushwillow Combretum apiculatum and velvet<br />
raisin Grewia flava. However, the presence of horned thorn Acacia grandicornuta, black<br />
monkey orange Strychnos madagascariensis and common hook thorn Acacia caffra is<br />
considered character species. Other tree species are marula Sclerocarya birrea subsp.<br />
africana, buffalo thorn Ziziphus mucronata, giant raisin Grewia hexamita, mallow raisin<br />
Grewia villosa, sandpaper raisin Grewia flavescens, silver cluster leaf Terminalia sericea,<br />
white-berry bush Flueggea virosa and velvet corkwood Commiphora mollis.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 28
Figure 10: <strong>Plan</strong>t communities of the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> study area<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 29
The dominant grass species are broad-leaved panicum Panicum deustum and common carrot-<br />
seed grass Tragus berteronianus. Other grass species includes Guinea grass Panicum<br />
maximum, Lehmann’s love grass Eragrostis lehmanniana var. lehmanniana, couch grass<br />
Cynodon dactylon, vinger grass Digitaria eriantha and common crowsfoot Dactyloctenium<br />
aegyptium. The forbs layer is characterised by the presence of laventelbossie Lippia javanica,<br />
Cleome angustifola, Cleome maculata, Heliotropium ciliatum, wild foxglove Ceratotheca<br />
triloba and witbiesie Kyllinga alba.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2: The Trichoneura grandiglumis – Combretum apiculatum Short<br />
bushland<br />
This plant community is found to dominate the vegetation on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. The gently<br />
undulating terrain is characterised by relatively shallow, sandy soils of the Glenrosa and<br />
Hutton forms. Two variations can be found in this plant community. The first is the<br />
Combretum apiculatum – Terminalia sericea variation, where silver cluster leaf is dominant.<br />
This variation is associated with the shallow crestal soils. Although silver cluster leaf is<br />
generally associated with the Cartref soil form, it can also abound on the Glenrosa soil form.<br />
The second is the Combretum apiculatum – Eragrostis rigidior variation, associated with the<br />
deeper Hutton soil formations. Both soil forms exhibit low degradable mineral content and<br />
low potential for clay forming, thus allowing for rapid infiltration and drainage of rainfall.<br />
The red bushwillow Combretum apiculatum, generally associated with shallow, rocky soil<br />
formations, is conspicuous throughout this plant community. Other trees found in this plant<br />
community are silver cluster leaf Terminalia sericea, sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea,<br />
glossy-leaved corkwood Commiphora schimperi, marula Sclerocarya birrea subsp. africana,<br />
white raisin Grewia bicolor, sandpaper raisin Grewia flavescens var. flavescens, buffalo thorn<br />
Ziziphus mucronata and Swazi acacia Acacia swazica. The grass layer is dominated by broad-<br />
leaved panicum Panicum deustum. Other grass species found include finger grass Digitaria<br />
eriantha, Guinea grass Panicum maximum, carrot-seed grass Tragus berteronianus, red grass<br />
Themeda triandra, annual three-awn Aristida adscensionis, spreading three-awn Aristida<br />
congesta subsp. barbicollis and lehmann’s love grass Eragrostis lehmanniana var.<br />
lehmanniana. This plant community has a high diversity of forbs species that include<br />
Commelina erecta, Pavonia burchellii, wild sesame Sesamum triphyllum, wild asparagus<br />
Protosparagus suaveolens, Gisekia viscosa, Dicoma tomentosa, Cleome maculata,<br />
Heliotropium ciliatum, creeping sorrel Ocimum canum, meidebossie Waltheria indica and<br />
Aptosimum lineare.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 30
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3: The Themeda triandra – Acacia nigrescens Low bushland<br />
This plant community is found to dominate the drainage-line vegetation on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
These drainage-lines are characterised by shallow, dark clays of the Bonheim and Arcadia<br />
soils forms. However, areas with Mayo, Sterkspruit and Shortlands soil forms can also be<br />
found. These soils are generally deep, with a high clay contents that results in poor infiltration<br />
and low drainage capabilities. The knob thorn Acacia nigrescens is dominant throughout this<br />
plant community. Two variations can be found in this community. The first is the Euclea<br />
divinorum – Acacia grandicornuta variation, restricted to drainage-lines and lower slopes.<br />
This variation is associated with the Sterkspruit soil form, where formation is attributed to<br />
mineral and clay particles illuviation from higher lying terrain areas. The second is the<br />
Dalbergia melanoxylon – Acacia nigrescens variation, found at slightly higher elevations but<br />
adjacent to the drainage-lines.<br />
The dominant trees species are knob thorn Acacia nigrescens and lowveld cluster leaf<br />
Terminalia prunioides. Other sub-dominant tree species include tree wisteria Bolusanthus<br />
speciosus, apple leaf Lonchocarpus capassa, russet bushwillow Combretum hereroense, red<br />
bushwillow Combretum apiculatum, common resin tree Ozoroa paniculosa and leadwood<br />
Combretum imberbe. The grass layer is dominated by blue buffalo grass Cenchrus ciliaris,<br />
with broad-leaved panicum Panicum deustum being sub-dominant. Other grass species<br />
include common carrot-seed grass Tragus berteronianus, Guinea grass Panicum maximum,<br />
sand quick Schmidtia pappophoroides, stinking grass Bothriochloa radicans, sawtooth love<br />
grass Eragrostis superba, long-awned three-awn Aristida stipitata and red grass Themeda<br />
triandra. The forbs layer consists of Kyphocarpa angustifolia, Tragus rupestris, Dicoma<br />
tomentosa, Abutilon austro-africanum, asparagus fern Protosparagus setaceus, Commelina<br />
erecta, dubbeltjie Tribulus terrestris, tall khaki weed Tagetes minuta and wildejakopregop<br />
Zinnia peruviana.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4: The Spirostachys africana – Balanites maughamii Low bushland<br />
This plant community is associated with the underlying gabbro geology, found as a band that<br />
runs through the river bend. Characteristic of this formation is the exposed quartzite rocks and<br />
relatively shallow soils. However, hybridisation with the surrounding granitic material can<br />
give rise to deeper soil formations. It is within this plant community that the unidentified<br />
Cyphostemma/Cissus plant species had been found.<br />
The tree species found in this plant community is associated with soils that typically have a<br />
higher clay contents.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 31
The characteristic tree species are magic quarri Euclea divinorum, caterpillar bush<br />
Ormocarpum trichocarpum, weeping wattle Peltophorum africanum, green thorn Balanites<br />
maughamii, tamboti Spirostachys africana, Transvaal saffron Cassine transvaalensis, giant<br />
raisin Grewia hexamita, mallow raisin Grewia villosa and sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea.<br />
The grass layer is dominated by broad-leaved panicum Panicum deustum and vinger grass<br />
Digitaria eriantha. Other grass specie include common carrot-seed grass Tragus<br />
berteronianus, long-awn three-awn Aristida stipitata subsp. stipitata, Guinea grass Panicum<br />
maximum and Lehmann’s love grass Eragrostis lehmanniana var. lehmanniana. The forbs<br />
found in this plant community include Commelina erecta, Cleome maculata, Tephrosia<br />
pupurea, Abutilon austro-africanum, flannel weed Sida cordifolia, Kyphocarpa angustifolia,<br />
spiny sida Sida alba, creeping sorrel Ocimum canum, wild foxglove Ceratotheca triloba and<br />
Crabbea hirsuta.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5: The Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
This plant community is associated with marginally deeper soils that consist of the Hutton soil<br />
formation and the sandy alluvial soils deposited along the river. Classification is based on<br />
land-use, where historically these areas have been cultivated. Although these areas have been<br />
left fallow for a number of years, recovery is a slow process.<br />
Sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea is the dominant tree species, and occur in high densities.<br />
Although considered a good species for fodder production, the high density is negatively<br />
affecting the herbaceous layer’s production level. Other trees include white raisin Grewia<br />
bicolor, common spike-thorn Gymnosporia buxifolia, buffalo thorn Ziziphus mucronata,<br />
apple leaf Lonchocarpus capassa, giant raisin Grewia hexamita, white-berry bush Flueggea<br />
virosa and caterpillar bush Ormocarpum trichocarpum. The dominant grass species are carrot<br />
seed grass Tragus berteronianus and Bushveld signal grass Urochloa mosambicensis. The<br />
sub-dominant grass is jungle rice Echinochloa colona. The forbs layer is characterised by the<br />
presence of Evolvulus alsinoides, flannel weed Sida cordifolia, Crabbea hirsuta, fishbone<br />
cassia Chaemacrista mimosoides, Pavonia burchellii, spiny sida Sida alba, Kyphocarpa<br />
angustifolia, Abutilon austro-africanum, wild cotton Gossypium herbaceum subsp. africanum,<br />
and poison apple Solanum panduriforme.<br />
This plant community has a relatively low diversity due to the high densities of sickle bush<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea. Furthermore, these trees have grown beyond the maximum browse<br />
height of most antelope species. It is recommended that sound ecological principles are<br />
applied in improving the production level of this plant community. It is also in this<br />
community that a small variation of note can be found.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 32
This variation is characterised by the profusion of caterpillar bush Ormocarpum<br />
trichocarpum, with an understory of the summer impala lily Adenium swazicum and Aloe<br />
chabaudi. As this is the only location of this variation it is recommended that some protective<br />
measures be implemented, and that future development be aware of this occurrence.<br />
Due to the infrastructural development of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> most of the plant communities are<br />
fragmented and almost impossible to manage as separate management units. A more holistic<br />
approach is advocated where localised tendencies are addressed as part of an integrated<br />
management plan. The plant communities identified are used to determine the potential of the<br />
veld to sustain animal production without deterioration of the environment. Where<br />
degradation is evident these will be addressed under header specific recommendations.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 33
VELD CONDITION ASSESSMENT AND THE CALCULATION OF POTENTIAL<br />
GRAZING CAPACITY<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
A basic requirement when establishing a management plan for a wildlife ranch is the<br />
assessment of the condition of the veld. The term veld does not cover grass species only but<br />
refers to all aspects of the vegetation. Veld condition is defined as the state of health of the<br />
veld in terms of its ecological status, its resistance to soil erosion and its potential for<br />
sustainable forage production. Veld condition therefore refers to the velds´ state in relation to<br />
its productivity for animals.<br />
Knowledge about the veld condition is essential when devising a management plan for any<br />
livestock farm or wildlife area. The aim of such an enterprise is maximum profit gained<br />
through optimal animal production. To realize this goal over an extended period, without<br />
deterioration of the environment, some ecological aspects need to be taken into consideration.<br />
The aim should be to use the land sustainably, which implies to exploit it to a maximum while<br />
maintaining or creating optimal veld that stays in good, productive and re-productive<br />
condition. A major management dependent factor, that influences the veld condition, is the<br />
applied grazing pressure. Stocking rates should be calculated according to the prevailing veld<br />
condition to prevent deterioration of the veld; it is achieved by relating veld condition to<br />
grazing and browsing capacity values. Wise grazing management such as subdivisions into<br />
camps or additional watering points can also serve to improve veld condition. Veld condition<br />
assessment is furthermore valuable for monitoring trends, as veld deterioration indicators is<br />
noted early, during a stage where it can still be negated by appropriate management measures.<br />
Classifying vegetation types and quantifying their condition using veld condition assessments<br />
simplifies the prediction of impacts due to management measures, by comparing similar<br />
vegetation types and their intrinsic ecological processes.<br />
Veld condition assessment<br />
A means of determining the veld condition is the assessment of soil loss. But soil loss is<br />
difficult to measure and, once obvious, an indicator of high and often irreversible degradation.<br />
Changes in vegetation structure or species composition are better criteria for assessing veld<br />
condition, as environmental changes can be detected before they become irreversible. To<br />
evaluate changes in the veld condition it is either compared to baseline data or previous<br />
surveys conducted on the same site, as with a monitoring programme. Alternatively, it can be<br />
compared to a reference site or benchmark, where a benchmark is defined as the best possible<br />
botanical composition and cover in relation to prevailing climate.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 34
When selecting the reference site, similar veld type, habitat and most importantly,<br />
environmental factors such as soil type and depth, topography, rockiness, aspect, and soil-<br />
moisture must be taken into account; as well as the objectives for future utilisation.<br />
Veld condition is assessed in different ways. The method applied is selected based on<br />
predetermined objectives of the enterprise. An agronomic and/or an ecological approach can<br />
be used. The agronomical approach is used where maximum production is required, not<br />
considering ecological requirements. The ecological approach is based on evaluating climate<br />
and other natural events such as fire, and considering the potential impacts of applied<br />
management principles on the environment.<br />
The seral stage is the measure of veld condition, where the pioneer stage represents poor veld<br />
condition, and the sub-climax to climax stages represents good veld conditions. Methods<br />
commonly used throughout South Africa are the Benchmark Method, the Ecological Index<br />
Method, the Key Species Method, the Weighted Key Species Method and the use of<br />
degradation gradients. The Benchmark Method is based on comparing the sample site with<br />
an ecologically similar reference site in excellent veld condition. The Key Species Method<br />
rates veld condition according to specially pre-selected grazing-responsive grass species. The<br />
Benchmark Method and Key Species Methods are used less frequently due to several<br />
shortcomings. With the Benchmark Method veld condition is calculated according to the<br />
limitations of the subjectively selected benchmark, which means that only species occurring<br />
in the benchmark site are considered. Furthermore, re-evaluation of the benchmark, due to<br />
short-term seasonal fluctuations, is necessary every 5 to 10 years to monitor long-term<br />
environmental changes. The disadvantage of the Key Species Method is that the veld<br />
condition score alone might not distinguish between differences in ecological categories of<br />
grass species. By weighting the key species, as in the Weighted Key Species Method, the veld<br />
condition score is correlated to the grazing history. This gives a good indication of veld<br />
condition if the survey sites are positioned along a gradient of grazing intensity. The<br />
Ecological Index Method and Degradation Gradients Method are mainly used for veld<br />
condition assessments.<br />
The Degradation Gradient Method (DGM) makes use of degradation gradients and bases its´<br />
approach, to assessing veld condition, on the reaction of the veld to disturbance such as<br />
overgrazing. In fact, the reaction to any biotic or abiotic environmental influence on the<br />
vegetation is considered with the Degradation Gradient Method.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 35
Degradation gradients are models that describe changes in long-term vegetation status and<br />
habitat characteristics due to utilisation, which can range from under-utilisation to severe<br />
over-utilisation. Only grass species that are significant indicators of grazing condition are<br />
surveyed.<br />
The Ecological Index Method aims to determine veld condition by classifying plant species<br />
into ecological categories based on their reaction to grazing and burning. The proportional<br />
composition of the different ecological categories are expressed as frequencial occurrence and<br />
then weighted, using specific ecological index values. The veld condition score is then<br />
evaluated on a predetermined scale of system potential and health.<br />
The Ecological Index Method meets most of the requirements for successful veld condition<br />
assessments with regards to reliability, speed, objectivity and repeatability.<br />
Grazing capacity<br />
The grazing capacity of an area refers to its potential to support a number of a grazer animal<br />
populations. Ideally, based on ecological principles to ensure sustainability, the grazing<br />
capacity is calculated in such a way as to ensure that the condition of the veld does not<br />
deteriorate over time, while the animals are kept in good productive and reproductive<br />
condition. The relationship between animal numbers to be supported and the area of land<br />
required is expressed by the grazing capacity, which is quantified as either the number of<br />
animal units per area, usually hectares or as hectares per animal unit.<br />
A Large Stock Unit is defined as a bovine of 450 kg body mass, where body mass should<br />
increase by 500 g a day on grassland with a mean digestibility of 55 percent. Wildlife grazing<br />
requirements are based on the metabolic energy requirements in relation to a Large Stock<br />
Unit. Furthermore, the growth rate, basal heat production and maintenance requirements,<br />
efficiency of energy utilisation and food preference is taken into account when calculating<br />
livestock unit equivalences for wild southern African ungulates. This approach does not take<br />
into account that domestic and wild animals show differing feeding behaviour. Impala<br />
Aepyceros melampus melampus and blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus prefer to graze<br />
on short grasses, while zebra Equus burchelli and buffalo Syncerus caffer as well as domestic<br />
bovine prefer medium to tall grasses. A further difference is found in the selectivity for grass<br />
species. Another important aspect is that game and domestic animals do not compare in terms<br />
of weight gain. For more accurate calculations of grazing capacities the use of Graze Animal<br />
Units (GAU), is used.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 36
In contrast to the grazing capacity the stocking rate refers to the number of animals kept on a<br />
specific area over a specific period. This number results from management decisions, usually<br />
based on the calculation of productivity per land unit. Stocking rates are not necessarily<br />
sustainable. In an ecologically sound management system stocking rates are determined based<br />
on the ecological carrying capacity, i.e. the sum of the grazing and browsing capacities, and<br />
supported predator populations. Several approaches have been made to determine grazing<br />
capacity. The herbaceous phytomass method is based on available plant biomass, which in<br />
turn is based on the daily food requirements of a Large Stock Unit. Phytomass production is<br />
determined, either by direct harvesting techniques or the use of a disc pasture meter. The<br />
rainfall method relates mean annual rainfall to herbivore biomass data. This approach is only<br />
used as an approximation as local spatial and temporal variations are not accounted for. The<br />
combined veld condition and rainfall method is considered the most appropriate method since<br />
it considers both veld condition and long-term rainfall data.<br />
OBJECTIVES<br />
The objectives of this study are to:<br />
METHOD<br />
• Determine percentage frequencies of grass species composition<br />
• Determine the veld condition scores according to the Ecological Index Method<br />
• Determine the grazing capacities and recommended stocking rates based on the<br />
veld condition scores.<br />
Veld condition assessment<br />
In this study the Ecological Index Method is used to determine veld condition. The method is<br />
based on the comparison of sample sites in homogenous topographic-physiognomic units,<br />
with a benchmark site in a similar unit under the same environmental conditions. The<br />
benchmark site is considered to be representative of the potential of areas´ vegetation, based<br />
on limitations imposed by the climate, soil depth, soil type, topography, aspect and soil<br />
moisture ration. In the absence of a benchmark site, a survey site with the best potential,<br />
within a homogeneous topographic-physiognomic unit, can be used as a benchmark for<br />
comparison.<br />
Three survey sites within each homogenous topographic-physiognomic are chosen randomly,<br />
to collect baseline data using the Step-point Method. A total of 200 survey points are<br />
evaluated along a line transect that traverse the unit.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 37
The nearest grass species to each survey point is then identified and recorded. Only grasses<br />
within a predetermined, maximum cut-off distance of 0.3 m are identified and recorded. A<br />
miss is noted if no grass species grows within the cut-off distance. This cut-off distance is<br />
determined prior to the onset of the Step-point survey to compensate for the exclusion of<br />
basal cover measurements. The frequency occurrence of each grass species is determined in<br />
each of the homogenous topographic-physiognomic units.<br />
Each grass species is then allocated to its respective ecological category, based on its reaction<br />
to grazing pressure and burning. As the grasses react to veld management actions or natural<br />
events such as fire or drought, as retrogressive succession, this is taken as the basis for the<br />
evaluation of the veld condition. Retrogressive succession follows certain patterns, where<br />
climax grasses, sub-climax grasses, perennial pioneer grasses, annual pioneer grasses,<br />
ephemerals and unpalatable invader species successively dominate plant communities. The<br />
grass species are classified into ecological categories based on the following criteria:<br />
• Decreasers, which are species that are dominant in veld in excellent condition<br />
and increase with under- or over-utilisation.<br />
• Increasers Ia, which are species that increase with moderate under-utilisation.<br />
• Increasers Ib, which are species that increase with minimal or absent defoliation.<br />
• Increasers IIa, which are species that are rare in veld in excellent condition and<br />
increase with moderate long-term overgrazing.<br />
• Increasers IIb, which are species that are rare in veld in excellent condition and<br />
increase with heavy long-term overgrazing.<br />
• Increasers IIc, which are species that are rare in veld in excellent condition and<br />
increase with excessive long-term overgrazing.<br />
• Invaders, which are species that are foreign to the plant community or increase<br />
aggressively.<br />
Species are allocated to the different categories on the basis of quantitative data gathered in<br />
long-term grazing trials. Where such data is not available, experienced pasture specialists<br />
classify species subjectively. As species reactions to grazing and other management actions<br />
might differ in varying environments due to different plant community composition and<br />
different patterns of competition, the allocation of a species to a specific category is<br />
dependent on the ecological zone. The percentage frequency of each ecological group is<br />
summed and then multiplied by its respective index values to obtain a veld condition score.<br />
According to its ecological value each ecological group is allocated a weighted index value.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 38
The following relative ecological index values are assigned:<br />
Decreasers - 10<br />
Increasers Ia - 7<br />
Increasers Ib - 7<br />
Increasers IIa - 4<br />
Increasers IIb - 4<br />
Increasers IIc - 1<br />
Invaders - 1<br />
The maximum veld condition score of 1000 is based on 100 percent Decreaser grass species.<br />
The minimum veld condition score of 100 is based on 100 percent Increaser IIc or invader<br />
species. However, the occurrence of misses recorded can in effect reduce this value.<br />
According to the dominance of the various ecological groups the veld can be classify as in<br />
excellent condition if Decreasers dominate, in good to fair condition if Increaser Ia and<br />
Increaser Ib dominate, in fair to poor condition if Increaser IIa and Increaser IIb dominates,<br />
and in poor to very poor condition if Increaser IIc and invader grass species dominate. Veld in<br />
excellent condition is representative of a homogenous unit that is most productive in a<br />
specific area, and is considered most resilient if utilised with prudence.<br />
The veld condition score of a survey site in itself already gives an indication as to the<br />
potential of the veld, but is usually compared to the veld condition score of a benchmark site,<br />
determined using the same survey method. The benchmark value is taken as the potentially<br />
maximum value and divided into five equal portions (1 to 110 for very poor, 111 to 220 for<br />
poor, 221 to 330 for moderate, 331 to 440 for good and 441 to 550 for excellent condition) for<br />
evaluation. If no benchmark site is available for comparison, the following categories are<br />
implemented:<br />
Where a veld condition score of<br />
0 to 39.9 % indicates veld in poor condition<br />
40 to 60 % indicates veld in moderate condition<br />
60.1 to 100 % indicates veld in good condition<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 39
Calculation of grazing capacity<br />
The combined veld condition and rainfall method, based on the following equation, is applied<br />
to calculate the grazing capacity in this study area.<br />
GC = -0.03 + (0.00289 * X1) + (X2 – 419.7) * 0.000633<br />
Where:<br />
GC = grazing capacity in Large Stock Units (LSU) per hectare<br />
X1 = percentage veld condition score<br />
X2 = mean annual rainfall in mm per year.<br />
It is recommended that long-term rainfall data be used, as this will result in a grazing capacity<br />
value that is suitable for sustainable stocking rates. The use of short-term rainfall data,<br />
covering only 2 to 3 years, can result in unsustainable values due to the inability of a rancher<br />
to implement the required fluctuations in applying suitable stocking rates.<br />
As the veld condition and rainfall method was originally designed to calculate grazing<br />
capacities for cattle production, the values obtained from the equation should be tailored to fit<br />
the purposes of a wildlife ranch. Adjustment of the calculated grazing capacity value is<br />
necessary, due to the inability of the rancher to implement an effective rotational resting<br />
system, and to compensate for the selective feeding behaviour of wildlife. It is recommended<br />
that the calculated grazing capacity be reduced by 30 percent to facilitate these factors and<br />
ensure sustainable use of the natural resources without deterioration of the habitat.<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
Veld condition<br />
All grass species are identified (Appendix 2) in the step-point field surveys on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
and the frequency of each grass species in every plant community calculated. A veld<br />
condition score and potential grazing capacity are calculated according to the relative<br />
frequency occurrence (Table 1) of the grass species in the various monitoring survey sites on<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1: The Chloris virgata – Acacia grandicornuta Low thicket<br />
This plant community is approximately 22 ha in size, and dominated by broad-leaved<br />
panicum Panicum deustum from the Decreaser category. The sub-dominant grass species is<br />
common carrot-seed grass Tragus berteronianus from the Increaser IIc (3) category. The veld<br />
condition score of 652 (Table 2) indicate that the veld is in good condition.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 40
Table 1: Frequency occurrence of grass species in the various monitoring sites on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Grass species<br />
Decreasers<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris 34<br />
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15<br />
Digitaria eriantha 5 3 8 28 6 4 2 4 1 8 6<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum 43 17 53 68 52 36 20 70 58 44 48 46 28 18 48<br />
Panicum maximum 10 4 8 1 8 10 8 4 16 8 6 14<br />
Panicum natalense 2<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans 2<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium 2<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana 5 2 4<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba 2 1 1 6<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides 2 2<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
3<br />
2<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis 13 5 4 16 5 4 10 10 4 10 2 2 8 6<br />
Aristida bipartita 3<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis 2 3 2 4 2<br />
2<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius 4<br />
Melinis repens<br />
2<br />
Tragus berteronianus 32 44 24 10 14 10 12 8 14 20 8 32 24 40<br />
Forbs<br />
Monitoring survey site number<br />
4<br />
1<br />
1<br />
2<br />
4<br />
2<br />
2<br />
10 4<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 41<br />
4<br />
8<br />
4<br />
2<br />
16<br />
16<br />
4<br />
6<br />
2
Table 2: Contribution of ecological categories and veld condition scores,<br />
of the various monitoring survey sites on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Ecological categories<br />
Decreasers<br />
Monitoring survey site number<br />
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15<br />
58 17 62 84 53 72 70 78 66 62 60 53 82 24 54<br />
Increasers I (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2) 10 8 7 5 8 9 13 3 11 9 19 7 7 3 3<br />
Increasers IIc (3) 32 46 29 10 18 14 14 12 16 28 8 34 0 26 40<br />
Veld condition score 652 248 677 870 580 770 766 804 720 684 684 592 848 278 592<br />
LEGEND TO COLOUR CODED PLANT COMMUNITIES<br />
Chloris vigata<br />
- Acacia grandicornuta Low thicket<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis - Combretum apiculatum Short bushland<br />
Themeda triandra - Acacia nigrescens Low bushland<br />
Spirostachys africana - Balanites maughami Low bushland<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea - Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
Evaluation scale<br />
Poor 0 -<br />
Moderate 401 -<br />
Good 601 -<br />
400<br />
600<br />
1000<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 42
However, although the high Decreaser frequency is encouraging, the high frequency of<br />
common carrot-seed grass indicates patch selective over-utilisation. The grazing capacity is<br />
estimated at 5.12 ha per Graze Animal Unit. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted as<br />
suitable habitat for wildlife, 4 GAU (Table 3) can be sustained. If the landscaped garden<br />
habitats are excluded this plant community can still sustain 4 GAU (Table 4). However, if<br />
only the parkland and road reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal species, only<br />
2 GAU (Table 5) can be sustained without further degradation of the environment.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2: The Trichoneura grandiglumis – Combretum apiculatum Short<br />
bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 575 ha in size, and dominated by broad-leaved<br />
panicum Panicum deustum from the Decreaser category. The sub-dominant grass from the<br />
same category is Guinea grass Panicum maximum. Other grasses include Lehmann’s love<br />
grass Eragrostis lehmanniana var. lehmanniana from the Increaser IIa and IIb (2) category,<br />
and Annual three-awn Aristida adscensionis from the Increaser IIc (3) category. The veld<br />
condition score of 671 (Table 3) indicate that the veld is in good condition. However, patch-<br />
selective grazing does occur. The grazing capacity is estimated at 5.02 ha per Graze Animal<br />
Unit. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted as suitable habitat for wildlife, 109 GAU<br />
(Table 3) can be sustained. If the landscaped garden habitats are excluded this plant<br />
community can still sustain 88 GAU (Table 4). However, if only the parkland and road<br />
reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal species, only 47 GAU (Table 5) can be<br />
sustained without further degradation of the environment.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3: The Themeda triandra – Acacia nigrescens Low bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 393 ha in size, and dominated by broad-leaved<br />
panicum Panicum deustum from the Decreaser category. The sub-dominant grass from the<br />
same category is Guinea grass Panicum maximum. Other grasses include blue buffalo grass<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris also from the Decreaser category, and Annual three-awn Aristida<br />
adscensionis and common carrot-seed grass Tragus berteronianus from the Increaser IIc (3)<br />
category. The veld condition score of 723 (Table 3) indicate that the veld is in good condition.<br />
However, patch-selective grazing does occur. The grazing capacity is estimated at 4.77 ha per<br />
Graze Animal Unit. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted as suitable habitat for<br />
wildlife, 82 GAU (Table 3) can be sustained. If the landscaped garden habitats are excluded<br />
this plant community can still sustain 67 GAU (Table 4). However, if only the parkland and<br />
road reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal species, only 35 GAU (Table 5)<br />
can be sustained without further degradation of the environment.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 43
Table 3: Grazing capacities for the various plant communities if all open areas<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is considered suitable habitat for game<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community Unit Veld Grazing capacity Grazing capacity<br />
size condition cattle game cattle game<br />
score ha/LSU ha/GAU LSU/unit GAU/unit<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5<br />
22 652 3.58 5.12 6 4<br />
546 671 3.52 5.02 155 109<br />
393 723 3.34 4.77 118 82<br />
390 779 3.17 4.53 123 86<br />
193 263 6.00 8.58 32 22<br />
Total 1544 434 304<br />
Table 4: Grazing capacities for the various plant communities if landscaped<br />
gardens are excluded from potentially suitable habitat for game<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5<br />
Unit Veld Grazing capacity Grazing capacity<br />
size condition cattle game cattle game<br />
score ha/LSU ha/GAU LSU/unit GAU/unit<br />
18 652 3.58 5.12 5 4<br />
444 671 3.52 5.02 126 88<br />
319 723 3.34 4.77 96 67<br />
317 779 3.17 4.53 100 70<br />
157 263 6.00 8.58 26 18<br />
Total 1255 353 247<br />
Table 5: Grazing<br />
capacities for the various plant communities if only parkland<br />
and road reserves are considered suitable habitat for game<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community Unit Veld Grazing capacity Grazing capacity<br />
size condition cattle game cattle game<br />
score ha/LSU ha/GAU LSU/unit GAU/unit<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5<br />
9 652 3.58 5.12 3 2<br />
234 671 3.52 5.02 66 47<br />
168 723 3.34 4.77 50 35<br />
166 779 3.17 4.53 52 37<br />
83 263 6.00 8.58 14 10<br />
Total 660 185 130<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 44
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4: The Spirostachys africana – Balanites maughamii Low bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 390 ha in size, and dominated by broad-leaved<br />
panicum Panicum deustum from the Decreaser category. The sub-dominant grass from the<br />
same category are Guinea grass Panicum maximum and blue buffalo grass Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
also from the Decreaser category. Other grass species includes Annual three-awn Aristida<br />
adscensionis and common carrot-seed grass Tragus berteronianus from the Increaser IIc (3)<br />
category. The veld condition score of 779 (Table 3) indicate that the veld is in good condition.<br />
However, patch-selective grazing does occur. The grazing capacity is estimated at 4.53 ha per<br />
Graze Animal Unit. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted as suitable habitat for<br />
wildlife, 86 GAU (Table 3) can be sustained. If the landscaped garden habitats are excluded<br />
this plant community can still sustain 70 GAU (Table 4). However, if only the parkland and<br />
road reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal species, only 37 GAU (Table 5)<br />
can be sustained without further degradation of the environment.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5: The Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 193 ha in size, and dominated by common carrot-seed<br />
grass Tragus berteronianus from the Increaser IIc (3) category. Although broad-leaved<br />
panicum Panicum deustum from the Decreaser category is sub-dominant, the presence of<br />
annual three-awn Aristida adscensionis from the Increaser IIc (3) category indicates over-<br />
utilisation. The veld condition score of 248 (Table 3) indicate that the veld is in poor<br />
condition. However, patch-selective grazing does occur. The grazing capacity is estimated at<br />
8.58 ha per Graze Animal Unit. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted as suitable<br />
habitat for wildlife, 22 GAU (Table 3) can be sustained. If the landscaped garden habitats are<br />
excluded this plant community can still sustain 18 GAU (Table 4). However, if only the<br />
parkland and road reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal species, only 10 GAU<br />
(Table 5) can be sustained without further degradation of the environment.<br />
Grazing capacity<br />
The long-term grazing capacities for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is based on available habitat, with due<br />
consideration of environmental restrictions and future development implications. The grazing<br />
capacity of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, if considered that all open areas are considered suitable habitat for<br />
game is 304 GAU. However, if the landscaped gardens are excluded from this calculation,<br />
only 247 GAU can be sustained. Worst-case scenario is where only the parkland and road<br />
reserves are considered suitable habitat for wildlife; in which case only 130 GAU can be<br />
sustained.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 45
THE ASSESSMENT OF AVAILABLE BROWSE AND CALCULATION OF<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
BROWSING CAPACITY<br />
In a vegetation type such as bushveld, it is of importance not only to estimate available<br />
grazing, but also available browse, as this component will contribute to the areas ecological<br />
carrying capacity. Browsers such as kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros and intermediate feeders<br />
such as impala Aepyceros melampus melampus that utilise both graze and browse resources<br />
dominate herbivore populations on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Estimation of tree densities can<br />
furthermore, indicate areas of bush encroachment, where species are known for their invasive<br />
tendencies.<br />
In the early days of wildlife ranching, stocking rates were based solely on the forage, dry<br />
biomass requirements for cattle. Irrespective of their feeding behaviour wild southern African<br />
herbivores were stocked according to equivalences of Large Stock Units, based on their<br />
metabolic mass only. New conversion tables, which take different feeding behaviour and<br />
energy requirements of wild southern African ungulates, additionally to metabolic body mass,<br />
into consideration were only devised with the development of a technique to measure the<br />
available browse. With the advent of this technique a Browse Animal Unit was defined.<br />
Browsing capacity is defined as the number of Browse Animal Units that can be maintained<br />
in good condition in a certain area, without deterioration of the environment. A Browse<br />
Animal Unit was subsequently defined as the equivalent of a kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros<br />
with a body mass of 140 kg, which browses exclusively. Several factors influence the<br />
browsing capacity. Not only the density of woody plants and their leaf production, but also<br />
the dominant browser population and their maximum browsing height, as well as the<br />
accessibility of the leaf material has to be taken into account. To consider these factors total<br />
browse is differentiated from available browse. Total browse encompasses all potentially<br />
edible woody plant material, whereas available browse includes only woody plant material<br />
available to the animals. For most browsers the maximum browse height is limited to 2 m,<br />
with the exception of giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis and elephant Loxodonta africana that<br />
can browse to a height of 5.5 m. Another factor is the species composition in each<br />
homogenous unit, as not all tree species are edible or selected by animals, and many trees<br />
develop mechanical and/ or chemical defence mechanisms such as thorns or tannins. The<br />
species composition affects the available browse, as the various species show differing<br />
phenology in the form of different patterns of leaf-emergence, flowering, fruiting and leaf-<br />
loss in the course of the year.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 46
OBJECTIVES<br />
The objectives of this study are to:<br />
METHOD<br />
• Determine the tree density within the different homogenous units.<br />
• Determine the leaf production and of the various woody species in the<br />
homogenous units.<br />
• Determine the available browse and browsing capacity of the different<br />
homogenous units.<br />
Due to the factors that determine available browse such as variability in leaf density,<br />
palatability and tree structure, it is difficult to find a method that combines applicability and<br />
practicability. Different methods for determining browse have been developed and assessed<br />
over time. The belt transects have been found to be more accurate and less biased than plot<br />
surveys – at least in canopy cover estimates for woody vegetation. With the BECVOL model<br />
it is possible to set up a standard procedure to measure browse potential and browse capacity<br />
using fairly simply measurements while still obtaining a sufficiently accurate estimation.<br />
To determine the total volume of woody plant material in this study the BECVOL method is<br />
applied, where the volumetric dimensions of trees are recorded and related to available leaf<br />
biomass. The measurements taken are based on an ideal tree, which is regarded as a single<br />
stemmed sweet thorn Acacia karroo with a canopy consisting of a dome-shaped crown and<br />
cone-shaped base (Figure 11). These measurements are recorded for each tree rooted and<br />
identified in a 200 m 2 belt-transect survey. A 2 m long range-rod is used to estimate the tree<br />
dimensions.<br />
The data collected is then captured and analysed using the BECVOL programme. Primary<br />
analysis consists of volumetric calculations to determine the total leaf volume of each tree<br />
species recorded. The total leaf volume is then related to potential dry leaf mass, based on<br />
known regression equations from harvested trees. Although common bushveld tree species<br />
such as sweet thorn Acacia karroo, red bushwillow Combretum apiculatum, sickle bush<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea, raisin bush Grewia species and silver cluster leaf Terminalia sericea<br />
have specific regression equations, it was found that a strong correlation exists between some<br />
of these tree species based on leaf size. Other tree species were thus related to standard<br />
regression equations based on this phenomenon. For other tree species general regression<br />
equations are based on either microphyllous (small-leaved) or macrophyllous (broad-leaved)<br />
tree species.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 47
X<br />
Y<br />
D1<br />
Y<br />
Dimensional measurements:<br />
A - Tree height (m)<br />
X<br />
C<br />
D2<br />
B - Height of maximum canopy diameter (m)<br />
C - Height of minimum canopy diameter (m)<br />
D1 - Maximum canopy diameter (m)<br />
D2 - Maximum canopy diameter, perpendicular to D1 (m)<br />
E1 - Minimum canopy diameter (m)<br />
E2 - Minimum canopy diameter, perpendicular to E1 (m)<br />
Figure 11: Schematised illustration of an ideal tree and the parameters used to calculate<br />
browse availability<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 48<br />
B<br />
A<br />
E1<br />
E2
Secondary analysis summarises the derived values for each individual tree species and<br />
extrapolate the collected data to values for each homogenous unit. The dominance of tree<br />
species, density and potential dry leaf mass are calculated and expressed per hectare. Tree<br />
density values are used to assess the level of encroachment based on species dominance,<br />
while the potential dry leaf mass values are used to determine the available leaf biomass to<br />
browsing animal species.<br />
The results obtained from the BECVOL analysis allow for the calculation of potential<br />
available browse as well as actual available browse. To take the various browsing heights of<br />
different animal species into account, leaf dry mass is stratified according to maximum<br />
browse heights of 1.5 m for impala, 2 m for kudu and 5 m for giraffe and elephant. The dry<br />
leaf mass below 2 m is considered the most important value as it represents the maximum<br />
browse height of most browse antelope species. The available browse for the different<br />
maximum browsing heights is derived from multiplying the respective leaf dry mass values<br />
with the total area of the relevant homogenous unit. Not all leaf material below the specified<br />
maximum browse height is readily available to browsers, and the following percentages are<br />
deducted consecutively from the available browse:<br />
• 50 %, as the core leaf areas of trees are beyond the reach of browsers.<br />
• 25 %, as trees are also utilised by other animals such as birds and insects.<br />
• 25 % of the remaining value is deducted to allow for sufficient plant re-growth<br />
and vigour.<br />
With the reduced leaf mass value the actual browsing capacity for each unit is calculated. For<br />
calculating browse capacity the actually available browse is related to the dry leaf<br />
requirements of one Browse Animal Unit (BAU), where a Browse Animal Unit is equated to<br />
the metabolic energy requirements of a kudu with a body mass of 140 kg body mass. To<br />
sustain an animal of this mass, the dry leaf mass intake requirement is approximately<br />
3 percent of its body mass. A kudu thus ingests 4.2 kg of browse per day, or 1533 kg per year.<br />
Using these values, the browse capacity can be calculated for each homogenous unit.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 49
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
The browsing capacity was estimated from leaf mass production calculated using the<br />
BECVOL programme. Leaf production was calculated at a maximum browse height of 2 m as<br />
most animals cannot utilise plant growth beyond this height, with exception of the giraffe<br />
Giraffa camelopardalis and elephant Loxodonta africana. The potential leaf mass production<br />
was reduced to actual available leaf mass and divided by the requirements of a Browse<br />
Animal Unit (BAU) to derive optimum stocking densities.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1: The Chloris virgata – Acacia grandicornuta Low thicket<br />
This plant community is approximately 390 ha in size, and has a density of 1450 trees per<br />
hectare. The tree layer is dominated by sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea with 350 trees per<br />
hectare. The sub-dominant trees are red bushwillow Combretum apiculatum and white raisin<br />
Grewia bicolor each with 200 trees per hectare. This plant community is not currently<br />
encroached. The potential leaf biomass production below 2 m is moderate at 300 kg/ha;<br />
however, only 83 kg/ha is available as browse. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted<br />
as suitable habitat for wildlife, 1 GAU (Table 6) can be sustained. If the landscaped garden<br />
habitats are excluded, this plant community can still sustain 1 GAU (Table 7). However, if<br />
only the parkland and road reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal species, no<br />
animals (Table 8) can be sustained.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2: The Trichoneura grandiglumis – Combretum apiculatum Short<br />
bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 390 ha in size, and has a density of 1200 trees per<br />
hectare. The tree layer is dominated by red bushwillow Combretum apiculatum with 227 trees<br />
per hectare. The sub-dominant trees are and white raisin Grewia bicolor with 160 trees per<br />
hectare, giant raisin Grewia hexamita with 147 trees per hectare, sickle bush Dichrostachys<br />
cinerea with 133 trees per hectare and sandpaper raisin Grewia flavescens with 120 trees per<br />
hectare. This plant community is not currently encroached, furthermore, the combined density<br />
of Grewia species act as important food source to browsing animal species as these shrubs<br />
produce most leaf material below the maximum browse height of 2 m. The potential leaf<br />
biomass production below 2 m is moderate at 412 kg/ha; however, only 115 kg/ha is available<br />
as browse. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted as suitable habitat for wildlife, 41<br />
GAU (Table 6) can be sustained. If the landscaped garden habitats are excluded, this plant<br />
community can still sustain 33 GAU (Table 7). However, if only the parkland and road<br />
reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal species, only 18 GAU (Table 8) can be<br />
sustained without further degradation of the environment.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 50
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3: The Themeda triandra – Acacia nigrescens Low bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 390 ha in size, and has a density of 1533 trees per<br />
hectare. The tree layer is dominated by giant raisin Grewia hexamita with 217 trees per<br />
hectare. The sub-dominant trees are knob thorn Acacia nigrescens, russet bushwillow<br />
Combretum hereroense and white raisin Grewia bicolour, each with 200 trees per hectare.<br />
This plant community development is close to the threshold density and should be monitored<br />
for adverse affects. The potential leaf biomass production below 2 m is moderate at 446<br />
kg/ha; however, only 125 kg/ha is available as browse. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are<br />
accepted as suitable habitat for wildlife, 32 GAU (Table 6) can be sustained. If the landscaped<br />
garden habitats are excluded, this plant community can still sustain 26 GAU (Table 7).<br />
However, if only the parkland and road reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal<br />
species, only 14 GAU (Table 8) can be sustained without further degradation of the<br />
environment.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4: The Spirostachys africanus – Balanites maughamii Low bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 390 ha in size, and has a density of 1489 trees per<br />
hectare. The tree layer is dominated by mallow raisin Grewia villosa with 222 trees per<br />
hectare. The sub-dominant trees are red bushwillow Combretum apiculatum with 178 trees<br />
per hectare, knob thorn Acacia nigrescens and velvet raisin Grewia flava, each contributing<br />
156 trees per hectare. This plant community is not currently encroached, but further<br />
development must be monitored. The potential leaf biomass production below 2 m is<br />
moderate at 443 kg/ha; however, only 124 kg/ha is available as browse. If all open areas on<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are accepted as suitable habitat for wildlife, 32 GAU (Table 6) can be sustained.<br />
If the landscaped garden habitats are excluded, this plant community can still sustain 26 GAU<br />
(Table 7). However, if only the parkland and road reserves are considered as suitable habitat<br />
for animal species, only 13 GAU (Table 8) can be sustained without further degradation of the<br />
environment.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5: The Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
This plant community is approximately 390 ha in size, and has a density of 1833 trees per<br />
hectare. The tree layer is dominated by sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea with 1500 trees per<br />
hectare. The only sub-dominant tree is buffalo thorn Ziziphus mucronata with 167 trees per<br />
hectare. This plant community is severely encroached and active intervention to correct the<br />
imbalance is recommended. The potential leaf biomass production below 2 m is poor at 201<br />
kg/ha, with only 56 kg/ha is available as browse. If all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are<br />
accepted as suitable habitat for wildlife, 7 GAU (Table 6) can be sustained. If the landscaped<br />
garden habitats are excluded, this plant community can still sustain 6 GAU (Table 7).<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 51
Table 6: Browsing capacities for the various plant communities if all open areas<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is considered suitable habitat for game<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5<br />
Unit Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Browse<br />
size mass mass mass mass capacity<br />
potential available potential available<br />
kg/ha kg/ha kg/unit kg/unit BAU/unit<br />
22 300 84 6600 1848 1<br />
546 412 115 224952 62987 41<br />
393 446 125 175278 49078 32<br />
390 443 124 172770 48376 32<br />
193 201 56 38793 10862 7<br />
Total 1544 113<br />
Table 7: Browsing capacities for the various plant communities if landscaped<br />
gardens are excluded from potentially suitable habitat for game<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community<br />
Unit Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Browse<br />
size mass mass mass mass capacity<br />
potential available potential available<br />
kg/ha kg/ha kg/unit kg/unit BAU/unit<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1 18 300 84 5400 1512 1<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2 444 412 115 182928 51220 33<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3 319 446 125 142274 39837 26<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4 317 443 124 140431 39321 26<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5 157 201 56 31557 8836 6<br />
Total 1255 92<br />
Table 8: Browsing capacities for the various plant communities if only parkland<br />
and road reserves are considered suitable habitat for game<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community<br />
Unit Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Browse<br />
size mass mass mass mass capacity<br />
potential available potential available<br />
kg/ha<br />
kg/ha kg/unit kg/unit BAU/unit<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1 9 300 84 2700 756 0<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2 234 412 115 96408 26994 18<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3 168 446 125 74928 20980 14<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4 166 443 124 73538 20591 13<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5 83 201 56 16683 4671 3<br />
Total 660 48<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 52
However, if only the parkland and road reserves are considered as suitable habitat for animal<br />
species, only 3 GAU (Table 8) can be sustained without further degradation of the<br />
environment.<br />
Browsing capacity<br />
The long-term browsing capacities for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is based on available habitat, with due<br />
consideration of environmental restrictions and future development implications. The<br />
browsing capacity of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, if considered that all open areas are considered suitable<br />
habitat for game is 113 BAU. However, if the landscaped gardens are excluded from this<br />
calculation, only 92 BAU can be sustained. Worst-case scenario is where only the parkland<br />
and road reserves are considered suitable habitat for wildlife; in which case only 48 BAU can<br />
be sustained.<br />
It is apparent from the woody vegetation analysis that tree density is not the limiting factor in<br />
available leaf biomass production, but rather tree height. As much of the woody vegetation is<br />
mature trees it can only be deduced that the leaf biomass produced are now out of reach of the<br />
browsing animal species.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 53
INTRODUCTION<br />
ESTIMATION OF HERBACEOUS BIOMASS PRODUCTION<br />
The herbaceous biomass of an area refers to the total leaf production of herbaceous vegetation<br />
such as grasses and forbs. To better compare values from different areas, the biomass is<br />
usually measured as dry mass per unit area. The extent of total biomass production is highly<br />
dependent on various environmental factors, of which climate and especially rainfall is<br />
considered as the most important factor in the arid regions of southern Africa. Estimations of<br />
leaf dry mass production can also be used to calculate grazing potential of an area. A further<br />
application of biomass data is found in the field of range management, where biomass is used<br />
to determine veld condition using the herbaceous phytomass method. However, the most<br />
important aspect for the measurement of biomass production is the determination of fuel load.<br />
This information is important to determine the necessity or possibility for veld burning as well<br />
as the risk for natural fires. Sufficient fuel load to carry a fire is a prerequisite for the<br />
implementation of a burning regime. The use of fire is considered an important management<br />
tool on any wildlife area. Firstly, it is useful to remove moribund material and improve the<br />
palatability of the veld, or keep the veld in a desired stage of succession. Secondly, fire is<br />
considered a means of bush control, even though its´ use in combating bush encroachment is<br />
limited. Thirdly, fire is implemented to actively influence animal movement to rest degraded<br />
veld. Species such as blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus, impala Aepyceros melampus<br />
melampus, kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros, white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum and zebra<br />
Equus burchelli are attracted to recently burned areas. The new growth provides a palatable<br />
food source that is rich in protein.<br />
Most methods to determine phytomass production such as the Quadrat Method or Strip<br />
Mowing Method are based on harvesting a predetermined area at ground level, drying the<br />
clippings and weighing them. However, these methods are time consuming and labour<br />
intensive. The Disc-pasture Meter Method is considered a better alternative due to the ease of<br />
implementation and non-destructive nature. With this method the biomass under a<br />
standardised area, the disc of the pasture meter, is measured and related to the settling height<br />
of the disc above ground.<br />
OBJECTIVES<br />
The objective of this study is to:<br />
• Determine the biomass production in the various homogenous units.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 54
METHOD<br />
For a representative sample at least 200 readings are taken in every homogenous unit. Within<br />
these units 10 sites are randomly chosen, where 20 points at 3 m interval are measured with<br />
the disc pasture meter. The disc pasture meter consists of a hollow aluminium rod that slides<br />
on the central shaft. At the lower end of the hollow shaft there is an aluminium disc of<br />
standardised diameter attached. The central shaft carries a scale in cm ranging from 0 to 60.<br />
To take readings, the central rod of the disc pasture meter is placed perpendicular to the<br />
ground surface. The hollow rod with the disc is released from the topmost position, a standard<br />
height of 60 cm above ground, and allowed to settle on the sward. On swards that are<br />
sensitive to compression, the disc is allowed to settle gently on the grass for a maximum of 15<br />
seconds, until a constant height is reached. The settling height measurements are recorded and<br />
the mean disc height calculated in centimetres. The value is then substituted in the following<br />
equation:<br />
y = -3019 + 2260 √x<br />
Where: y = biomass (kg/ha)<br />
x = mean disc height (cm)<br />
This equation describes the relation of disc height above ground to the estimated biomass<br />
production. The equation is applicable for all bushveld areas in the old Transvaal. This result<br />
is an estimation of the phytomass or fuel load (kg/ha) in each of the <strong>Plan</strong>t communities. These<br />
values are considered in the burning regime.<br />
Phytomass can also be used to calculate grazing capacities, based on the daily dry leaf mass<br />
requirements of a Large Stock Unit, using the following equation:<br />
SR = (X1 * 0.35 a ) / (10 b * 365 c )<br />
Where: SR = Stocking rate in Large Stock Units per hectare (LSU/ha) per year<br />
X1 = Phytomass in kg/ha<br />
a = Utilisation degree factor – only 35 % of the biomass is grazed,<br />
25 % losses occur due to environmental factors and 40 % are left<br />
over<br />
b = 10 kg of feed is required to maintain a LSU per day<br />
c = Number of days per year<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 55
The resulting Large Stock Units are then reduced by 30 percent to compensate for the<br />
different feeding behaviour of game in comparison to cattle. However, the phytomass method<br />
is generally only used to obtain an approximation of graze potential, as grass species<br />
palatability is not considered.<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
Disc pasture readings are predominantly used to determine biomass production of the<br />
herbaceous layer and the necessity to implement a burning regime to remove moribund<br />
material that can be detrimental to succesional seasonal growth. A minimum of 2000 kg is<br />
required to carry a burn, while a biomass of more than 4000 kg constitute a fire hazard that<br />
will be difficult to control.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 1: The Chloris virgata – Acacia grandicornuta Low thicket<br />
This plant community has a dry herbaceous biomass production of approximately 1455 kg/ha,<br />
and can thus not carry a burn. Although the biomass production in some areas exceeds 1890<br />
kg/ha, fire is not considered as a management option.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 2: The Trichoneura grandiglumis – Combretum apiculatum Short<br />
bushland<br />
This plant community has a dry herbaceous biomass production of approximately 1680 kg/ha,<br />
and can also not carry a burn. Biomass production in this plant community varies from 1450<br />
kg/ha to 2050 kg/ha. The implementation of a fire regime as an applied management principle<br />
is not currently recommended.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 3: The Themeda triandra – Acacia nigrescens Low bushland<br />
This plant community has a dry herbaceous biomass production of approximately 2200 kg/ha,<br />
and can thus carry a burn. Biomass production in this plant community varies from 2000<br />
kg/ha to 3220 kg/ha. The implementation of a fire regime as an applied management principle<br />
is not currently recommended.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 4: The Spirostachys africanus – Balanites maughamii Low bushland<br />
This plant community has a dry herbaceous biomass production of approximately 2530 kg/ha,<br />
and can thus also carry a burn. Biomass production in this plant community varies from 2060<br />
kg/ha to 3140 kg/ha. The implementation of a fire regime as an applied management principle<br />
is not currently recommended.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 56
<strong>Plan</strong>t community 5: The Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland<br />
This plant community has a dry herbaceous biomass production of well below the required<br />
minimum to sustain a burn. Degradation of the environment and surface erosion of the soil is<br />
evident, with large areas denuded of herbaceous ground cover. This area cannot sustain a<br />
burn, and burning is not considered suitable for rehabilitation or manipulation of the<br />
vegetation structure.<br />
If it is considered that <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> had not been burned in a number of years, and the<br />
exception rainfall received during the 2005/2006 season a higher biomass production could be<br />
expected. However, there is little evidence of biomass accumulation or smothered grass tufts.<br />
If the denudation and environmental degradation of some areas are to be considered, it must<br />
be surmised that another factor is currently exerting pressure on this natural resource.<br />
Herbaceous biomass production is not currently considered to be a hazardous concern;<br />
however, a runaway fire can still be a destructive force that should not be ignored. Monitoring<br />
biomass production and implementation of precautionary measures against runaway fires are<br />
still considered prudent.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 57
INTRODUCTION<br />
GAME MANAGEMENT ON MARLOTH PARK<br />
Game management is the most important aspect when discussing a management plan for a<br />
wildlife area such as <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Manipulating stock will indirectly influence the<br />
vegetation. This is true for the influence of grazers as well as of browsers. Maintaining veld in<br />
good condition is a prerequisite for sustainable utilisation, and therefore profitability of any<br />
wildlife enterprise. No wildlife enterprise, even when focussing on conservation only, will<br />
survive without making profit to ensure self-sufficiency. Game management is directly<br />
correlated to the specific objective set for each environment. When concentrating on trophy<br />
hunting, low stocking rates are required to ensure good quality trophies. In contrast, high<br />
stocking rates based on the calculated ecological carrying capacity are obligatory for tourism,<br />
where high animal densities for game viewing are vital. An intermediate stocking rate,<br />
according to the economic stocking rate, is advised when focussing on venison production.<br />
Within this range a balance between animal biomass production and quality has to be found.<br />
Moreover, the restriction of animal movement due to fencing as well as the manipulation of<br />
predator prey relations, results in the prevention of natural regulative processes such as<br />
migration and predation. Consequently, man has to take up the role of regulating factor to<br />
ensure a healthy ecosystem.<br />
Grazing and browsing capacity potential of the veld is the basis for any management decision,<br />
as correct stocking rates will ensure the animals’ health as well as maintaining the veld in a<br />
good productive and re-productive state. Sustained utilisation of the natural resources and<br />
viable economic returns can be ensured with judicious management.<br />
Grazing and browsing capacities are functions of the property size. Property size though, is a<br />
fixed factor. Supplementation of feed can increase the potential for stocking animals, with a<br />
balance established between extra financial expenditures for feed and benefits or profits from<br />
higher stocking rates or increased produce. However, social restrictions due to behavioural<br />
changes as well as increased risk of diseases with increasing herd size are factors that must<br />
also be considered. Due to the influence on social behaviour, age structure and sex ratio,<br />
minimum as well as maximum group size will affect the viability and the growth rate of<br />
animal populations. Further limitations on potential stocking rates are the availability of<br />
suitable habitat. Habitat requirements also influence the species composition. This is partly<br />
due to the need for cover, but mostly due to species-specific feeding behaviour and food<br />
preference.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 58
Four different feeding classes are distinguished: Bulk or non- to low-selective grazers,<br />
generally large animals that sustain on coarse grasses with a high content in fibre; concentrate<br />
or highly selective grazers, generally small animals, which select for certain plant species that<br />
are high in nutritive value; mixed feeders that utilise grass as well as browse; and browsers<br />
that predominantly feed on leaves, fruit, flowers and other woody plant components.<br />
Species composition will influence interspecies interaction such as competition for food<br />
resources. Interaction can also be positive, such as facilitated feeding behaviour, where due to<br />
its feeding behaviour a species modify the environment or resource, making it more suitable<br />
to other feeders that can subsequently utilise the habitat. For instance elephants Loxodonta<br />
africana destroy tall trees when feeding, but this action stimulate coppicing of damaged trees,<br />
effectively lowering the tree height. Also buffalo Syncerus caffer with its preference for tall<br />
grasses reduce the effective height due to grazing action and trampling, making it more<br />
suitable to species such as blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus that exhibit preference for<br />
shorter grass species. Blue wildebeest will subsequently be followed by other species such as<br />
impala Aepyceros melampus melampus that exhibit preference for a short grassland habitat.<br />
High animal species diversity, as influenced by the plant species composition, makes a system<br />
more resilient and viable. All these different factors need consideration when managing for<br />
wildlife. However, management decisions will be directly influenced by <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>’s<br />
visions and objectives.<br />
Specific goals set for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are to ensure ecosystem viability, despite urban<br />
development; stocking animals for optimum game viewing, not to generate income from live<br />
sales and hunting, but the experience of viewing animal interaction in their natural<br />
environment. The advantage of implementing an ecological management plan is the indirect<br />
financial benefit derived from harvesting of excess animals for live sales. However, sporadic<br />
hunting or harvesting to correct sex ratios and age imbalances may also be required. The<br />
following are guidelines on game management decisions and actions on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
OBJECTIVES<br />
The objectives of this study are to:<br />
• Determine appropriate stocking rates for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
• To consider the implications of development on stocking rates<br />
• Recommend alternative stocking options<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 59
STOCKING RATES<br />
Current stocking<br />
The current stocking rate based on the latest game counts conducted during September 2005<br />
and the grazing and browsing capacities calculated for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are analysed using the<br />
ECOCAP 6 programme. This programme calculates the percentage contribution of Graze and<br />
Browse Animal Units based on the potential of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> to support animal stocking rates,<br />
without deterioration of the environment. The Graze and Browse Animal Units are based on<br />
the percentage of graze, browse and forbs in their diet as well as metabolic energy<br />
requirements of the different animal species.<br />
Three different scenarios are analysed; the first is based on the assumption that the whole of<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, excluding the current development footprint and actual road surfaces, is<br />
suitable for utilisation (Table 9). In this scenario only 38.15 percent of the ecological grazing<br />
capacity is being utilised, but 208.80 percent of the ecological browse capacity. Even though<br />
the giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis are not considered to be competing for the natural<br />
resources, as they can feed up to a maximum browse height of 5.5 m, the ecological browse<br />
capacity will still be exceeded by 25.44 percent. The recommended ratio of 1:1 between the<br />
low selectivity grazers and the remaining grazers is also skewed, with common impala<br />
Aepyceros melampus melampus being the dominating contributor at 95.95 percent of the<br />
ecological capacity.<br />
In the second scenario the current building footprints, actual road surfaces and landscaped<br />
gardens are subtracted from the available area (Table 10). Although the ratio of low<br />
selectivity grazers and other remaining grazers are still skewed, stocking rate is well below<br />
the ecological grazing capacity. However, the ecological browsing capacity, excluding the<br />
requirements of giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis, is now exceeded by 54.07 percent; with<br />
impala Aepyceros melampus melampus still being the dominating contributor.<br />
In the third scenario only the parkland and current road reserves are available for utilisation<br />
(Table 11). Although the ratio of low selectivity grazers and other remaining grazers are still<br />
skewed, the stocking rate is approaching the ecological grazing capacity. However, the<br />
ecological browse capacity, excluding the requirements of giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis, is<br />
exceeded by 195.29 percent of the ecological browsing capacity.<br />
6 ECOCAP. Ecological Capacity computer database for the determination of stocking rates<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 60
Table 9: The current stocking densities, based on the September 2005 game count, if all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
is accepted as potentially suitable habitat for game<br />
Type of animal Number of Mean mass Large-animal Browse-animal Equivalent Equivalent Percentage of Percentage of<br />
Animals of animal units units large-animal browse-animal ecological ecological<br />
in kg per animal per animal units per group units per group graze capacity browse capacity<br />
Low selectivity grazers<br />
Buffalo 0 650 1.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Burchell's zebra 62 300 0.66 0.00 41.17 0.00 13.54 0.00<br />
White rhinoceros 0 1800 2.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 62 13.54 0.00<br />
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest 40 210 0.54 0.00 21.68 0.00 7.13 0.00<br />
Roan antelope 0 250 0.61 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sable antelope 0 220 0.50 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Tsessebe 0 130 0.35 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Waterbuck 0 200 0.50 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 40 7.13 0.00<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common impala 437 55 0.10 0.25 45.17 108.42 14.86 95.95<br />
Eland 0 500 0.43 1.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Kudu 33 200 0.10 0.80 3.23 26.30 1.06 23.28<br />
Nyala 0 70 0.12 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Warthog 43 70 0.10 0.12 4.26 5.11 1.40 4.53<br />
Sub total 513 17.32 123.75<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros 0 900 0.00 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Bushbuck 3 40 0.02 0.20 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.52<br />
Common duiker 6 20 0.00 0.22 0.01 1.31 0.00 1.16<br />
Giraffe 22 1000 0.02 4.28 0.40 94.20 0.13 83.36<br />
Steenbok 0 11 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 31 0.15 85.04<br />
TOTAL 646 38.15 208.80<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 61
Table 10: The current stocking densities, based on the September 2005 game count, if landscaped gardens are excluded<br />
from potentially available habitat areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Type of animal Number of Mean mass Large-animal Browse-animal Equivalent Equivalent Percentage of Percentage of<br />
Animals of animal units units large-animal browse-animal ecological ecological<br />
in kg per animal per animal units per group units per group graze capacity browse capacity<br />
Low selectivity grazers<br />
Buffalo 0 650 1.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Burchell's zebra 62 300 0.66 0.00 41.17 0.00 16.67 0.00<br />
White rhinoceros 0 1800 2.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 62 16.67 0.00<br />
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest 40 210 0.54 0.00 21.68 0.00 8.78 0.00<br />
Roan antelope 0 250 0.61 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sable antelope 0 220 0.50 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Tsessebe 0 130 0.35 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Waterbuck 0 200 0.50 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 40 8.78 0.00<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common impala 437 55 0.10 0.25 45.17 108.42 18.29 117.85<br />
Eland 0 500 0.43 1.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Kudu 33 200 0.10 0.80 3.23 26.30 1.31 28.59<br />
Nyala 0 70 0.12 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Warthog 43 70 0.10 0.12 4.26 5.11 1.72 5.56<br />
Sub total 513 21.32 152.00<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros 0 900 0.00 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Bushbuck 3 40 0.02 0.20 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.64<br />
Common duiker 6 20 0.00 0.22 0.01 1.31 0.00 1.42<br />
Giraffe 22 1000 0.02 4.28 0.40 94.20 0.16 102.39<br />
Steenbok 0 11 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 31 0.19 104.45<br />
TOTAL 646 46.95 256.46<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 62
Table 11: The current stocking densities, based on the September 2005 game count, if only parkland and road reserves<br />
are accepted as potentially available habitat areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Type of animal Number of Mean mass Large-animal Browse-animal Equivalent Equivalent Percentage of Percentage of<br />
Animals of animal units units large-animal browse-animal ecological ecological<br />
in kg per animal per animal units per group units per group graze capacity browse capacity<br />
Low selectivity grazers<br />
Buffalo 0 650 1.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Burchell's zebra 62 300 0.66 0.00 41.17 0.00 31.67 0.00<br />
White rhinoceros 0 1800 2.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 62 31.67 0.00<br />
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest 40 210 0.54 0.00 21.68 0.00 16.68 0.00<br />
Roan antelope 0 250 0.61 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sable antelope 0 220 0.50 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Tsessebe 0 130 0.35 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Waterbuck 0 200 0.50 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 40 16.68 0.00<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common impala 437 55 0.10 0.25 45.17 108.42 34.74 225.88<br />
Eland 0 500 0.43 1.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Kudu 33 200 0.10 0.80 3.23 26.30 2.49 54.80<br />
Nyala 0 70 0.12 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Warthog 43 70 0.10 0.12 4.26 5.11 3.28 10.65<br />
Sub total 513 40.51 291.34<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros 0 900 0.00 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Bushbuck 3 40 0.02 0.20 0.05 0.59 0.04 1.22<br />
Common duiker 6 20 0.00 0.22 0.01 1.31 0.01 2.73<br />
Giraffe 22 1000 0.02 4.28 0.40 94.20 0.31 196.25<br />
Steenbok 0 11 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 31 0.35 200.20<br />
TOTAL 646 89.21 491.54<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 63
Recommendations on stocking rates<br />
Changing stocking rates cannot be based on grazing and browsing capacities only. Other<br />
factors such as the correct sex ratios, age and social structures as well as habitat and food<br />
selection are of importance. Sex ratios and age structure will influence the breeding<br />
performance of the herd, through mating frequency, time spent on courtship or rank fighting.<br />
Food selection is mainly considered when dividing the species into groups of high and low<br />
selective grazers. Habitat selection is primarily dependent on food palatability and<br />
availability, water, cover, and habitat structure.<br />
SPECIES DESCRIPTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
Low selectivity, bulk grazers<br />
Buffalo Syncerus caffer Sparrman 1779<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, fynbos, thicket, lowveld, mopane veld,<br />
Kalahari and grassland in the southeastern foothills.<br />
Habitat requirement: Buffalo prefer open savannas characterised by tall grass. They<br />
avoid trampled areas. Shade and wallows are necessary habitat features.<br />
Space requirements: Range varies between 50 and 400 km 2 .<br />
Food preference: Buffalo mainly eat grass and prefer species such as Themeda triandra,<br />
Panicum coloratum, Panicum maximum and Digitaria species. Occasionally trees and<br />
bushes of Grewia, Dichrostachys and Combretum species are browsed.<br />
Water requirements: 31 l/day, water dependent.<br />
Minimum viable group size: Eight individuals, consisting of three males and five<br />
females.<br />
Sex ratio: One male for every 5 to 15 females in the wild.<br />
Recommendation: Buffalo is considered one of the most effective non-selective grazers,<br />
with little preference shown for specific grass species; aggressive behaviour, range<br />
limitations and economic considerations usually exclude this animal from introduction on<br />
small game areas. However, if this option is considered, a viable breeding population can<br />
be obtained from the Lionspruit Game Reserve. No buffalo is currently stocked on<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, but introduction can be considered. The best alternatives to stocking<br />
buffalo are either, Burchell’s zebra or white rhinoceros.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 64
Burchell's zebra Equus burchelli Gray 1824<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, thicket,<br />
lowveld, mopane veld, Kalahari and grassland on mountains and the escarpment.<br />
Habitat requirement: Open savannas and grasslands.<br />
Space requirements: On wildlife ranches no more than one zebra per 25 ha are<br />
recommended, where mean annual rainfall ranges from 450 to 550 mm.<br />
Food preference: Zebra prefer grass that is shorter than 350 mm. They especially like<br />
Themeda triandra and Cynodon dactylon, which are eaten irrespective of their abundance.<br />
They will also eat Tribulus terrestris and occasionally browse.<br />
Water requirements: 12 l/day, water dependent.<br />
Minimum viable group size: Seven individuals.<br />
Sex ratio: 1:6 male to female ratio.<br />
Recommendation: Keeping zebra on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is considered advantageous, as this<br />
animal is the only relatively inexpensive, bulk grazer suitable for the area. However, these<br />
animals do exhibit preference for over-grazed areas, and often occur together with<br />
warthog and impala in the same habitat. Zebra stocking rates should not exceed four<br />
animals per 100 ha of suitable habitat. The stocking rate of blue wildebeest on <strong>Marloth</strong><br />
<strong>Park</strong>, based on the September 2005 game count, is 62 animals.<br />
White rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum Burchell, 1817<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, Nama karoo, lowveld, mopane veld<br />
and Kalahari.<br />
Habitat requirement: White rhinoceros prefer flat savannas with short grasslands. To<br />
maintain a healthy skin, mud wallows are imperative.<br />
Space requirements: The minimum space requirements of white rhinoceros are 600 ha.<br />
Food preference: Short grass, especially Themeda triandra, Panicum maximum,<br />
Panicum coloratum, Urochloa mosambicensis and Cynodon dactylon.<br />
Water requirements: 72 l/day, water dependent.<br />
Minimum viable group size: Six individuals.<br />
Sex ratio: In natural conditions a 1:1 sex ratio is observed. For wildlife ranching a 1:4<br />
male to female ratio is recommended.<br />
Recommendation: White rhinoceros is considered the most effective bulk grazer. Its<br />
range requirements, is a limitation for introduction; and aggressive behaviour and<br />
economic considerations usually excludes this animal from introduction on small wildlife,<br />
or recreational park areas. No white rhinoceros is currently stocked on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, and<br />
introduction is not advised.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 65
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus Burchell 1823<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, lowveld,<br />
mopane veld, Kalahari and grassland on the central highveld.<br />
Habitat requirement: Blue wildebeest need open savannas with trees and shrubs.<br />
Space requirements: Space requirements of blue wildebeest are 3 km 2 for a herd of 20 to<br />
30 animals, as the species is territorial.<br />
Food preference: Blue wildebeest prefer short grass that is not taller than 150 mm.<br />
Panicum species and Cynodon dactylon are selected for towards end of the dry season.<br />
Water requirements: 9 l/day, water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: 12 individuals<br />
Sex ratio: 1:6 to 1:10 male to female ratio.<br />
Recommendation: This animal species is considered suitable for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Stocking<br />
density should not exceed seven individuals per 100 ha of suitable habitat. The stocking<br />
rate of blue wildebeest on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, based on the September 2005 game count, is 40<br />
animals.<br />
Roan antelope Hippotragus equinus Desmarest 1804<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, lowveld,<br />
mopane veld and Kalahari.<br />
Habitat requirement: Open savannas, medium to tall grasslands and vleis with scattered<br />
low shrubs.<br />
Space requirements: Free roaming ranch roan antelope need 600 to 1000 ha for a herd of<br />
11 animals on a wildlife ranch.<br />
Food preference: Roan antelope avoid overgrazed area with short grass. They require<br />
medium to tall grass such as Themeda triandra, Schmidtia pappophoroides and Panicum<br />
coloratum. Roan antelope also feed on aquatic plants and switch to browse such as Acacia<br />
species and Rhus pyroides in critical situations.<br />
Water requirements: 10 l/day, water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: A free roaming breeding herd should consist of at least 12<br />
to 24 animals.<br />
Sex ratio: 1:10 male to female ratio on a wildlife ranch<br />
Recommendation: Roan antelope are sensitive to bush encroachment, overgrazing and<br />
trampling, which might impede the establishment of a viable population. Furthermore,<br />
roan antelope is density dependant, requiring between 1000 and 2000 ha per breeding<br />
group. No roan antelope is currently stocked on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, and introduction is not<br />
advised.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 66
Sable antelope Hippotragus niger Harris 1838<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, lowveld and mopane veld.<br />
Habitat requirement: Open savannas with scattered low shrubs bordering vleis, medium<br />
to tall sweet grassland.<br />
Space requirements: Sable antelope naturally have a range of 200 to 400 ha and<br />
establish territories of 25 to 40 ha size.<br />
Food preference: Sable antelope prefer grass that is 80 to 140 mm tall. Preferred grass<br />
species are Panicum maximum and Brachiaria nigropedata. Other species include<br />
Themeda triandra and Urochloa sp. The preferred shrubs and trees are Acacia karroo,<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea, Dombeya rotundifolia, Grewia flava, Grewia monticola and<br />
Ziziphus mucronata.<br />
Water requirements: 9 l/day, water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: A free roaming breeding herd should consist of 14 animals<br />
Sex ratio: In the wild 1:3 male to female ratios develop, whereas a ratio of 1:12 is<br />
recommended for a wildlife ranch.<br />
Recommendation: Sable antelope are valuable trophy and life sale animals. No sable<br />
antelope is currently stocked on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, and introduction is not advised, as these<br />
animals are also sensitive to bush encroachment, overgrazing and trampling. Furthermore,<br />
sable antelope are especially susceptible to anthrax and can increase the risk to other<br />
animals on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> contracting the disease.<br />
Tsessebe Damaliscus lunatus Burchell 1823<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, lowveld, mopane veld and Kalahari.<br />
Habitat requirement: Grassland-bushveld edges, palatable grasses, shade and water in<br />
areas with few stones.<br />
Space requirements: Territories from 200 to 400 ha.<br />
Food preference: Palatable grass.<br />
Water requirements: 5 l/day, water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: 3 to 10 individuals<br />
Sex ratio: 2:6 male to female ratio<br />
Comment: Tsessebe is a relatively rare animal that is not currently stocked on <strong>Marloth</strong><br />
<strong>Park</strong>. Introduction can be considered, however, it must be noted that this antelope is<br />
demanding in their habitat requirement; bush encroachment is detrimental to the<br />
establishment of a viable population. Furthermore, artificial water holes will need to be<br />
naturalized. Stocking density should not exceed seven individuals per 100 ha of suitable<br />
habitat. Both the Chloris virgata – Acacia grandicornuta Low thicket and Trichoneura<br />
grandiglumis - Combretum apiculatum Short bushland are considered suitable habitat.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 67
Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus Ogilby 1833<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, lowveld and mopane veld.<br />
Habitat requirement: Open savannas, vleis and floodplains, grasslands.<br />
Space requirements: Waterbuck have ranges of 150 to 780 ha and establish territories of<br />
40 to 50 ha size<br />
Food preference: Waterbuck prefer grasses that are taller than 120 mm. They exhibit<br />
preference for Cynodon dactylon, Panicum maximum, Digitaria species as well as<br />
Phragmites australis species. Waterbuck also browse and prefer Acacia tortilis as well as<br />
the fruit of Sclerocarya birrea.<br />
Water requirements: 9 l/day, water dependent.<br />
Minimum viable group size: 4 to 12 individuals form a breeding herd<br />
Sex ratio: 2:4 male to female ratio<br />
Recommendation: No waterbuck is currently stocked on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, based on the<br />
September 2005 game count. However, suitable habitat do exists in the Themeda triandra<br />
– Acacia nigrescens Low bushland plant community, and reintroduction of a viable<br />
breeding population is recommended. These animals are density dependent, requiring<br />
monitoring of population increase and habitat degradation.<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common Impala Aepyceros melampus Lichtenstein 1812<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, lowveld,<br />
mopane veld and Kalahari.<br />
Habitat requirement: Open savannas and heavily utilised areas, Acacia veld.<br />
Space requirements: The range of impala amount to 200 to 700 ha, territories encompass<br />
4 to 10 ha.<br />
Food preference: Impala prefer grasses that are shorter than 150 mm, such as Cynodon<br />
dactylon, Panicum maximum, Digitaria eriantha as well as Eragrostis, Aristida and<br />
Urochloa species. For browse, impala prefer tree species such as Acacia, Boscia,<br />
Combretum, Commiphora and Grewia species as well as Dichrostachys cinerea,<br />
Terminalia sericea and Ziziphus mucronata. Preferred forbs are Sida cordifolia,<br />
Waltheria indica and Tephrosia species.<br />
Water requirements: Impala are water dependent and require 2.5 l/day. They do not<br />
roam further than 2 km from water.<br />
Minimum viable group size: The mean breading herd size is 15 to 150 animals.<br />
Sex ration: 1:3 male to female ratio in the wild, 1:4 to 1:7 ratios recommended for<br />
wildlife production.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 68
Recommendation: Impala is a suitable buffer species in areas where leopards are still<br />
found, and losses of more expensive animals need to be reduced. Stocking density should<br />
not exceed 12 animals per 100 ha of suitable habitat. On <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, the availability of<br />
sufficient browse below the maximum browsing height of 1.5 m is a consideration,<br />
limiting the number of animals that can be sustained. Futhermore, these antelope exhibit<br />
preference for degraded areas such as found in the Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus<br />
berteronianus Low bushland plant community. Based on the September 2005 game<br />
count, the impala numbers currently stocked on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> exceeds the maximum<br />
recommended density.<br />
Eland Tragelaphus oryx Pallas 1766<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, fynbos,<br />
succulent karoo, Nama karoo, bushmanland, thicket, lowveld, mopane veld, Kalahari and<br />
grassland on the central highveld, on mountains and the escarpment and in the south-<br />
eastern foothills.<br />
Habitat requirement: Mesic to open arid savannas<br />
Space requirements: Eland have ranges bigger than 200 km 2 . The minimum<br />
recommended ranch size is 3000 ha<br />
Food preference: The most important trees utilised by eland are Acacia species, Albizia<br />
harveyi, Colophospermum mopane, Combretum apiculatum, Grewia species, Sclerocarya<br />
birrea, Terminalia sericea species and Ximenia caffra. Grasses are preferred in the wet<br />
season. Preferred grass species are Chloris virgata, Schmidtia pappophoroides and<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis. Aristida species are utilised only seldom.<br />
Water requirements: 23 l/day, not water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: 20 individuals<br />
Sex ratio: 8 to 12 cows per bull in the wild<br />
Recommendation: Although eland historically did occur in this area, introduction is<br />
hampered by property size limitations and the amount of available browse. Current<br />
reintroduction is thus not recommended, but this option can again be considered if habitat<br />
manipulation is applied or in the event that the area is enlarged.<br />
Kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros Pallas 1766<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, thicket,<br />
lowveld, mopane veld, Kalahari and grassland on the central highveld and in the<br />
southeastern foothills.<br />
Habitat requirement: Open to dense savannas, broken and rocky terrain.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 69
Space requirements: Kudu have ranges of 90 to 600 ha size. Animal densities should not<br />
exceed 3 to 4 animals per 100 ha of suitable habitat.<br />
Food preference: Kudu are browsers and eat many plants avoided by other browsers.<br />
Preferred tree species include Acacia tortilis, Acacia nigrescens and Combretum<br />
hereroense early in the growth season, and Dichrostachys cinerea and Combretum<br />
apiculatum later in the dry season.<br />
Water requirements: 7 to 9 l/day, water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: Seven individuals<br />
Sex ratio: In the wild the male to female ratio is 1:2. A sex ration of 1:4 is recommended<br />
for a wildlife ranch<br />
Recommendation: The habitat on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is considered most suitable for kudu, and<br />
according to the September 2005 game count, at least 33 animals occur on the property.<br />
Density limitations are four individuals per 100 ha of suitable habitat, however, browse<br />
availability is currently a further limitation as much of the browse is above the maximum<br />
browse height of 2 m.<br />
Nyala Tragelaphus angasii Gray 1849<br />
Historic distribution: Lowveld and mopane veld.<br />
Habitat requirement: Dense shrubs to thickets, riparian thickets, forests and floodplains.<br />
Space requirements: Nyala have a natural range of 65 to 390 ha.<br />
Food preference: Nyala are predominantly browsers. However, in summer they mainly<br />
feed on grass. Preferred tree species are Ziziphus mucronata, Adansonia digitata and<br />
Acacia species.<br />
Water requirements: 3.5 l/day, not water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: 12 to 15 individuals<br />
Sex ratio: In wildlife areas the male to female ratio is 1:2.<br />
Recommendation: The Nyala is not endemic to the <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> region; however, a<br />
number of individuals can be found in the Kruger National <strong>Park</strong>. The nyala competes<br />
directly with bushbuck for food and habitat resources, and in less dense vegetation such<br />
as on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, seems to out compete the latter. They are aggressive and drive even<br />
large antelope such as waterbuck out of their habitat. The introduction of nyala is not<br />
recommended.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 70
Warthog Phacochoerus africanus Pallas 1766<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, thicket,<br />
lowveld, mopane veld and Kalahari<br />
Habitat requirement: Warthog preferably utilise open savannas, grasslands, vleis and<br />
floodplains with short heavily utilised grass but will also utilise open woodland and open<br />
shrub<br />
Food preference: Warthog feed on grass, sedges, herbs, shrubs and wild fruits. Preferred<br />
grass species are Urochloa mosambicensis, Panicum maximum, Panicum coloratum,<br />
Chloris virgata, Sporobolus nitens and Cynodon dactylon. Warthog love figs and marulas<br />
Water requirements: 3.5 l/day, not water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: Three animals form a breeding group.<br />
Sex ratio: 1:2 male to female ratio<br />
Recommendation: Warthog utilise every plant community on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Based on<br />
the September game count, 43 animals are found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. It is recommended that<br />
population numbers be monitored, as these animals also exhibit preference for the already<br />
over-utilised habit areas such as found in the Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus<br />
berteronianus Low bushland plant community.<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis Linnaeus 1758<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, fynbos,<br />
Nama karoo, bushmanland, thicket, lowveld, mopane veld, Kalahari, and grassland in the<br />
southeastern foothills<br />
Habitat requirement: Black rhinoceros require open to dense savannas where shrubs<br />
and trees of up to 4 m height prevail.<br />
Space requirements: Black rhinoceros form territories of 250 to 800 ha. The ranch<br />
should be at least 3000 to 4000 ha in size.<br />
Food preference: Black rhinoceros are mainly browsers but occasionally feed on grass.<br />
Preferred tree species are Acacia, Dichrostachys, Diospyros, Croton, Combretum,<br />
Commiphora and Grewia species. Black rhinoceros avoid Acacia nigrescens and Ziziphus<br />
mucronata, as these trees are heavily thorned. Preferred forbs species are Justicia,<br />
Indigofera and Abutilon species.<br />
Water requirements: 35 l/day, water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: Five individuals.<br />
Sex ratio: The sex ratio is 1:1 in natural wildlife areas.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 71
Recommendation: The range requirements of black rhinoceros are a limitation for<br />
introduction; and aggressive behaviour and economic considerations usually excludes this<br />
animal from introduction on small wildlife, or recreational park areas. No black<br />
rhinoceros is currently stocked on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, and introduction is not advised.<br />
Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus Pallas 1766<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, forest,<br />
thicket, lowveld and mopane veld.<br />
Habitat requirement: Riparian thicket, other dense shrub and brush near permanent<br />
water.<br />
Space requirements: Range size measures from 3 to 175 ha<br />
Food preference: Bushbucks are mainly browsers and prefer Acacia tortilis as well as<br />
Combretum, Ximenia and Ziziphus species. Bushbuck occasionally feed on grass species<br />
such as Panicum maximum, Cynodon dactylon and Eragrostis superba.<br />
Water requirements: 1.5 l/day, water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: Ten individuals<br />
Sex ratio: 2 to 3 females per male in natural conditions<br />
Recommendation: Bushbuck is well adapted to the Themeda triandra – Acacia<br />
nigrescens Low bushland and Spirostachys africana – Balanites maughamiii Low<br />
bushland habitat on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Although the September 2005 game count only<br />
recorded three individuals, it must be accepted that this shy animal in all likelihood occur<br />
in much higher numbers as aerial game counts is notoriously inaccurate where these<br />
animals are concerned. These antelope are density dependent and further management<br />
intervention is not required.<br />
Common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia Linnaeus 1758<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, fynbos,<br />
succulent karoo, Nama karoo, bushmanland, forest, thicket, lowveld, mopane veld,<br />
Kalahari and grassland on the central highveld, on mountains and the escarpment and in<br />
the southeastern foothills; throughout South Africa.<br />
Habitat requirement: Common duiker requires thickets, savannas and woodlands that<br />
provide shade and cover. They preferably occur in ecotones.<br />
Space requirements: Common duiker has a range between 1.9 and 3.8 ha in size.<br />
Stocking rates are recommended at about 4 ha per animal<br />
Food preference: Common duikers are browsers. They feed on twigs, flowers and fallen<br />
fruit, especially of Solanum species. Occasionally common duiker also feeds on grasses<br />
and forbs.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 72
Water requirements: 1 l/day, not water dependent<br />
Minimum viable group size: 6 to 10 animals<br />
Sex ratio: 1:1 in natural conditions<br />
Recommendation: As with bushbuck, this relatively shy antelope is difficult to count<br />
using aerial game counts. However, six individuals were recorded during the September<br />
2005 game count. These antelope are density dependent and self-regulatory; further<br />
management intervention is not required.<br />
Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis Linnaeus 1758<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, lowveld,<br />
mopane veld and Kalahari.<br />
Habitat requirement: Arid to mesic savannas<br />
Space requirements: Giraffe have a range from 20 to 160 km 2 in size. The minimum<br />
required ranch size is 1500 ha and stocking rates should not exceed one giraffe per 200<br />
ha.<br />
Food preference: Giraffe are predominantly browsers and feed on Acacia, Combretum,<br />
Terminalia and Ziziphus species. The most important species in the giraffes´ diet are<br />
Acacia caffra, Acacia karroo, Combretum apiculatum, Combretum hereroense,<br />
Combretum imberbe and Dichrostachys cinerea. In dry months giraffe turn to evergreens<br />
such as Gymnosporia and Diospyros species, to the fruit of Acacia and Combretum<br />
species and to flowers of Acacia nigrescens.<br />
Water requirements: 40 l/day, not water dependent.<br />
Minimum viable group size: Mean group size 5.7 animals<br />
Sex ratio: 1:2 male to female ratio<br />
Recommendation: The habitat on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is well suited for giraffe, and based on<br />
the September 2005 game count, 22 individuals occur on the property. As these animals<br />
generally browse up to a height of 5.5 m, leaf biomass production is not a limiting factor.<br />
Home range, however, can be a limiting factor.<br />
Steenbok Raphicerus campestris Thunberg 1811<br />
Historic distribution: Sweet and mixed bushveld, mountain or sour bushveld, fynbos,<br />
succulent karoo, Nama karoo, bushmanland, lowveld, mopane veld, Kalahari and<br />
grassland on the central highveld.<br />
Habitat requirement: Steenbok require open savannas and grasslands that are<br />
characterised by lumps of scattered tall grass lumps and low shrubs.<br />
Space requirements: Steenbok establish a territory of 30 ha in size.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 73
Food preference: Steenbok utilise Acacia nigrescens, Grewia species, Boscia albitrunca,<br />
Terminalia sericea, Ziziphus mucronata as well as the fruit of Grewia flavescens,<br />
Ximenia caffra and Solanum species. Steenbok also utilise grasses to a small degree.<br />
Water requirements: Not water dependent.<br />
Minimum viable group size: Due to overlapping ranges steenbok develop natural<br />
densities of 7 to 20 animals per hectare.<br />
Sex ratio: 1:1 in natural conditions<br />
Recommendation: This small antelope is also density dependant, and although none had<br />
been recorded during the September 2005 game count, it can be accepted that these<br />
animals do occur on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Steenbok are habitat specific and self-regulatory. No<br />
active management intervention is required.<br />
STOCKING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MARLOTH PARK<br />
It is important to correct the different feeding category ratios on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, as the<br />
feeding behaviour of one animal, in effect, modifies the environment so that it becomes<br />
more suitable to other animals from a different feeding category. The current non-<br />
selective or bulk grazer category is well below the 50 percent of ecological grazing<br />
capacity guideline, and it is recommended that this be rectified. Considering that <strong>Marloth</strong><br />
<strong>Park</strong> is an open township with no current access control through the area, the introduction<br />
of buffalo Syncerus caffer or white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum are not<br />
recommended. Both species can be considered dangerous and high-risk animals. The<br />
security risk also excludes the introduction of roan antelope Hippotragus equinus and<br />
sable antelope Hippotragus niger, despite suitable habitat on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. The current<br />
high stocking rate of impala Aepyceros melampus melampus is also an undesirable<br />
competitive factor. Introduction of viable populations are also cost inhibitive. The<br />
introduction of any animals that require browse as part of their diet are also not<br />
recommended, as this will only exacerbate the current degradation of available resources.<br />
The introduction of eland Taurotragus oryx or nyala Tragelaphus angasii is not currently<br />
recommended, as both will exert undue pressure on the natural resources available.<br />
Furthermore, the introduction of nyala will be detrimental to the health and survival of the<br />
bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus population. The introduction of eland and tsessebe<br />
Damaliscus lunatus lunatus can, however, be reconsidered if the impala population is<br />
drastically reduced and the veld given a number of years to recover it health and vigour.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 74
Three different scenarios are analysed; the first is based on the assumption that the whole<br />
of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, excluding the current development footprint and actual road surfaces, is<br />
suitable for utilisation (Table 12); second that the current building footprints, actual road<br />
surfaces and landscaped gardens are subtracted from the available area (Table 13); and<br />
third that only the parkland and current road reserves are available for utilisation (Table<br />
14).<br />
If it is considered that stocking densities for Burchell’s zebra Equus burchelli should not<br />
exceed four animals per 100 ha of suitable habitat, blue wildebeest Connochaetes<br />
taurinus seven animals per 100 ha, common impala Aepyceros melampus melampus 12<br />
animals per 100 ha, and kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros three animals per 100 ha, the<br />
following stocking options can be applied.<br />
In the first scenario (Table 12), the optimum stocking density of Burchell’s zebra has<br />
been reached and no active intervention is required in manipulating the animal numbers.<br />
This will place <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> on a 13.54 percent non-selective graze utilisation that leaves<br />
a deficit of 36.46. As the introduction of other animal species to fill this niche is not<br />
currently recommended, their impact on the vegetation need be simulated applying<br />
accepted ecological management principles. In the high selectivity category the current<br />
stocking density of blue wildebeest can be increased to 108 individuals. In the mixed<br />
feeder category, however, the impala stocking density must be reduced to 185 animals.<br />
The kudu from the same category can be increased to 46 animals. The giraffe from the<br />
browse feeder category also need to be reduced to seven animals, because of range<br />
requirements. If these numbers are exceeded the giraffe population must be monitored for<br />
any deviant behaviour, and the vegetation monitored for undesirable change such as<br />
hourglass formations. Applying these recommendations will ensure a 42.03 percent<br />
utilisation of the potential ecological graze capacity and a 78.28 percent utilisation of the<br />
potential ecological browse capacity, excluding the giraffe utilisation.<br />
In the second scenario (Table 13), the optimum stocking density for Burchell’s zebra is 50<br />
individuals, in which case 12 animals need to be removed from <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. In the high<br />
selectivity category the current stocking density of blue wildebeest can be increased to 88<br />
individuals. In the mixed feeder category, however, the impala stocking density must be<br />
reduced to 150 animals. The kudu from the same category can be increased to 38 animals.<br />
The giraffe from the browse feeder category also need to be reduced to six animals,<br />
because of range requirements.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 75
Table 12: The potential stocking densities if all open areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is accepted as suitable habitat for game<br />
Type of animal Number of Mean mass Large-animal Browse-animal Equivalent Equivalent Percentage of Percentage of<br />
Animals of animal units units large-animal browse-animal ecological ecological<br />
in kg per animal per animal units per group units per group graze capacity browse capacity<br />
Low selectivity grazers<br />
Buffalo 0 650 1.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Burchell's zebra 62 300 0.66 0.00 41.17 0.00 13.54 0.00<br />
White rhinoceros 0 1800 2.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 62 13.54 0.00<br />
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest 108 210 0.54 0.00 58.54 0.00 19.26 0.00<br />
Roan antelope 0 250 0.61 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sable antelope 0 220 0.50 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Tsessebe 0 130 0.35 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Waterbuck 0 200 0.50 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 108 19.26 0.00<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common impala 185 55 0.10 0.25 19.12 45.90 6.29 40.62<br />
Eland 0 500 0.43 1.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Kudu 46 200 0.10 0.80 4.51 36.67 1.48 32.45<br />
Nyala 0 70 0.12 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Warthog 43 70 0.10 0.12 4.26 5.11 1.40 4.53<br />
Sub total 274 9.17 77.59<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros 0 900 0.00 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Bushbuck 3 40 0.02 0.20 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.52<br />
Common duiker 6 20 0.00 0.22 0.01 1.31 0.00 1.16<br />
Giraffe 7 1000 0.02 4.28 0.13 29.97 0.04 26.52<br />
Steenbok 0 11 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 16 0.06 28.20<br />
TOTAL 460 42.03 105.80<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 76
Table 13: The potential stocking densities if landscaped gardens are excluded from available habitat areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Type of animal Number of Mean mass Large-animal Browse-animal Equivalent Equivalent Percentage of Percentage of<br />
Animals of animal units units large-animal browse-animal ecological ecological<br />
in kg per animal per animal units per group units per group graze capacity browse capacity<br />
Low selectivity grazers<br />
Buffalo 0 650 1.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Burchell's zebra 50 300 0.66 0.00 33.20 0.00 13.44 0.00<br />
White rhinoceros 0 1800 2.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 50 13.44 0.00<br />
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest 88 210 0.54 0.00 47.70 0.00 19.31 0.00<br />
Roan antelope 0 250 0.61 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sable antelope 0 220 0.50 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Tsessebe 0 130 0.35 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Waterbuck 0 200 0.50 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 88 19.31 0.00<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common impala 150 55 0.10 0.25 15.50 37.22 6.28 40.45<br />
Eland 0 500 0.43 1.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Kudu 38 200 0.10 0.80 3.72 30.29 1.51 32.92<br />
Nyala 0 70 0.12 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Warthog 43 70 0.10 0.12 4.26 5.11 1.72 5.56<br />
Sub total 231 9.51 78.93<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros 0 900 0.00 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Bushbuck 3 40 0.02 0.20 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.64<br />
Common duiker 6 20 0.00 0.22 0.01 1.31 0.00 1.42<br />
Giraffe 6 1000 0.02 4.28 0.11 25.69 0.04 27.93<br />
Steenbok 0 11 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 15 0.07 29.99<br />
TOTAL 384 42.33 108.92<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 77
Table 14: The potential stocking densities if only parklands and road reserves are accepted<br />
as available habitat areas on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Type of animal Number of Mean mass Large-animal Browse-animal Equivalent Equivalent Percentage of Percentage of<br />
Animals of animal units units large-animal browse-animal ecological ecological<br />
in kg per animal per animal units per group units per group graze capacity browse capacity<br />
Low selectivity grazers<br />
Buffalo 0 650 1.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Burchell's zebra 26 300 0.66 0.00 17.26 0.00 6.99 0.00<br />
White rhinoceros 0 1800 2.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 26 6.99 0.00<br />
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest 46 210 0.54 0.00 24.93 0.00 10.09 0.00<br />
Roan antelope 0 250 0.61 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sable antelope 0 220 0.50 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Tsessebe 0 130 0.35 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Waterbuck 0 200 0.50 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 46 10.09 0.00<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common impala 79 55 0.10 0.25 8.17 19.60 3.31 21.31<br />
Eland 0 500 0.43 1.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Kudu 20 200 0.10 0.80 1.96 15.94 0.79 17.33<br />
Nyala 0 70 0.12 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Warthog 43 70 0.10 0.12 4.26 5.11 1.72 5.56<br />
Sub total 142 5.82 44.19<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros 0 900 0.00 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Bushbuck 3 40 0.02 0.20 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.64<br />
Common duiker 6 20 0.00 0.22 0.01 1.31 0.00 1.42<br />
Giraffe 4 1000 0.02 4.28 0.07 17.13 0.03 18.62<br />
Steenbok 0 11 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 13 0.05 20.68<br />
TOTAL 227 22.96 64.87<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 78
Applying these recommendations will ensure a 42.33 percent utilisation of the potential<br />
ecological graze capacity and 80.99 percent utilisation of the potential ecological browse<br />
capacity, excluding the giraffe utilisation.<br />
In the third scenario (Table 14), the optimum stocking density for Burchell’s zebra is 26<br />
individuals, in which case 36 animals need to be removed from <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. In the high<br />
selectivity category the current stocking density of blue wildebeest can be increased to 46<br />
individuals. In the mixed feeder category, however, the impala stocking density must be<br />
reduced to 79 animals. The kudu from the same category must be reduced to 20 animals. The<br />
giraffe from the browse feeder category also need to be reduced to four animals, because of<br />
range requirements. Applying these recommendations will ensure a 22.96 percent utilisation<br />
of the potential ecological graze capacity and 46.25 percent utilisation of the potential<br />
ecological browse capacity, excluding the giraffe utilisation. Better utilisation of the natural<br />
resources can only be achieved by increasing animal species diversity.<br />
The first scenario is not a true reflection of the available habitat, especially during drought<br />
and winter periods, while the third scenario is considered extreme in application. It is thus<br />
recommended that the second scenario be used as a template for stocking animals on <strong>Marloth</strong><br />
<strong>Park</strong>. The landscape garden areas, subtracted from this option, can then act as a resource<br />
reservoir during periods of extreme feeding stress. Applying this option has little impact on<br />
most animal species, with exception of the impala and giraffe populations that should be<br />
reduced to 150 and 6 animals, respectively. However, although the reduction in impala<br />
numbers is considered compulsory, the giraffe numbers can be stocked at a higher level<br />
(Table 15). Even while conceding to a stocking density of 12 giraffe on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, this<br />
action must be closely monitored for any adverse effects. Exceeding the stocking density of<br />
12 giraffe is not recommended. In an attempt to improve utilisation, tsessebe Damaliscus<br />
lunatus lunatus and waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus can be introduced as minimum viable<br />
populations and allowed to increase naturally. Although eland can also be introduced, it is<br />
recommended that this option not be applied before some sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea<br />
control and reclamation measures has not been successfully implemented on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
An alternative option that can be used to increase stocking densities is by supplementary<br />
feeding of animals; however, this practice is not an ecologically viable proposition.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 79
Table 15: The recommended stocking densities of animals on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Type of animal Number of Mean mass Large-animal Browse-animal Equivalent Equivalent Percentage of Percentage of<br />
Animals of animal units units large-animal browse-animal ecological ecological<br />
in kg per animal per animal units per group units per group graze capacity browse capacity<br />
Low selectivity grazers<br />
Buffalo 0 650 1.25 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Burchell's zebra 50 300 0.66 0.00 33.20 0.00 13.44 0.00<br />
White rhinoceros 0 1800 2.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 50 13.44 0.00<br />
High selectivity grazers<br />
Blue wildebeest 88 210 0.54 0.00 47.70 0.00 19.31 0.00<br />
Roan antelope 0 250 0.61 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sable antelope 0 220 0.50 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Tsessebe 8 130 0.35 0.05 2.84 0.38 1.15 0.41<br />
Waterbuck 6 200 0.50 0.07 3.00 0.39 1.22 0.43<br />
Sub total 102 21.68 0.84<br />
Mixed feeders<br />
Common impala 150 55 0.10 0.25 15.50 37.22 6.28 40.45<br />
Eland 12 500 0.43 1.56 5.19 18.71 2.10 20.33<br />
Kudu 38 200 0.10 0.80 3.72 30.29 1.51 32.92<br />
Nyala 0 70 0.12 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Warthog 43 70 0.10 0.12 4.26 5.11 1.72 5.56<br />
Sub total 243 11.61 99.27<br />
Browse feeders<br />
Black rhinoceros 0 900 0.00 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Bushbuck 3 40 0.02 0.20 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.64<br />
Common duiker 6 20 0.00 0.22 0.01 1.31 0.00 1.42<br />
Giraffe 12 1000 0.02 4.28 0.22 51.38 0.09 55.85<br />
Steenbok 0 11 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00<br />
Sub total 21 0.11 57.91<br />
TOTAL 416 46.84 158.02<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 80
SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING<br />
The main objective of supplementary feeding is to supplement deficiencies, as well as to<br />
stimulate the appetite of the grazing animals to ensure better utilisation of poor quality foraging<br />
material. It is common for certain areas to have deficiencies in minerals and these deficiencies<br />
can affect animal productivity. Originally game was able to move freely over large areas to select<br />
the most nutritious food, but due to the animals being restricted by fences it has become<br />
necessary to provide supplements.<br />
The nutritional value of grass species, particularly in the Sourveld regions, decreases<br />
considerably as the grass matures, especially in autumn and winter. This is associated with the<br />
deterioration in the condition of the animals.<br />
DIGESTIBILITY<br />
The digestibility of the organic matter is one of the main factors determining the nutritive value<br />
of forage. A high digestibility is maintained in the spring and this declines as the plant matures<br />
over the summer due to changes in the chemical composition of the plant. The rate of this<br />
decline varies between grass species.<br />
The basic determinant of forage digestibility is the plant anatomy. <strong>Plan</strong>t cell contents, being<br />
mainly carbohydrates and proteins, are almost completely digestible, but cell walls vary in<br />
digestibility according to their degree of reinforcement with lignin. As plants grow there is a<br />
greater need for fibrous tissues and therefore the main structural carbohydrates and lignin<br />
increase. However, the concentration of protein decreases as the plant ages. Thus digestibility<br />
decreases as plants increase in maturity. There is a reciprocal relationship between the protein<br />
and fibre contents in a given species.<br />
PROTEIN CONTENT<br />
Protein is most probably the most common chemical component that limits animal performance,<br />
provided sufficient energy is supplied. Protein requirements of animals depend on the species<br />
and class of animal and on the level of production.<br />
A minimum figure of 5 percent crude protein in natural pastures is generally required for<br />
ungulates on African veld, whereas 8 percent crude protein is necessary in the vegetation for<br />
livestock. This indicates that game can cope better than livestock in poorer veld conditions.<br />
Protein content varies among different forage species and generally declines with maturity. In<br />
general the leaves of trees and shrubs seasonally provide a more constant and higher level of<br />
protein than the grasses.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 81
The proteins may be less available if one considers that the leaves also contain tannins, alkaloids<br />
and other compounds, which can interfere with digestibility. The leaves of trees have less<br />
cellulose and hemi-cellulose than grasses. Due to the fact that there is seasonal loss and change of<br />
leaves, the chance that browsers could experience an energy shortage at certain times of the year<br />
is greater than for grazers.<br />
TYPES OF SUPPLEMENTATION<br />
There are three main types for supplementation: minerals, protein and energy supplementation.<br />
For all the supplementary licks, salt forms a substantial component. Salt not only attracts the<br />
animals to the licks but also limits voluntary intake. It is important that the animals be exposed<br />
to saltlicks before other supplements are used. This ensures that they overcome salt hunger thus<br />
reducing the chance of the animals abusing licks and having an overdose. Cattle licks are<br />
sometimes not acceptable for game, but if the licks are placed near salt licks, game will utilise<br />
them.<br />
Mineral supplementation<br />
Depressed growth or ill-health can occur in grazing animals due to deficiencies in some of the<br />
macro-elements such as sulphur, calcium, phosphorous, sodium and magnesium. Deficiencies in<br />
the trace elements are difficult to detect because often the only effect on the animal is reduced<br />
growth and reduced fertility.<br />
The method of supplementation of a particular mineral depends to a large extent whether or not<br />
the mineral is stored in the body. Cobalt, copper, selenium, manganese and zinc are stored in a<br />
number of tissues and in the liver. Supplementation with these minerals thus need only be at<br />
intervals. Molybdenum and iodine are not stored in the body so supplementation should be daily.<br />
Salt licks are successful for mineral supplementation. The intake of minerals is regulated because<br />
animals apparently regulate their own intake of salt.<br />
The most common mineral deficiencies in South Africa are phosphorous and calcium<br />
deficiencies. Mineral supplements are in the form of dicalcium phosphate, bone meal,<br />
monocalcium phosphate or monosodium phosphate. These can be given in a lick.<br />
A mineral lick can for example consist of:<br />
• 30 kg bone meal, 30 kg salt and 15 kg molasses, or<br />
• 45 kg dicalcium phosphate, 45 kg salt, and 15 kg molasses<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 82
Mineral deficiencies are constant and therefore should not only be supplemented in winter. The<br />
soil type, rainfall and vegetation type of the area determines these deficiencies. The<br />
supplementation should be available for 12 months of the year.<br />
Protein supplementation<br />
For levels below the minimum requirements of protein, supplementation will usually be<br />
necessary, particularly in autumn and winter months when the protein content of the veld and<br />
some summer grass pastures are inadequate. Physical limitations to the intake of the forage itself<br />
cannot be overcome by supplementation. Protein supplementation increases the rate of digestion,<br />
increases the rate of passage of digesta and can provide an additional source of amino acids at the<br />
tissues. Its net effect is one of increasing forage intake.<br />
In South Africa the most important protein supplements used are peanut, sunflower and<br />
cottonseed oil cake meals, fishmeal, whale meal, carcass meal and blood meal. Non-<br />
proteinaceous nitrogen (NPN) licks are also used to improve the utilisation of low digestible<br />
crude foods. NPN sources are urea and biuret. NPN licks provide the urea that is broken down<br />
to provide materials for the rumen flora. When they die they are broken down to provide a<br />
source of protein. NPN licks are cheaper than protein licks.<br />
Urea and biuret can be incorporated into mineral licks and lick blocks. Urea poisoning can easily<br />
occur with an overdose. These licks usually contain dicalcium phosphate, a salt, making up 40 to<br />
60 percent of the mass. The salt can limit or encourage the ingestion of urea. Urea can be mixed<br />
with molasses syrup in order to reduce the chance of poisoning. Molasses and yellow corn meal<br />
are added to make the lick palatable enough so that the minimum urea is ingested.<br />
A successful method of supplementing urea for cattle is by incorporating it in dry mineral licks,<br />
for example incorporating 25 percent of each of the following:<br />
• dicalcium phosphate<br />
• salt<br />
• urea<br />
• corn meal<br />
However, licks must not contain more than 5 percent urea for game. Thus, the salt concentration<br />
should be increased and the urea concentration decreased when making the lick.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 83
When urea is incorporated into a phosphate-salt lick, it is necessary to determine whether the<br />
animals are suffering from salt hunger and what percentage salt should be incorporated into the<br />
lick to limit intake. It is important that the animals must first be exposed to a phosphate-salt lick.<br />
This will ensure that they do not have salt hunger and hence the danger of urea poisoning. The<br />
use of Biuret cancels the chance of poisoning; however, it is more expensive. Rumevite licks,<br />
which consists of a mixture of corn meal, dicalcium phosphate, urea, dry molasses, salt and trace<br />
elements, provide preventative measures against urea poisoning. Similar lick blocks can be<br />
made, using the following percentages:<br />
• dicalcium phosphate or bone meal 20<br />
• corn meal 10<br />
• salt 50<br />
• urea 5<br />
• molasses 15<br />
• Lucerne meal 5<br />
Protein licks should be available for 4 to 8 months of the year, corresponding with the dry season<br />
and forage quality.<br />
Energy supplementation<br />
Energy production by animals requires carbohydrates. Additional carbohydrates can be obtained<br />
from supplementary feeding. Almost all grains and their by-products can be used as a basis for<br />
energy-rich licks. Corn meal is the most important source of energy. Other sources are bran,<br />
oats, molasses and corn germ meal. Voluntary increase in ingestion is increased with energy-rich<br />
licks. Energy-rich licks are usually combined with the protein licks. They should be available for<br />
4 to 8 months, depending on the forage quality.<br />
The main objective of supplementary winter-feeding is thus to supplement deficiencies and to<br />
stimulate the appetite of the grazing animal so that poorer grazing is utilised more effectively.<br />
Appetite-stimulating licks with a urea or protein base are preferred above supplementary energy-<br />
rich feeds as a supplement to natural grazing.<br />
Summer licks supply mainly phosphate, calcium and vitamin-A, and can contain trace elements<br />
such as copper, cobalt, iodine, manganese, zinc and magnesium.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 84
Energy in the form of Kalori 3000 serves mainly as a binding medium and improves the<br />
palatability of the lick. Winter licks contain energy, sometimes proteins, urea, phosphate,<br />
calcium, sometimes trace elements and often vitamin-A. The form and composition of licks<br />
varies between game types, but in general licks are presented in the form of blocks, food pellets<br />
or energy food mixture in meal form.<br />
The best alternative is to manage the veld well, so that no supplementary feeding is necessary. If<br />
supplementary feeding is required the following can be used in early winter and for the duration<br />
of winter:<br />
• In sourveld: 50 percent salt, 25 percent bone meal or dicalcium phosphate, 20 percent K-3000<br />
molasses and 5 percent urea.<br />
The amount of supplementation is dependent on the size of the animal and physiological<br />
condition. Only prescribed amounts of licks must be ingested.<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Salt licks should be available for the entire year on an ad-lib basis.<br />
Mineral supplementation should be combined with a salt lick. South Africa has a deficiency in<br />
phosphorous and calcium. A phosphate-salt lick is the best option. Mineral supplementation<br />
should be available throughout the year.<br />
Protein licks should be available for 4 to 8 months of the year, corresponding with the dry season<br />
and forage quality. These licks should be available from May to September. Energy-rich licks<br />
are usually combined with the protein licks. They should be available for 4 to 8 months,<br />
depending on the forage quality. Energy-rich licks should be placed out from May to September.<br />
Protein as well as the carbohydrates for the energy-rich licks can be incorporated into the<br />
phosphate-salt lick. Thus, protein and energy supplementation can be combined with the salt and<br />
mineral supplementation in winter.<br />
Two manufacturers of supplementary feeding blocks are Voermol and Kynoch Feeds 7 . A protein<br />
supplement, Voermol Game Block, can be purchased at any agricultural co-operation. This lick<br />
has the advantage of being a protein, energy, mineral and trace element supplement for game; it<br />
does not contain urea; and it prevents weight loss and increases production.<br />
7 Kynoch Feeds (Pty) Ltd, P O Box 4880, Randburg. Tel: (011)787 0419<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 85
Recommended intake for game is 150 to 250 g per 50 kg body mass, while lactating animals can<br />
ingest 170 to 350 g per 50 kg body mass per day. Safari feeds 8 is also manufacturers of summer<br />
licks and winter licks that can contain remedies to control internal and external parasites. The<br />
following products are available:<br />
• Safari parasite lick<br />
• Safari anti-tannin block<br />
• Safari energy block<br />
• Safari phosphate block<br />
Further supplementation can be achieved by feeding game or even horse cubes to animals.<br />
However, this must be seen as supplementation only as this feed is not a constant resource and<br />
cannot substitute the natural ingestion of roughage. This will thus not affect the number of<br />
animals that can be sustained on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. If the objective is to sustain more animals on<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> by feeding intensively, both energy in the form of game cubes and roughage in the<br />
form of lucern or hay must be supplied. The requirements of single Graze Animal Unit are<br />
approximately 2.5 kg of cubes per day and 8 to 10 kg of lucern or hay. This equates to 18 bags of<br />
cubes and 260 bales of lucern or hay per year.<br />
Placement of licks<br />
The placement of licks is important. Lick containers must be distributed at strategic points in<br />
the veld, so that animals do not concentrate on certain places. The licks should be spread out<br />
across the entire area so that all game species have access to the licks and they should be near<br />
water. Licks must not be placed in over-utilised veld, because it promotes veld degradation.<br />
Licks can be placed in unpalatable areas so that unpalatable plants can be utilised to increase<br />
the utilisation of the veld. In wildlife ranching, licks can be used to encourage a form of<br />
rotational grazing among game. The licks should be protected from the weather as toxicity<br />
may occur if rain accumulates in hollows of the lick and dissolves toxic quantities of the<br />
mineral. Lick containers, especially those containing urea must be protected from rain. If<br />
nitrogen or protein licks are provided, they must not be put near watering places. The licks<br />
should be protected from the weather as toxicity may occur if rain accumulates in hollows of<br />
the lick and dissolves toxic quantities of the mineral. The licks are placed in an inverted truck<br />
tyre. They should have a cement base so that the licks are not in contact with the soil. If the<br />
lick is placed directly on the soil leaching of the nutrients from the lick may also occur,<br />
causing irreparable damage to the soil.<br />
8 Safari Feeds, Rust de Winter. Tel: (012) 711 0841<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 86
Licks can also be used to attract the animals to more accessible areas in order to view them<br />
easily. Owners in <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> currently supply supplementary feed injudiciously to animals.<br />
Although this practice is not condoned, the complete cessation by owners is unlikely and an<br />
attempt at control is potentially more effective. It is recommended that owners be informed of<br />
the correct feeding regime for supplementation, and where possible these products be made<br />
available to them. Lick containers can be manufactured and sold to the owners, with<br />
instructions as to when to feed which product.<br />
The following can be used as guidelines:<br />
• Never place licks in already degraded areas, as this will only exacerbate the situation<br />
• Always use a lick container to limit leaching of the product into the soil<br />
• Never place the lick container too close to water as toxicity can occur<br />
• Salt licks can be supplied throughout the year<br />
• Protein licks can be supplied from May to September<br />
• Energy-rich licks can be supplied from May to September<br />
• Antelope cubes can be supplied throughout the year<br />
• Be aware that this practice can make animals dependant on the food source and<br />
cessation of supply can have dire health implications<br />
• Grass seed enriched licks can also be used to facilitate veld recovery and improve<br />
veld condition, as described in the section on reclamation procedures.<br />
No lick blocks should be placed in the degraded Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus<br />
berteronianus Low bushland plant communities.<br />
DISEASES AND PARASITE CONTROL<br />
Diseases, parasites and preventative disease and parasite management are an integral part of<br />
wildlife management. Normally, healthy wild animals harbor nematode and tick burdens<br />
exceeding several thousand, however, the majority of these parasites cause little damage in<br />
the immature stage. It is generally only when the adult parasites occur in large numbers that<br />
problems arise. Massive increases in parasite numbers can occur on small reserves, if high<br />
stocking rates are maintained.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 87
Ticks<br />
The main parasite of concern is ticks, as larger mammal species harbour both immature and<br />
adult ticks. The high infestation can be detrimental to the health of the animal, by causing<br />
anaemia, reducing the condition of the animal and decrease resistance to other diseases.<br />
Parasites can be controlled by means of biological, management and chemical control.<br />
<strong>Management</strong> control is where sick and injured animals that act as reserve for tick infestations<br />
are removed from the population. By applying conservative stocking rate, feeding stress is<br />
reduced and consequently, susceptibility to high tick infestations. Chemical control is where<br />
tick infestations are treated using acaricides. Effective control can be achieved with sprayed<br />
on or pour-on dips. Alternatively a lick that contains alum seems to work efficiently in<br />
controlling high tick infestations on animals. The alum lick can be mixed using two bags of<br />
coarse salt, 500 g alum dissolved in 10 L of water, one bag of bone meal and one bag of K-<br />
3000 molasses. The best time to treat tick infestations is during January and February when<br />
the adult ticks of most species are abundant and active. Distribution of these licks must be<br />
throughout <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
Nematodes<br />
Nematodes are internal worms that can affect the health of an animal. Anthelminthic, or<br />
deworming licks are available from Safari Feeds. These licks can be supplied to the animals<br />
during winter. It is recommended that deworming licks be supplied for 2 to 4 weeks during<br />
July, as the majority of worms are over-wintering in the host during this period. Distribution<br />
of these licks must be throughout <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 88
VELD MANAGEMENT ON MARLOTH PARK<br />
ENDANGERED, VULNERABLE AND RARE PLANT MANAGEMENT<br />
The maintenance and survival of South Africa’s diverse endemic plant species is in severe<br />
jeopardy due to increased land transformations and modifications. The quantitative extent of<br />
these changes and the effect on the different ecosystems is difficult to determine. For many<br />
years most efforts of conservation have focused on the preservation of individual indicator<br />
species, but increasing emphasize is placed on the preservation of ecosystems and landscapes.<br />
Preservation on the ecosystem level is considered the only process that will ensure the<br />
conservation of habitats together with their constituent species. Threatened species are<br />
considered useful indicators of the health of an ecosystem. Endangered plants are considered<br />
to be species in danger of extinction, while vulnerable plants are considered to move into the<br />
endangered category in the near future. Rare plants are considered small world populations<br />
that are not presently endangered or vulnerable. These rare plants are usually localized within<br />
geographical areas or thinly scattered over an extensive range.<br />
At least one potentially endangered individual of Cyphostemma or Cissus is found on <strong>Marloth</strong><br />
<strong>Park</strong>, but the presence of other individuals has not yet been confirmed. These plant families<br />
are currently under taxonomic revision, but all indications are that this plant is currently not<br />
described. Classification is based on the inflorescence. A single individual (Figure 12) has<br />
been found in the park area between plot number 1813 and 1814, off Seekoei Road.<br />
It is apparent that this plant species has preferences for poor shallow soils and rocky quartz<br />
substrate. The plant is usually single stemmed, and about 0.5 m high. The stem is typical of<br />
the Vitaceae family, green, succulent and has a papery layer that is continually peeling. Also<br />
indicative of this family is the tendrils that are used to attach to other plants and keep it<br />
upright or creeping over other vegetation. Single succulent leaves are found, with a spiral<br />
distribution on the stem, on each enlarged node. The leaves are palmate (five fingered) and<br />
fan shaped, each leaflet being approximately 50 to 100 mm long and 10 to 25 mm wide. The<br />
leaves are highly serrated or toothed, folded semi-closed along the single mid vein, and bend<br />
backwards. The inflorescence resembles fine coral as it turns a bright red before bearing fruit.<br />
The fruits are presumed to be a relatively small, 5 to 10 mm drupe that turns bright red when<br />
ripe.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 89
Figure 12: Sketch of Cyphostemma /Cissus species found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 90
Owners and visitors to <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> are requested to report any observed specimens to<br />
myself 9 , Ronelle Kemp 10 or the National Botanical Institute in Pretoria.<br />
Another rare plant is the summer impala lily Adenium swazicum that resemble the common<br />
impala lily Adenium multiflorum in growth form. However, Adenium swazicum is restricted to<br />
black, Arcadic soils with a high clay contents, whereas Adenium multiflorum is usually<br />
associated with poor soils and a rocky substrate. The root of Adenium swazicum is adapted to<br />
the extreme swelling and shrinking properties of the soil, by a large succulent root that<br />
compensates for these environmental fluctuations. The leaves of Adenium swazicum are<br />
lanceolate and covered in fine dense hair. Adenium swazicum flowers in summer with a<br />
profusion of bright pink flowers. Adenium multiflorum, however, flowers in winter with a<br />
profusion of white flowers with a bright red corona.<br />
Distribution is apparently restricted to a small number of plots along Berghaan Street and<br />
Naboom Street, just off Seekoei Road. Notably, Adenium swazicum is found in high densities<br />
on plots 3246 to 3256. However, these plants are also found on neighbouring plots with<br />
Arcadic soils and a high seasonal moisture regime. It is recommended that some protective<br />
measures be implemented on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> to ensure species survival. Where development<br />
has been approved it is important that cognisance be taken on occurrence of this plant species,<br />
and where necessary that plants affected by the development be removed and relocated to a<br />
suitable environment before construction begins.<br />
The presence of red data species cannot be discounted due to the extent of the area, seasonal<br />
variation and phenology of plant species. It is recommended that an ecological impact study<br />
be conducted on each plot, before approval of any development, to assess the potential<br />
occurrence other red data plant species.<br />
9 Ben Orban. Ecological Associates, P O Box 11644, Hatfield, Pretoria 0028. Cell: +27 (083) 400 7031<br />
10 Honorary Ranger, <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Cell: +27 (083) 647 7775<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 91
NOXIOUS AND INVASIVE WEEDS<br />
An invasive plant species can be defined as any plant that propagates itself to such extend that<br />
the density that ensue is considered detrimental to biodiversity and the natural vegetation that<br />
occur in that region. Although all plant species has the inherent ability to increase their<br />
distribution under favourable conditions, most invasive plant species are alien to the country<br />
and their rapid spread can be attributed to the lack of species competition and the absence of<br />
natural control pathogens. Thus, any plant species that increases their density and distribution<br />
to such extend that it considered detrimental to the development objectives can be considered<br />
an invasive plant species. Many alien plant species in South Africa do not reveal the inherent<br />
ability to propagate itself to such extend that it is considered undesirable.<br />
These undesirable plant species, as specified in regulations pertaining to the Conservation of<br />
Agricultural Resources Act 43 of 1983 and amended in the Government gazette Vol 429: No<br />
22166 of 30 March 2001, necessitated the classification of undesirable plant species<br />
according to three categories, based on the invasive properties and potential commercial<br />
benefit of retaining some of these plants in demarcated areas under controlled conditions. The<br />
following three categories pertain to declared weeds and alien invader plant species:<br />
Category 1<br />
These plants may not occur on any land or inland water surface other than in a biological<br />
control reserve. Except for the purpose of establishing a biological reserve, one may not plant,<br />
maintain, multiply or propagate such plants, import or sell or acquire propagating material of<br />
such plants except with the written exception of the executive officer.<br />
Category 2<br />
These are plants with a commercial application and may only be grown in demarcated areas<br />
or biological reserves.<br />
Category 3<br />
The regulations regarding these plants are the same as for Category 1, except that plants<br />
already in existence at the time of these regulations are exempt, unless they occur within 30<br />
metres of a 1:50 year flood line of river or stream.<br />
The affects of invasive plants<br />
Alien invasive plants have the competitive advantage over indigenous plant species and often<br />
out-compete indigenous species for natural resources, thus reducing the species diversity.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 92
This also leads to a reduction in habitat for associated invertebrate and vertebrate fauna, fungi,<br />
bryophytes and other lower plants. Palatable indigenous plant species are often replaced by<br />
unpalatable alien invasive species. This not only has implications for the ecosystem, but also<br />
for the lands agricultural potential.<br />
Strategies for the control of noxious and invasive plant species<br />
The general approach to any infestation is to delineate a block or land-unit, with the intention<br />
of dealing with sparse infestations first. However, due to the fragmented distribution of<br />
species and densities in a variety of different habitats, a more ecological approach is<br />
advocated.<br />
The primary goal of the ecological approach is to conserve and sustain complete ecosystems,<br />
delineated using topographical or cadastral features and vegetation boundaries or ecotones.<br />
Most infestations by environmental weeds cannot be treated in one year due to physical and<br />
financial constraints. It is therefore, important that priority areas be identified. Areas falling<br />
outside these priority areas are usually not ecologically or economically important enough to<br />
warrant the effort. This is the case with highly disturbed areas such as along fences and<br />
roadsides, which will always be prone to weed invasions. It is thus considered more effective<br />
to concentrate conservation efforts and expenses on viable ecosystems, while living with<br />
environmental weeds in non-priority areas.<br />
UNDESIRABLE PLANT MANAGEMENT<br />
<strong>Management</strong> practices can be used to kill or suppress environmental weeds. Mechanical,<br />
chemical, biological and cultural control constitutes the four basic methods by which<br />
populations of noxious and invasive plants are managed.<br />
Often a more integrated control approach is advocated, where pest populations are managed<br />
using all suitable techniques to reduce the populations and maintain them at acceptable levels.<br />
To achieve effective control of environmental weeds, three distinct phases need to be<br />
implemented, i.e. initial, follow-up and maintenance phases. Initial control aims at removing<br />
the original infestation, and is usually implemented in one year. Follow-up is usually<br />
implemented annually from the second year, as copious numbers of seedlings will emerge in<br />
the treated areas due to the residual weed-seed banks. This follow-up phase must be continued<br />
until population numbers decline to a level where they can be controlled with minimum input<br />
and effort. The maintenance phase is reached when areas require low annual or biannual<br />
commitment to prevent re-infestation. Control programmes should strive to reach<br />
maintenance control and not total eradication, which is considered unrealistic.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 93
<strong>Management</strong> plans need to be reviewed and updated annually as it is often impractical to treat<br />
all undesirable plant species or infested areas in the same year, and also because it is<br />
impossible to accurately predict weed successional responses. <strong>Plan</strong>ning errors must be<br />
expected, and if the management plans are not updated annually, it must be expected that<br />
these errors will be compounded over time and seriously affect control reliability. It is<br />
considered prudent that a weed control programme not be implemented unless a commitment<br />
of time, labour and finances is allocated to follow-up control operations.<br />
Control measures<br />
A number of infestations of exotic plants occur on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, some of which were planted<br />
purposely in the past and others, which have spread naturally into the area. Some of these<br />
infestations need to receive immediate attention in order to prevent further encroachment of<br />
the natural vegetation. However, it must be emphasized that success will not be achieved<br />
without co-operation of the property owners, where education and understanding of the<br />
implications is considered crucial. It is recommended that control measures be implemented<br />
to improve the vegetation cover and where possible implement drastic reclamation measures<br />
to replace the herbaceous layer.<br />
It is recommended that invasive plant control measures be implemented in co-operation with<br />
the Working-for-Water programme. The follow-up phase can then be implemented and<br />
sustained by the owners. The following noxious and invasive plant species found on <strong>Marloth</strong><br />
<strong>Park</strong> are considered undesirable, have reached encroaching densities, or must be eradicated by<br />
law:<br />
Agave sisalana<br />
This plant classified as an invasive weed species (Category 2) and must be eradicated. The<br />
sisal is recognized by the basal rosette arrangement of succulent sword-shaped leaves with a<br />
sharp terminal spine (Appendix 4). These leaves can exceed 2 m in length. Propagation is<br />
achieved by suckers from the base and by small plants that replace the flowers. The size and<br />
number of these sisal plants are currently limited to gardens in <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
It is recommended that the sisal plants are cut down and the roots dug out and disposed off at<br />
a garden refuse facility. Follow-up treatment can be required to ensure that remaining root<br />
fragments do not propagate. Alternatively, the central rosette can be removed and chemically<br />
treated by injecting the crown with MSMA ® , a registered photosynthesis inhibitor. The plant<br />
can then be mechanically removed and disposed of after it has died.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 94
Cereus jamacaru<br />
The queen of the night is a thick, spiny succulent with prominent ribs (Appendix 4) that can<br />
reach a height in excess of 7 m. A large number of individuals were identified distributed<br />
throughout <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. As this is a declared noxious weed (Category 1) it must be<br />
eradicated. It is recommended that these plants be chemically treated by injection with<br />
MSMA ® and only removed after it has died. Follow-up inspections are required and can be<br />
implemented annually. It is recommended that these plant rests be burned, as any green<br />
vegetative parts can propagate vegetative again.<br />
Harrisia martinii<br />
The moon cactus is a much branched, spiny succulent with bright red fruits and snowy white<br />
flowers (Appendix 4). The distribution is currently limited to two properties, where they have<br />
apparently been planted without knowing the implications to the ecosystem on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
Due to a prolific seed production and the ease of seed distribution by birds and other animals,<br />
this plant species is a classified Category 1 invader species and must be eradicated. Any<br />
eradication programme, however, that is not conducted in co-operation with the property<br />
owners is doomed to fail, as re-infestation will occur. Bio-control methods are currently being<br />
investigated, but success can be achieved by mechanical removal or chemically treated by<br />
injection with MSMA ® . The dead plants can then be removed and burned, as any green<br />
vegetative parts will propagate vegetative again.<br />
Lantana camara<br />
Lantana is an attractive ornamental shrub with colourful, compact flower heads (Appendix 4).<br />
Due to the invasive properties of this exotic plant, it is now a declared noxious weed<br />
(category 1) and must be eradicated. This shrub is found in dense clusters in isolated patches<br />
in <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. It is recommended that an intensive eradication project that include a follow-<br />
up and maintenance control programme, be initiated as soon as possible. These plants can be<br />
mechanically uprooted and placed upside down to die. Dead plant material will be removed<br />
during the implemented burning regime for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
Opuntia ficus-indica<br />
The prickly pear (Appendix 4) is widely distributed throughout <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> with plants<br />
found, virtually, on ever property. Due to its ability to distribute seed and propagate readily,<br />
this Category 1 invader species must be eradicated. It is recommended that these plants be<br />
chemically treated by injection with MSMA ® , removed and burned after it has died, as any<br />
green vegetative parts will propagate vegetative again.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 95
Ricinus communis, Solanum sisymbriifolium and Xanthium strumarium<br />
The castor bean Ricinus communis (Category 2) can be recognized by its large shiny palmate<br />
(hand-shaped) leafs. The wild tomato Solanum sisymbriifolium is also a noxious weed<br />
(Category 1), but recognized by it prickly appearance. The large cocklebur Xanthium<br />
strumarium is characterized by it profusion of spiky seedpods, and due to its invasive<br />
properties classified as an undesirable weed (Category 1). These species can be found<br />
distributed throughout <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, but nowhere in large densities. It is, however,<br />
recommended that all these species be mechanically removed when encountered. The castor<br />
bean and the wild tomato are relatively low priority species, but wild tomato and large<br />
cocklebur should be considered high priority species that must be controlled.<br />
Alien species<br />
There are a myriad of other alien species found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, many of these considered<br />
naturalized weeds or acceptable garden plants. Undesirable weeds such as Amaranthus sp.,<br />
Bidens pilosa and Tagetes minuta are all considered low priority plant species found<br />
throughout <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. These plant species are usually associated with disturbed areas such<br />
as roadsides. Control of these plants can effectively be obtained by a natural burning regime,<br />
as the application of herbicide, although effective, is not considered economically viable.<br />
BUSH ENCROACHMENT<br />
Bush encroachment is commonly defined as an increasing woody plant density. With the<br />
woody plant component increasing the grass sward diminishes, as the woody seedlings out<br />
compete the herbaceous layer for water supplies. This causes a decrease in an areas´ grazing<br />
capacity. Effects of overgrazing become more and more severe.<br />
With an increase of the level of tree thinning more and more grasses colonize bare ground.<br />
With less competition from woody plants for ground water after tree thinning, grasses stand a<br />
better chance to establish. To promote grass production in the areas of arid mixed bushveld no<br />
more than 1500 to 1700 trees per hectare are recommended This recommendation represents<br />
an approach between positive and negative interaction of trees and herbaceous layer as well as<br />
the aridity of the area as it influences the available soil moisture. The desired vegetation<br />
structure is an open savanna, which consists mainly of large trees, interspersed with relatively<br />
few small trees.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 96
Bush control<br />
Causes for bush encroachment are manifold. One cause is the misuse of fire. Drought and<br />
human disturbance together with the absence of game migration and the absence of tree<br />
damage by animals, such as elephant, are more likely to cause bush encroachment. The most<br />
important reason for bush encroached areas in southern Africa, is the imbalance in stocking of<br />
the different feeding groups. High stocking rates of grazers, and low stocking rates of<br />
browsers, results in over-utilisation of the grass sward.<br />
With high stocking rates of browsers, young woody plant seedlings cannot develop into<br />
mature shrubs and trees, due to severe over-utilisation. Too low stocking rates of browsers<br />
will result in an abundance of trees and shrubs that will eventually reach densities that<br />
suppress the maintenance and/or development of the grass stratum. Passive management<br />
alone, such as the introduction of large browsers like elephant Loxodonta africana and black<br />
rhinoceros Diceros bicornis can be considered, but does not seem sufficient in correcting<br />
these imbalances. Furthermore, the introduction of these animals is limited to larger<br />
conservations areas only. Correcting these historic imbalances, usually attributed to cattle<br />
ranching, cannot effectively be corrected by adjusting the stocking rates, and active<br />
management will be required. Manipulation of the browser population is considered a tool for<br />
long-term bush control.<br />
Fire as a means of active bush control is of questionable use. Furthermore, the use of fire is<br />
not advised in sweet veld areas, and other measures need to be taken. Mechanical methods<br />
such as clearing bush with chains or bulldozers are effective but cost inhibitive. Even more of<br />
a disadvantage with this method of bush clearing is the soil compaction and disturbance of the<br />
grass layer. Where the grass layer is already decimated, this method is not recommended.<br />
Another mechanical method is ring-barking or girdling. This method causes death of trees<br />
within 1 to 3 years through removal of the bark around the trunk. Chemical treatment of the<br />
exposed trunk area enhances the process and inhibits coppicing. This method is not feasible<br />
for multi-stemmed tree species.<br />
Alternatively, the manual slashing, felling and chopping down of trees is the only mechanical<br />
means of removing encroaching woody plants. Serviceable tools are an axe, a hand-held or<br />
tractor driven chainsaw, a circular saw or a brush cutter. With a tractor driven circular chain<br />
saw up to 2.4 ha can be cleared in one day. Mechanical bush clearing is best combined with<br />
chemical treatment, in this case stump treatment with an herbicide. Stem notching and<br />
application of an herbicide is not feasible with multi-stemmed trees.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 97
Although soil treatment with chemicals works best in sandy soils, this method is also not<br />
recommended for areas with relatively high clay content. Soil treatment is dependent on<br />
rainfall for leaching the product, and plants might take up to 3 years to die. An alternative to<br />
felling and stump treatment is the foliar application of herbicides. However, this method is not<br />
considered selective and can transfer to non-target tree species. Aerial application of<br />
herbicides is very costly and not selective, and should only be considered on extreme<br />
monoculture stands of undesirable plants. Poisoning of browsers with herbicides is unlikely to<br />
occur. Unlike the mechanical eradication and stump-treatment though, the foliar application<br />
of chemicals is restricted to the time where the plant leaves are fully developed.<br />
Mechanical eradication of individual trees in combination with chemical stump-treatment is<br />
advised for quick and long-lasting effects of bush encroachment problems. Although this<br />
procedure is time consuming it has several advantages. Trees, which are cut back and treated,<br />
are killed relatively quickly. Selective treatment ensures control over the extent of the<br />
thinning and little chance of damaging other trees considered valuable for forage supply.<br />
Furthermore, harvested material can be used as charcoal or to brush-pack bare areas in veld<br />
reclamation measures.<br />
The most common plant applied herbicides are Picloram and Triclopyr. Picloram is available<br />
under the product names Tordon ® , Grazon ® and Access ® . Triclopyr is available in different<br />
concentrations as Garlon ® . Picloram or Triclopyr are mixed with diesel oil or old oil at a 1<br />
percent concentration. For safety reasons a dye should be added to facilitate administration of<br />
the product and limit replication. Alternatively, a water-soluble form of Picloram (Access ® ) is<br />
available. If applied to the stump a concentration of 2 percent Access ® and 2 percent Actipron<br />
Super ® as wetting agent is used. Leaf application as a spray affords a concentration of 0.35<br />
percent Access ® and 0.5 percent Actipron ® .<br />
When clearing bush it is strongly advised not to remove all woody plants. The reason is that,<br />
although an increase in the grass development is observed in the short-term, in the long-term<br />
the quality and quantity of the grass sward will diminish due to eventual nutrient loss after the<br />
interruption of the nutrient cycle. By selectively clearing undesirable tree species, sufficient<br />
woody plants will remain in the cleared area.<br />
Recalculation of browsing capacities becomes necessary after bush clearing, especially if<br />
preferred browsed tree species are reduced.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 98
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
The presence of sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea is the only species currently exhibiting<br />
encroaching properties on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, and although not classified as an alien plant species,<br />
it is invasive and recommended that the number of individuals be reduced in an attempt to<br />
decrease the localized densities. Although the distribution of Dichrostachys cinerea is not<br />
limited to the Dichrostachys cinerea - Tragus berteronianus Low bushland plant community,<br />
the visual dominance in density is notable and in most areas exceed 1125 individuals per<br />
hectare, creating reason for concern. Furthermore, the liase fair approach to this problem has<br />
resulted in these trees becoming of age, thus exceeding the maximum browse high of 2.0 m,<br />
with effect that these trees have little to no browsing value. The high density also inhibits<br />
recovery of the herbaceous layer, thus retaining the historically poor species composition and<br />
ground cover.<br />
It is recommended that a combination of mechanical and chemical treatment of the<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea be initiated, as best visual results are obtained using these methods.<br />
Minimum disturbance of other vegetation occurs and branches that are being removed can be<br />
used in reclamation of denuded and degraded areas. The use of a hand axe or petrol driven<br />
chainsaw is recommended. All trees rooted within a circumference of 5 m of each other,<br />
irrespective of age or size, can be removed. The selected trees are cut at 100 to 150 mm above<br />
the soil surface; where after the remaining cut stump is treated with a chemical,<br />
photosynthesis inhibiter such as Tordon Super ® (picloram/triclopyr). The remaining trees will<br />
be in excess of 3 m in height, creating the most suitable sub-habitat for plant species<br />
exhibiting a preference for shade. Many nutritional grass species are usually encountered in<br />
this sub-habitat.<br />
To achieve effective control of the Dichrostachys cinerea infestations, initial, follow-up and<br />
maintenance treatments must be implemented. Initial control aims at removing the original<br />
infestation, and must be implemented in one season. With selection of an area, time and<br />
labour constraints must be considered. Follow-up is usually implemented annually from the<br />
second year, as copious numbers of seedlings will emerge in the treated areas due to the<br />
residual seed banks. This follow-up phase must be continued until population numbers<br />
decline to a level where they can be controlled with minimum input and effort. The<br />
maintenance phase is reached when areas require low annual or biannual commitment to<br />
prevent re-infestation. Control programmes should strive to reach maintenance control and<br />
not total eradication, which is considered unrealistic.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 99
<strong>Plan</strong>ning errors must be expected, and if the eradication programme is not updated annually, it<br />
must be expected that these errors will be compounded over time and seriously affect control<br />
reliability. It is considered prudent that an invasive control programme not be implemented<br />
unless a commitment of time, labour and finances is allocated to follow-up control operations.<br />
VELD RECLAMATION<br />
Veld deterioration does not only show itself in the increase of the woody plant fraction as in<br />
bush encroachment, but can also contribute to absence of the herbaceous plant cover. Bare<br />
patches on a ranch result in soil loss and erosion through wind and rain. With the loss of the<br />
topsoil, the production potential of the veld and therefore, the grazing and browsing capacity,<br />
is reduced. The result is a lower animal production.<br />
Overgrazing and low, inconsistent rainfall are the most dominant factors causing the<br />
degradation of the rangeland in southern Africa. Three main concepts are suitable for use in<br />
reclaiming bare patches:<br />
• Mechanical treatment of the soil<br />
• Reseeding of a grass seed mixture<br />
• Brush packing<br />
All three methods are applicable on their own, but best results are obtained if all three<br />
methods are combined.<br />
The soil is treated, to better absorb and retain moisture. Breaking up the soil surface facilitates<br />
germination and establishment of grass seeds. The soil is either ripped along furrows along<br />
contours every 3 to 5 m to a depth of at least 400 mm or depressions are formed of 1 m in<br />
length, 0.5 m in depth and 0.3 m in width with implements such as a Dyker plough. Furrows<br />
encourage water infiltration and the establishment of grass species, whereas depressions in the<br />
soil encourage accumulation of rainwater, organic material and grass seeds. Reseeding and<br />
the creation of seed banks accelerate the natural processes of succession. Fencing off small<br />
areas in the headwaters of drainage depressions creates seed banks. The seed bank is a source<br />
for downstream seed dispersal.<br />
Before sowing, the seedbed has to be prepared to ensure optimal conditions for germination,<br />
survival and growth of grass seedlings. Soil moisture is heightened before seeding by treating<br />
the soil mechanically, breaking up the soil surface.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 100
However, the top centimetres of the topsoil should be dry when new seed is sown. Seed is<br />
distributed to the soil in two ways. With broadcast application the seed is spread by hand or<br />
with a specific implement over the total soil surface. With row application the seeds are sown<br />
in strips. They are sown either by hand or with implements such as the ripper. The seed type<br />
should be adapted to the specific soil type, should be palatable and should have a relatively<br />
high production potential. Palatable climax grass species occurring naturally in the area are<br />
preferred, as these are adapted to the prevailing conditions. Including pioneer grass species<br />
such as Aristida congesta and Chloris virgata are important, because they establish first and<br />
prepare the habitat for the climax grasses. Incorporating grass species of low palatability<br />
ensures that no overgrazing takes place in the reclaimed area. The correct seed mixture will<br />
save time and money. The mixture should contain annual and perennial grass species. Seeds<br />
of species such as three-awn Aristida congesta, blue buffalo grass Cenchrus ciliaris, feathered<br />
chloris Chloris virgata, finger grass Digitaria eriantha, weeping love grass Eragrostis<br />
curvula, Lehmann’s love grass Eragrostis lehmanniana, Guinea grass Panicum maximum,<br />
couch grass Cynodon dactylon and sand quick Schmidtia pappophoroides are possible<br />
ingredients of a good seed mixture. Aristida congesta, Cenchrus ciliaris and Eragrostis<br />
lehmanniana and Schmidtia pappophoroides are suitable for sandy soils in low rainfall areas.<br />
Digitaria eriantha, Panicum maximum and large-seed bristle grass Setaria incrassate prefer<br />
soils with relatively high clay and moisture contents. Chloris virgata grows in any type of<br />
soil. Application of 6 to 8 kg seed mixture per hectare was proven to be an efficient dosage.<br />
To protect the newly sown seeds, the topsoil of the seedbed must be compacted by rolling or<br />
trampling on the soil. Furthermore, seeds and new seedlings need protection against<br />
utilisation by insects and herbivores, trampling and excessive heat. Fencing off the area offers<br />
protection to a certain degree but is not feasible for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Covering the newly<br />
reseeded soil with straw or branches (brush packing), preferably thorny branches, is a possible<br />
means of defence. Covering the soil with sheaves of straw also serves to retain moisture.<br />
Brush packing does not only serve to cover the respective area but also to trap seed and silt, to<br />
prevent runoff and to create a suitable microclimate for seed germination. When covering the<br />
respective area with branches, leaves and fine twigs of branches should be placed diagonal to<br />
the direction of the flow of the water in order to catch the topsoil and to prevent seed from<br />
being washed away.<br />
The standard height recommended for brush packing is 0.5 m. Flat areas with relatively small<br />
bare patches should be covered on the whole surface area. On steep inclines branches should<br />
be packed every 17 m at the top of the incline and every 37 m further downhill, to reduce<br />
water velocity. Spacing is adapted to the availability of woody material. Branch belts should<br />
be at least 0.3 m wide and span the length of the bare patch.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 101
To further reduce grazing pressure and prevent trampling and utilisation of new seedlings,<br />
animals should be drawn away from the area to be reclaimed. For this reason water points<br />
should be closed and no feed or licks supplied in the vicinity.<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Ecosystems disturbed by clearing operations will be susceptible to re-invasion, usually due to<br />
the residual weed-seed bank that remains viable for a number of years. Therefore, where time,<br />
money and effort are spent on environmental weed control, commitment to rehabilitating and<br />
managing these areas correctly is essential. Rehabilitation procedures consist of restoration,<br />
reclamation and rehabilitation. Restoration implies returning the site back to its original state.<br />
However, this is considered almost impossible to attain in dynamic ecosystems. Reclamation<br />
implies that the sites are modified so that the habitat is again suitable to the organisms<br />
originally present or to other that approximate the original inhabitants.<br />
Rehabilitation implies that the site is made useful again by creating productive plant cover,<br />
and stopping further degradation. Rehabilitation is thus considered a more flexible concept<br />
than restoration or reclamation, which abides to rigid criteria. Rehabilitation is best<br />
implemented soon after initial control operations have been implemented. Areas in dire need<br />
of rehabilitation measures are the old cultivated lands, now encroached by sickle bush<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea. It is recommended that rehabilitation measures be implemented in<br />
conjunction with bush control applications. All branches from cut Dichrostachys cinerea can<br />
be used in brush packing those areas. However, not all degraded areas are encroached by<br />
invader tree species such as Dichrostachys cinerea, and active rehabilitation measures must<br />
be implemented if recovery of the herbaceous layer is to be achieved.<br />
All invaded areas with compacted soils and a poor grass composition should be dished using a<br />
Dyker plough and reseeded before brush packing. Alternatively dishing can be achieved<br />
manually using a spade, by creating a latticework of hollows or depressions spaced 1 to 2 m<br />
apart. Each depression must be able to retain approximately 1 litre of water. After reseeding<br />
the area can then be brush packed to a height of at least 0.5 m. This will in effect keep most<br />
animals out and allow for recovery of the veld. Natural decomposition of these branches will<br />
be achieved over a period of 3 years; whereafter, the veld should have recovered sufficiently<br />
to withstand renewed grazing pressure.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 102
The following seed mixture is recommended 11 :<br />
• Guinea grass Panicum maximum<br />
• Blue buffalo grass Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
• Finger grass Digitaria eriantha<br />
• Weeping love grass Eragrostis curvula<br />
• Lehmann’s love grass Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
• Large-seed bristle grass Setaria incrassata<br />
Additional veld recovery can be achieved by supplementing the animals using a grass seed<br />
enriched lick. Grass seeds ingested while utilising the lick is passed through the digestive tract<br />
and deposited in the veld where germination can take place. Although the immediate effect is<br />
not noticeable, the long-term benefits in increased forage production can be an advantageous<br />
to <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. Another method of rehabilitation and habitat improvement is where a seed<br />
mixture is imbedded in a cow dung patty, approximately 10cm x 10 cm x 3 cm in size, and<br />
then distributed throughout the veld. These patties can be made and sold to property owners,<br />
who wish to participate in managing <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, to recover the cost.<br />
FIRE REGIME<br />
Before the advent of white man, game consisting of both grazers and browsers occupied vast<br />
areas of Africa. Game animals tended to graze veld areas fairly short and then moved on.<br />
Natural resting was thus implemented at different seasons and this allowed for vigorous grass<br />
growth. Grass reserves built up towards the end of the growing seasons and this allowed for<br />
lightning induced fires every few years. The grass reserves were adequate to create hot fires,<br />
which damaged woody seedlings, thus increasing grass competition. Fires were therefore,<br />
responsible for keeping the veld from being dominated by trees. The fire climax grasslands<br />
(sour grassveld) and savanna areas of the world owe their existence to fire, which has for long<br />
been part of their development. Fire is therefore, to be accepted as an inherent requirement of<br />
vegetation in maintaining an ecological balance. If fire is as a factor is to be removed form<br />
the system it can be expected that some changes in vegetation will occur. The<br />
implementation of a natural fire regime would therefore be ideal. Human interference has,<br />
however, made this almost impossible to obtain. On most ranches and conservation areas<br />
constant grazing pressure, despite rotational resting practices, and lightning induced fires play<br />
a significant role in regulating successional development of the vegetation.<br />
11 Agricol (Pty) Ltd. P O Box 300, Brackenfell, 7560. Tel: (021) 981 1126<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 103
Lightning induced fires can also cause a substantial loss of grazing land if adequate firebreaks<br />
are not in place. However, the simulation of a natural fire regime should be attempted to<br />
compensate for the absence of natural fires.<br />
The following are the objectives for using fire in veld management:<br />
Removal of old, unpalatable and unacceptable growth from the previous season, which<br />
can smother new growth.<br />
To destroy parasites such as ticks.<br />
Control of undesirable woody or herbaceous invaders that reduce the production of the<br />
grass layer.<br />
Areas can be burnt to induce rotational grazing.<br />
Firebreaks can be made to protect the veld.<br />
Another reason quoted for burning veld is to stimulate an out-of-season “green-pick”. This is<br />
often done during the summer, late autumn or late winter to provide green forage for grazing<br />
animals. Burning at these times is harmful because it:<br />
Reduces the vigour of the grass sward<br />
Reduces the canopy and basal cover of the grass sward<br />
Increases the run-off rainwater<br />
Results in increased soil erosion<br />
Adequate removal of top-growth by grazing alone is difficult in sourveld areas, although it<br />
may be achieved in intensive grazing systems. In sourveld areas, unpalatable low quality<br />
material accumulates on the less acceptable plants in particular, and burning must be resorted<br />
to remove this material if the plants are not to become moribund and die. Veld will deteriorate<br />
if it remains unutilised for any length of time. Therefore, where grass growth is rapid, and<br />
where there is no alternative method of utilizing the top growth (such as by grazing or<br />
mowing), frequent burning is advisable.<br />
Although fire can be used to control ticks, this is considered ineffective and generally not<br />
recommended. Fire is considered as a natural phenomenon in regulating bush encroachment<br />
and maintaining grasslands. The effectiveness of fire for the control of bush encroachment is,<br />
however, doubtful. Fire is generally more effective in controlling bush encroachment in the<br />
initial growth stages, but become less effective as the trees grow above the grass layer.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 104
When using fire for the control of bush encroachment, it is recommended that it be used in<br />
combination with high browsing pressures. Pure browsers such as kudu do not compete with<br />
grazers and can thus be used to increase the browsing intensity.<br />
The fire regime to be used in controlled burning refers to the type and intensity of fire, and the<br />
season and frequency of burning. These factors are discussed separately below.<br />
TYPE OF FIRE<br />
Three types of fires are distinguished on the basis of the layers in which they:<br />
A ground fire is a fire that burns below the surface of the ground in deep layers of organic<br />
material and plant debris.<br />
A surface fire is a fire that burns in the herbaceous surface vegetation.<br />
A crown fire is a fire that burns in the canopies of trees and shrubs.<br />
Further subdivision can be made into fires burning with and against the wind – head or back-<br />
fires. Crown fires occur only as head fires, but surface fires can be either head or back fires.<br />
Head fires should be used in controlled burning because they cause least damage to the grass<br />
sward but maximum damage to woody vegetation.<br />
FIRE INTENSITY<br />
Fire intensity is a term that refers to the rate at which energy is released per unit length of fire<br />
front and is expressed in kilojoules per second per metre (kJ.s -1 .m -1 ). The intensity of a fire is<br />
influenced by the fuel load, fuel moisture, air humidity, air temperature and wind speed.<br />
A fire will not spread readily when the grass fuel load is less than 2000 kg/ha. Burning of a<br />
veld can therefore only be considered if the grass fuel load is higher than 2000 kg/ha.<br />
The type of fire that is required to remove moribund or unacceptable material is a cool or low<br />
intensity head fire of smaller than 1000 kJ.s -1 .m -1 . This type of fire can be achieved when the<br />
air temperature is below 20 ºC, the relative humidity above 50 percent and the soil moist.<br />
These conditions prevail most often before 11h00 in the morning and after 15h30 in the<br />
afternoon. When burning to control undesirable plants a high intensity fire of larger than 2000<br />
kJ.s -1 .m -1 is necessary. Such a fire can be achieved by burning when the grass fuel load is<br />
more than 4000 kg/ha, the air temperature between 25 ºC and 30 ºC, and the relative humidity<br />
smaller than 30 percent. A fire such as this will cause a significant top-kill of stems and<br />
branches of bush species up to a 3 m height.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 105
TIME OF BURNING<br />
Least damage is caused to the grass sward if it is burned when the grass is dormant. The time<br />
of veld burning should be decided on, in such a way that the veld is able to reform a leaf<br />
cover as quickly as possible. Veld that is burnt before the first spring rains, remains bare and<br />
is therefore, more susceptible to soil erosion by both wind and water. Veld burning should be<br />
implemented during the 6 week period preceding the expected commencement of the growing<br />
season (September), provided that the grass do not begin to grow due to sufficient soil<br />
moisture, and for a period of 2 weeks after the start of the growth season. If the veld has not<br />
been burnt before the first spring rains, due to signs of growth, it should be done within 24<br />
hours after the first spring rains of 15 mm or more.<br />
FREQUENCY OF BURNING<br />
The frequency of burning will depend on the rate of accumulation of grass litter. Fuel loads<br />
should not exceed 4000 kg/ha, as this will create a danger of uncontrolled fires. Sourveld<br />
areas can generally be burned every 2 to 4 years. The frequency of burning to control<br />
undesirable plants in the veld depends on the plant species under consideration. Some species<br />
require only a single hot burn, whereas others require numerous fires for their control.<br />
MANAGEMENT OF VELD AFTER FIRE<br />
Sourveld should not be grazed after a fire until the grass sward has re-grown to a height of at<br />
least 150 mm.<br />
FIREBREAKS<br />
The lack of effective firebreaks is one of the most important reasons for fires getting out of<br />
control. Burning should never be attempted without adequate firebreaks. A change in wind<br />
direction can be disastrous and the application of a back fire to contain a run-away fire almost<br />
impossible to attain. There are basically two types of firebreaks, namely: clean cultivated<br />
firebreaks and burnt firebreaks. Clean cultivated firebreaks are the most effective and<br />
comprise the removal of all ground vegetation. This can be accomplished either manually or<br />
mechanically. Burnt firebreaks are where a strip of vegetation is burnt around the larger area<br />
intended to be burnt. The most common method is to burn a strip of grass with the aid of fire-<br />
fighting equipment. A safer method is to cut two strips with a mower early in the winter.<br />
This leaves an uncut strip in the centre, which is then burnt as soon as the grass is dry enough.<br />
This method is, however, limited to areas with gentle topography. A similar method is to<br />
spray two strips of grassveld with a foliar herbicide during autumn and to burn the strips when<br />
the grass becomes dry. The unsprayed portion between the sprayed strips is then burned<br />
during winter when the grass is dry and dormant.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 106
The firebreak need be wide enough to contain the flames during the application of the back<br />
fire. When the head fire is applied, its flames are blown away from the firebreak into the<br />
areas to be burned. It is proposed that a firebreak of 4 to 8 m wide be maintain around the<br />
property boundary. The existing road infrastructure can be used as efficient firebreaks and<br />
should be sufficient in stopping a fire. No additional firebreaks are required.<br />
BURNING PROCEDURE<br />
The National Act on veld and forest fires (Act no 101 of 1998) has in mind that government<br />
bodies, property owners, institutions and association be collectively held responsible for the<br />
prevention and management of fires. It is thus, in the interest of individual property owners<br />
that they or a representative be actively involved with a local fire prevention association. It is<br />
recommended that the local fire prevention unit be informed before implementing a burn and<br />
their co-operation obtained in controlling the fire.<br />
The following rules should be kept in mind to prevent a fire from getting out of control:<br />
Make and maintain effective firebreaks on the borders of the area.<br />
Inform residents and neighbours before burning a boundary firebreak. It is preferable to<br />
plan and burn boundary firebreaks in co-operation with neighbours. The neighbours’<br />
presence must be insisted upon when burning on the boundary.<br />
Wait for suitable weather. On a windy day fires can easily get out of control.<br />
Burn the firebreaks before the grass becomes so dry that it becomes a fire hazard.<br />
Never light a fire where it cannot be controlled.<br />
Do everything possible to prevent a fire from spreading.<br />
Never leave a fire unattended before it is fully extinguished.<br />
Any burning operation should start along a firebreak as a back burn. The back burn should be<br />
allowed to burn for a sufficient distance to ensure the safety of the area downwind of the fire.<br />
Once this have been done, a fire line is set along the upwind margin of the paddock, so that<br />
the greater proportion of the area is burned out by a head fire. A dip torch is a useful tool for<br />
setting such fire lines.<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
A mosaic pattern of veld burning is often applied on farms to maintain a sound species and<br />
habitat diversity in the vegetation. The main reason for burning on any property is for the<br />
removal of unacceptable material. The type of fire, which is therefore required, is a low<br />
intensity fire.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 107
A low intensity fire will be achieved by burning when the following environmental conditions<br />
are present in the area to burn: the air temperature should be below 20 ºC, the relative<br />
humidity above 50 percent and the soil moist. This means that burning must preferably take<br />
place during the morning before 11h00. The fuel load must also be at least 2000 kg/ha for the<br />
fire to be carried. Fuel loads for each management unit must be determined annually before<br />
implementing a burn. All plant communities, with exception of the Dichrostachys cinerea –<br />
Tragus berteronianus Low bushland has sufficient biomass to sustain a burn. However,<br />
burning in <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is not recommended due to the high risk of property damage.<br />
As fire is only recommended to reduce biomass and remove moribund plant material, it is<br />
recommended that an alternative method be applied to simulate the same action. Although the<br />
Leitner box method can be used, this method is labour intensive. The box consists of a<br />
rectangular structure that can be manually moved from section to section, after burning the<br />
vegetation inside the box. The best alternative is to slash the vegetation manually. It is<br />
recommended that herbaceous biomass production be measured annually and priority areas<br />
identified that require a slashing programme. Property owners must be convinced of the<br />
necessity of removing the excess material, not only for the health of the vegetation but to<br />
reduce the risk of natural or accidental fires that can damage or destroy their residence. As<br />
property owners generally do not have the equipment, labour or time to implement such a<br />
programme, it is recommended that an independent consultant be contracted to achieve the<br />
desired results.<br />
Although burning of <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> during the 2006 season will not be required, it is<br />
recommended that a proactive system be implemented that will be able to deal with excessive<br />
biomass production. Based on the high rainfall experienced in the 2005/2006 seasons it can be<br />
expected that the effects on the vegetation will be most noticeable in the next 2 years, pending<br />
seasonal follow-up.<br />
SOIL EROSION<br />
Degraded ranch land is highly susceptible to soil erosion because of their low basal grass<br />
cover and their slow recovery rate in terms of grass cover. Especially those wildlife areas that<br />
start as a trampled livestock ranch face problems of soil erosion. Soil erosion leads to the loss<br />
of fertile soil, depositing of unproductive soil on fertile land, desiccation of soil in the vicinity<br />
of gullies due to excessive drainage and the undermining of infrastructure facilities and roads.<br />
Furthermore, erosion ditches disturb the pristine appearance of the landscape, reducing the<br />
areas tourism potential. Soil erosion is a natural process and cannot be prevented.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 108
However, reasonable management can limit soil erosion to an acceptable level, where<br />
utilisation of the resources is not influenced negatively. This acceptable level is usually<br />
determined as the level, where no perceptible loss of soil is observed.<br />
The main causes of soil erosion are wind and water. Where the herbaceous cover of the soil is<br />
thin, the top layer of the soil is compacted by raindrops. Therefore, water infiltration<br />
decreases and water run-off increases, resulting in the displacement of the topsoil. In South<br />
Africa water erosion is significant in areas receiving more than 100 mm of rain per year,<br />
whereas wind erosion is restricted to areas receiving less than 400 mm of rain per year. Vertic<br />
soils are more prone to erosion than sandy soils.<br />
Prevention of soil erosion starts with the prevention of the deterioration of the veld and the<br />
development of bare patches. Prevention of the formation of new erosion ditches and the<br />
expansion of existing dongas is of importance. This management aim is reached by reducing<br />
water run-off in catchments areas by establishing a good grass layer and diverting the run-off<br />
water from the erosion ditch. Ditches that have only begun to form should be stabilised first,<br />
before extensive dongas are reclaimed. Complete repair of short ditches is preferable to only<br />
partial repair of extensive dongas. Existing erosion ditches need to be prevented from<br />
becoming deeper, wider and longer. Erosion of the donga floor is controlled by the<br />
construction of walls made of stone, concrete, wire baskets filled with stones (gabions) or a<br />
combination of these materials. These walls are anchored deep in the floor and the sides of the<br />
donga. Large stones are placed at the bottom and along the gully wall. Then smaller stones are<br />
stacked on top to build the wall. The upstream side of the wall is constructed with a slope,<br />
while the downstream side is vertical. Water cannot flow underneath or around these<br />
structures. Silt accumulates on the upstream side and vegetation establishes itself on the<br />
structures as well as the donga floor, where moisture is retained. To accelerate to process of<br />
rehabilitation, creeping grass species such as couch grass Cynodon dactylon can be planted on<br />
the slope of the artificial walls. The initial wall need not be high. As silt builds up, the wall<br />
can be raised. However, the minimum height of a wall should be constructed in such a way<br />
that water flowing over the dam does not exceed 0.6 m. Building walls at the head of a donga<br />
or ditch prevents them from growing longer and wider. The wall needs to be constructed in<br />
such a way, that water cannot flow into the ditch from the side and cause the walls to cave in.<br />
Therefore, walls need to be higher than the ditch itself and additional low walls, parallel to the<br />
edge of the ditch need to be constructed. The water is then directed into the gully by<br />
predetermined channels.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 109
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is dominated by sandy soils that are not very susceptible to erosion due to good<br />
water infiltration and percolation properties. The slightly undulating terrain form, furthermore<br />
limits water velocity and extreme soil loss. However, soils on degraded areas such as on the<br />
old cultivated areas or Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus Low bushland plant<br />
community, is more prone to erosion and topsoil loss due to poor herbaceous basal cover.<br />
This poor cover can be attributed to increased competition from the tree layer, dominated by<br />
sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea, constant grazing pressure and high stocking rates of<br />
impala Aepyceros melampus melampus. The soil surface in such patches also tends to<br />
compact and develop a hard crust that sheds water. Temperatures exceeding 52° C at a depth<br />
of 50 mm has been recorded on these barren areas, exacerbating the degradation.<br />
Regeneration of such areas is slow and failures are common, due to low and unreliable<br />
rainfall. Rehabilitation programmes on degraded veld is usually aimed at improving the<br />
microclimate and re-establishing a good basal cover. Methods used to break the crust on<br />
compacted areas can vary from shallow working with a toothed harrow, to deep working with<br />
a tined implement. In arid regions, success has been achieved using a dyker plough to form a<br />
series of pits scattered across the surface. These pits accumulate and hold water, providing a<br />
suitable seedbed for plants. Best results have been achieved where seed has been sown into<br />
the pits.<br />
It is recommended that sheet erosion, such as experienced in the Dichrostachys cinerea –<br />
Tragus berteronianus Low bushland plant community be remedied using a number of<br />
integrated treatments to ensure success. The first would be to reduce the tree density, the<br />
second to scarify the soil surface, third to reseed the area and fourth to brush-pack the surface.<br />
Tree densities can be reduced by manual and chemical treatment, as described in the section<br />
on bush encroachment. Scarification and reseeding can be achieved as described in the section<br />
on rehabilitation. Once these objectives had been met, the area can be brush-packed to a<br />
thickness of 0.5 m using the sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea branches that had been cut<br />
down. Implementing these actions will improve water infiltration, reduce erosion, create<br />
suitable microhabitat for the germination of grass seeds and keep animals out until the area<br />
has recovered sufficiently to again sustain utilisation.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 110
GENERAL MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MARLOTH PARK<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
<strong>Management</strong> of any wildlife are also includes the non-living entities such as water points,<br />
fences, roads and infrastructure such as buildings. The correct number and placement of<br />
waterholes is important to control animal movement and to avoid over-utilisation and veld<br />
deterioration. Proper fences that comply with official specifications for the types of animals<br />
kept on the property are essential to ensure safety and security. Roads need to be maintained<br />
to allow access to the whole area and to enhance the game viewing experience. Proper general<br />
management on any wildlife area create a good impression and contribute to the success of<br />
the enterprise.<br />
OBJECTIVES<br />
The objectives of this study are to evaluate:<br />
• water provision<br />
• fences<br />
• roads<br />
WATER PROVISION<br />
The optimum utilisation of the veld on wildlife ranches is dependent on adequate and well-<br />
distributed water points. A Piosphere is defined as an ecological system of interactions<br />
between a watering point, its surrounding vegetation and the grazing animal. Under natural<br />
conditions water points are not usually permanent in Southern Africa, which results in<br />
relatively light utilisation of the area around waterholes. However, on wildlife areas the zones<br />
adjacent to watering points are more heavily used and subject to higher grazing pressure than<br />
areas further distant from waterholes. The effect of watering points on rangeland condition<br />
does not exceed an area of 200 m. Species diversity declines in this area. In natural summer<br />
grazing areas, Tragus berteronianus and Enneapogon cenchroides increase whereas Digitaria<br />
eriantha decreases. The woody plant fraction changes to species more resistant to browsing<br />
such as Acacia tortilis and Acacia karroo. Amaranthus thunbergii, Tribulus terrestris and<br />
Alternanthera pungens are associated with the vicinity of artificial watering points. A shift<br />
from perennial to annual species is observed in the area, where new waterholes are<br />
constructed. Trampling has a higher influence than grazing in wildlife areas around<br />
waterholes. Because of removal of plant cover and trampling, soil compaction increases with<br />
increasing vicinity to water.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 111
Surface erosion will reduce water infiltration and excessive water run-off will lead to further<br />
erosion. Soil types susceptible to accelerated erosion such as duplex soils should be avoided<br />
when constructing new waterholes. The distance between watering points also has significant<br />
effect on the impact of waterholes on the condition of the veld. To reduce the impact of<br />
trampling and soil erosion it is advisable that water points are clustered and separated by large<br />
waterless areas. This regime gives the waterless areas the possibility to rest and recover.<br />
Rangeland utilisation in areas of water supply is relatively low, due to the distribution of<br />
grazing pressure among several watering points rather than focussing on one waterhole.<br />
Trampling of rangeland in the immediate vicinity of watering points is minimized. Clustered<br />
watering points are best located within a radius of 500 m, in order to split up large herds.<br />
Smaller animal groups watering at the same time reduces the time spent at the waterhole and<br />
therefore, causes less trampling.<br />
The distance between individual waterholes also influences animal behaviour. Impalas forage<br />
as far as 2.2 km, zebra 7.2 km and blue wildebeest 7.4 km distant from waterholes. Mobile,<br />
water-dependant large herbivores forage up to 10 km from water in the dry season.<br />
Populations of roan antelope, sable antelope and reedbuck decline if the distance between<br />
permanent water does not exceed 10 km. Roan antelope and sable antelope require tall grass<br />
and endure for 4 to 5 days without drinking. For these animals areas should be provided, that<br />
are farther than 10 km away from water. Waterbuck will also only flourish if densities of<br />
other species are kept low. Therefore, the number and placement of available water points<br />
needs to be carefully balanced. Mobile, water-dependent animals such as Burchell´s zebra,<br />
buffalo and blue wildebeest will benefit from medium water point densities such as one<br />
cluster per 100 to 300 km 2 . Non-mobile, water-dependant animals such as impala and warthog<br />
prosper in degraded habitat with sparse cover and high density of watering points, such as one<br />
cluster of watering points per 0.8 to 20 km 2 . Areas for water independent animals such as<br />
eland, klipspringer and steenbok should not have artificial watering points. It is recommend to<br />
provide areas the size of approximately 20 km 2 , where water is supplied, alternating with<br />
areas of the same size, where no waterholes exist. This should promote an increase in species<br />
diversity. Browsers such as black rhinoceros, giraffe and kudu are less affected by water point<br />
regimes than grazers, because of higher moisture content in browse than in graze.<br />
For maintenance of a wide diversity of animals when focussing on tourism and game viewing,<br />
areas within 10 km reach of permanent water are recommended to comprise 70 to 80 percent<br />
of the property. In that case one existing permanent watering point per 400 to 600 km 2 should<br />
be stabilised. If less than 70 percent of the area is within a 10 km radius of a water point,<br />
water should be supplied to semi-permanent pools and pans, or even in temporary pans.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 112
If more than 80 percent of the property is within 10 km reach of permanent water, artificial<br />
watering points should be closed, beginning with those that are not stabilising natural semi-<br />
permanent supplies. If animal production for hunting or life sales of water-dependent animals<br />
is the main purpose of the enterprise, relatively higher densities of waterholes are<br />
recommended. If more than 80 percent of the area is within 5 km reach of permanent water in<br />
the dry season, rotation of watering points should be accomplished. If less than 80 percent of<br />
the property is within 5 km reach of a water point, water should be supplied to semi-<br />
permanent pans and pools in streams or even to temporary pans and pools. Generally the<br />
provision of one water point per 1000 ha is considered to be sufficient.<br />
When constructing new waterholes, certain criteria concerning the animals and their<br />
behaviour as well as the environment need to be observed:<br />
• Sufficient water must be available and used economically.<br />
• The drinking preferences of different animal species need to be considered when<br />
designing the waterhole.<br />
• Interspecies competition has to be kept low at the waterhole, to limit game loss.<br />
• The water quality must be suitable for game. High salt content of the water is<br />
detrimental.<br />
• Shade must be available in the vicinity of the waterhole, to provide game with<br />
resting places after drinking.<br />
• The waterhole must be controllable, opened or closed, to influence game<br />
movement.<br />
• Valves need to be checked regularly against damage through rust.<br />
• Ball valves need to be protected against destruction by animals such as baboon.<br />
• Pipes need to be buried for protection against animals and from ultraviolet rays.<br />
Temperature fluctuations decrease the lifespan of the pipes and high temperatures<br />
can impede the water quality.<br />
• Pumps should be placed in houses of at least 3 x 3 x 2 m for protection against<br />
animals such as buffalo and rhinoceros.<br />
• Inspection covers should be installed every 200 to 300 m to allow air release from<br />
pipes as well as maintenance.<br />
• The ground should be level.<br />
• Waterholes should not be placed on soil susceptible to erosion.<br />
• The Waterhole should look as natural as possible.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 113
Several different types of waterholes provide water: Rivers, natural pans, pans with artificial<br />
water supply, artificial earth dams or cement dams and troughs. Earth dams are artificial<br />
depressions in the ground, filled with run-off water from the veld or water from a reservoir or<br />
borehole. When correctly placed these waterholes seldom lead to soil erosion. Sandy soils are<br />
ideal for such waterholes. Dams on soils with relatively high clay content loose less water, but<br />
trampling and erosion causes problems in such areas. Cement dams resemble earth dams,<br />
where dam floor and rim are fortified. The transition from dam foundation to surrounding soil<br />
needs to be level and smooth, to avoid injuries of animals visiting the waterhole. Pans with<br />
artificial water supply and natural pans with only seasonal water blend in more naturally with<br />
the environment.<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Although <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> had sufficient access to water along the Crocodile River, without<br />
requiring any additional water sources on the property, the erection of a new game fence<br />
along boundary effectively denies access. The availability of resources on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is,<br />
however, not a limiting factor as not only is natural open water available, but many owners<br />
have constructed their own little waterholes on their properties. This effectively gives all<br />
animals’ access to water without much competition, reducing the concentration of large<br />
animal groups around waterholes and limiting the formation of piospheres. The disadvantage<br />
of this practice is the uniformed utilisation of the natural resources, without any areas with<br />
reduced impact. This will in time lead to more uniform vegetation formations, reducing<br />
ecotonal effects and thus habitat diversity. This will indirectly lower species diversity for<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
It is recommended that owner’s co-operation be obtained in managing water access to animals<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, through education and guidance. This can be achieved by making available<br />
a standard, acceptable design (Figure 13 and Figure 14) for a waterhole with a regulating<br />
valve. All waterhole locations must then be recorded, and using the plant communities<br />
identified, these waterholes can then be opened or closed on a rotational basis to induce some<br />
form of rotational resting. This action will facilitate fragmented utilisation; increase habitat<br />
diversity and ultimately species diversity.<br />
In the interim period, it is recommended that all owners be requested to close water points<br />
that are located in or adjacent to the degraded Dichrostachys cinerea – Tragus berteronianus<br />
Low bushland plant communities, until after successful rehabilitation of these areas.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 114
100 mm<br />
100 mm<br />
Ground level<br />
100 mm<br />
15000 mm<br />
<strong>Plan</strong><br />
100 mm 100 mm<br />
Water<br />
520 mm<br />
2000 mm<br />
Cross section A - A<br />
A<br />
A<br />
30º<br />
100 mm<br />
Wall<br />
100 mm<br />
Figure 13: Design of a shallow, rectangular waterhole sunk into the ground<br />
520 mm<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 115
Stones<br />
Ground level<br />
Reinforced concrete<br />
Water<br />
3 m<br />
0.6 m<br />
Cover<br />
Connecting pipe<br />
Supply<br />
Figure 14: Cross section design of a shallow, round waterhole sunk into the ground<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 116
FENCELINE SPECIFICATIONS<br />
Fencing does not comply with the principle of providing as natural conditions as possible on a<br />
wildlife reserve. With game moving in on a reserve becoming the property of the reserve<br />
owners, fences are necessary to keep the game within the reserve boundaries. Fencing<br />
becomes even more imperative if valuable animals are kept on the wildlife ranch.<br />
Furthermore, certain types of game pose a threat to public safety if not confined properly.<br />
Several factors that determine the efficiency of a game fence such as the type of game being<br />
kept, the terrain of the area, the type of material being used, and the availability of the<br />
material and finances. Specifications of the local conservation authority also have to be<br />
considered. When erecting a fence it is of great importance that the fence should be strong,<br />
firm and of good quality. The height fence is determined by the game that it kept. Animals<br />
such as eland, impala, kudu, mountain reedbuck and waterbuck jump over fences, while<br />
animals such as duiker, gemsbok, klipspringer, red hartebeest, steenbok and warthog crawl<br />
underneath. Small animals are capable of moving freely through fences, and animals such as<br />
buffalo and rhinoceros simply break through. A 17 to 21wire strand fence of 2.25 m to 2.4 m<br />
is high enough for fencing in those animals that are capable of jumping. Closer spacing of 80<br />
to 125 mm of the lower wire strands in contrast to 130 to 170 mm of the top wires prevents<br />
animals from crawling through the fence. Animals such as warthogs that dig are more<br />
difficult to control and mostly allowed to move freely. Three types of fence posts are used in<br />
the construction of fences: Straining posts, line posts and droppers. The straining posts are the<br />
main anchors of a fence and should be strong enough to withstand the strain exerted on them<br />
by the fence. On plains straining posts should be 100 to 300 m apart from each other. Line<br />
posts are erected at equal intervals between the straining posts. The line posts form the core of<br />
the fence and ensure elasticity if positioned 8 to 15 m apart. The droppers are placed at equal<br />
intervals between the line posts at distances ranging from 1 to 3 m. They aim to strengthen the<br />
fence and ensure even spacing of the wires. The wire itself can be barbed or smooth as well as<br />
single or double stranded. It is either bound or stapled to the respective post.<br />
Certain circumstances necessitate the erection of an electric fence around a wildlife area. An<br />
electrified fence facilitates the confinement of large or dangerous game such as elephants,<br />
hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses and predators. An energizer generates a regular electric pulse.<br />
As soon as an animal touches the electric wire, it experiences an electric shock. This shock<br />
usually discourages the animal from crossing the fence. The requirements for an electric fence<br />
depend on the animal to be restrained. Different species require different specifications.<br />
Upgrading a game fence to an electric game fence is relatively inexpensive and requires low<br />
labour input relative to the degree of effectiveness gained. The minimum requirements are<br />
one energiser per 10 km of game fences.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 117
For safety reasons these requirements should be observed right from the start. The voltage of<br />
the fence should always be at a minimum of 4000 V. Some game will test the fence regularly<br />
and might escape if the voltage drops. Number and height of the wire strands used in the<br />
electric fence depends on the game to be confined. The standard number is three strands of<br />
wire. The height is determined by the height of the animal in question. The animal should be<br />
shocked in front of the shoulders to prompt it to move backwards. A shock behind the<br />
shoulders will cause the animal to move toward the fence. Several components are necessary<br />
to construct an electric fence: Energisers, wire, insulators, digital voltmeters and lightening<br />
protectors. The length of the fence and number of electrified wires determines the number of<br />
energisers required. The insulators need to be strong enough to withstand the tension placed<br />
on it, and durable enough to withstand fire. Lightening protectors should also be installed to<br />
avoid damage of the fence during thunderstorms. The energiser, as well as the fence itself,<br />
must not come into contact with power lines or telephone poles. A minimum distance of 2 m<br />
should be observed. Warning signs should be mounted along the fence.<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
The fence-line around Lionspruit Game Reserve and the newly constructed fence along the<br />
Crocodile River effectively enclose <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, limiting animal migrations. The fence-lines<br />
are of acceptable design to contain all animals, with the exception of warthogs that will<br />
always find a weakness in any fence. Although all fence-lines are electrified, affectivity is<br />
only controlled through functionality and regular inspections. It is recommended that a<br />
regular fence-line patrol inspection be implemented and any breaches and defects be repaired<br />
immediately. No other mayor internal fences, with exception of the municipal office complex,<br />
dumping site and depot, are found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
Although the road surface barriers on Olifants Drive, constructed at the entrance gates to<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, should be effective in keeping these animals in, it is unfortunately not effective<br />
in keeping poachers out. The lack of security is a matter of concern, as no effective population<br />
regulative measures can be applied if accurate record keeping of natalities and mortalities are<br />
not implemented.<br />
ROADS<br />
The placement, construction and use of roads have various ecological effects and need to be<br />
considered carefully. Roads cause disturbance of the natural environment, because soil is<br />
compacted, water run-off increased and soil erosion promoted. Important ecological effects of<br />
roads are:<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 118
• The destruction of plants and small animals during construction works.<br />
• The creation of erosion problems leading to habitat deterioration.<br />
• That animals use roads as routes between watering points and grazing areas.<br />
• That animals such as impala and blue wildebeest sleep on roads during rainy or<br />
moonless nights.<br />
• The attraction of hares and steenbok to pioneer plants along roadsides.<br />
• That snakes often lie on roads when the environmental temperatures are low.<br />
• That ground-nesting birds often breed next to roads.<br />
• The provision of water out of season by quarries near roads, which can lead to<br />
over-utilisation of certain areas.<br />
Roads are constructed for four main reasons: Tourism, hunting, maintenance and firebreaks.<br />
The most important purpose for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is to provide owners access to their properties<br />
and to give maintenance personnel access to all areas. A secondary benefit of the roads is for<br />
viewing wildlife and experiencing nature on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. The current road infrastructure is<br />
well developed and traverses all vegetation types and plant communities, giving access to a<br />
diversity of habitats. For roads to be used as effective firebreaks a minimum width of 8 m is<br />
generally recommended. The only two roads that current comply with this recommendation is<br />
Olifants Drive and Renoster Road.<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
The road network on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> is highly developed, and no new roads need to be<br />
constructed. However, some of these roads need maintenance, especially after the rainfall<br />
season. It is recommended that water run-off be improved, and woody vegetation be removed<br />
for a distance of not less that 1 m, and not more that 2 m from the edge of the road. This will<br />
reduce the potential of accidental collision with antelope that want to cross the roads, and act<br />
as a more effective barrier against runaway wildfires.<br />
ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING<br />
Adaptive management is a term used to describe the system of making management decisions<br />
based on past mistakes. It is a useful management tool where decisions need to be made<br />
without having all the scientific facts. Adaptive management depends on three important<br />
monitoring programmes.<br />
• Measuring the performance of animals<br />
• Measure the change in vegetation<br />
• Recording environmental condition<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 119
Adaptive management<br />
Applying adaptive management require baseline data that can be used as a reference system in<br />
measuring change. This study will thus serve as reference system for future management<br />
decisions. By monitoring these changes, the effects of applied management can be gauged.<br />
However, no management decision can be made without clear set objectives. Periodically,<br />
fixed points on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> must be surveyed and the veld condition compared to the initial<br />
baseline data gathered. If any degradation is occurred in that time period, management<br />
decisions, such as stocking rate, must be re-evaluated and adjusted to achieve the objective or<br />
desired results. A new management decision must then be applied and the process repeated. If<br />
this process continues long enough a model specifically adapted to <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> can be<br />
devised. It is crucial that adequate records be kept on all aspects of veld and wildlife<br />
management. Without adequate records constructive progress will be vague and<br />
unsubstantiated.<br />
Monitoring<br />
Monitoring of the habitat aims at purposeful and repeated examination of the state or<br />
condition of the veld that involves the frequent testing for differences between baseline data<br />
or initial surveys and follow-up surveys. Certain components of the habitat can be regarded as<br />
key components as they are indicators of change. These components are rainfall, soil erosion,<br />
permanent surface water, fire, vegetation structure, cover and composition, animal<br />
productivity, numbers and growth rate.<br />
Rainfall<br />
Long-term rainfall is important for determining trends of change in vegetation. Rainfall has<br />
the greatest influence on the productivity of vegetation and ecological capacity. Although<br />
rainfall should ideally be recorded on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, sufficiently reliable data can be obtained<br />
from the weather station on Malelane.<br />
Habitat<br />
To conduct monitoring surveys of the habitat, fixed survey sites should be established on<br />
<strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>, in each of the plant communities. Veld condition should then be measured and<br />
evaluated against the existing baseline data.<br />
Game<br />
The seasonal distribution and numbers of game should be monitored continually and<br />
population growth rates calculated. These can then be used to determine the health of the<br />
population.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 120
The age and sex ratios of animals must also be recorded, as well as natural mortalities or other<br />
causes of death. A professional game count should be conducted annually to determine<br />
optimum stocking rates to be applied on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>.<br />
Recommendations for <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Fifteen survey sites (Figure 15) with initial baseline data (Appendix 5) have been established<br />
on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong>. These survey sites are considered representative of the vegetation, and<br />
require annual monitoring to determine change. Although veld condition can be determined<br />
relatively easy by repeating the technique used in veld condition assessment, analyzing the<br />
woody vegetation requires professional analysis and interpretation. However, a photographic<br />
record taken at each site (Appendix 6) can be used to visually assess the woody vegetation.<br />
These photographs must again be taken each year during February, for comparative purposes.<br />
It is recommended that a professional re-evaluation again be requested after 5 years, if<br />
recommendations or guidelines have been implemented.<br />
Game counts should be conducted annually, also recording sex and age ratios. This will<br />
facilitate the determination of optimum stocking rates and maximum production.<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 121
Figure 15: Location of the monitoring sites on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 122
Appendix 1<br />
A list of tree species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Acacia caffra Common hook-thorn<br />
Acacia exuvialis Flaky thorn<br />
Acacia grandicornuta Horned thorn<br />
Acacia karroo Sweet thorn<br />
Acacia nigrescens Knob thorn<br />
Acacia nilotica subsp. kraussiana Scented thorn<br />
Acacia senegal var. rostrata Three-hook thorn<br />
Acacia swazica Swazi acacia<br />
Acacia tortilis subsp. heteracantha Umbrella thorn<br />
Albizia harveyi Common false thorn<br />
Balanites maughamii Green thorn<br />
Berchemia zeyheri Red ivory<br />
Bolusanthus speciosus Tree wisteria<br />
Carissa bispinosa Forest num-num<br />
Cassine transvaalensis Transvaal saffron<br />
Cereus jamacaru Queen of the night<br />
Combretum apiculatum subsp. apiculatum Red bushwillow<br />
Combretum collinum subsp. collinum Variable bushwillow<br />
Combretum hereroense Russet bushwillow<br />
Combretum imberbe Leadwood<br />
Combretum molle Velvet bushwillow<br />
Combretum zeyheri Large-fruited bushwillow<br />
Commiphora mollis Velvet corkwood<br />
Commiphora schimperi Glossy-leaved corkwood<br />
Dalbergia melanoxylon Zebra wood<br />
Dichrostachys cinerea Sickle bush<br />
Diospyros mespiliformis Jackal-berry<br />
Dombeya rotundifolia Common wild pear<br />
Euclea crispa Blue guarri<br />
Euclea divinorum Magic guarri<br />
Euphorbia tirucalli Rubber euphorbia<br />
Ficus abutilifolia Large-leaved rock fig<br />
Ficus sycomorus Common cluster fig<br />
Flueggea virosa White-berry bush<br />
Galpinia transvaalica Tranvaal privet<br />
Gardenia volkensii subsp. volkensii Savanna gardenia<br />
Grewia bicolor White raisin<br />
Grewia flava Velvet raisin<br />
Grewia flavescens var. flavescens Sandpaper raisin<br />
Grewia hexamita Giant raisin<br />
Grewia monticola Silver raisin<br />
Grewia villosa Mallow raisin<br />
Gymnosporia buxifolia Common spike-thorn<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 123
Appendix 1 (Continue)<br />
A list of tree species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Hyphaene coriacea Lala palm<br />
Kigelia africana Sausage tree<br />
Lannea schweinfurthii var. stuhlmannii False marula<br />
Lantana camara Lantana<br />
Lantana rugosa Bird’s brandy<br />
Lonchocarpus capassa Apple leaf<br />
Mimusops obovata Red milkwood<br />
Manilkara concolor Zulu milkberry<br />
Mundulea sericea Corky bark<br />
Mystroxylon aethiopica Saffron tree<br />
Opuntia ficus-indica Sweet prickly pear<br />
Ormocarpum trichocarpum Caterpillar bush<br />
Ozoroa paniculosa var. salicina Common resin tree<br />
Peltophorum africanum Weeping wattle<br />
Pterocarpus rotundifolius Round-leaved teak<br />
Rhus guenzii Thorny karree<br />
Schotia brachypetala Weeping boer-bean<br />
Schrebera alata Wild jasmine<br />
Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra Marula<br />
Spirostachys africana Tamboti<br />
Sterculia rogersii Common star-chestnut<br />
Strychnos madagascariensis Black monkey orange<br />
Strychnos spinosa Green monkey orange<br />
Terminalia prunioides Lowveld cluster leaf<br />
Terminalia sericea Silver cluster leaf<br />
Trichilia emetica Natal mahogany<br />
Ximenia americana var. microphylla Blue sourplum<br />
Ximenia caffra Sourplum<br />
Zanthoxylum capense Small knobwood<br />
Ziziphus mucronata Buffalo-thorn<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 124
Appendix 2<br />
A list of grass species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Andropogon chinensis Hairy blue grass<br />
Aristida adscensionis Annual three-awn<br />
Aristida bipartita Rolling grass<br />
Aristida congesta subsp. barbicollis Spreading three-awn<br />
Aristida congesta subsp. congesta Tassel three-awn<br />
Aristida scrabivalvis Purple three-awn<br />
Aristida stipitata subsp. stipitata Long-awned three-awn<br />
Bothriochloa radicans Stinking grass<br />
Brachiaria deflexa False signal grass<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris Blue baffalo grass<br />
Chloris virgata Feathered chloris<br />
Cynodon dactylon Couch grass<br />
Dactyloctenium aegytium Common crowsfoot<br />
Dactylotenium australe L.M. grass<br />
Dicanthium annulatum Vlei finger grass<br />
Digitaria eriantha Finger grass<br />
Diplachne eleusine Large scale grass<br />
Echinochloa colona Jungle rice<br />
Enneapogon scoparius Bottlebrush grass<br />
Eragrostis aspera Rough love grass<br />
Eragrostis curvula Weeping love grass<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua Gum grass<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana var. lehmanniana Lehmann’s love grass<br />
Eragrostis micrantha Finesse grass<br />
Eragrostis plana Tough love grass<br />
Eragrostis racemosa Narrow heart love grass<br />
Eragrostis rigidior Broadleaved curly leaf<br />
Eragrostis superba Sawtooth love grass<br />
Eragrostis trichophora Hairy love grass<br />
Fingerhuthia africana Thimble grass<br />
Heteropogon contortus Spear grass<br />
Hyparrhenia tamba Blue thatching grass<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula Fine thatching grass<br />
Hyperthelia dissoluta Yellow thatching grass<br />
Melinis repens Natal red-top<br />
Panicum coloratum White buffalo grass<br />
Panicum deustum Broad-leaved panicum<br />
Panicum maximum Guinea grass<br />
Panicum natalense Natal panicum<br />
Paspalum notatum Bahia grass<br />
Perotis patens Cat’s tail<br />
Melinis nerviglumis Bristle-leaved red-top<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa Herringbone grass<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 125
Appendix 2 (Continue)<br />
A list of grass species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides Sand quick<br />
Setaria finita<br />
Setaria incrassata Large-seed bristle grass<br />
Setaria sphacelata var. sphacelata Common bristle grass<br />
Setaria verticilata Sticky bristle grass<br />
Sorghum bicolor Common wild sorghum<br />
Sorghum versicolor Black-seed wild sorghum<br />
Sporobolus ioclados Pan dropseed<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis Ratstail dropseed<br />
Themeda triandra Red grass<br />
Tragus berteronianus Common carrot-seed grass<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis Small rolling grass<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis Bushveld signal grass<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 126
Appendix 3<br />
A list of forbs species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Abutilon austro-africanum<br />
Acalypha indica<br />
Acanthospermum prostrata Prostate starbur<br />
Achyranthes aspera Chaff flower<br />
Adenium multiflorum Impala lily<br />
Adenium swazicum Summer impala lily<br />
Agathisanthemum bojeri<br />
Agave sisalana Sisal<br />
Ageratum conyzoides<br />
Aloe chabaudii<br />
Aloe dabenorisana<br />
Aloe marlothii Mountain aloe<br />
Alternanthera pungens Paperthorn<br />
Anthospermum herbaceum<br />
Aptosimum lineare<br />
Aspilia mossambicensis<br />
Barleria lancifolia Rankklits<br />
Bidens pilosa Blackjack<br />
Blepharis subvolubilis var. subvolubilis<br />
Boerhavia erecta Spiderling<br />
Boophane disticha Poison bulb<br />
Bulbostylis burchellii<br />
Ceratotheca triloba Wild foxglove<br />
Chaemacrista alba<br />
Chaemacrista mimosoides Fishbone cassia<br />
Chaemasyce hirta Red milkweed<br />
Chaemasyce inaequlatera Smooth creeping milkweed<br />
Chamaesyce neopolycnemoides<br />
Cissus cornifolia<br />
Cleome maculata<br />
Cleome angustifolia<br />
Clivia caulescens<br />
Coccinia adoensis<br />
Coleochloa setifera<br />
Commelina eckloniana<br />
Commelina africana<br />
Commelina erecta<br />
Conyza bonariensis Flax-leaf fleabane<br />
Corbichonia decumbens<br />
Cotyledon orbiculata Plakkie<br />
Crabbea angustifolia<br />
Crabbea hirsuta<br />
Crotolaria burkeana<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 127
Appendix 3 (Continue)<br />
A list of forbs species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Cucumis hirsutus Wild cucumber<br />
Cucumis zeyheri<br />
Cyperus cyperoides<br />
Cyperus esculentus Yellow nutsedge<br />
Cyperus obtusiflorus Geelbiesie<br />
Cyperus rupestris<br />
Cyphostemma lanigerum Wild grape<br />
Cyphostemma sp. Undescribed<br />
Dalechampia capensis<br />
Datura stramomium Thorn apple<br />
Dicoma tomentosa<br />
Dyschoriste fischeri<br />
Evolvulus alsinoides<br />
Felicia muricata<br />
Galinsoga parviflora Gallant soldier<br />
Geigeria burkei Vermeerbos<br />
Gomphocarpus burchellii<br />
Gomphrena celosioides Bachelor’s button<br />
Gossypium herbaceum subsp. africanum Wild cotton<br />
Guilleminea densa Carrot weed<br />
Harrisia martinii Moon cactus<br />
Heimia myrtifolia<br />
Helichrysum rugulosum<br />
Heliotropium ciliatum<br />
Hermannia boraginiflora Gombossie<br />
Hermannia tomentosa<br />
Hibiscus cannabinus<br />
Hibiscus calyphyllus Wild stockrose<br />
Hibiscus penduculatus<br />
Hibiscus trionum Bladderweed<br />
Hypertelis salsoloides var. salsoloides<br />
Indigofera filipes<br />
Indigofera schimperi var. schimperi<br />
Ipomoea obscura Wild petunia<br />
Ipomoea pupurea Common morning glory<br />
Jatropha zeyheri<br />
Justicia flava<br />
Justicia protracta subsp. protracta<br />
Kalanchoe paniculata Krimpsiektebossie<br />
Kedrostis africana<br />
Kohoutia cynanchica<br />
Kyllinga alba Witbiesie<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 128
Appendix 3 (Continue)<br />
A list of forbs species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Kyphocarpa angustifolia<br />
Laggera crispata<br />
Lantana rugosa Bird’s brandy<br />
Ledebouria cooperi<br />
Leonotis ocymifolia Wild dagga<br />
Leucas glabrata var. glabrata<br />
Lippia javanica Laventelbossie<br />
Melhania forbesii<br />
Melhania prostrata<br />
Merremia tridentata subsp. angustifolia<br />
Ocimum canum<br />
Oxalis corniculata Creeping sorrel<br />
Oxalis semiloba Sorrel<br />
Pavonia burchellii<br />
Pegolettia senegalensis<br />
Pellaea calomelanos<br />
Phragmites australis Common reed<br />
Phyllanthus parvulus var. parvulus Dye bush<br />
Plexipus hederaceus var. hederaceus<br />
Polygala sphenoptera<br />
Portulaca kermisina<br />
Portulaca qudrifida Wild purslane<br />
Protasparagus setaceus Asparagus fern<br />
Protosparagus suaveolens Wild asparagus<br />
Pupalia lappacea<br />
Rhoicissus tridentata Bushman’s grape<br />
Rhynchosia caribaea<br />
Rhynchosia totta var. totta<br />
Ricinus communis Castor bean<br />
Richardia brasiliensis Tropical richardia<br />
Sanseviera aethiopica Bowstring hemp<br />
Schoenoplectus corymbosus<br />
Senecio venosus<br />
Senna italica<br />
Sesamum triphyllum Wild sesame<br />
Sida alba Spiny sida<br />
Sida cordifolia Flannel weed<br />
Sida pseudocordifolia<br />
Sida rhombifolia Arrow-leaf sida<br />
Solanum incanum Bitter apple<br />
Solanum panduriforme Poison apple<br />
Solanum sisynbrifolium Wild tomato<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 129
Appendix 3 (Continue)<br />
A list of forbs species identified on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Scientific name Common name<br />
Tagetes minuta Tall khaki weed<br />
Tephrosia pupurea<br />
Tragia rupestris<br />
Tribulus terrestris Dubbeltjie<br />
Tricliceras laceratum<br />
Trifolium repens var. repens White clover<br />
Truimfetta rhomboidea<br />
Typha capensis Bulrush<br />
Vernonia oligocephala Bitterbossie<br />
Vernonia poskeana<br />
Walafrida tenuifolia<br />
Walthera indica Meidebossie<br />
Xanthium strumarium Large cocklebur<br />
Xerophyta retinervis Monkey’s tail<br />
Zinnia peruviana Wildejakopregop<br />
Alien species<br />
No known common name<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 1<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 2<br />
Declared weed and invader species Category 3<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 130
Appendix 4: Alien invaders found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Sisal Agave sisalana Queen-of-the-night Cereus jamacaru<br />
Moon cactus Harrisia martini Lantana Lantana camara<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 131
Appendix 4: Alien invaders found on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Prickly pear Opuntia ficus-indica Castor bean Ricinus communis<br />
Wild tomato Solanum sisymbriifolium Large cocklebur Xanthium strumarium<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 132
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 01, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 45' 29.8" Photograph: 1<br />
Latitude: 25º 23' 30.8"<br />
Grass species<br />
Decreasers<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha 5<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum 43<br />
Panicum maximum 10<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
Sub-total 58<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium 2<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana 5<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 10<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
Tragus berteronianus 32<br />
Forbs<br />
Sub-total 32<br />
Veld condition score 652<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 133
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 02, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 45' 33.6" Photograph: 2<br />
Latitude: 25º 22' 36.8"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
17<br />
Sub-total 17<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
3<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
2<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 8<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
13<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
2<br />
Tragus berteronianus 44<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 59<br />
Veld condition score 261<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 134
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 03, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 45' 47.7" Photograph: 3<br />
Latitude: 25º 22' 49.8"<br />
Grass species<br />
Decreasers<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha 3<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum 53<br />
Panicum maximum 4<br />
Panicum natalense 2<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
Sub-total 62<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba 2<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides 2<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 7<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis 5<br />
Aristida bipartita 3<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis 2<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
Tragus berteronianus 24<br />
Forbs<br />
Sub-total 34<br />
Veld condition score 682<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 135
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 04, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 45' 36.3" Photograph: 4<br />
Latitude: 25º 21' 55.2"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
8<br />
Panicum deustum 68<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
8<br />
Sub-total 84<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
2<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 5<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
4<br />
Tragus berteronianus 10<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 14<br />
Veld condition score 874<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 136
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 05, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 45' 51.1" Photograph: 5<br />
Latitude: 25º 21' 58.7"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum 52<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
1<br />
Sub-total 53<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
4<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
1<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 8<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
16<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
4<br />
Tragus berteronianus 14<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 34<br />
Veld condition score 596<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 137
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 06, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 45' 42.7" Photograph: 6<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 42.2"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
28<br />
Panicum deustum 36<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
8<br />
Sub-total 72<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
4<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
1<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
1<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 9<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
5<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
3<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
1<br />
Tragus berteronianus 10<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 19<br />
Veld condition score 775<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 138
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 07, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 46' 34.0" Photograph: 7<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 50.7"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris 34<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
6<br />
Panicum deustum 20<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
10<br />
Sub-total 70<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
2<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
6<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
2<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 13<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
4<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
2<br />
Tragus berteronianus 12<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 18<br />
Veld condition score 770<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 139
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 08, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 46' 47.5" Photograph: 8<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 12.3"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum 70<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
8<br />
Sub-total 78<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 3<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
10<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
4<br />
Tragus berteronianus 8<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 22<br />
Veld condition score 814<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 140
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 09, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 47' 05.2" Photograph: 9<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 42.4"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
4<br />
Panicum deustum 58<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
4<br />
Sub-total 66<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
2<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
4<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis 2<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 11<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
10<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
2<br />
Tragus berteronianus 14<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 26<br />
Veld condition score 730<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 141
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 10, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 46' 05.0" Photograph: 10<br />
Latitude: 25º 21' 38.8"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
2<br />
Panicum deustum 44<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
16<br />
Sub-total 62<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
2<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
4<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 9<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
4<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
8<br />
Tragus berteronianus 20<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 32<br />
Veld condition score 688<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 142
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 11, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 47' 51.8" Photograph: 11<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 35.9"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
4<br />
Panicum deustum 48<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
8<br />
Sub-total 60<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
10<br />
Eragrostis superba 4<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
2<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 19<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
10<br />
Tragus berteronianus 8<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 18<br />
Veld condition score 694<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 143
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 12, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 47' 50.2" Photograph: 12<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 07.4"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
1<br />
Panicum deustum 46<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
6<br />
Sub-total 53<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
4<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 7<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
2<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
2<br />
Tragus berteronianus 32<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 36<br />
Veld condition score 594<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 144
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 13, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 47' 50.8" Photograph: 13<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 57.0"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris 16<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
8<br />
Panicum deustum 28<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
14<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
16<br />
Sub-total 82<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
4<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 7<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
Tragus berteronianus<br />
2<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 2<br />
Veld condition score 850<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 145
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 14, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 48' 37.4" Photograph: 14<br />
Latitude: 25º 20' 07.7"<br />
Grass species<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum 18<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
6<br />
Sub-total 24<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 3<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
8<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
2<br />
Tragus berteronianus 24<br />
Forbs<br />
Decreasers<br />
Sub-total 34<br />
Veld condition score 286<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 146
Appendix 5: Frequency occurrence of grass species on site number MP 15, based on ecological categories<br />
Longitude: 31º 48' 16.5" Photograph: 15<br />
Latitude: 25º 21' 28.9"<br />
Grass species<br />
Decreasers<br />
Andropogon schirensis<br />
Brachiaria serrata<br />
Cenchrus ciliaris<br />
Digitaria eriantha 6<br />
Fingerhurtia africana<br />
Panicum coloratum<br />
Panicum deustum 48<br />
Panicum maximum<br />
Panicum natalense<br />
Setaria nigrirostris<br />
Setaria sphaecelata<br />
Themeda triandra<br />
Sub-total 54<br />
Increasers I (1)<br />
Trachypogon spicatus<br />
Hyparrhenia filipendula<br />
Sporobolus pyramidalis<br />
Sub-total 0<br />
Increasers IIa & IIb (2)<br />
Heteropogon contortus<br />
Sporobolus fimbriatus<br />
Bothriochloa insculpta<br />
Bothriochloa radicans<br />
Dactylotenium aegyptium<br />
Enneapogon cenchroides<br />
Eragrostis curvula<br />
Eragrostis gummiflua<br />
Eragrostis lehmanniana<br />
Eragrostis plana<br />
Eragrostis racemosa<br />
Eragrostis rigidior<br />
Eragrostis superba<br />
Eragrostis trichophora<br />
Perotis patens<br />
Pogonarthria squarrosa<br />
Schmidtia pappophoroides<br />
Sporobolus panicoides<br />
Trichoneura grandiglumis<br />
Urochloa mosambicensis 3<br />
Sub-total 3<br />
Increasers IIc (3)<br />
Aristida adscensionis 6<br />
Aristida bipartita<br />
Aristida congesta var. barbicollis<br />
Aristida congesta var. congesta<br />
Aristida stipitata<br />
Chloris virgata<br />
Cynodon dactylon<br />
Enneapogon scoparius<br />
Melinis repens<br />
Tragus berteronianus 40<br />
Forbs<br />
Sub-total 46<br />
Veld condition score 598<br />
Year of survey<br />
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 147
Appendix 6: Photographs of each vegetation-monitoring site on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Monitoring site MP 01 Monitoring site MP 02<br />
Monitoring site MP 03 Monitoring site MP 04<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 148
Appendix 6: Photographs of each vegetation-monitoring site on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> (Continue)<br />
Monitoring site MP 05 Monitoring site MP 06<br />
Monitoring site MP 07 Monitoring site MP 08<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 149
Appendix 6: Photographs of each vegetation-monitoring site on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> (Continue)<br />
Monitoring site MP 09 Monitoring site MP 10<br />
Monitoring site MP 11 Monitoring site MP 12<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 150
Appendix 6: Photographs of each vegetation-monitoring site on <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong><br />
Monitoring site MP 13 Monitoring site MP 14<br />
Monitoring site MP 15<br />
© Ecological Associates/ <strong>Marloth</strong> <strong>Park</strong> 151