HAN Business Publications - Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen
HAN Business Publications - Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen
HAN Business Publications - Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen
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faculteit economie <strong>en</strong> managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
<strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong><br />
<strong>Publications</strong><br />
December 2009, nummer 2
<strong>HAN</strong><br />
<strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong><br />
Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
December 2009, nummer 2<br />
<strong>HAN</strong> Press
colofon<br />
Titel<br />
<strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong><br />
Redactie<br />
Reinder Pieters <strong>en</strong> Stef Weijers<br />
Eindredactie<br />
Marlies de Jonge<br />
Productiebegeleiding<br />
<strong>HAN</strong> MCV<br />
Vormgeving<br />
Ter Haar Rom<strong>en</strong>y & Ketel<br />
Uitgeverij<br />
<strong>HAN</strong> Press, <strong>Arnhem</strong>, Nederland<br />
Besteladres:<br />
<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong><br />
Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
t.a.v. Marlies de Jonge, kamer C2.34<br />
Postbus 5171, 6802 CC <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
E-mail: <strong>HAN</strong>-<strong>Business</strong><strong>Publications</strong>@han.nl<br />
Telefoon: (026) 369 17 89<br />
Fax: (026) 369 13 69<br />
Website: www.han.nl<br />
ISBN-nummer: 978-90-8707-007-6
inhoudsopgave<br />
Redactioneel 5<br />
Stef Weijers<br />
Voorwoord 7<br />
Jetty Schaap<br />
Regionale innovatie als economische strategie 9<br />
Frans Nauta <strong>en</strong> Marijn Giel<strong>en</strong><br />
How to manage <strong>en</strong>terprise? From creation to rational continuation 19<br />
Hans Broekhuis <strong>en</strong> Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong><br />
Taalbeleid voor iedere<strong>en</strong> 35<br />
Bas <strong>van</strong> Eerd<br />
What role for the internationally minded SMEs? 45<br />
Frank Vonk<br />
Global Marketing Control 67<br />
John Rance <strong>en</strong> Galina Zhiltsova<br />
‘Internationals’ employed in German SMEs 79<br />
Frank Vonk<br />
De wadd<strong>en</strong>unit op weg naar de wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot 105<br />
Afina de Noord <strong>en</strong> Tineke Kramer-Klein<br />
Personal developm<strong>en</strong>tplan: designing a career plan 113<br />
Fatma Kaymaz<br />
Topcoaches voor Toptal<strong>en</strong>t 119
Magazijnoptimalisatie; looptijdreductie in orderpick<strong>en</strong> 123<br />
Maurijn Hell<strong>en</strong>thal<br />
Retourlogistiek bij e<strong>en</strong> groothandel voor klimaatbeheersingsproduct<strong>en</strong> 131<br />
Harm Verweij<strong>en</strong><br />
Lectorat<strong>en</strong> verbond<strong>en</strong> aan de FEM 139<br />
Auteurs 145<br />
Boek<strong>en</strong> geschrev<strong>en</strong> door FEM-medewerkers 149
edactioneel<br />
Het tweede nummer <strong>van</strong> <strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong> biedt u e<strong>en</strong> nieuwe reeks artikel<strong>en</strong><br />
geschrev<strong>en</strong> door lector<strong>en</strong>, doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong><br />
Managem<strong>en</strong>t (FEM) <strong>van</strong> de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> (<strong>HAN</strong>). Dat is conform<br />
de formule <strong>van</strong> dit tijdschrift: de mogelijkheid bied<strong>en</strong> aan FEM’ers om hun artikel<strong>en</strong><br />
aan te bied<strong>en</strong> aan collega’s <strong>en</strong> person<strong>en</strong> uit ons netwerk. Tot nu toe beoordeeld<strong>en</strong> wij de<br />
ingezond<strong>en</strong> bijdrag<strong>en</strong> op hun geschiktheid voor opname in dit tijdschrift met e<strong>en</strong> ja of<br />
nee. Regelmatig war<strong>en</strong> we aang<strong>en</strong>aam verrast door de kwaliteit <strong>van</strong> de artikel<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>kele<br />
keer dacht<strong>en</strong> we dat er meer uit te hal<strong>en</strong> viel dan in de tekst naar vor<strong>en</strong> kwam. Om dat<br />
laatste te bevorder<strong>en</strong> zull<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong>af het volg<strong>en</strong>de nummer de indi<strong>en</strong>ers <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> artikel eerst<br />
e<strong>en</strong> inhoudelijke reactie krijg<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> vakg<strong>en</strong>oot, t<strong>en</strong>einde het artikel op e<strong>en</strong> zo hoog<br />
mogelijk niveau te krijg<strong>en</strong>. De inhoudelijke reactie zal gegev<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong>uit de principes<br />
<strong>van</strong> toegepast onderzoek: niet puur academisch, maar wel methodisch, logisch, maatschappelijk<br />
rele<strong>van</strong>t <strong>en</strong> toepasbaar.<br />
Het hoger beroepsonderwijs (hbo) staat aan het begin <strong>van</strong>, naar wij hop<strong>en</strong>, e<strong>en</strong> lange<br />
traditie <strong>van</strong> toegepast onderzoek. Met <strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong> will<strong>en</strong> we daar graag<br />
e<strong>en</strong> bijdrage aan lever<strong>en</strong>. En dat op zo hoog mogelijk niveau. Vandaar de input <strong>van</strong><br />
experts. Hiermee nodig<strong>en</strong> we tegelijkertijd collega’s uit die weinig tot ge<strong>en</strong> ervaring hebb<strong>en</strong><br />
met het schrijv<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> artikel<strong>en</strong>, om e<strong>en</strong> bijdrage te lever<strong>en</strong> aan het opzett<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
onderzoekstraditie in toegepast onderzoek binn<strong>en</strong> het hbo.<br />
Naast de gedrukte uitgave zull<strong>en</strong> we het tijdschrift via e<strong>en</strong> digitale versie toegankelijk<br />
mak<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> ruimer leespubliek dan de interne kring <strong>van</strong> FEM-medewerkers. Onze<br />
collega’s <strong>van</strong> <strong>HAN</strong> MCV werk<strong>en</strong> op dit mom<strong>en</strong>t hard aan het digitaliser<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de inhoud<br />
<strong>van</strong> <strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong>, zodat deze ook via het internet bekek<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> gedownload<br />
kan word<strong>en</strong>. Hiervoor zijn we h<strong>en</strong> dankbaar.<br />
<strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong> zal twee maal per jaar verschijn<strong>en</strong>. Er is <strong>van</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
kant<strong>en</strong> belangstelling getoond om e<strong>en</strong> bundel artikel<strong>en</strong> aan te bied<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> nummer specifiek<br />
aan één thema te wijd<strong>en</strong>, in combinatie met het organiser<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> congres. We juich<strong>en</strong><br />
dit soort initiatiev<strong>en</strong> als redactie <strong>van</strong> harte toe. Door de combinatie <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> speciaal<br />
nummer <strong>van</strong> het tijdschrift <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> congres, kunn<strong>en</strong> we onze k<strong>en</strong>nis del<strong>en</strong> met e<strong>en</strong> groter<br />
aantal m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> we als FEM e<strong>en</strong> nuttige rol vervull<strong>en</strong> in ons netwerk.<br />
5
De redactie <strong>van</strong> deze uitgave is weer verzorgd door Reinder Pieters <strong>en</strong> Stef Weijers.<br />
Marlies de Jonge voerde de eindredactie. Heeft u naar aanleiding <strong>van</strong> dit nummer interesse<br />
in het schrijv<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> artikel of k<strong>en</strong>t u stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> wi<strong>en</strong>s scriptie het waard is om e<strong>en</strong><br />
breder leespubliek te krijg<strong>en</strong>? Laat dit wet<strong>en</strong> via <strong>HAN</strong>-<strong>Business</strong><strong>Publications</strong>@han.nl of<br />
T 026 369 17 98.<br />
We hop<strong>en</strong> dat deze tweede uitgave u zal inspirer<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> w<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> u veel leesplezier toe.<br />
De redactie <strong>van</strong> <strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong>,<br />
Marlies de Jonge, Reinder Pieters <strong>en</strong> Stef Weijers<br />
Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong><br />
December 2009<br />
6
voorwoord<br />
Het tijdschrift <strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong> krijgt nu daadwerkelijk vorm. Dat past helemaal<br />
in de lijn die we <strong>van</strong>uit de Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t (FEM) inzett<strong>en</strong> om<br />
meer r<strong>en</strong>dem<strong>en</strong>t te hal<strong>en</strong> uit het onderzoek dat we do<strong>en</strong>. Dat betek<strong>en</strong>t niet alle<strong>en</strong> ons<br />
onderzoek verdiep<strong>en</strong>, maar ook onze programmering <strong>van</strong> onderzoek strategisch beter<br />
veranker<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> de faculteit.<br />
E<strong>en</strong> belangrijke rol hierin spel<strong>en</strong> de lectorat<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de FEM. Acht zijn het er inmiddels,<br />
elk met e<strong>en</strong> lector <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> onderzoeksteam. Lectorat<strong>en</strong> staan niet op zichzelf. Ze zijn<br />
gekoppeld aan de vraag die uit de markt komt <strong>en</strong> aan de behoeft<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het onderwijs.<br />
Ze vervull<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> scharnierfunctie tuss<strong>en</strong> innovatie in de beroepspraktijk <strong>en</strong> innovatie in<br />
het onderwijs. Vanuit de lectorat<strong>en</strong> krijgt onderzoek e<strong>en</strong> steviger fundam<strong>en</strong>t binn<strong>en</strong> het<br />
onderwijs.<br />
In deze editie <strong>van</strong> <strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong> pres<strong>en</strong>ter<strong>en</strong> we vooral de resultat<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
onderzoek waarin doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> geparticipeerd hebb<strong>en</strong> of dat zij zelfstandig<br />
hebb<strong>en</strong> uitgevoerd. Ook pres<strong>en</strong>ter<strong>en</strong> we boek<strong>en</strong> die door onze doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> zijn geschrev<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Het doet ons deugd te kunn<strong>en</strong> lat<strong>en</strong> zi<strong>en</strong> dat onze collega’s inderdaad actief zijn op onderzoeksvlak<br />
<strong>en</strong> daarover publicer<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In het onderwijs will<strong>en</strong> we graag meer acc<strong>en</strong>t legg<strong>en</strong> op onderzoeksvaardighed<strong>en</strong>. We<br />
hecht<strong>en</strong> er veel waarde aan dat onze stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> ler<strong>en</strong> kritisch te kijk<strong>en</strong> naar de bronn<strong>en</strong> die<br />
ze gebruik<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> ler<strong>en</strong> om niet alle<strong>en</strong> creatief te zijn in het bed<strong>en</strong>k<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> oplossing<strong>en</strong>, maar<br />
ook in staat zijn e<strong>en</strong> systematische analyse te mak<strong>en</strong>. We will<strong>en</strong> ze ler<strong>en</strong> nieuwsgierig te<br />
zijn. We will<strong>en</strong> ook dat zij zich realiser<strong>en</strong> dat elke succesvolle oplossing <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> probleem<br />
niet de <strong>en</strong>ig d<strong>en</strong>kbare oplossing hoeft te zijn. Er moet balans zijn tuss<strong>en</strong> creativiteit <strong>en</strong><br />
analyse: e<strong>en</strong> probleem oploss<strong>en</strong> zonder dat je het goed hebt geanalyseerd, blijft e<strong>en</strong> tricky<br />
aanpak. Ook in dit nummer <strong>van</strong> <strong>HAN</strong> <strong>Business</strong> <strong>Publications</strong> kunt u diverse bijdrag<strong>en</strong><br />
lez<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> die beide compet<strong>en</strong>ties in zich hebb<strong>en</strong>: e<strong>en</strong> goede analyse mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
problem<strong>en</strong> creatief oploss<strong>en</strong>. Stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> waar we trots op zijn!<br />
Ik w<strong>en</strong>s u veel leesplezier!<br />
Jetty Schaap<br />
Directeur Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Hoegeschool <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong><br />
7
egionale innovatie als economische<br />
strategie<br />
Voorwaard<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> succesvol regionaal innovatiesysteem<br />
Sam<strong>en</strong>vatting<br />
f r a n s n a u ta e n m a r i j n g i e l e n<br />
In het regionale innovatieproject <strong>van</strong> het lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector zijn vijf<br />
Europese regio’s onderzocht die succesvol e<strong>en</strong> regionale innovatiestrategie hebb<strong>en</strong> ontwikkeld<br />
<strong>en</strong> uitgevoerd. De c<strong>en</strong>trale conclusie is dat hun succes ge<strong>en</strong> toeval is. De onderzochte<br />
clusters zijn alle het resultaat <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> goede <strong>en</strong> actiegerichte sam<strong>en</strong>werking tuss<strong>en</strong> bedrijv<strong>en</strong>,<br />
k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> overhed<strong>en</strong>. Die sam<strong>en</strong>werking is langdurig. Het lectoraat destilleerde<br />
vijf voorwaard<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> succesvol innovatiesysteem uit het onderzoek.<br />
Inleiding<br />
Begin 2008 is het lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector <strong>van</strong> de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> gestart met het project Regionale Innovatie System<strong>en</strong>. 1 Het doel <strong>van</strong><br />
het project is het verzamel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> less<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> regionale succesverhal<strong>en</strong> op innovatiegebied in<br />
andere Europese land<strong>en</strong>. Vervolg<strong>en</strong>s zijn deze strategieën gespiegeld aan het innovatiesysteem<br />
in de regio <strong>Arnhem</strong>-Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>, uitmond<strong>en</strong>d in praktisch bruikbare voorstell<strong>en</strong> om<br />
de innovatiekracht <strong>van</strong> deze regio te versterk<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In het tuss<strong>en</strong>ligg<strong>en</strong>de jaar zijn de innovatiestrategieën <strong>van</strong> regionale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
Antwerp<strong>en</strong> (op het thema mode), Beier<strong>en</strong> (innovati<strong>en</strong>etwerk<strong>en</strong>), Dresd<strong>en</strong> (halfgeleiders),<br />
Øresund (medische technologie) <strong>en</strong> Ulm (duurzame <strong>en</strong>ergie) in kaart gebracht. 2<br />
Het onderzoek levert inzicht in het ontwikkel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> regionale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong>. Welke<br />
voorwaard<strong>en</strong> zijn <strong>van</strong> belang? In welke acties zou e<strong>en</strong> regio idealiter haar <strong>en</strong>ergie invester<strong>en</strong>?<br />
Uit de vijf casestudies <strong>en</strong> gesprekk<strong>en</strong> in de regio destilleerde het lectoraat vijf voorwaard<strong>en</strong><br />
voor succesvolle regionale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast geeft het onderzoek<br />
veerti<strong>en</strong> less<strong>en</strong> die serieuze aandacht verdi<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> in de ontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> regionaal innovatiesysteem.<br />
In dit artikel staan de vijf voorwaard<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> succesvol innovatiesysteem<br />
c<strong>en</strong>traal. 3<br />
Voordat is ingegaan op deze voorwaard<strong>en</strong>, zijn allereerst de achtergrond<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de innovatiesysteemtheorie<br />
<strong>en</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de compon<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> regionaal innovatiesysteem<br />
geschetst.<br />
1 Het project is uitgevoerd in nauwe sam<strong>en</strong>werking met de geme<strong>en</strong>te <strong>Arnhem</strong>, de geme<strong>en</strong>te Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>, de provincie<br />
Gelderland, de Stadsregio <strong>Arnhem</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> de Kamer <strong>van</strong> Koophandel C<strong>en</strong>traal Gelderland.<br />
2 Alle regio’s zijn uitvoerig via literatuur <strong>en</strong> het web bestudeerd. Daarna zijn ze bezocht door e<strong>en</strong> groep onderzoekers.<br />
De diepte-interviews op locatie <strong>en</strong> het vooronderzoek zijn per regio vastgelegd in onderzoeksverslag<strong>en</strong>.<br />
De afzonderlijke rapportages zijn te vind<strong>en</strong> op www.lectoraatinnovatie.nl.<br />
3 De veerti<strong>en</strong> less<strong>en</strong> zijn te vind<strong>en</strong> in het slotessay <strong>van</strong> het project, dat te download<strong>en</strong> is op www.lectoraatinnovatie.nl/publicaties/regionale-innovatie.<br />
9
Achtergrond<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong><br />
10<br />
Regionale innovatie als economische strategie<br />
Innovatiebeleid staat volop in de aandacht op zowel Europees, nationaal, als regionaal<br />
niveau. Tot de jar<strong>en</strong> ‘90 domineerde het lineaire model <strong>van</strong> innovatiebeleid (Tödtling <strong>en</strong><br />
Trippl 2005: 1203). Het lineaire model modelleert k<strong>en</strong>nisstrom<strong>en</strong> vrij simpel. Innovatie<br />
komt voort uit wet<strong>en</strong>schap <strong>en</strong> verhoging <strong>van</strong> wet<strong>en</strong>schappelijke input heeft direct meer<br />
technologische vernieuwing<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> innovaties tot gevolg. Investering<strong>en</strong> in R&D infrastructuur<br />
<strong>en</strong> instrum<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> specifiek voor individuele bedrijv<strong>en</strong> illustrer<strong>en</strong> deze aanpak.<br />
Het lineaire model onderbelicht echter de afhankelijkhed<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> wisselwerking tuss<strong>en</strong><br />
k<strong>en</strong>nisg<strong>en</strong>eratie, k<strong>en</strong>nisgebruiker, politiek, cultuur <strong>en</strong> economie. Bov<strong>en</strong>di<strong>en</strong> kan innovatie<br />
verschill<strong>en</strong>de vorm<strong>en</strong> aannem<strong>en</strong>, bijvoorbeeld in de vorm <strong>van</strong> increm<strong>en</strong>tele verbetering<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In de praktijk kunn<strong>en</strong> innovaties daarnaast voortkom<strong>en</strong> uit elk stadium <strong>van</strong> onderzoek,<br />
ontwikkeling of diffusie. Innovatie is daarmee veeleer e<strong>en</strong> resultaat <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> complexe<br />
interactie tuss<strong>en</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong>de actor<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> instanties geblek<strong>en</strong> (OECD 1997: 11-12). Om<br />
deze tekortkoming<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het lineaire model <strong>van</strong> innovatie op te <strong>van</strong>g<strong>en</strong> is eind jar<strong>en</strong> tachtig<br />
e<strong>en</strong> nieuw perspectief met c<strong>en</strong>trale aandacht voor het systeemkarakter <strong>van</strong> innovatie<br />
opgekom<strong>en</strong> (Tödtling <strong>en</strong> Trippl 2005: 1205; Hekkert 2008: 9; OECD 1997: 10).<br />
Het systeemd<strong>en</strong>k<strong>en</strong> in innovatietheorie beziet innovatie als e<strong>en</strong> interactief proces dat<br />
int<strong>en</strong>sieve communicatie <strong>en</strong> uitwisseling tuss<strong>en</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong>de actor<strong>en</strong> vereist. Oftewel;<br />
gebruikers <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis zoals bedrijv<strong>en</strong>, beleidsvorm<strong>en</strong>de instanties als overhed<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
k<strong>en</strong>nis g<strong>en</strong>erer<strong>en</strong>de instelling<strong>en</strong> als universiteit<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> hogeschol<strong>en</strong> vorm<strong>en</strong> via onderlinge<br />
uitwisselingsrelaties het innovatiesysteem.<br />
Dit concept is b<strong>en</strong>ut op nationaal niveau, in nationale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong>. Alhoewel niet<br />
alle land<strong>en</strong> dezelfde precondities hebb<strong>en</strong>, is onderk<strong>en</strong>d dat e<strong>en</strong> zekere innovatiecapaciteit<br />
invloed heeft op economische groeimogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> (Howells 2005: 1221). Het concept<br />
<strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> nationaal innovatiesysteem biedt e<strong>en</strong> instrum<strong>en</strong>t voor het analyser<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> specifieke<br />
verschill<strong>en</strong> in nationale innovatieprocess<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> richting voor beleidsformulering<br />
(OECD 1999: 23). “Het innovatiesysteem wordt gezi<strong>en</strong> als de infrastructuur die vernieuwing<br />
<strong>van</strong> de economie mogelijk maakt, waardoor e<strong>en</strong> land of regio zich kan blijv<strong>en</strong> met<strong>en</strong><br />
met de rest <strong>van</strong> de wereld. Onder het innovatiesysteem wordt het complex <strong>van</strong> instelling<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> spelers verstaan die e<strong>en</strong> rol spel<strong>en</strong> in de vernieuwing <strong>van</strong> de economie” (Nauta<br />
2005: 6). Land<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> niet alle dezelfde precondities. Investering in de invulling <strong>van</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> nationaal innovatiesysteem biedt e<strong>en</strong> land wel de mogelijkheid om haar economie te<br />
vernieuw<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> te lat<strong>en</strong> groei<strong>en</strong>, is de argum<strong>en</strong>tatie <strong>van</strong>uit het innovatiesysteem-concept.<br />
Dit concept herbergt daarmee e<strong>en</strong> grote belofte in zich (Hekkert 2008: 9), ondermeer voor<br />
beleidsmakers. Het lijkt namelijk mogelijk om “innovatie te stimuler<strong>en</strong> door middel <strong>van</strong><br />
beleid gericht op het beter lat<strong>en</strong> functioner<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het innovatiesysteem” (Hekkert 2008:<br />
9). In het lineaire model draaide het om meer wet<strong>en</strong>schappelijke input, in het systeemmodel<br />
kunn<strong>en</strong> beleidsmakers invloed uitoef<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> op innovatievermog<strong>en</strong> door middel <strong>van</strong> het<br />
stimuler<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> interactie <strong>en</strong> dynamiek binn<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> innovatiesysteem.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Meer rec<strong>en</strong>t is de aandacht verschov<strong>en</strong> naar de vraag waarom bepaalde regio’s het beter<br />
do<strong>en</strong> dan andere regio’s (Tödtling <strong>en</strong> Trippl 2005: 1203-1204). Daarvoor is e<strong>en</strong> nieuwe<br />
onderzoeksstroming ontstaan die nationale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong> toepast op regionaal schaalniveau.<br />
Dit lijkt e<strong>en</strong> veelbelov<strong>en</strong>de zoekrichting. Ook regio’s will<strong>en</strong> zich onderscheid<strong>en</strong>,<br />
zich op economisch gebied vernieuw<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> (welvaarts)groei creër<strong>en</strong> via investering<strong>en</strong> in<br />
k<strong>en</strong>niseconomie. De regionale innovatiestrategie biedt hiervoor volop aanknopingspunt<strong>en</strong>,<br />
zoals uit ons onderzoek blijkt. Binn<strong>en</strong> Nederland zi<strong>en</strong> we dit bijvoorbeeld terugkom<strong>en</strong> in<br />
ontwikkelstrategieën als ‘Piek<strong>en</strong> in de Delta’, waarin promin<strong>en</strong>te aandacht voor specifiek<br />
regionale ontwikkeling is. Daarbuit<strong>en</strong> zijn bijvoorbeeld de regio Øresund, maar ook stedelijke<br />
netwerk<strong>en</strong> als Helsinki <strong>en</strong> Leuv<strong>en</strong> succesvoorbeeld<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> investering<strong>en</strong> in regionale<br />
innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In e<strong>en</strong> regionaal innovatiesysteem draait het om de interacties tuss<strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong>,<br />
ondernemers, bedrijfslev<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> overhed<strong>en</strong> op regionale schaal. In het regionale innovatiesysteemmodel<br />
<strong>van</strong> Autio (2001), bewerkt door Tödtling <strong>en</strong> Trippl (2005) <strong>en</strong> Nauta, de Groot<br />
<strong>en</strong> Giel<strong>en</strong> (2009), is deze onderlinge wisselwerking schematisch weergegev<strong>en</strong> (zie figuur 1).<br />
In het model word<strong>en</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de spelers in e<strong>en</strong> regio <strong>en</strong> hun interacties beschrev<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Daarnaast is er aandacht voor de afhankelijkheid <strong>van</strong> de (inter)nationale context waarin de<br />
regio zich bevindt.<br />
De c<strong>en</strong>trale gedachte is dat wanneer de interactie tuss<strong>en</strong> de vijf onderdel<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong><br />
het model optimaal b<strong>en</strong>ut wordt, de innovatiekracht <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> regio des te hoger ligt.<br />
Gezam<strong>en</strong>lijk drag<strong>en</strong> de spelers in de regio de verantwoordelijkheid om de juiste randvoorwaard<strong>en</strong><br />
voor e<strong>en</strong> dergelijk dynamisch regionaal innovatieklimaat te schepp<strong>en</strong>.<br />
regio sociaal-economische & culturele context<br />
k<strong>en</strong>nisb<strong>en</strong>utting<br />
klant<strong>en</strong><br />
industrie<br />
toeleveranciers<br />
partners<br />
concurr<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong><br />
uitwisseling <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis & m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong><br />
k<strong>en</strong>nis-<br />
uitwisseling<br />
k<strong>en</strong>nisontwikkeling & diffusie<br />
arbeids-<br />
bemiddeling<br />
onderzoek onderzoek<br />
beleid<br />
internationale<br />
context<br />
nationaal<br />
innovatiesysteem<br />
nationaal<br />
beleid<br />
Europese unie<br />
internationale<br />
organisaties<br />
andere<br />
regio’s<br />
Figuur 1 Regionaal innovatiesysteem model <strong>van</strong> Autio (2001), bewerkt door Tödtling <strong>en</strong> Trippl<br />
(2005) <strong>en</strong> Nauta, de Groot <strong>en</strong> Giel<strong>en</strong> (2009)<br />
11
12<br />
Regionale innovatie als economische strategie<br />
Het model bestaat uit vijf onderdel<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> dynamisch systeem zou idealiter aandacht<br />
bested<strong>en</strong> aan alle vijf onderdel<strong>en</strong>;<br />
1 Het eerste onderdeel bestaat uit onderwijs <strong>en</strong> onderzoek in e<strong>en</strong> regio. De aanwezigheid<br />
<strong>en</strong> kwaliteit <strong>van</strong> onderzoek aan universiteit<strong>en</strong>, hogeschol<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> publieke onderzoeksinstitut<strong>en</strong><br />
vormt de k<strong>en</strong>nisbasis voor ontwikkeling in de regio. Sam<strong>en</strong> met partij<strong>en</strong> die<br />
gespecialiseerd zijn in verspreiding <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>en</strong> tal<strong>en</strong>t (zoals S<strong>en</strong>terNovem) <strong>en</strong> bedrijv<strong>en</strong><br />
die hun brood verdi<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> met de mobiliteit <strong>van</strong> werknemers. Dit komt sam<strong>en</strong> in de<br />
compon<strong>en</strong>t k<strong>en</strong>nisontwikkeling & diffusie.<br />
2 Gebruikers <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis vorm<strong>en</strong> de tweede compon<strong>en</strong>t. Bedrijv<strong>en</strong> gaan sam<strong>en</strong>werkingsrelaties<br />
aan met andere actor<strong>en</strong>, zoals klant<strong>en</strong>, toeleveranciers, concurr<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> partnerbedrijv<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Aanwezigheid <strong>van</strong> hoogwaardige klant<strong>en</strong>, het aantal start-ups <strong>en</strong> spin-offs,<br />
maar ook bijvoorbeeld de beschikbaarheid <strong>van</strong> risicokapitaal spel<strong>en</strong> in dit onderdeel<br />
<strong>van</strong> het model e<strong>en</strong> rol.<br />
3 Interactie krijgt daarnaast promin<strong>en</strong>t aandacht in het model. De uitwisseling <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis<br />
<strong>en</strong> m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> tuss<strong>en</strong> de gebruikers <strong>en</strong> g<strong>en</strong>erators <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis is ess<strong>en</strong>tieel voor e<strong>en</strong> goed<br />
werk<strong>en</strong>d systeem. In ieder succesvol economisch systeem zijn int<strong>en</strong>sieve, interactieve<br />
netwerk<strong>en</strong> tuss<strong>en</strong> bedrijv<strong>en</strong>, k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> overhed<strong>en</strong> aanwezig. Die verbinding<strong>en</strong><br />
zorg<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> continue stroom <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisuitwisseling, middel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> tal<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
4 Regionaal beleid kan e<strong>en</strong> grote rol spel<strong>en</strong> in de vormgeving <strong>van</strong> het regionale innovatieproces.<br />
Dit vergt inzicht in de bestaande situatie <strong>van</strong> het regionale innovatieproces, e<strong>en</strong><br />
heldere visie op de ontwikkelingsrichting <strong>van</strong> de regio <strong>en</strong> het mede vormgev<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de<br />
focus in het systeem. E<strong>en</strong> zekere mate <strong>van</strong> beleidsruimte <strong>en</strong> bestuurlijke sam<strong>en</strong>werking<br />
heeft invloed op deze vierde compon<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
5 Regionale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong>, tot slot, niet op eig<strong>en</strong> kracht bestaan, maar zijn<br />
sterk verbond<strong>en</strong> met de nationale <strong>en</strong> internationale context.<br />
Voorwaard<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> succesvol innovatiesysteem<br />
In het project <strong>van</strong> het Lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector zijn vijf Europese regio’s<br />
onderzocht die succesvol e<strong>en</strong> regionale innovatiestrategie hebb<strong>en</strong> ontwikkeld <strong>en</strong> uitgevoerd.<br />
Dit met de vijf onderdel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> bov<strong>en</strong>staand regionaal innovatiesysteemmodel in<br />
het achterhoofd.<br />
De c<strong>en</strong>trale conclusie is dat hun succes ge<strong>en</strong> toeval is. De clusters Antwerp<strong>en</strong>, Beier<strong>en</strong>,<br />
Dresd<strong>en</strong>, Øresund <strong>en</strong> Ulm zijn alle het resultaat <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> goede sam<strong>en</strong>werking tuss<strong>en</strong><br />
bedrijv<strong>en</strong>, k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> overhed<strong>en</strong>. Die sam<strong>en</strong>werking is langdurig. De eerste<br />
vrucht<strong>en</strong> zijn pas te plukk<strong>en</strong> na e<strong>en</strong> investeringsperiode <strong>van</strong> t<strong>en</strong> minste ti<strong>en</strong> jaar. Om het<br />
fundam<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> krachtig innovatiesysteem te bouw<strong>en</strong> zijn er acties nodig <strong>van</strong> alle sleutelspelers<br />
in e<strong>en</strong> regio. Ge<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> die partij<strong>en</strong> kan het op eig<strong>en</strong> kracht (Nauta et al. 2009:
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
25). Overhed<strong>en</strong> niet, bedrijfslev<strong>en</strong> niet, k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> niet. Inspanning<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de <strong>en</strong>e<br />
partij lever<strong>en</strong> pas r<strong>en</strong>dem<strong>en</strong>t op als de andere partij<strong>en</strong> mee-invester<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Voor de gezam<strong>en</strong>lijke ontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> succesvol innovatiesysteem is e<strong>en</strong> investering<br />
op vijf gebied<strong>en</strong> noodzakelijk. De volg<strong>en</strong>de vijf voorwaard<strong>en</strong> in figuur 2 kom<strong>en</strong> uit het<br />
onderzoek als ess<strong>en</strong>tiële bouwst<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> succesvol innovatiesysteem naar vor<strong>en</strong>.<br />
voorwaarde 1: K<strong>en</strong>nis & Tal<strong>en</strong>t<br />
voorwaarde 2: Koppeling gebruiker <strong>en</strong> ontwikkelaar<br />
voorwaarde 3: Netwerk<strong>en</strong><br />
voorwaarde 4: Specialisatie<br />
voorwaarde 5: Bestuurlijke steun<br />
Figuur 2 Bouwst<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> voor succesvolle regionale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong><br />
K<strong>en</strong>nis & tal<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Allereerst is het ess<strong>en</strong>tieel zorg te drag<strong>en</strong> voor het aantrekk<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> behoud<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>en</strong><br />
tal<strong>en</strong>t in de regio. Tal<strong>en</strong>t is de basis voor ieder innovatiesysteem. E<strong>en</strong> innovatiesysteem<br />
draait voor e<strong>en</strong> groot deel om de beschikbaarheid <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>en</strong> kunde in de regio. Zorg<br />
dus voor pass<strong>en</strong>d onderwijs in de regio. Beschik over e<strong>en</strong> poule <strong>van</strong> hoogopgeleid personeel<br />
<strong>en</strong> onderzoekers.<br />
Zelfs in crisistijd bewijst dit haar waarde. Neem de halfgeleiderindustrie in Dresd<strong>en</strong>. Na<br />
de Koude Oorlog war<strong>en</strong> de geprivatiseerde staatsbedrijv<strong>en</strong> uit de DDR-periode op sterv<strong>en</strong><br />
na dood. De halfgeleiderindustrie had domweg onvoldo<strong>en</strong>de kapitaal om te overlev<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Dit leidde tot e<strong>en</strong> crisis waarbij drieduiz<strong>en</strong>d m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> hun baan verlor<strong>en</strong>. Dit onb<strong>en</strong>utte<br />
reservoir <strong>van</strong> hooggeschoold, werkloos, relatief goedkoop tal<strong>en</strong>t vormde de basis <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
hausse aan technologische spin-offs <strong>en</strong> de aantrekkingskracht voor internationale bedrijv<strong>en</strong><br />
om zich in de regio te vestig<strong>en</strong>. Deze poule <strong>van</strong> ondernem<strong>en</strong>d, hoogopgeleid personeel<br />
<strong>en</strong> onderzoekers heeft aan de basis gestaan voor het opbloei<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de halfgeleiderindustrie.<br />
Het is de redding voor ‘Silicon Saxony’ geblek<strong>en</strong>. Het hoge aantal hoogopgeleid<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> onderzoekers in de regio groeit bov<strong>en</strong>di<strong>en</strong> voortdur<strong>en</strong>d dankzij de aanwezigheid <strong>van</strong><br />
de Technische Universiteit Dresd<strong>en</strong>, waar 35.000 stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> studer<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> fabriek is relatief<br />
e<strong>en</strong>voudig te verplaats<strong>en</strong>, voor schaarse, hoogopgeleide onderzoekers geldt dat in veel<br />
mindere mate, zo blijkt uit de geschetste ontwikkeling.<br />
Koppeling gebruiker <strong>en</strong> ontwikkelaar<br />
Tweede voorwaarde is e<strong>en</strong> directe koppeling tuss<strong>en</strong> onderzoek (k<strong>en</strong>nis) <strong>en</strong> bedrijfslev<strong>en</strong><br />
(kassa). Het promot<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> faciliter<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> toegepast onderzoek in de regio is <strong>van</strong> groot<br />
belang voor het innover<strong>en</strong>de vermog<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het regionale innovatiesysteem. K<strong>en</strong>nis is<br />
13
14<br />
Regionale innovatie als economische strategie<br />
mooi, het toepass<strong>en</strong> er<strong>van</strong> nog interessanter. Toegepast onderzoek is e<strong>en</strong> belangrijke voorwaarde<br />
om e<strong>en</strong> innovatiesysteem voortdur<strong>en</strong>d in beweging te houd<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> haar bedrijv<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> instelling<strong>en</strong> te blijv<strong>en</strong> vernieuw<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> verbeter<strong>en</strong>. De kwaliteit <strong>en</strong> kwantiteit <strong>van</strong> onderzoek,<br />
de marktgerichtheid <strong>van</strong> onderzoek <strong>en</strong> de vercommercialisering <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis houd<strong>en</strong><br />
het systeem dynamisch. Bov<strong>en</strong>di<strong>en</strong> biedt de fysieke nabijheid <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisgebruiker <strong>en</strong><br />
k<strong>en</strong>nisontwikkelaar grote kost<strong>en</strong>voordel<strong>en</strong>. Transactiekost<strong>en</strong> zijn lager, doorlooptijd<strong>en</strong><br />
voor ontwikkeling zijn korter <strong>en</strong> het onderling vertrouw<strong>en</strong> groeit. Wanneer faciliteit<strong>en</strong><br />
dicht bij elkaar in de buurt zitt<strong>en</strong>, zijn zij gemakkelijker te del<strong>en</strong>, wat aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijke kost<strong>en</strong>besparing<br />
oplevert.<br />
In de Øresund-regio zijn bedrijv<strong>en</strong>, k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> overhed<strong>en</strong> doordrong<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
deze voorwaarde. In de regio Kop<strong>en</strong>hag<strong>en</strong>-Malmö is daarom e<strong>en</strong> netwerk <strong>van</strong> sci<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
parks opgezet. Øresund telt in totaal zes sci<strong>en</strong>ce parks met e<strong>en</strong> focus op biotechnologie.<br />
Deze sci<strong>en</strong>ce parks vorm<strong>en</strong> de brug tuss<strong>en</strong> ‘k<strong>en</strong>nis’ <strong>en</strong> ‘kassa’; hier wordt k<strong>en</strong>nis toegepast<br />
in de praktijk. De ket<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> sci<strong>en</strong>ce parks biedt de juiste faciliteit<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> infrastructuur voor<br />
alle lev<strong>en</strong>sfas<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> bedrijf aan. Van start-ups <strong>van</strong>uit universiteit<strong>en</strong>, tot spin-offs <strong>van</strong><br />
grotere bedrijv<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> gearriveerde onderneming<strong>en</strong>. Dat wil zegg<strong>en</strong> dat e<strong>en</strong> start<strong>en</strong>de onderneming<br />
terecht kan op het <strong>en</strong>e bedrijv<strong>en</strong>terrein <strong>en</strong> wanneer het doorgroeit zij binn<strong>en</strong> de<br />
regio de mogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> heeft om over te gaan naar e<strong>en</strong> ander sci<strong>en</strong>ce park dat voor deze<br />
lev<strong>en</strong>sfase de juiste faciliteit<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> infrastructuur biedt. De gehele groeifase kan zodo<strong>en</strong>de<br />
binn<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> klein geografisch gebied doorlop<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong>. Met behoud <strong>van</strong> persoonlijk <strong>en</strong><br />
lokaal netwerk <strong>en</strong> met aandacht voor specifieke w<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> eis<strong>en</strong> in verschill<strong>en</strong>de lev<strong>en</strong>sfas<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Netwerk<strong>en</strong><br />
In ieder succesvol innovatiesysteem zijn int<strong>en</strong>sieve, interactieve netwerk<strong>en</strong> tuss<strong>en</strong> bedrijv<strong>en</strong>,<br />
k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> overhed<strong>en</strong> aanwezig. Die verbinding<strong>en</strong> zorg<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong><br />
continue uitwisseling <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis, middel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> tal<strong>en</strong>t. Wanneer er bov<strong>en</strong>di<strong>en</strong> voldo<strong>en</strong>de<br />
interacties of relaties zijn in het innovatiesysteem is de k<strong>en</strong>nisuitwisseling hoog, waardoor<br />
het innovatietempo ook hoger komt te ligg<strong>en</strong>. Dit betek<strong>en</strong>t dat er idealiter fysieke locaties<br />
in de vorm <strong>van</strong> sci<strong>en</strong>ce parks aanwezig zijn waar onderzoek <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
bedrijv<strong>en</strong> elkaar ontmoet<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast helpt de oprichting <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> netwerkorganisatie die<br />
de brug vormt tuss<strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> bedrijv<strong>en</strong> in de goede richting.<br />
Goede clusters zijn rijke netwerk<strong>en</strong>. In Beier<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> ze hier nadrukkelijk aandacht<br />
aan besteed via de netwerkorganisatie Bayern Innovativ (BI). Deze netwerkontwikkelaar<br />
creëert netwerk<strong>en</strong> tuss<strong>en</strong> de Beierse industrie aan de <strong>en</strong>e kant <strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> toeleveranciers<br />
aan de andere kant. De manier waarop BI de netwerkrol heeft ingevuld is e<strong>en</strong><br />
succes geblek<strong>en</strong>. Het ontwikkelde e<strong>en</strong> onconv<strong>en</strong>tionele vorm <strong>van</strong> ‘speeddat<strong>en</strong>’ voor zijn<br />
netwerkbije<strong>en</strong>komst<strong>en</strong>. De deelnemers schrijv<strong>en</strong> zich in <strong>en</strong> gev<strong>en</strong> daarbij aan waar hun
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
belangrijkste inhoudelijke interesses ligg<strong>en</strong>. Op basis <strong>van</strong> de voorkeur<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de deelnemers<br />
plant BI e<strong>en</strong>-op-e<strong>en</strong>-gesprekk<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> minder dan e<strong>en</strong> kwartier voor alle deelnemers.<br />
Als de eerste indruk veelbelov<strong>en</strong>d is, kunn<strong>en</strong> er vervolgafsprak<strong>en</strong> gemaakt word<strong>en</strong>. Het is<br />
e<strong>en</strong> raz<strong>en</strong>d efficiënte methode, omdat deelnemers binn<strong>en</strong> twee dag<strong>en</strong> zeker vijftig verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
ontmoeting<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> met pot<strong>en</strong>tiële partners. E<strong>en</strong> voorbeeld hoe actieve<br />
investering in netwerkvorming zich uit kan betal<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Specialisatie<br />
In de beperking k<strong>en</strong>t zich de meester. Deze vierde voorwaarde klinkt voor de hand ligg<strong>en</strong>d,<br />
maar dat maakt het niet minder belangrijk. E<strong>en</strong> succesvolle regio kiest. In de onderzochte<br />
cases valt op dat iedere regio zich op e<strong>en</strong> bepaalde specialisatie heeft gericht. E<strong>en</strong><br />
scherpe keuze, waar de <strong>en</strong>ergie in wordt gestok<strong>en</strong>. Bij het mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> deze keuze is e<strong>en</strong><br />
lange adem wel noodzakelijk. Blijf de gemaakte keuze ook consequ<strong>en</strong>t volg<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong><br />
lange periode, pas dan kan e<strong>en</strong> specialisatie zich uitdiep<strong>en</strong>.<br />
De ontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> Antwerp<strong>en</strong> als modestad is hier e<strong>en</strong> voorbeeld <strong>van</strong>. Voor de<br />
Antwerpse mode is ambachtelijk werk <strong>van</strong> het grootste belang. Onderwijs aan de Mode<br />
Academie zet in op de hoogwaardige niche <strong>van</strong> ambachtelijkheid. E<strong>en</strong> specialiteit die tot<br />
uiting komt in het kwalitatief hoogstaande werk <strong>van</strong> de ontwerpers. Deze specialisatie<br />
onderscheidt de Vlaamse mode <strong>van</strong> bijvoorbeeld Parijs of Lond<strong>en</strong>. De stad k<strong>en</strong>t ge<strong>en</strong><br />
grote modehuiz<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> zal die ook niet krijg<strong>en</strong>. Deze niche versterk<strong>en</strong> is dan de beste keuze<br />
die gemaakt kan word<strong>en</strong>. Juist door zich te specialiser<strong>en</strong> in ambachtelijke <strong>en</strong> kleinschalige<br />
modehuiz<strong>en</strong> heeft de relatief kleine stad zichzelf goed op de kaart wet<strong>en</strong> te zett<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Bestuurlijke steun<br />
Tot slot is bestuurlijke steun onontbeerlijk. E<strong>en</strong> innovatietrekker met bestuurlijke steun,<br />
die het cluster in beweging zet <strong>en</strong> verder br<strong>en</strong>gt, is onmisbaar. Innovatie is m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong>werk.<br />
Energie, <strong>en</strong>thousiasme, bevlog<strong>en</strong>heid, doorzettingsvermog<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> commitm<strong>en</strong>t zijn, net als<br />
geld <strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis, onmisbare ingrediënt<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> succesvol regionaal innovatiesysteem. In<br />
iedere onderzochte regio is e<strong>en</strong> dergelijke trekker te vind<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> zijn er bestuurders die zorg<strong>en</strong><br />
dat de trekker zijn werk goed kan do<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In Ulm komt dit sterk naar vor<strong>en</strong>. Daar is de politiek de drijv<strong>en</strong>de kracht geweest achter<br />
het ontwikkel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> Ulm als stad <strong>van</strong> duurzame <strong>en</strong>ergie. Het beleid <strong>van</strong> de nationale<br />
overheid <strong>en</strong> deelstaat Bad<strong>en</strong>-Württemberg is cruciaal geweest voor het succes <strong>van</strong> Ulm.<br />
De nationale overheid garandeert bijvoorbeeld hoge terugleververgoeding<strong>en</strong>, zodat er e<strong>en</strong><br />
markt voor zonne-<strong>en</strong>ergie is ontstaan. Voor Ulm vervull<strong>en</strong> de langzitt<strong>en</strong>de burgemeester<br />
<strong>en</strong> wethouder ruimtelijke ord<strong>en</strong>ing, won<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> milieu e<strong>en</strong> c<strong>en</strong>trale rol als aanjagers. Beid<strong>en</strong><br />
zijn sinds 1991 betrokk<strong>en</strong> bij de ontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> de stad <strong>en</strong> vorm<strong>en</strong> de drijv<strong>en</strong>de kracht<br />
achter de ambities <strong>van</strong> de stad op het gebied <strong>van</strong> duurzaamheid. Die bestuurlijke <strong>en</strong>ergie<br />
15
16<br />
Regionale innovatie als economische strategie<br />
zorgt ervoor dat er veel kans<strong>en</strong> b<strong>en</strong>ut word<strong>en</strong>, dat er continue bestuurlijke trekkracht<br />
aanwezig is <strong>en</strong> dat bijvoorbeeld e<strong>en</strong> organisatie als de Solarstiftung deze ambities waar kan<br />
mak<strong>en</strong>. In het straatbeeld is dit fysiek terug te zi<strong>en</strong> in sportfaciliteit<strong>en</strong> op zonnecollector<strong>en</strong>,<br />
kerk<strong>en</strong> met zonnepanel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> var<strong>en</strong>d leslokaal gericht op duurzame ontwikkeling.<br />
De langdurige bestuurlijke steun betaalt zich uit in Ulm.<br />
Conclusie<br />
E<strong>en</strong> succesvol regionaal innovatiesysteem is ge<strong>en</strong> toeval. Om de op<strong>en</strong>ingszin <strong>van</strong> Anna<br />
Kar<strong>en</strong>ina te parafraser<strong>en</strong>: succesvolle regio's zijn op dezelfde manier succesvol, onsuccesvolle<br />
regio's zijn op hun eig<strong>en</strong> manier onsuccesvol. Het is het resultaat <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> langdurige<br />
<strong>en</strong> gerichte sam<strong>en</strong>werking tuss<strong>en</strong> bedrijv<strong>en</strong>, k<strong>en</strong>nisinstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> overhed<strong>en</strong>. De belangrijkste<br />
ingrediënt<strong>en</strong> voor succes zijn de passie voor <strong>en</strong> focus op e<strong>en</strong> inhoudelijk thema,<br />
opleiding<strong>en</strong> rond dat thema waardoor e<strong>en</strong> constante stroom <strong>van</strong> tal<strong>en</strong>t beschikbaar is,<br />
sterke netwerk<strong>en</strong> tuss<strong>en</strong> alle spelers waardoor k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>en</strong> ideeën snel circuler<strong>en</strong>, e<strong>en</strong> rijke<br />
interactie tuss<strong>en</strong> gebruikers <strong>en</strong> onderzoekers <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> groot bestuurlijk commitm<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> alle<br />
betrokk<strong>en</strong> partij<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> periode <strong>van</strong> t<strong>en</strong>minste ti<strong>en</strong> jaar.<br />
Overig<strong>en</strong>s hoeft dat niet uit te mond<strong>en</strong> in ingewikkelde organisatieschema's <strong>en</strong> bestuurlijke<br />
drukte. E<strong>en</strong> overe<strong>en</strong>komst tuss<strong>en</strong> de onderzochte regio’s is de organisatorische<br />
soberheid. Succesvolle regio’s hebb<strong>en</strong> hun innovatiesysteem met relatief e<strong>en</strong>voudige <strong>en</strong><br />
overzichtelijke projectorganisaties opgebouwd, met actiegerichtheid als belangrijkste<br />
k<strong>en</strong>merk.<br />
Literatuur<br />
Arnoldus, M., Eijnd<strong>en</strong>, J. <strong>van</strong> d<strong>en</strong>, Groot, H. de & Nauta, F. (2009) Antwerp<strong>en</strong>; e<strong>en</strong><br />
modieus innovatiesysteem. Lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector/<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> (<strong>HAN</strong>).<br />
Arnoldus, M. & Nauta, F. (2005) Regionale innovatie system<strong>en</strong>. Less<strong>en</strong> uit Eindhov<strong>en</strong>,<br />
Helsinki, Leuv<strong>en</strong>, Munch<strong>en</strong>, Stockholm <strong>en</strong> Zuid-Holland. K<strong>en</strong>nisalliantie Zuid-<br />
Holland, Delft.<br />
Autio, E. (1998) Evaluation of RTD in regional systems of innovation. European Planning<br />
Studies, 6, 131-140.<br />
Hekkert, M.P. (2008) Naar e<strong>en</strong> duurzaam innovatieklimaat. Oratie. Universiteit Utrecht,<br />
Amersfoort.<br />
Howels, J. (2005) Innovation and regional economic developm<strong>en</strong>t: A matter of perspective?<br />
Research Policy, 34, 1220-1234.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Giel<strong>en</strong>, M., Groot, H. de, Nauta, F., Udo, E. & Verhoev<strong>en</strong>, E. (2009) Regio Øresund.<br />
Het succes <strong>van</strong> het biotechcluster Medicon Valley. Lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke<br />
Sector/<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> (<strong>HAN</strong>).<br />
Giel<strong>en</strong>, M., Groot, H. de & Nauta, F. (2009) Regionale innovatie als economische strategie.<br />
Acties <strong>en</strong> less<strong>en</strong> uit Antwerp<strong>en</strong>, Beier<strong>en</strong>, Dresd<strong>en</strong>, Oresund <strong>en</strong> Ulm voor de regionale<br />
innovatieag<strong>en</strong>da <strong>van</strong> de regio <strong>Arnhem</strong>-Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>. Slotessay Onderzoeks-programma<br />
Regionale Innovatie. Lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector/ <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> (<strong>HAN</strong>).<br />
Groot, H. de, Nauta, F. & Veling, P. (2009) Innovatiesysteem Ulm, duurzame <strong>en</strong>ergie.<br />
Icarus in Bad<strong>en</strong>-Wurttemberg. Lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector/<strong>Hogeschool</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> (<strong>HAN</strong>).<br />
Groot, H. de, Nauta, F. & Veling, P. (2009) Regio Dresd<strong>en</strong>. Silicon Saxony <strong>en</strong> de<br />
aantrekkingskracht <strong>van</strong> tal<strong>en</strong>t. Lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector/<strong>Hogeschool</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> (<strong>HAN</strong>).<br />
Nauta, F. & Veling, P. (2009) Bayern Innovativ. Netwerk<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> rijk innovatie-<br />
ecosysteem. Lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector/<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> (<strong>HAN</strong>).<br />
OECD (1997) National innovation systems.<br />
OECD (1999) Managing national innovation systems.<br />
Tödtling, F. <strong>en</strong> M. Trippl (2005) One size fits all? Towards a differ<strong>en</strong>tiated regional<br />
innovation policy approach. Research Policy, 34, 1203-1219. Elsevier, Amsterdam.<br />
17
how to manage <strong>en</strong>terprise? from creation<br />
to rational continuation<br />
Abstract<br />
There is a differ<strong>en</strong>ce betwe<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>terprise and managem<strong>en</strong>t. Enterprise is about creation<br />
and managem<strong>en</strong>t is the rational continuation of <strong>en</strong>terprise. Being rational comes natural to<br />
<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs, but a good <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur has to develop both aspects. To achieve this is an<br />
important aspect of managem<strong>en</strong>t for business and educational institutions.<br />
The art of <strong>en</strong>terprise<br />
h a n s b r o e k h u i s a n d l o u i s e va n w e e r d e n<br />
Let’s not beat about the bush - there is a fundam<strong>en</strong>tal differ<strong>en</strong>ce betwe<strong>en</strong> a business manager<br />
and an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur. The role of an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur is radically differ<strong>en</strong>t from a manager.<br />
All economic activities are rooted in <strong>en</strong>terprise. How these activities are performed is a<br />
matter of managem<strong>en</strong>t. Enterprise is about creation, about embarking on a quest, making<br />
unusual combinations and doing the unexpected. Managem<strong>en</strong>t is the rational continuation<br />
of <strong>en</strong>terprise.<br />
Interestingly, whilst <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs readily acknowledge the logic behind the distinction<br />
betwe<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>terprise and managem<strong>en</strong>t, many managers do not accept that there is such<br />
a distinction in practice. This becomes painfully obvious if one examines the literature<br />
on this point: the term ‘<strong>en</strong>terprise’ is not frequ<strong>en</strong>tly <strong>en</strong>countered. Any space that is<br />
devoted to <strong>en</strong>terprise t<strong>en</strong>ds to focus on the psychological characteristics of <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurial<br />
behaviour. In his fascinating book <strong>en</strong>titled ‘Ondernemerschap kun je ler<strong>en</strong>’, Rinus<br />
Andringa (2001) deplores the abs<strong>en</strong>ce of <strong>en</strong>terprise from most economic literature: “It’s<br />
the same everywhere - <strong>en</strong>terprise is reduced to an activity that is described in sci<strong>en</strong>tific<br />
terms. The effect is to conceal its true nature.” He goes on to collect all sorts of psychological<br />
typologies from a range of academic publications and distils a number of critical<br />
success factors from them. At which point it becomes clear that the definition of an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur<br />
corresponds with that of a perfect human being, assuming it is possible to define<br />
one. Andringa ruefully concludes that the authors of these publications are academics who<br />
have not g<strong>en</strong>uinely mastered their subject. They define <strong>en</strong>terprise, Andringa suggests, as a<br />
mysterious process that takes place within the individual.<br />
Describing <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship in psychological terms is common practice. How else can<br />
<strong>en</strong>terprise be defined? Our interest lies in <strong>en</strong>terprise as an activity, or rather as a series of<br />
activities, and in the role of <strong>en</strong>terprise as a social ph<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong>on.<br />
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How to manage <strong>en</strong>terprise? From creation to rational continuation<br />
Researchers in the field of business studies t<strong>en</strong>d, in any case, to display an excessive degree<br />
of interest in success stories, case studies, etc. as if they believe that good examples are<br />
automatically followed. Whilst this may well happ<strong>en</strong> from time to time, it remains more<br />
the exception than the rule in practice. Moreover, there is nothing original about simply<br />
following an example set by someone else; copycat behaviour rarely g<strong>en</strong>erates new knowledge.<br />
In fact, failures are probably more <strong>en</strong>light<strong>en</strong>ing. And surely it is <strong>en</strong>light<strong>en</strong>m<strong>en</strong>t that<br />
sci<strong>en</strong>tific researchers are seeking to achieve?<br />
It sometimes happ<strong>en</strong>s that on their quest for <strong>en</strong>light<strong>en</strong>m<strong>en</strong>t researchers chance upon<br />
something they were not actually looking for in the first place. This is known as<br />
‘ser<strong>en</strong>dipity’, after an ori<strong>en</strong>tal prince called Ser<strong>en</strong>dip who embarked on a voyage of<br />
discovery and <strong>en</strong>ded up finding something he was not looking for. Interestingly, such a<br />
discovery is still known as a ‘discovery’. The term ‘inv<strong>en</strong>tion’ is reserved for those exceptional<br />
characters who head single-mindedly in one direction in search of something new.<br />
Sci<strong>en</strong>tists, on the other hand, are more ser<strong>en</strong>dipitous in their approach, making chance<br />
discoveries that cause them sudd<strong>en</strong>ly to change track. There is a vital differ<strong>en</strong>ce if ever<br />
there was one. There is the same s<strong>en</strong>se of excitem<strong>en</strong>t in both cases, however: at that almost<br />
intangible mom<strong>en</strong>t wh<strong>en</strong> something new emerges, without any preset plan or aim. And<br />
ev<strong>en</strong> if there was a pre-set plan, it was not g<strong>en</strong>erally int<strong>en</strong>ded to lead to that particular<br />
discovery. The guiding principle would seem to be ‘the impossible is simply that which<br />
has not yet happ<strong>en</strong>ed’. It is always possible to do more than you think. At the same time,<br />
it is impossible to forecast where the good ideas will come from in the future.<br />
Name of inv<strong>en</strong>tor Year of birth and date Description of inv<strong>en</strong>tion Inv<strong>en</strong>tor’s profession<br />
Elisha Otis 1811 – 1861 Lift Fitter in bed factory<br />
Levi Strauss 1829 – 1902 Levi jeans with rivets Salesman trading in pots and pans<br />
John Pemberton 1831 – 1888 Coca-Cola Disp<strong>en</strong>sing chemist<br />
John Boyd Dunlop 1840 – 1921 Pneumatic tyre Vet<br />
George Eastman 1854 – 1932 Photographic roll film Bank clerk<br />
King Gilette 1855 – 1932 Razor blade Travelling salesman<br />
William Kellogg 1860 – 1951 Corn flakes Broom salesman<br />
William Wrigley 1861 – 1932 Chewing gum Soap salesman<br />
Hubert Booth 1871 – 1955 Vacuum cleaner Bridge-builder<br />
Melitta Liebscher 1873 – 1950 Coffee filter Housewife<br />
Almond Strowger 1839 - 1902 Telephone dial Funeral director<br />
Source: Schlösser (1995), Grauls(1993)<br />
Table 1 Where do good ideas come from?
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Interestingly, academics are responsible for only a very small number of new ideas. In fact,<br />
this is not all that surprising, as people who come up with new ideas t<strong>en</strong>d to be regarded<br />
as a source of instability, particularly in our modern, organised culture. Dabbling in a<br />
discipline in which you are not trained and thoroughly steeped is most definitely not<br />
done. Yet modern society cannot survive without creative tal<strong>en</strong>t, resourcefulness and a<br />
passion for design.<br />
Creativity is the font of all valued creation. Without a creative spirit, there would be no<br />
coffee pads, no thought-provoking films, no electricity g<strong>en</strong>erated by wave <strong>en</strong>ergy and no<br />
great poetry.<br />
Characteristics of creative people<br />
– indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t<br />
– non-conformist<br />
– adv<strong>en</strong>turous<br />
– dynamic<br />
– day-dreamer<br />
– optimist, but also depressive at times<br />
– willing to take a risk<br />
– curious<br />
– a bit crazy<br />
– basically self-taught<br />
– interested in a wide range of subjects<br />
– likes surprises<br />
– loves to play with ideas<br />
– likes getting away from logical structures and set patterns of thought (‘thinking outside the box’)<br />
and you can probably think of more characteristics if you are a creative spirit yourself!<br />
Source: Schlösser (1995)<br />
Table 2 Characteristics of creative people<br />
But is creative tal<strong>en</strong>t a question of nurture or nature: are some people naturally creative<br />
whilst others are not? Can you learn to be creative? These are questions to which there are<br />
no easy answers. Creative tal<strong>en</strong>t develops through a process of searching, trying, refining,<br />
testing and starting all over again. The creative process is sustained by a willingness to<br />
learn from criticism and a readiness to accept failure; the same qualities that result in<br />
developm<strong>en</strong>t and progress. In other words, the ability to overcome failure and to accept<br />
scathing criticism is the key factor in achieving g<strong>en</strong>uine progress. It is a process that requi-<br />
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How to manage <strong>en</strong>terprise? From creation to rational continuation<br />
res competition and h<strong>en</strong>ce inequality (which does not automatically mean a lack of solidarity).<br />
The latter goes against the grain of our educational culture, our work ethics and our<br />
business climate.<br />
But good <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs buck the tr<strong>en</strong>d. Their motto is ‘never say no’. The job is never<br />
done, and it is this aspect in which they closely resemble artists. Why are writers oft<strong>en</strong><br />
amazed by the critical response to their work? Why are composers so curious to hear<br />
how their compositions sound wh<strong>en</strong> performed? And why do architects have difficulty<br />
believing their own eyes? Why is it that we oft<strong>en</strong> do not discover there is a spirit of the<br />
time until afterwards, and that this spirit is responsible for certain lines, colours, sounds<br />
and stories? It is the same spirit that constantly recurs in advertising, design and fashion.<br />
Why is it that every age has its own spirit, which we adopt without ev<strong>en</strong> noticing and can<br />
shape without int<strong>en</strong>ding to do so? It is almost as if we deliberately decide to live in a state<br />
of blissful unawar<strong>en</strong>ess and only understand situations wh<strong>en</strong> they have passed. Action<br />
comes before understanding. Enterprise is action. In trying to understand ev<strong>en</strong>ts and concepts,<br />
we analyse them from the actual perspective. Marketing is all about knowing what<br />
consumers wanted yesterday, what needs are likely to arise tomorrow, and what sort of<br />
response is required today. But simply analysing market demand is not <strong>en</strong>ough. If only it<br />
were. Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurship is not simply a question of watching, list<strong>en</strong>ing and reading. After<br />
‘biding your time’ comes ‘acting’. It is that indefinable point at which something jells,<br />
that is the mom<strong>en</strong>t we are talking about. This is the point at which you act either with or<br />
without a preconceived plan, and immediately decide that you need to take a slight change<br />
of tack. That is just before the next step, which is to take a long, hard look at things. After<br />
which the money runs out. If failure comes, it is unmistakeable and deep.<br />
The usual criticism voiced at this point is that corrective action should have be<strong>en</strong> tak<strong>en</strong><br />
more quickly. The consultants look suitably concerned and head back where they came<br />
from. This is what happ<strong>en</strong>s to many <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs who start off in business, sometimes<br />
by chance, oft<strong>en</strong> without a plan and g<strong>en</strong>erally quite recklessly. Most <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs start<br />
out in business for two reasons: they are unable to find any other suitable job and no one<br />
is there to stop them. Again, there are parallels with the life of an artist: searching, trying,<br />
refining, testing and starting all over again. A willingness to accept criticism and failure<br />
without becoming discouraged is a character trait that is common to both <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs<br />
and artists. And both are defined by their craftsmanship, their knowledge and their skills.<br />
The composer needs skilled performers without whom his musical will never make it to<br />
the stage, whilst the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur needs employees to make his product. Both types of<br />
production need to be organised – without organisation, they will not work. This is the<br />
reason for making a distinction betwe<strong>en</strong> an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur and a manager. The artist is the<br />
<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur’s sparring partner and soul mate. A manager, with his rational view of the<br />
world, is closer to a sci<strong>en</strong>tist. Whilst there are certain interdep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>cies betwe<strong>en</strong> a mana-
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
ger and an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur, we wish to emphasise the differ<strong>en</strong>ces as a means of highlighting<br />
the opposing forces that are at work in the organisations around us. Also, we need to<br />
know wh<strong>en</strong> an organisation or situation requires the influ<strong>en</strong>ce of an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur and<br />
wh<strong>en</strong> managerial control is preferred.<br />
In table 3, the characteristics of the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur, artist, sci<strong>en</strong>tist and manager are described.<br />
Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eur Artist Sci<strong>en</strong>tist Manager<br />
Indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t Indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t Indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t Indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Subjective Subjective Objective Objective<br />
Associative Associative Systematic Systematic<br />
Intuitive Intuitive Rational Rational<br />
Non-conformist Non-conformist Conformist Conformist<br />
Dynamic Dynamic Methodical Methodical<br />
Optimistic Optimistic Pessimistic Realistic<br />
(occasionally (occasionally (the more he knows) (knows it)<br />
depressive) depressive)<br />
Risk-taker Risk-taker Risk-averse Tries to eliminate risk<br />
Exploratory Exploratory Analytical Analytical<br />
Inquisitive Reflective Logical Calculating<br />
Fully responsible Responsible for legal Responsible for legal Third party<br />
for legal and risk, paid by risk, paid by responsible for legal<br />
financial risks third party third party risk and paym<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Source: Hans Broekhuis, De kunst <strong>van</strong> het Ondernem<strong>en</strong>, 2004<br />
Table 3 Characteristics<br />
Notes<br />
Indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t: the question here is whether the person in question is capable of being<br />
indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t, and not whether he or she is actually indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t in practice. It is a subtle<br />
differ<strong>en</strong>ce that is all about the ability to step back, from the ‘freedom’ of an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur’s<br />
position, based on the specificity and originality of the creation; from the objective viewpoint<br />
of the sci<strong>en</strong>tist and the professional viewpoint of the manager.<br />
Subjective: an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur is the c<strong>en</strong>tre of att<strong>en</strong>tion and g<strong>en</strong>erally speaks in the first<br />
person. An artist has no choice other than to nurture his or her own skills and to be the<br />
c<strong>en</strong>tre of his or her own world, a creative world. The sci<strong>en</strong>tist and the manager, on the<br />
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other hand, have to take an objective view. In their cases, it is oft<strong>en</strong> a question of keeping<br />
their own views at bay. Excessive personal interest may prove more of a hindrance than a<br />
help and will prove an Achilles heel.<br />
Associative: the artist and the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur move quickly from one unrelated field to<br />
another. Making seemingly illogical links is almost a way of life, ev<strong>en</strong> though the result,<br />
the product of the creative process or the idea may be a miracle of precision.<br />
Systematic: a sci<strong>en</strong>tist must follow a logical train of thought and a manager should<br />
communicate in a businesslike, verifiable manner. This is the type of behaviour the people<br />
around them expect them to display.<br />
Intuitive: ‘Intuition is an unexplained feeling that something is true ev<strong>en</strong> wh<strong>en</strong> you have<br />
no proof of it’ runs the dictionary definition, and it is hard to improve on this.<br />
Rational: a feeling that something is true, based on reason rather than emotion, and on the<br />
perception of proof.<br />
Non-conformist: many <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs and artists have an irresistible urge to go against<br />
prevailing opinion, to buck the tr<strong>en</strong>d and follow their own intuition. This is not to say<br />
that they invariably dress or behave differ<strong>en</strong>tly from other people. Non-conformism is an<br />
inner urge that is oft<strong>en</strong> hard to resist. After all, the state of being differ<strong>en</strong>t is in itself part<br />
of the success that <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs and artists strive to achieve.<br />
Conformist: sci<strong>en</strong>tists and managers have far more rules to comply with. Both formal<br />
hierarchies and informal rankings are far more pronounced. Results are measured and<br />
displayed (in terms of the number of publications, salaries and bonuses). Ignoring rules<br />
and authority or, ev<strong>en</strong> worse, trying to undermine them is a high-risk strategy.<br />
Dynamic: the term ‘dynamic’ refers to a combination of inner passion and movem<strong>en</strong>t,<br />
and it is a combination of power that defines the movem<strong>en</strong>t. Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurs are dynamic<br />
in their perseverance. So resolute are they that they are prepared to travel great distances<br />
to achieve their aims. Take, for example, a farmer who emigrates to the other side of the<br />
world in search of the land he needs in order to grow his crops. Artists display dynamism<br />
in the way in which they vary <strong>en</strong>dlessly on the same theme. This is known as developing<br />
‘their own style’ – an artistic id<strong>en</strong>tity that is oft<strong>en</strong> easy to recognise.<br />
Methodical: here, it is circumstance that defines the movem<strong>en</strong>t. The activities performed<br />
by an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur dep<strong>en</strong>d on his or her ability to capture the spirit of the age and
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
id<strong>en</strong>tify new tr<strong>en</strong>ds in good time. There is not necessarily a link betwe<strong>en</strong> the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur’s<br />
‘inner passion’ and his or her professional activities.<br />
Optimistic (occasionally depressive): an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur will inevitably claim that his or her<br />
business is a success and is doing incredibly well. Rarely will you hear anything to the<br />
contrary. The writer is working on his or her masterpiece, and that long-awaited composition<br />
that is bound to astound critics all over the world is on the point of being born.<br />
Things are always just fine. In fact, they could hardly be better. Appearances are oft<strong>en</strong><br />
deceptive, of course, but outsiders are rarely shown the truth. To some ext<strong>en</strong>t, it is simply<br />
the reverse of the claim made by the German philosopher Theodor Adorno that ‘psychoanalysis<br />
is only true in its extremes’ (Martin Jay 1977). Where there are peaks, there must<br />
also be troughs. It also explains why <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs and artists oft<strong>en</strong> move in their own<br />
restricted circles. The s<strong>en</strong>se of shared experi<strong>en</strong>ces oft<strong>en</strong> has a cathartic effect.<br />
Pessimistic (the more he knows): the more a sci<strong>en</strong>tist finds out, the more he or she realises<br />
they do not know much about the world around them. In fact, there is so much we do<br />
not know that it behoves us to behave with humility. This means flying in the face of the<br />
constant stream of reports in the media that ‘researchers have now proved that…’. In fact,<br />
sci<strong>en</strong>ce never proves anything. It simply provisionally confirms the validity of certain<br />
assumptions – until the next discovery is made, that is.<br />
Realistic (knows it): managers are expected to know. A manager is required to exude<br />
confid<strong>en</strong>ce and give a s<strong>en</strong>se of direction to others. Managers are responsible and should<br />
know. If in doubt, they should not take any risks.<br />
Risk-taker: it is sometimes said that the prettiest flowers are those that grow on the<br />
edge of a ravine. It is a common misconception that <strong>en</strong>terprise is all about taking risks.<br />
Enterprise is more a matter of taking a calculated risk. Many artists feel an urge to call<br />
their own being into question and, if necessary, to destroy the old in order to move<br />
forward into the new.<br />
Risk-averse: academic researchers have become respectable civil ser<strong>van</strong>ts who set great<br />
store by job security and a dec<strong>en</strong>t p<strong>en</strong>sion. There is nothing wrong with aspiring to<br />
an easy life, but there is a price to pay, which is a willingness to toe the line put out by<br />
governm<strong>en</strong>ts, review panels and managem<strong>en</strong>t boards. With the odd exception, the romantic<br />
image of the maladjusted and unworldly researcher who regards himself more as a<br />
repres<strong>en</strong>tative of the prevailing culture than as a salaried employee, let alone a public<br />
ser<strong>van</strong>t, no longer holds true. Sci<strong>en</strong>ce has become a business. It is not without good reason<br />
that our economy is oft<strong>en</strong> described as a knowledge-based economy, or ev<strong>en</strong> as a ‘knowledge<br />
economy’. ‘Working together to increase the body of knowledge’ is everyone’s<br />
corporate motto these days.<br />
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Tries to eliminate risk: managers are expected to avoid, eliminate and/or prev<strong>en</strong>t risks.<br />
‘Everything is under control’ is what people want to hear. A lack of control is tantamount<br />
to managerial failure.<br />
Exploratory: Rather than searching for new information, <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs seek to verify the<br />
information they already have in their heads. It is difficult to sway them from their chos<strong>en</strong><br />
course, but risks need to be id<strong>en</strong>tified. To this <strong>en</strong>d, they go through their plans step by<br />
step with other people, to see if there are any points they may have forgott<strong>en</strong>. These are<br />
unpaid consultancies: the v<strong>en</strong>ues are parties and sports ev<strong>en</strong>ts, where <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs flit<br />
around from one guest or spectator to another, asking differ<strong>en</strong>t questions every time.<br />
They have no time – literally and figuratively – for professional consultants.<br />
Analytical: a sci<strong>en</strong>tist analyses a problem – unravels it, as it were. He or she is interested in<br />
finding out what a particular substance consists of, how it works, what it does or what the<br />
explanation is for certain types of behaviour. A manager, on the other hand, is interested<br />
in reducing a problem or a chall<strong>en</strong>ge to a manageable size, i.e. chopping it up into little<br />
bits or simply extracting the ess<strong>en</strong>ce (‘no more than a single sheet of paper’ is the typical<br />
instruction).<br />
Inquisitive: an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur is oft<strong>en</strong> proactive. He or she wants to find out everything<br />
there is to know about a particular point in which he or she is interested. This is g<strong>en</strong>erally<br />
one-way traffic.<br />
Reflective: an artist regards the world around him or her from the perspective of his or<br />
her ‘inner wallpaper’. Reflection is an activity that is always performed from a perspective.<br />
The outside world is giv<strong>en</strong> selective access.<br />
Logical: words are a sci<strong>en</strong>tist’s vehicle on his journey of reason. In the academic ar<strong>en</strong>a, a<br />
giv<strong>en</strong> line of argum<strong>en</strong>t is either valid or not, subject to certain writt<strong>en</strong> (i.e. evid<strong>en</strong>ce must<br />
be both verifiable and measurable) and unwritt<strong>en</strong> (i.e. ethics) rules.<br />
Calculating: a manager calculates. It is all about the <strong>en</strong>d and not the means by which the<br />
goal is achieved or the way in which a line of argum<strong>en</strong>t is constructed.<br />
Fully responsible for legal and financial risks: this is the crucial characteristic of an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur.<br />
Real <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs bears all their own risks and can rightfully claim to be the<br />
owner of their business. They the ones who have the fun, but they are also the ones who<br />
feel the pain.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Responsible for legal risk, paid by third party: although an artist is an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur with a<br />
productive s<strong>en</strong>se, he or she is g<strong>en</strong>erally commissioned by a third party. Obviously, there<br />
are examples of successful artists who are also <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs (e.g. the painter Karel Appel<br />
and the rock group, the Rolling Stones), but the artist starts out in life as a creative maker.<br />
Responsible for legal risk, paid by third party: although sci<strong>en</strong>tists are not also <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs<br />
at the same time, they do run a certain degree of risk. Reputation and prestige<br />
are both highly important characteristics, and g<strong>en</strong>erally determine the opportunities for<br />
delivering a good academic performance. In virtually all cases, a sci<strong>en</strong>tist is a salaried<br />
employee who works under instructions from a third party.<br />
Third party responsible for legal risk and paym<strong>en</strong>t: a manager is employed by a company<br />
or another type of organisation, and agrees on the price that has to be paid for his or<br />
her efforts. The more skilful and successful the manager, the higher the price he or she<br />
commands. Equally, the greater the risk he or she runs. A manager is a professional whose<br />
tools are his or her knowledge, skills and experi<strong>en</strong>ce.<br />
These are the characteristics that shape the image of an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur, an artist, a sci<strong>en</strong>tist<br />
and a manager. We are talking about prototypes here; these are not characteristics that<br />
apply to every individual. What we should like to do is to find more parallels with the<br />
characteristics of the range of activities performed by those responsible for managing<br />
organisations. We would like to break down and combine characteristics such as passion<br />
and rationality, initiative and control, creativity and craftsmanship, and action and reflection.<br />
Manfred Kets de Vries (1987, 1993, 1997) has pointed out on a number of occasions<br />
that the only way in which a business leader can understand a counterproductive situation<br />
is if he or she is willing to undertake some serious soul-searching and self-analysis. He<br />
has discovered, in his work both as a business sci<strong>en</strong>tist and as a psycho analyst, that business<br />
leaders need to focus not merely on their technical skills and drive, but also on their<br />
inner self, their own needs and their ability to undertake self-analysis and to g<strong>en</strong>uinely<br />
empathise with other people.<br />
Whilst this is a view with which we completely agree, we should like to add the following<br />
rider: a business leader should decide first of all whether he is a manager or an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur.<br />
In the eyes of Kets de Vries, a business leader is invariably a manager. This is a somewhat<br />
blinkered view. It is absolutely vital to distinguish betwe<strong>en</strong> an <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur and a<br />
manager. It is a distinction that defines and str<strong>en</strong>gth<strong>en</strong>s the ‘inner urges’, the motives that<br />
have received so much att<strong>en</strong>tion from psycho analysts (Nandrann and Samson 2000). An<br />
awar<strong>en</strong>ess of this distinction is a prerequisite for recognising the importance of managem<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
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The importance of managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
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How to manage <strong>en</strong>terprise? From creation to rational continuation<br />
In the interests of good managem<strong>en</strong>t in particular, we need to make a clear distinction<br />
betwe<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>terprise and managem<strong>en</strong>t. We know from our own experi<strong>en</strong>ce - or rather, one<br />
of the lessons we have learned from our many mistakes is - that the importance of good<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t cannot be overstated. Mismanagem<strong>en</strong>t is the greatest disaster that can overcome<br />
a business owner and his or her business. Just about every time this happ<strong>en</strong>s, it is<br />
because the business owner (i.e. the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur) does not possess the requisite managerial<br />
skills and underestimates their importance.<br />
More likely, there is simply a wide gap betwe<strong>en</strong> the theory and practice of <strong>en</strong>terprise and<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t. In practice, companies (if we restrict ourselves to business organisations for<br />
the time being) go their own way and organise their own sci<strong>en</strong>tific research programmes.<br />
This is something that F.W. Taylor realised early on during the Industrial Revolution,<br />
wh<strong>en</strong> he published his Principles of Sci<strong>en</strong>tific Managem<strong>en</strong>t. University researchers in<br />
business sci<strong>en</strong>ce rarely succeed in finding empirical solutions to topical managem<strong>en</strong>t problems,<br />
let alone establishing any g<strong>en</strong>uine form of communication with company directors<br />
and their staff. Academic research programmes seem to be more the result of chance and<br />
personal interest than any market demand for empirical findings. As a result, they may<br />
well g<strong>en</strong>erate fascinating and p<strong>en</strong>etrating studies that draw conclusions that apply to a<br />
wide range of settings. Equally, they may produce all sorts of results, with stunning new<br />
findings at one <strong>en</strong>d of the scale and pompous theoretical irrele<strong>van</strong>ce at the other. Plus<br />
pl<strong>en</strong>ty of respectable and totally predictable studies populating the area in betwe<strong>en</strong> the<br />
two extremes.<br />
So what is the ideal situation? It is a good question, but not one that is easy to answer.<br />
One of the points raised by H<strong>en</strong>ry Mintzberg in his rec<strong>en</strong>t book, Managers not MBAs<br />
(2004), is the ‘privilege of sci<strong>en</strong>ce’. Whilst arguing in favour of sci<strong>en</strong>tific freedom, he<br />
inveighs against the risk-averse behaviour of many academic researchers and their gradual<br />
assimilation into the civil service. He d<strong>en</strong>ounces the habit of publishing articles for<br />
the sake of rankings in the citation tables, and rails against the dullness and predictability<br />
of many publications. Under the heading ‘Bring passion back to strategy’, he makes a<br />
number of valuable suggestions:<br />
– “Don’t worry about job t<strong>en</strong>ure. It’s more important to be able to look yourself in the<br />
eye than to see your picture hanging in the staff room.<br />
– Publish only if you’ve got something to say. Your readers will appreciate you all the<br />
more for it.<br />
– Say what you’ve got to say: say it once and say it well. Grab that window of opportunity<br />
instead of cutting yourself into little pieces.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
– Create knowledge. Discover something new. Most other people simply regurgitate old<br />
news. Ev<strong>en</strong> at this very mom<strong>en</strong>t, something new may be staring you in the face. The<br />
boy in Hans Christian Anders<strong>en</strong>’s story about the Emperor’s new clothes not only had<br />
the guts to say that the emperor wasn’t wearing any clothes, he had the courage to see<br />
it for himself. Once he’d se<strong>en</strong> it, it was easy to say so.<br />
– Write for the thinking manager. Falling off the steep cliff of sci<strong>en</strong>tific irrele<strong>van</strong>ce is no<br />
better than sliding down the slippery slope of easy applicability. Stay on the narrow<br />
edge; it’s an exciting spot, less dangerous than the alternative on either side. Your wise<br />
colleagues will respect you for it.<br />
– Keep close to the action. Not any action in particular, just the action in g<strong>en</strong>eral.<br />
Surprise yourself, and th<strong>en</strong> you may be able to surprise others.<br />
– Be passionate in all you do. If you’re not passionate about it, don’t do it.”<br />
Earlier on in the same book, Mintzberg writes:<br />
“<strong>Business</strong> sci<strong>en</strong>tists and managem<strong>en</strong>t researchers are not in the business of studying<br />
nuclear fusions. Their topics are tak<strong>en</strong> from daily life. In other words, every interesting<br />
finding should make s<strong>en</strong>se to intellig<strong>en</strong>t people working in the field. And every<br />
finding that does not make s<strong>en</strong>se is probably not a good finding. The suggestion made<br />
here, that sci<strong>en</strong>tists who take themselves seriously should cater for the needs of people<br />
working in the field, is not int<strong>en</strong>ded to weak<strong>en</strong> sci<strong>en</strong>ce, but rather to str<strong>en</strong>gth<strong>en</strong> it. The<br />
tussle with fascinating real-life problems (such as the scandals at Enron and Ahold,<br />
HB/LvW) also <strong>en</strong>tails a chall<strong>en</strong>ge: that of digging deeper in order to understand them<br />
better. It also forces the researcher to communicate more clearly.”<br />
But what else should a business sci<strong>en</strong>tist do apart from trying to understand things better?<br />
First of all, it is important to accept that many companies are organised on knowledgeint<strong>en</strong>sive<br />
lines, and pursue their own lines of sci<strong>en</strong>tific <strong>en</strong>quiry. This applies particularly,<br />
but not exclusively, to multinationals. Multinationals t<strong>en</strong>d to have their own R&D<br />
programmes and departm<strong>en</strong>ts, and to run special programmes for training in-house researchers.<br />
They regard higher education as a sort of preliminary training and hold recruitm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
days at which they try and spot any future tal<strong>en</strong>t. The situation is similar to that of a<br />
university hospital that undertakes its own research and trains its own staff. A degree<br />
in medicine is a useful form of preparatory training, but no more than that. No medical<br />
research could be performed without the pres<strong>en</strong>ce of a hospital in which to conduct fieldwork,<br />
and what you see, not surprisingly, is that most university hospitals have either<br />
merged or are planning to merge in the near future with the medical faculties at adjac<strong>en</strong>t<br />
universities. Ev<strong>en</strong> colleges of higher professional education are now jumping on the same<br />
bandwagon, by offering their own paramedical courses. It is high time that the university<br />
departm<strong>en</strong>ts of business studies forge links with the sci<strong>en</strong>tific practice of innovating<br />
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and organising and managing companies. If they fail to do so, ‘indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t’ sci<strong>en</strong>tific<br />
research – and h<strong>en</strong>ce university teaching – will be left high and dry, relegated to the role of<br />
supplying ‘suitable candidates’ to commercial employers.<br />
A second important task is to understand and describe what actually happ<strong>en</strong>s in the<br />
primary processes used by companies. What goes on in all those factories, offices and<br />
boardrooms, and how can we understand it all? Why is Jero<strong>en</strong> Smit’s book, Het Drama<br />
Ahold, so exciting and informative, ev<strong>en</strong> though everyone already knew – or thought they<br />
knew – about the scandal that rocked the Netherlands’ biggest supermarket chain and<br />
why it all happ<strong>en</strong>ed. First of all, because of the in-depth research that Smit carried out. He<br />
interviewed around 100 people who were directly involved in the managem<strong>en</strong>t of Ahold,<br />
and this <strong>en</strong>abled him to reconstruct the series of ev<strong>en</strong>ts. Smit manages to dissect the origins<br />
of the drama, without giving in to any preconceived notions or prejudices. As a true<br />
empiricist, he allows the facts to speak for themselves, which is exactly what they do. The<br />
reader is gripped by the story precisely because Smit affords us a glimpse into the day-today<br />
routine of managing a would-be world market leader, and at the same time exposes<br />
the ladders in the organisational stocking that gradually appeared over a period of 12<br />
years, before mercilessly laying bare the shocking mistakes made by managers, consultants<br />
and personal coaches. In part, the story is gripping because the reader can see the wool<br />
being pulled over his eyes as it happ<strong>en</strong>s and knows that he should have se<strong>en</strong> it coming.<br />
It was not just regulators and other watchdogs who were accepted everything that w<strong>en</strong>t<br />
on without question: investm<strong>en</strong>t analysts and journalists were just as guilty of the same<br />
uncritical behaviour. In making this point, Smit also points the finger firmly at himself (he<br />
was once the editor-in-chief of a managem<strong>en</strong>t magazine), as well as at investors. In other<br />
words, everyone was naïve. Including the sci<strong>en</strong>tists, we hast<strong>en</strong> to add.<br />
Apart from Smit, no one has attempted a serious analysis of the Ahold case to date. This<br />
and similar cases have not yet provided food for public academic debate and research. The<br />
question is: what do we actually know, in sci<strong>en</strong>tific terms, about the activities of companies<br />
and other organisations, and do we want to know how they work? Is it possible to set<br />
up a business studies departm<strong>en</strong>t that is firmly anchored in day-to-day empirical practice?<br />
Or is it <strong>en</strong>ough to operate at a high level of abstraction, capturing reality in the form of<br />
models based on statistical analysis, as is the trade of economists. The result is interpretations<br />
of reality that can be fitted into models, such as are used by the governm<strong>en</strong>t planning<br />
office, for example. These models may well be handy for policy-makers, and h<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
for macro-economic purposes, but they don’t g<strong>en</strong>erate any practical knowledge. On the<br />
one hand, we don’t need to go quite as far as Nietzsche, who said ‘I distrust all those who<br />
systematise and I avoid them. The will to construct a system is proof of a lack of integrity.’<br />
At the same time, any depiction of reality in the form of a model <strong>en</strong>tails passing a<br />
certain judgem<strong>en</strong>t on reality, whereas knowledge of reality should be based primarily on<br />
observation – thus runs the classical sci<strong>en</strong>tific criticism of positivism (Martin Jay, 1977).
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
It would be extremely useful if we knew more about the way in which managers and<br />
<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs operate in practice. Descriptions and analyses of decisions tak<strong>en</strong> by <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs,<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t meetings, meetings of supervisory boards, shareholders meetings,<br />
staff meetings and meetings with external consultants in combination with knowledge and<br />
h<strong>en</strong>ce research into primary processes could help to increase our knowledge and understanding<br />
of business, or rather of life in business. This, at least, is clear, thanks to Smit.<br />
Incid<strong>en</strong>tally, the abs<strong>en</strong>ce of an empirical set of foundations for business studies as a<br />
discipline may explain the popularity of every new guru who arrives on the sc<strong>en</strong>e, as well<br />
as the overwhelming supply of do-it-yourself managem<strong>en</strong>t literature. It is worth pointing<br />
out in this respect that the trade unions have lost a great deal of their rele<strong>van</strong>ce as repres<strong>en</strong>tatives<br />
of their members’ interests in terms of the quality of labour. The unions’ attitude<br />
is to sit back and wait for the governm<strong>en</strong>t to take action; there have be<strong>en</strong> very few<br />
instances of industrial action sparked by the type of work people are required to perform<br />
and the way in which it is organised. The unions are not involved in the great innovation<br />
debate, nor do they seek to bring pressure to bear on the governm<strong>en</strong>t and the universities<br />
to do more in improving ‘life in companies’. This is because there is little or no union<br />
membership in industrial and commercial companies these days. Interestingly, there was<br />
a debate in trade union ranks in the latter half of the previous c<strong>en</strong>tury on what might be<br />
termed ‘life in business organisations’ (Ruud Vreeman, 1982).<br />
The third chall<strong>en</strong>ge for the business sci<strong>en</strong>tist is of a conceptual nature. Economic research<br />
institutes such as the OECD regularly produce publications insisting that <strong>en</strong>terprise is<br />
the driving force behind the growth of modern economies such as the Dutch economy<br />
(EIM 2002, Gro<strong>en</strong>boek 2002, W<strong>en</strong>nekes et al. 2005). It is important to distinguish,<br />
however, betwe<strong>en</strong> an <strong>en</strong>terprise-driv<strong>en</strong> economy and a managem<strong>en</strong>t-driv<strong>en</strong> economy. A<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t-driv<strong>en</strong> economy is based on clearly defined products, increasingly complex<br />
production processes, a desire to obtain economies of scale, price competition, etc. It is<br />
becoming harder and harder to make a profit out of standardised production processes<br />
performed in high-cost locations. Ev<strong>en</strong> complex production processes are no longer tied<br />
to specific locations. Globalisation, i.e. digital distribution channels, has made both capital<br />
and information much cheaper to move around. Where Western economies now have a<br />
competitive edge in performing activities with a strong knowledge compon<strong>en</strong>t. An economy<br />
based on knowledge makes an ideal breeding ground for small firms. This type of<br />
economy, which is geared towards knowledge and search activities, is sometimes referred<br />
to as an ‘<strong>en</strong>terprise economy’. The laws of a managem<strong>en</strong>t-driv<strong>en</strong> economy do not necessarily<br />
apply to an <strong>en</strong>terprise economy. This may be illustrated by the relationship betwe<strong>en</strong><br />
wage levels and employm<strong>en</strong>t. Obviously, although low wage levels do affect employm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
levels, in an uncertain world in which knowledge, searches, variation and selection are key<br />
factors, there is little reason to expect wage moderation to be an important determinant of<br />
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How to manage <strong>en</strong>terprise? From creation to rational continuation<br />
growth. The key to growth in an <strong>en</strong>terprise economy, and the number of firms registered<br />
in the Netherlands has grown by more than 50% during the past t<strong>en</strong> years, is the ability<br />
of <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs to make use of state-of-the-art technology. These <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs are highly<br />
aware of the need for attracting, training and retaining good staff, and h<strong>en</strong>ce of the need<br />
for paying them properly.<br />
In any ev<strong>en</strong>t, an <strong>en</strong>terprise economy means taking a differ<strong>en</strong>t approach to managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
and adopting a differ<strong>en</strong>t way of training ‘good’ staff, and poses new chall<strong>en</strong>ges to those<br />
who are op<strong>en</strong> to them. It is worth remembering, though, that an <strong>en</strong>terprise economy<br />
operates alongside a managem<strong>en</strong>t-driv<strong>en</strong> economy. For this reason, we are in favour of<br />
dividing businesses into two categories: managem<strong>en</strong>t-driv<strong>en</strong> businesses and <strong>en</strong>terprise-<br />
driv<strong>en</strong> businesses. This distinction could th<strong>en</strong> replace the conv<strong>en</strong>tional division of<br />
businesses into small, medium-sized and large firms, based on the number of staff they<br />
employ. The conv<strong>en</strong>tional distinction is also rapidly losing its rele<strong>van</strong>ce because of the<br />
constant rise in labour productivity in Western economies, in combination with the<br />
globalisation of labour in the wake of the digital revolution.<br />
The distinction betwe<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>terprise and managem<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong>tails a paradigm shift for business<br />
sci<strong>en</strong>tists. Whereas the conv<strong>en</strong>tional approach to business studies divides the discipline<br />
into a number of discrete subject areas, an approach based on <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurial skills t<strong>en</strong>ds<br />
to acc<strong>en</strong>tuate other aspects. For example:<br />
Subject areas wh<strong>en</strong> regarded from a managem<strong>en</strong>t perspective:<br />
– <strong>Business</strong> developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
– Finance<br />
– Marketing<br />
– Operations & Supply Chains<br />
– Organisational & Managem<strong>en</strong>t Control<br />
– Strategy & Innovation<br />
– Human Resource Managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
– International <strong>Business</strong> & Managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
– Accountancy & Financial Control<br />
Subject areas wh<strong>en</strong> regarded from an <strong>en</strong>terprise perspective:<br />
– Cash managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
– Return on investm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
– Sales<br />
– Purchasing<br />
– Production<br />
– Customers
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
– Staff & Organisation<br />
– Exports<br />
– Accountancy<br />
As organisations become more complex, so there is a growing need for skilled, and h<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
well-trained, managers. Firms need staff who are qualified to work in a setting characterised<br />
by rapid technological ad<strong>van</strong>ces coupled with the internationalisation of sales and<br />
purchasing, i.e. international competition. This requires constant communication betwe<strong>en</strong><br />
knowledge and the market, and betwe<strong>en</strong> theory and practice. The fact that a growing<br />
number of companies and other organisations are now conducting their own sci<strong>en</strong>tific<br />
research is food for thought in this respect.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Universities and colleges of higher professional education look more and more like institutes<br />
offering preliminary training to people who only get down to the real work once<br />
they have graduated. The research work performed by university business sci<strong>en</strong>tists is not<br />
based, to a suffici<strong>en</strong>t degree, on the market demand for empirical findings and is oft<strong>en</strong><br />
completely divorced from university teaching programmes.<br />
There is a window of opportunity here for colleges of higher education, as they are<br />
not required to work in a governm<strong>en</strong>t-dictated research straitjacket. Colleges of higher<br />
education should adopt developm<strong>en</strong>t and application programmes in consultation with<br />
repres<strong>en</strong>tatives of the professions for which they train their stud<strong>en</strong>ts. The question is,<br />
however, whether there are suffici<strong>en</strong>t inc<strong>en</strong>tives for these colleges for change their culture.<br />
The only solution is by not only op<strong>en</strong>ing the door to competition, but actively promoting<br />
it. One way of doing this would be by compiling league tables of colleges of higher<br />
education based on input from professional associations, and by making the funding of<br />
such colleges conting<strong>en</strong>t on their ranking. University departm<strong>en</strong>ts of business studies<br />
should be required to gain support for their research programmes from rele<strong>van</strong>t market<br />
parties, such as professional bodies and groups of firms, in order to qualify for funding.<br />
Finally, the Master’s degree courses offered by both universities and colleges of higher<br />
professional education should no longer be governm<strong>en</strong>t-subsidised. Here too, market<br />
forces should be giv<strong>en</strong> free rein to produce their healing effect.<br />
The question is, though, whether politicians and the governing bodies of educational<br />
institutions are suffici<strong>en</strong>tly aware that there are good economic reasons for fostering<br />
g<strong>en</strong>uine competition betwe<strong>en</strong> institutes of research and tertiary teaching, i.e. the need<br />
for improving qualifications and devising new courses. Similarly, it is not clear whether<br />
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34<br />
How to manage <strong>en</strong>terprise? From creation to rational continuation<br />
universities and colleges of higher education are ready to adapt their teaching and research<br />
programmes to market demands.<br />
Literature<br />
Andringa, R. (2001) Ondernemerschap kun je ler<strong>en</strong> – E<strong>en</strong> nieuwe visie op ondernemerschap,<br />
Bedrijv<strong>en</strong>c<strong>en</strong>trum Leeuward<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Bosma, N., Meijaard, A.J., Vroonhof, P. & W<strong>en</strong>nekers, A. (2005) Maatschappelijke urg<strong>en</strong>tie<br />
<strong>van</strong> ondernemerschap, D<strong>en</strong> Haag: Stichting Maatschappij <strong>en</strong> Onderneming.<br />
Broekhuis, H. (2004) De kunst <strong>van</strong> het ondernem<strong>en</strong>, in: De Gepassioneerde Professional.<br />
Ass<strong>en</strong>: Koninklijke <strong>van</strong> Gorcum.<br />
DG Onderneming<strong>en</strong>, Commissie <strong>van</strong> de Europese Geme<strong>en</strong>schapp<strong>en</strong> (2002) Gro<strong>en</strong>boek,<br />
Ondernemerschap in Europa.<br />
EIM&Ministry of Economic Affairs (June 2002) Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurship in the Netherlands –<br />
Knowledge Transfer: developing high tech v<strong>en</strong>tures, The Hague.<br />
Grauls, M. (1993) Uitvinders <strong>van</strong> het dagelijks lev<strong>en</strong>. Antwerp<strong>en</strong>: Uitgeverij CODA.<br />
Jay, M. (1977) De dialectische verbeelding – E<strong>en</strong> geschied<strong>en</strong>is <strong>van</strong> de Frankfurter Schule <strong>en</strong><br />
het Institut für Sozialforschung 1923 – 1950. Baarn: Ambo.<br />
Kets de Vries, M.F.R. (1977) Op lev<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> dood in de directiekamer – Essays over irrationele<br />
organisaties <strong>en</strong> hun leiders, Schiedam: Scriptum Managem<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Kets de Vries, M.F.R. & D. Miller (1987) Balancer<strong>en</strong> aan de top – De persoonlijkheid <strong>van</strong><br />
de manager & de neurotische organisatie. Amsterdam: Sijthof.<br />
Kets de Vries, M.F.R. & Partners (1993) Organisaties op de di<strong>van</strong> – Gedrag <strong>en</strong> verandering<br />
<strong>van</strong> organisaties in klinisch perspectief. Schiedam: Scriptum Books.<br />
Mintzberg, H. (2004), Managers not MBAS: A hard look at the soft practice of managing<br />
and managem<strong>en</strong>t developm<strong>en</strong>t, Pr<strong>en</strong>tice Hall.<br />
Peters, T. J. & Waterman, R.H. Jr. (1982) Excell<strong>en</strong>te Onderneming<strong>en</strong> – K<strong>en</strong>merk<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
succesvol managem<strong>en</strong>t. Utrecht/Antwerp<strong>en</strong>: Ve<strong>en</strong> BV.<br />
Samsom, Karel J. & Sharda S. Nandram (2000). Persoonlijkheid <strong>en</strong> ondernemerssucces.<br />
Economisch Statistische Bericht<strong>en</strong>, 85.4271,: 717-719.<br />
Schlösser, W.M.J. (1995) Ontwerp<strong>en</strong>, tuss<strong>en</strong> kunst <strong>en</strong> wet<strong>en</strong>schap. Jubileumrede, uitgesprok<strong>en</strong><br />
ter geleg<strong>en</strong>heid <strong>van</strong> het 50jarig bestaan <strong>van</strong> Tebodin, Consultants & Eng<strong>en</strong>eers.<br />
Smit, J. (2004) Het drama Ahold – IJdelheid <strong>en</strong> Hebzucht aan de Top, Balans.<br />
Vreeman, R. (redactie) (1982) De kwaliteit <strong>van</strong> de arbeid in de Nederlandse industrie,<br />
Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>: SUN.<br />
Weerd<strong>en</strong>, L. <strong>van</strong> (2004) The vital few and the trivial many: gr<strong>en</strong>zeloos ondernem<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Inaugural address professorship Han University.
taalbeleid voor iedere<strong>en</strong><br />
Sam<strong>en</strong>vatting<br />
Stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hoger beroepsonderwijs – zowel allochtoon als autochtoon – lijk<strong>en</strong><br />
steeds meer problem<strong>en</strong> te hebb<strong>en</strong> met de Nederlandse taal. Hoe groot is het probleem?<br />
Waar zit de kink in de kabel? Welke aanpak door doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>, instelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> het ministerie<br />
is gew<strong>en</strong>st? In dit artikel zal ik dieper op deze <strong>en</strong> andere vrag<strong>en</strong> ingaan.<br />
Het probleem<br />
b a s va n e e r d<br />
Aandacht voor autochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> het taalbeleid in het hoger beroepsonderwijs<br />
“Te zi<strong>en</strong> bij de resultat<strong>en</strong>begroting is de kost<strong>en</strong> voor vast personeel n 511.488 per jaar<br />
deze del<strong>en</strong> door 4 <strong>en</strong> zett<strong>en</strong> bij het kwartaal.” “De aspect<strong>en</strong> dat de sfeer, comfort, korte<br />
wachttijd<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> goede uitstraling ook bij het congresc<strong>en</strong>trum goed naar vor<strong>en</strong> kom<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Want dat will<strong>en</strong> de klant<strong>en</strong> wel behoud<strong>en</strong>. Zowel de vaste als de niet vaste klant<strong>en</strong>.”<br />
“Verder is er nog e<strong>en</strong> aantal ding<strong>en</strong> die het congres c<strong>en</strong>trum uitbesteed of waar ze simpelweg<br />
niks aan do<strong>en</strong>.”<br />
Dit zijn <strong>en</strong>kele voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> uit e<strong>en</strong> beroepsproduct <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> groep eerstejaars stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong><br />
aan e<strong>en</strong> hbo-instelling. Jar<strong>en</strong>lang wordt er al gesprok<strong>en</strong> over de steeds slechter word<strong>en</strong>de<br />
taalbeheersing <strong>van</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hoger onderwijs. Veelgehoorde kret<strong>en</strong> zijn dat stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong><br />
niet meer kunn<strong>en</strong> spell<strong>en</strong>, niet goed lez<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> dat hun schrijfvaardigheid b<strong>en</strong>ed<strong>en</strong><br />
peil is. Om de taalvaardigheid te verbeter<strong>en</strong>, wordt hier <strong>en</strong> daar e<strong>en</strong> steunles ingezet of e<strong>en</strong><br />
deficiëntiecursus opgezet <strong>en</strong> verschijn<strong>en</strong> er talloze boekjes die wel e<strong>en</strong>s zoud<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong><br />
help<strong>en</strong>. Maar is dit g<strong>en</strong>oeg? E<strong>en</strong> taaltoets aan de Vrije Universiteit laat zi<strong>en</strong> dat dertig<br />
proc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> ondermaats presteert op taalvaardigheid. Enkele feitjes uit deze<br />
toets: slechts 28% wist wat de verled<strong>en</strong> tijd is <strong>van</strong> ‘met<strong>en</strong>’ <strong>en</strong> twintig proc<strong>en</strong>t gaf de verkeerde<br />
verled<strong>en</strong> tijd <strong>van</strong> ‘lijd<strong>en</strong>’. ‘De commissie beantwoordt’ werd door veertig proc<strong>en</strong>t<br />
geschrev<strong>en</strong> zonder t, <strong>en</strong> slechts 29% wist wat ‘advocaat <strong>van</strong> de duivel spel<strong>en</strong>’ betek<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Bij e<strong>en</strong> eerste taaltoets aan de Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t aan de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> scoorde slechts 4% voldo<strong>en</strong>de <strong>en</strong> de cijfers <strong>van</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
pabo’s in het land lat<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> zelfde t<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>s zi<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Ook in D<strong>en</strong> Haag sijpel<strong>en</strong> de bericht<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> dat de stand <strong>van</strong> zak<strong>en</strong> steeds ernstiger<br />
wordt <strong>en</strong> dat er meer aandacht (<strong>en</strong> meer geld) nodig is voor het verhog<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het taalniveau<br />
<strong>van</strong> de ho-stud<strong>en</strong>t. De focus is nu echter kom<strong>en</strong> te ligg<strong>en</strong> op de achterblijv<strong>en</strong>de<br />
taalvaardigheid <strong>van</strong> de allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> 1 . In Het hoogste goed - de strategische ag<strong>en</strong>da<br />
1 Deze extra financiering voor het studiesucces <strong>van</strong> allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> heeft niet alle<strong>en</strong> te mak<strong>en</strong> met het aanpakk<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> de taalvaardigheid. Er wordt ook breder ingezet op communicatie <strong>en</strong> voorlichting.<br />
35
36<br />
Taalbeleid voor iedere<strong>en</strong><br />
voor het HO (2007) wordt extra geld uitgetrokk<strong>en</strong> voor het studiesucces <strong>van</strong> allochtone<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. De vraag is echter of deze focus niet te nauw <strong>en</strong> kortzichtig is <strong>en</strong> dat het juist<br />
belangrijk is om breed in te zett<strong>en</strong> met taalbeleid in het hoger onderwijs, waarbij ook aandacht<br />
is voor de taalontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> autochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>.<br />
De ontwikkeling<strong>en</strong><br />
In het afgelop<strong>en</strong> dec<strong>en</strong>nium is er e<strong>en</strong> steeds grotere focus gekom<strong>en</strong> op de taalontwikkeling<br />
<strong>van</strong> leerling<strong>en</strong> in het primair <strong>en</strong> secundair onderwijs. Verschill<strong>en</strong>de project<strong>en</strong> om deze taalontwikkeling<br />
aan te pakk<strong>en</strong>, hebb<strong>en</strong> in de loop <strong>van</strong> de tijd vastere vorm gekreg<strong>en</strong>. Hierbij<br />
is de aandacht verschov<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> alle<strong>en</strong> de achterstandsleerling<strong>en</strong> naar alle leerling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
spel<strong>en</strong> taalverwerving <strong>en</strong> taalvaardigheid e<strong>en</strong> steeds grotere rol, ook bij andere vakk<strong>en</strong> dan<br />
Nederlands. De verschuiving naar deze nieuwe vorm <strong>van</strong> taalonderwijs gaat vaak gepaard<br />
met e<strong>en</strong> duidelijk beleid dat betrekking heeft op taal <strong>en</strong> taalontwikkeling: het taalbeleid.<br />
In dit taalbeleid is e<strong>en</strong> heldere visie op taal, taalontwikkeling <strong>en</strong> taalonderwijs e<strong>en</strong> belangrijke<br />
leidraad. Het taalbeleid stelt doel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> geeft de weg aan om deze doel<strong>en</strong> te behal<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Hoewel er <strong>en</strong>kele jar<strong>en</strong> geled<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong>uit e<strong>en</strong> aantal hogeschol<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> Landelijk Platform<br />
Taalbeleid Hoger Onderwijs is opgericht, zijn er op dit mom<strong>en</strong>t nog maar weinig hogeschol<strong>en</strong><br />
die e<strong>en</strong> instellingsbreed concreet taalbeleid of taalbeleidsplan hebb<strong>en</strong>.<br />
De behoefte aan hoogopgeleid<strong>en</strong> wordt steeds groter in Nederland. In het schooljaar<br />
2006/2007 studeerd<strong>en</strong> ruim 571.000 stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> aan e<strong>en</strong> instelling voor hoger onderwijs<br />
(waar<strong>van</strong> 366.000 in het hbo). Dit betek<strong>en</strong>t dat 37% <strong>van</strong> de Nederlanders tuss<strong>en</strong> de<br />
achtti<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> de 25 staat ingeschrev<strong>en</strong> bij e<strong>en</strong> hbo- of wo-instelling. In het huidige regeerakkoord<br />
is de doelstelling opg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> dat in 2011 vijftig proc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> deze groep e<strong>en</strong> opleiding<br />
binn<strong>en</strong> het hoger onderwijs volgt (Ministerie <strong>van</strong> OCW 2007). Het aantal allochtone<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> is, zeker in het wet<strong>en</strong>schappelijk onderwijs, lager dan het aantal autochtone<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Ook het studiesucces bij allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> is lager. Mede om deze red<strong>en</strong><br />
geeft het ministerie voor OC&W e<strong>en</strong> financiële injectie aan project<strong>en</strong> die zich richt<strong>en</strong> op<br />
e<strong>en</strong> betere participatie <strong>van</strong> allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hoger onderwijs. Er word<strong>en</strong> bijspijkercursuss<strong>en</strong><br />
opgezet <strong>en</strong> speciale deficiëntieprogramma’s die kosteloos te volg<strong>en</strong> zijn naast<br />
het reguliere studieprogramma <strong>en</strong> er wordt rek<strong>en</strong>ing gehoud<strong>en</strong> met de talige achterstand<br />
die bij sommige allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> aanwezig zou kunn<strong>en</strong> zijn. Ruim zestig proc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong><br />
de hbo-instelling<strong>en</strong> in ons land heeft dergelijke faciliteit<strong>en</strong> voor allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. De<br />
vraag die echter rijst, is of deze to<strong>en</strong>ame <strong>van</strong> aandacht voor taalvaardigheid zich alle<strong>en</strong><br />
zou moet<strong>en</strong> richt<strong>en</strong> op de allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Verschill<strong>en</strong>de resultat<strong>en</strong> uit instaptoets<strong>en</strong><br />
taalvaardigheid voor het hbo lat<strong>en</strong> zi<strong>en</strong> dat ook autochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> taalproblem<strong>en</strong><br />
ondervind<strong>en</strong>. Enkele feit<strong>en</strong>: e<strong>en</strong> taaltoets aan de Vrije Universiteit laat zi<strong>en</strong> dat dertig<br />
proc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> ondermaats presteert op taalvaardigheid. Bij e<strong>en</strong> taaltoets aan de
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> scoorde in eerste instantie slechts vier proc<strong>en</strong>t voldo<strong>en</strong>de<br />
<strong>en</strong> de cijfers <strong>van</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de pabo’s in het land lat<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> zelfde t<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>s zi<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Hierbij gaat het niet slechts om de allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. De voornaamste red<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> voor<br />
negatieve studieresultat<strong>en</strong> bij allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> zijn taal- <strong>en</strong> communicatieproblem<strong>en</strong><br />
(Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs 2007a). Er is ge<strong>en</strong> onderzoek gedaan naar de relatie tuss<strong>en</strong><br />
taalvaardigheid <strong>van</strong> de autochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> zijn studieresultaat. Wel geeft Van Hoog<strong>en</strong><br />
(1998) aan dat taalvaardigheid voor zowel allochtone als autochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> struikelblok<br />
is. Het aandacht bested<strong>en</strong> aan de taalvaardigheid <strong>van</strong> de allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t zou<br />
dan ook e<strong>en</strong> positieve invloed kunn<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> op de taalvaardigheid <strong>van</strong> de autochtone<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t: bij e<strong>en</strong> integrale aanpak <strong>van</strong> de belangrijkste struikelblokk<strong>en</strong> hoeft de focus<br />
immers niet te ligg<strong>en</strong> op het verschil allochtoon-autochtoon. Hierop kom ik later terug.<br />
Het niveau <strong>van</strong> de instroom<br />
In Het hoogste goed (2007) wordt expliciet vermeld dat voornamelijk havist<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> mbodoorstoom<br />
problem<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> met het niveau <strong>van</strong> Nederlands. In het Jaarboek onderwijs<br />
in cijfers 2008 (2007) staat dat vier <strong>van</strong> de ti<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hbo e<strong>en</strong> havo-achtergrond<br />
heeft <strong>en</strong> ruim drie <strong>van</strong> de ti<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> achtergrond in het mbo. In K<strong>en</strong>nis in kaart (2006)<br />
wordt vermeld dat ruim zestig proc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de mbo’ers doorstroomt naar het hbo.<br />
Tegelijkertijd heeft het grootste aandeel uitvallers (48%) in het hbo e<strong>en</strong> mbo-achtergrond<br />
(Warth<strong>en</strong>bergh & Van d<strong>en</strong> Broek, 2008). Bij al deze gegev<strong>en</strong>s is ge<strong>en</strong> onderscheid gemaakt<br />
tuss<strong>en</strong> allochtoon <strong>en</strong> autochtoon. Omdat het havo <strong>en</strong> het mbo beide e<strong>en</strong> rechtstreekse toegang<br />
gev<strong>en</strong> tot het hbo <strong>en</strong> hiervoor ook de pass<strong>en</strong>de vooropleiding zijn, zou in e<strong>en</strong> doorlop<strong>en</strong>de<br />
taalleerlijn het taalniveau <strong>van</strong> de opleiding moet<strong>en</strong> pass<strong>en</strong> op het taalniveau <strong>van</strong> de<br />
instroom. Het Brondocum<strong>en</strong>t Ler<strong>en</strong>, Loopbaan <strong>en</strong> Burgerschap (2007) stelt het niveau <strong>van</strong><br />
de afgestudeerd<strong>en</strong> voor de vijf onderdel<strong>en</strong> 2 <strong>van</strong> het refer<strong>en</strong>tiekader op B2. Dat betek<strong>en</strong>t<br />
dat e<strong>en</strong> afgestudeerde mbo’er op deze onderdel<strong>en</strong> gemiddeld e<strong>en</strong> B2-niveau moet behal<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Kijk<strong>en</strong> we naar e<strong>en</strong> rec<strong>en</strong>t onderzoek, dan zi<strong>en</strong> we e<strong>en</strong> soortgelijke conclusie. Driess<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> Edel<strong>en</strong>bos (2006) hebb<strong>en</strong> de eindniveaus op de vijf onderdel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het ERK <strong>van</strong> mbostud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong><br />
niveau 4 bekek<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> kom<strong>en</strong> hierbij tot de volg<strong>en</strong>de conclusies. 56,9% <strong>van</strong> de<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> heeft voor luistervaardigheid e<strong>en</strong> C1-niveau <strong>en</strong> 33% e<strong>en</strong> B2-niveau. De andere<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> scor<strong>en</strong> lager. Bij de leesvaardigheid scoort 53,8% e<strong>en</strong> C1-niveau <strong>en</strong> 29,1% B2.<br />
Ook behaalt ge<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>kele stud<strong>en</strong>t niveau C2. Voor gesprekk<strong>en</strong> voer<strong>en</strong>/interactie zit 84,7%<br />
op niveau B2 <strong>en</strong> 1,5% op C1. De rest scoort B1 of lager. Spreekvaardigheid sluit 79,4%<br />
<strong>van</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> af op B2-niveau <strong>en</strong> 0,5% op C1. Van C2 is hier ook ge<strong>en</strong> sprake. Het<br />
laatste onderdeel, de schrijfvaardigheid, wordt door 69,3% <strong>van</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> afgeslot<strong>en</strong> op<br />
B2-niveau <strong>en</strong> 30,2% scoort hierop B1. Er is ge<strong>en</strong> C-niveau zichtbaar. Deze vergelijking is<br />
terug te vind<strong>en</strong> in tabel 1. De aanname dat de gemiddelde stud<strong>en</strong>t die doorstroomt <strong>van</strong>uit<br />
het mbo zich dus bevindt op e<strong>en</strong> B2-niveau is heel redelijk.<br />
2 Luister<strong>en</strong>, lez<strong>en</strong>, gesprekk<strong>en</strong> voer<strong>en</strong>, sprek<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> schrijv<strong>en</strong>.<br />
37
38<br />
Luister<strong>en</strong> Lez<strong>en</strong> Interactie Sprek<strong>en</strong> Schrijv<strong>en</strong><br />
B1 30,2<br />
B2 33,0 29,1 84,7 79,4 69,3<br />
C1 56,9 53,8 1,5 0,5 -<br />
Tabel 1 Vergelijking eindniveau vaardighed<strong>en</strong> bij mbo-uitstroom in %<br />
Taalbeleid voor iedere<strong>en</strong><br />
Over de drempels met taal <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> (2008) stelt in e<strong>en</strong> eig<strong>en</strong> refer<strong>en</strong>tiekader dat er vier<br />
drempels zijn in de taalvaardigheidontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> leerling/stud<strong>en</strong>t. Deze drempels<br />
zijn zichtbaar in figuur 1. Stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> die e<strong>en</strong> havo- of mbo-opleiding afgerond hebb<strong>en</strong>, zijn<br />
in dit model beland bij de derde drempel, die tev<strong>en</strong>s de ingangsdrempel is <strong>van</strong> het hbo.<br />
REFERENTIEKADER<br />
eind<br />
basisonderwijs<br />
eind vmbo bb/kb<br />
mbo 2<br />
eind<br />
vmbo gl/tl<br />
Algeme<strong>en</strong> maatschappelijk niveau<br />
Drempels<br />
1F<br />
Figuur 1 Refer<strong>en</strong>tiekader basisvaardighed<strong>en</strong> taal <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> (Over de drempels met taal <strong>en</strong><br />
rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>, 2008)<br />
Het niveau <strong>van</strong> afgestudeerde mbo’ers <strong>en</strong> havist<strong>en</strong> wordt hierbij door de expertgroep<br />
gelijkgesteld. Gesteld dat mbo’ers bij afstuder<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> B2-niveau hebb<strong>en</strong>, mag de conclusie<br />
getrokk<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> dat dit ook geldt voor havist<strong>en</strong>. Ook het Profiel Taalvaardigheid<br />
Hoger Onderwijs noemt B2-niveau als ingangseis voor deelname aan het hoger onderwijs<br />
(CNaVT 2008).<br />
Discrepantie niveau instroom <strong>en</strong> onderwijsaanbod<br />
2F<br />
eind havo<br />
mbo 4<br />
Terug naar het hoger onderwijs. Als ruim zev<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de ti<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hbo e<strong>en</strong><br />
taalniveau heeft dat gelijk staat aan B2 <strong>en</strong> B2 ook de ingangseis is, maar we er<strong>van</strong> uitgaan<br />
dat het eindniveau <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> hbo-opleiding hoger ligt, dan is er werk te verzett<strong>en</strong>. Dat we<br />
3F<br />
eind vwo<br />
4F<br />
hbo wo
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
uitgaan <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> hoger niveau dan B2 kan geconcludeerd word<strong>en</strong> uit de lage prestatie<br />
<strong>van</strong> B2’ers op instaptoets<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> talige beroepsproduct<strong>en</strong> in het hbo. Er is ge<strong>en</strong> onderzoek<br />
geweest naar de rol <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> te lage taalvaardigheid op de prestaties of uitvalscijfers <strong>van</strong> het<br />
hbo, maar gezi<strong>en</strong> het hoge aantal stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> dat faalt voor de taaltoets<strong>en</strong> die, mede door de<br />
hbo-raad, zijn ingesteld op pabo’s <strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>kele andere opleiding<strong>en</strong> in het land, kan wellicht<br />
gesteld word<strong>en</strong> dat er meer moet gebeur<strong>en</strong> aan de taalontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> álle stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. De<br />
onderwijsraad concludeert ook dat het onderwijsniveau naar e<strong>en</strong> hoger plan kan. “Meer<br />
aandacht voor Nederlands in het hoger onderwijs vereist onderwijsinzet: het lat<strong>en</strong> meeweg<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> de Nederlandse taal in de beoordeling vereist ook meer correctietijd. De raad<br />
is e<strong>en</strong> voorstander <strong>van</strong> het opwaarder<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de norm waaraan we onszelf met<strong>en</strong>. Er is<br />
ge<strong>en</strong> red<strong>en</strong> tot tevred<strong>en</strong>heid als met extra inspanning zoveel meer bereikt kan word<strong>en</strong>.”<br />
(Onderwijsraad 2006) E<strong>en</strong> probleem is echter dat er ge<strong>en</strong> harde nationale eindkwalificaties<br />
opgesteld zijn voor het hbo, zeker niet over het beheersingsniveau <strong>van</strong> Nederlands.<br />
Opleiding<strong>en</strong> zijn hierin autonoom. Toch zou in het kader <strong>van</strong> LifeLong Learning<br />
het beginniveau <strong>van</strong> hbo niet gelijk mog<strong>en</strong> zijn aan het eindniveau. Ook Bernts<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
Gangaram Panday (2007) gev<strong>en</strong> aan dat er e<strong>en</strong> ontwikkeling moet zitt<strong>en</strong> in de verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
vaardighed<strong>en</strong> in het curriculum <strong>van</strong> het hbo. Stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> zoud<strong>en</strong> in de vier studiejar<strong>en</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> ontwikkeling moet<strong>en</strong> doormak<strong>en</strong>, niet alle<strong>en</strong> in de beroepsvakk<strong>en</strong>, maar ook in de<br />
beheersing <strong>van</strong> hun (Nederlandse) taalvaardigheid. Voor het mbo is dit erk<strong>en</strong>d <strong>en</strong> in het<br />
mbo wordt dan ook steeds meer gewerkt met het taalontwikkel<strong>en</strong>d beroepsonderwijs,<br />
waar taalverwerving <strong>en</strong> -ontwikkeling in alle compon<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de opleiding e<strong>en</strong> rol spel<strong>en</strong><br />
(Bohnn<strong>en</strong> et al. 2007).<br />
In Over de drempels met taal <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> (2008) wordt aangegev<strong>en</strong> dat er op dit mom<strong>en</strong>t<br />
weinig tot niets gebeurt aan taalverwerving, niet voor allochtone <strong>en</strong> niet voor autochtone<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Hoewel de regering in de kom<strong>en</strong>de jar<strong>en</strong> ti<strong>en</strong>tall<strong>en</strong> miljo<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> steekt in<br />
de vergroting <strong>van</strong> de succesvolle participatie <strong>van</strong> allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>, lez<strong>en</strong> we in het<br />
Onderwijsverslag 2006/2007 (Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs 2008): “Overig<strong>en</strong>s is e<strong>en</strong> gebrek<br />
aan taalvaardigheid niet alle<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> probleem voor veel allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>, maar ook<br />
voor autochtone.” Het Ministerie voor OC&W (2008: 7) spreekt ook zorg uit “over het<br />
niveau <strong>van</strong> de instroom, met name op het punt <strong>van</strong> de Nederlandse taal”, waarbij niet<br />
expliciet wordt gesprok<strong>en</strong> over de groep allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Beide citat<strong>en</strong> gev<strong>en</strong> daarmee<br />
aan dat er ook bij autochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> taalproblem<strong>en</strong> voorkom<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> het eerste citaat<br />
geeft aan dat hieraan nog veel te weinig gewerkt wordt.<br />
Huidige ontwikkeling<strong>en</strong><br />
In het afgelop<strong>en</strong> dec<strong>en</strong>nium is er e<strong>en</strong> steeds grotere focus gekom<strong>en</strong> op de taalontwikkeling<br />
<strong>van</strong> leerling<strong>en</strong> in het primair <strong>en</strong> secundair onderwijs. Verschill<strong>en</strong>de project<strong>en</strong> om deze taalontwikkeling<br />
aan te pakk<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> in de loop der tijd vastere vorm gekreg<strong>en</strong>. Sommige<br />
39
40<br />
Taalbeleid voor iedere<strong>en</strong><br />
zijn uitgegroeid tot structurele manier<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> aanpak <strong>van</strong> achterstand<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>/of bevordering<br />
<strong>van</strong> taalontwikkeling. Andere richt<strong>en</strong> zich meer op het gev<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> andere invulling aan<br />
het taalonderwijs. Hierbij is de aandacht verschov<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de achterstandleerling<strong>en</strong> naar alle<br />
leerling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> spel<strong>en</strong> taalverwerving <strong>en</strong> taalvaardigheid e<strong>en</strong> steeds grotere rol, ook bij andere<br />
vakk<strong>en</strong> dan Nederlands. E<strong>en</strong> verschuiving naar deze nieuwe vorm <strong>van</strong> taalonderwijs<br />
gaat gepaard met e<strong>en</strong> duidelijk beleid dat betrekking heeft op taal <strong>en</strong> taalontwikkeling: het<br />
taalbeleid. Dit taalbeleid moet doorvar<strong>en</strong> op de koers die het voorgaande onderwijs gevar<strong>en</strong><br />
heeft. Het moet aansluit<strong>en</strong> op de nieuwe behoeftes <strong>van</strong> de leerder.<br />
Op dit mom<strong>en</strong>t lijkt het erop dat er ge<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>kele hogeschool is die e<strong>en</strong> instellingsbreed<br />
concreet taalbeleid of taalbeleidsplan heeft. De koers<strong>en</strong> die mom<strong>en</strong>teel gevar<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> in<br />
het hoger onderwijs, moet<strong>en</strong> anders, zo stelt Van der West<strong>en</strong> (2007). Het moet afgelop<strong>en</strong><br />
zijn met het doorwerk<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> spellingboek<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> ook herhal<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de stof uit het middelbaar<br />
onderwijs is niet langer gew<strong>en</strong>st. Daarnaast zijn de ur<strong>en</strong> die besteed word<strong>en</strong> aan<br />
taalbeheersing, taalvaardigheid of taalontwikkeling voor veel stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> te laag in aantal<br />
om daadwerkelijk zod<strong>en</strong> aan de dijk te zett<strong>en</strong>. Ook Van der Neut (2007) erk<strong>en</strong>t dit. In<br />
haar onderzoek naar de taalproblem<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> eerstejaars pabo’ers ziet zij e<strong>en</strong> tweedeling in<br />
de problem<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> deel <strong>van</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> (voornamelijk mbo’ers) heeft e<strong>en</strong> beschikbaarheidsprobleem<br />
met de stof, dat wil zegg<strong>en</strong>, de beheersing <strong>van</strong> de stof is er niet geweest <strong>en</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> ander deel <strong>van</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> (voornamelijk havist<strong>en</strong>) heeft e<strong>en</strong> onderhoudsprobleem,<br />
wat betek<strong>en</strong>t dat ze de stof wel beheerst<strong>en</strong>, maar verget<strong>en</strong> zijn. Enkele ur<strong>en</strong> aandacht<br />
voor taalvaardigheid in het eerste jaar <strong>van</strong> de opleiding zal voor de eerste groep te weinig<br />
duidelijk mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> voor de tweede groep wellicht temporeel de stof omhooghal<strong>en</strong>, maar<br />
met weinig resultaat op de lange termijn. De vraag is echter, wat werkt dan wel? Het antwoord<br />
<strong>van</strong> Van der West<strong>en</strong> (2007) luidt: “de ontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> taalleerstrategieën […] <strong>en</strong><br />
de ontwikkeling tot e<strong>en</strong> autonome taalleerder”. De verschuiving naar e<strong>en</strong> meer strategische<br />
aanpak <strong>van</strong> taalontwikkeling zi<strong>en</strong> we ook terug in het Europees Taalportfolio, waar<br />
de taalleerder steeds evalueert <strong>en</strong> bijstelt <strong>en</strong> zelf bestuurder <strong>van</strong> zijn taalleerproces wordt.<br />
Hierbij verschuift de sturing <strong>van</strong> de doc<strong>en</strong>t naar de stud<strong>en</strong>t. In e<strong>en</strong> artikel <strong>van</strong> Bernts<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> Gangaram Panday (2007) heeft deze strategische aanpak <strong>en</strong> de ontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> de<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t tot autonome leerder ook e<strong>en</strong> belangrijke rol. Uit hun verslag <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> pilot aan de<br />
HU bleek dat stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in elk geval positief reageerd<strong>en</strong> op deze verandering in lesaanpak<br />
<strong>en</strong> didactiek. Niet bek<strong>en</strong>d is of de resultat<strong>en</strong> ook beter werd<strong>en</strong>, maar de ‘oude’ manier lijkt<br />
ook niet te volstaan. E<strong>en</strong> extra uur spelling of leesvaardigheid of e<strong>en</strong> deficiëntieprogramma<br />
lijkt gezi<strong>en</strong> de problem<strong>en</strong> die nog steeds aan de orde zijn tot nu toe (te) weinig effect te<br />
hebb<strong>en</strong>. Bov<strong>en</strong>di<strong>en</strong> is m<strong>en</strong> in het primair <strong>en</strong> het voortgezet <strong>en</strong> het middelbaar beroepsonderwijs<br />
<strong>en</strong>thousiast over taalgericht vakonderwijs, taalontwikkel<strong>en</strong>d beroepsonderwijs of<br />
soortgelijke project<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> didactiek<strong>en</strong>. Waarom zou dat in het hoger onderwijs anders zijn?
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Wat is er nodig?<br />
Zoals in de vorige paragraaf reeds gesteld is het belangrijk dat hogeschol<strong>en</strong> zich gaan buig<strong>en</strong><br />
over de vraag wat belangrijk is voor de taalontwikkeling <strong>van</strong> hun stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Wat is de<br />
visie <strong>van</strong> de hogeschool op taalontwikkeling? Welke k<strong>en</strong>nis is nodig om e<strong>en</strong> juist beleid<br />
op te stell<strong>en</strong>? Is die k<strong>en</strong>nis in huis? Wat will<strong>en</strong> we de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> bijbr<strong>en</strong>g<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> op welke<br />
manier? Hoe gaan we dat vormgev<strong>en</strong>? Is daarvoor k<strong>en</strong>nis in huis? Zijn alle betrokk<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong><br />
voldo<strong>en</strong>de bewust <strong>en</strong> bereid mee te werk<strong>en</strong> aan e<strong>en</strong> nieuwe koers? Hoe kunn<strong>en</strong> we de<br />
extra aandacht voor taalvaardigheid inpass<strong>en</strong> in het curriculum? Uit e<strong>en</strong> onderzoek naar<br />
de onderwijstijd in het hoger onderwijs (Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs 2007b) blijkt dat<br />
er in theorie veel meer contactur<strong>en</strong> plaats zoud<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> vind<strong>en</strong>, al stelt Van der West<strong>en</strong><br />
(2007) dat juist de zwakkere stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hoger onderwijs met nog meer ur<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
te grote belasting zoud<strong>en</strong> krijg<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> hun reguliere studieprogramma wellicht niet meer<br />
kunn<strong>en</strong> volg<strong>en</strong>. Hieruit blijkt dat het inpass<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> extra aandacht voor taalontwikkeling<br />
belangrijke consequ<strong>en</strong>ties zou kunn<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> voor de totale sam<strong>en</strong>stelling <strong>van</strong> het curriculum,<br />
bijvoorbeeld door de invulling <strong>van</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong>de modules te herzi<strong>en</strong> of het aantal<br />
contactur<strong>en</strong> anders in te del<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Verschill<strong>en</strong>de hogeschol<strong>en</strong> zi<strong>en</strong> inmiddels de noodzaak in <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> andere aanpak. Op<br />
ruim 60% <strong>van</strong> de hogeschol<strong>en</strong> zijn er voorzi<strong>en</strong>ing<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> activiteit<strong>en</strong> die zich richt<strong>en</strong> op de<br />
bevordering <strong>van</strong> taalvaardigheid, maar deze zijn in veel gevall<strong>en</strong> extra-curriculair. Binn<strong>en</strong><br />
het curriculum kom<strong>en</strong> vaak de hierbov<strong>en</strong> g<strong>en</strong>oemde spellingless<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> opfriscursuss<strong>en</strong> voor<br />
(Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs 2007a). De <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> heeft de<br />
eerste stapp<strong>en</strong> gezet richting het opstell<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> afdelingsbreed beleidsplan <strong>en</strong> ook de<br />
<strong>Hogeschool</strong> Utrecht (HU) heeft zich de taalproblem<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> aangetrokk<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> is<br />
in vier faculteit<strong>en</strong> met e<strong>en</strong> pilot gestart. Binn<strong>en</strong> deze pilots is er specifieke aandacht voor<br />
zowel de inhoud als de taalvaardigheid <strong>van</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong>de taaltak<strong>en</strong> (Bernts<strong>en</strong> & Gangaram<br />
Panday 2007). Deze specifieke aandacht komt niet alle<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de doc<strong>en</strong>t, maar ook <strong>van</strong><br />
de stud<strong>en</strong>t. Reflectie op taal is hierbij e<strong>en</strong> belangrijk gegev<strong>en</strong>. Taalvaardigheidstraining<br />
beperkt zich dan niet strikt tot de taalless<strong>en</strong>, maar tot alle less<strong>en</strong>, bij alle doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Dit<br />
betek<strong>en</strong>t e<strong>en</strong> omslag voor veel doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hoger onderwijs, want niet langer zijn zij<br />
bezig met het overbr<strong>en</strong>g<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> strikt hun eig<strong>en</strong> vakcompon<strong>en</strong>t, maar ook werk<strong>en</strong> ze aan<br />
de vergroting <strong>van</strong> taalvaardigheid.<br />
De HU heeft e<strong>en</strong> taalbril ontwikkeld waarbij beroepsproduct<strong>en</strong> door de stud<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> de<br />
doc<strong>en</strong>t word<strong>en</strong> bekek<strong>en</strong> op niveau <strong>van</strong> taalvaardigheid / taalontwikkeling. Hierbij spel<strong>en</strong><br />
de brede visie op taalvaardigheid 3 <strong>en</strong> de brede visie op taalonderwijs 4 e<strong>en</strong> belangrijke rol,<br />
dus is het belangrijk om duidelijk doel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> eis<strong>en</strong> te stell<strong>en</strong>. De noodzaak hier<strong>van</strong> wordt<br />
3 Met de brede visie op taalvaardigheid wordt gedoeld op de 4 aspect<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de communicatieve compet<strong>en</strong>tie die<br />
zijn opgesteld door Swain & Canale (1984): de linguïstische compet<strong>en</strong>tie, de pragmatische compet<strong>en</strong>tie, de refer<strong>en</strong>tiële<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>tie <strong>en</strong> de strategische compet<strong>en</strong>tie.<br />
4 De brede visie op taalonderwijs legt aandacht voor taal in de less<strong>en</strong> bij alle doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>, bij alle vakk<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> voor alle<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>.<br />
41
42<br />
Taalbeleid voor iedere<strong>en</strong><br />
nog e<strong>en</strong>s extra onderschrev<strong>en</strong> in e<strong>en</strong> beleidsreactie <strong>van</strong> het Ministerie <strong>van</strong> OCW (2008):<br />
“Wat nodig is, is e<strong>en</strong> goede doorlop<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn voor taal <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>, <strong>van</strong> de voor- <strong>en</strong><br />
vroegschoolse educatie (vve), het primair <strong>en</strong> voortgezet onderwijs tot <strong>en</strong> met het hoger<br />
onderwijs.” (2) <strong>en</strong> “In lijn met het advies <strong>van</strong> de expertgroep staan wij dan ook voor:<br />
– het omhoog br<strong>en</strong>g<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het niveau <strong>van</strong> het taal- <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong>onderwijs is alle sector<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– het vaststell<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> refer<strong>en</strong>ti<strong>en</strong>iveaus taal <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>/wiskunde met fundam<strong>en</strong>tele <strong>en</strong><br />
streefkwaliteit<strong>en</strong> in alle sector<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> sectoroverstijg<strong>en</strong>de aanpak in het belang <strong>van</strong> doorlop<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn<strong>en</strong> taal <strong>en</strong><br />
rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>.” (5).<br />
Dat betek<strong>en</strong>t dat de doorlop<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn<strong>en</strong> verder ontwikkeld moet<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong>, tot <strong>en</strong> met<br />
het eindjaar <strong>van</strong> het hbo. De Expertisegroep doorlop<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn<strong>en</strong> taal <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> is deze<br />
aan het ontwikkel<strong>en</strong>. In december 2008 word<strong>en</strong> de eerste resultat<strong>en</strong> hier<strong>van</strong> verwacht.<br />
Daarnaast zijn <strong>en</strong>kele hogeschol<strong>en</strong> zelf al aan de slag met het opstell<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> talige of communicatieve<br />
eindterm<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> de daarbij hor<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Ook Emmelot et al. (2001) sprek<strong>en</strong> over het belang <strong>van</strong> de invoering <strong>van</strong> de brede visie op<br />
taalonderwijs, maar focuss<strong>en</strong> hierbij wel alle<strong>en</strong> op allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Hun belangrijkste<br />
aanbeveling<strong>en</strong> hieromtr<strong>en</strong>t zijn om taalvaardigheid uit het isolem<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de taalless<strong>en</strong> te<br />
hal<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> te zorg<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> transfer naar andere vakk<strong>en</strong>. Op deze manier wordt taalvaardigheid<br />
getraind door alle stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> niet alle<strong>en</strong> door de allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Tot slot<br />
Hoewel er op veel hogeschol<strong>en</strong> initiatiev<strong>en</strong> zijn om de taalvaardigheid <strong>en</strong> de taalontwikkeling<br />
<strong>van</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> te vergrot<strong>en</strong>, zett<strong>en</strong> deze initiatiev<strong>en</strong> niet overal <strong>en</strong> niet g<strong>en</strong>oeg<br />
zod<strong>en</strong> aan de dijk; vaak richt<strong>en</strong> ze zich strikt op achterstand<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> op allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>,<br />
in plaats <strong>van</strong> op ontwikkeling <strong>en</strong> op alle stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>. Om e<strong>en</strong> verandering in deze manier<br />
<strong>van</strong> aanpak te bewerkstellig<strong>en</strong>, is het belangrijk nu al hoog in te zett<strong>en</strong> op e<strong>en</strong> gedeg<strong>en</strong><br />
taalbeleid. Het ministerie heeft deze noodzaak erk<strong>en</strong>d <strong>en</strong> laat leerlijn<strong>en</strong> ontwikkel<strong>en</strong>. Het<br />
Platform taalbeleid hoger onderwijs werkt sam<strong>en</strong> met het SLO aan e<strong>en</strong> lijst met talige<br />
startcompet<strong>en</strong>ties voor het hoger onderwijs. De ervaring<strong>en</strong> in het primair <strong>en</strong> het voortgezet<br />
onderwijs hebb<strong>en</strong> lat<strong>en</strong> zi<strong>en</strong> dat het implem<strong>en</strong>ter<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> goed beleid jar<strong>en</strong> duurt<br />
<strong>en</strong> dat de uitvoering <strong>van</strong> het beleid valt of staat met het draagvlak <strong>en</strong> de k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>van</strong> het<br />
team. Het lijkt me dan ook <strong>van</strong> het allergrootste belang aan deze twee onderdel<strong>en</strong> te gaan<br />
werk<strong>en</strong>, zodat teg<strong>en</strong> de tijd dat de leerlijn<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> compet<strong>en</strong>tieprofiel<strong>en</strong> ontwikkeld <strong>en</strong> getest<br />
zijn, er niet nog meer tijd verlor<strong>en</strong> gaat aan de bewustmaking <strong>van</strong> het team <strong>en</strong> er nog<br />
meer stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> de dupe geword<strong>en</strong> zijn <strong>van</strong> de onmacht <strong>van</strong> het hoger onderwijs om in te<br />
spel<strong>en</strong> op de taalbehoefte, die steeds groter lijkt te word<strong>en</strong>. Het opstell<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> helder,<br />
concreet taalbeleidsplan waarin meetbare doelstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> plann<strong>en</strong> voor de toekomst zijn<br />
opgesteld, is mijns inzi<strong>en</strong>s e<strong>en</strong> eerste stap die nu gemaakt di<strong>en</strong>t te word<strong>en</strong>. Hoe eerder we
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
beginn<strong>en</strong> met het aanpakk<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de taalvaardigheid <strong>van</strong> de hbo-stud<strong>en</strong>t, hoe eerder we<br />
ook de vrucht<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> plukk<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> onze inspanning<strong>en</strong>. En daarmee is iedere<strong>en</strong> gebaat.<br />
Literatuur<br />
Bernts<strong>en</strong>, A. & Gangaram Panday, R. (2007) Beter in taal in het hoger onderwijs. Les 25:<br />
146.<br />
Bohnn<strong>en</strong>, E. et al. (2007) Raamwerk Nederlands – Nederlands in (v)mbo-opleiding, beroep<br />
<strong>en</strong> maatschappij. D<strong>en</strong> Bosch: Cinop.<br />
Broek, A. <strong>van</strong> d<strong>en</strong> & Warth<strong>en</strong>bergh, F. (2008) Studie-uitval in het hoger onderwijs –<br />
achtergrond <strong>en</strong> oorzak<strong>en</strong>. Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>: ResearchNed bv.<br />
C<strong>en</strong>traal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2007) Jaarboek onderwijs in cijfers 2008. Heerl<strong>en</strong>/<br />
Voorburg: CBS.<br />
CNaVT (2008) Profiel Taalvaardigheid Hoger Onderwijs. d.d. 30-10-2008.<br />
Bron: http://www.cnavt.org/main.asp?lan=13&typ=176.<br />
Driess<strong>en</strong>, M. & Edel<strong>en</strong>bosch, P. (2006) Tal<strong>en</strong> tell<strong>en</strong> – taalcompet<strong>en</strong>tieprofiel<strong>en</strong> in de nieuwe<br />
kwalificatiestructuur. D<strong>en</strong> Bosch: Cinop.<br />
Emmelot, Y. et al. (2001) Nieuwe kans<strong>en</strong> voor taalonderwijs aan anderstalig<strong>en</strong>. D<strong>en</strong> Haag:<br />
WRR.<br />
Expertgroep doorlop<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn<strong>en</strong> Taal <strong>en</strong> Rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> (2008) Over de drempels met taal <strong>en</strong><br />
rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>. Enschede: Expertgroep doorlop<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn<strong>en</strong> taal <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>.<br />
Hoog<strong>en</strong>, R. <strong>van</strong> (1998) Studer<strong>en</strong> in het Nederlands: schriftelijke <strong>en</strong> mondelinge taaltak<strong>en</strong><br />
in HBO-propedeuses. Utrecht: ECHO.<br />
Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs (2007a) Aandacht voor allochtone stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het hoger<br />
onderwijs. Utrecht: Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs.<br />
Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs (2007b) Onderwijstijd in het hoger onderwijs. Utrecht:<br />
Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs.<br />
Inspectie <strong>van</strong> het Onderwijs (2008) Onderwijsverslag 2006-2007. Utrecht: Inspectie <strong>van</strong><br />
het Onderwijs.<br />
MBO-raad (2007) Brondocum<strong>en</strong>t Ler<strong>en</strong>, Loopbaan <strong>en</strong> Burgerschap (2007) Ede:<br />
Geme<strong>en</strong>schappelijk Procesmanagem<strong>en</strong>t Compet<strong>en</strong>tiegericht Beroepsonderwijs.<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Onderwijs, Cultuur <strong>en</strong> Wet<strong>en</strong>schapp<strong>en</strong> (2006) K<strong>en</strong>nis in kaart. D<strong>en</strong> Haag:<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> OC&W.<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Onderwijs, Cultuur <strong>en</strong> Wet<strong>en</strong>schapp<strong>en</strong> (2007) Het hoogste goed –<br />
Strategische ag<strong>en</strong>da voor het hoger onderwijs-, onderzoek- <strong>en</strong> wet<strong>en</strong>schapsbeleid. D<strong>en</strong><br />
Haag: Ministerie <strong>van</strong> OC&W.<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Onderwijs, Cultuur <strong>en</strong> Wet<strong>en</strong>schapp<strong>en</strong> (2008) Beleidsreactie Doorlop<strong>en</strong>de<br />
Leerlijn<strong>en</strong> Taal <strong>en</strong> Rek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>. Geraadpleegd op 28-04-2008: http://www.minocw.nl/<br />
docum<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>/Beleidsreactie%20_dl_%20ll_%20280408.pdf<br />
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Taalbeleid voor iedere<strong>en</strong><br />
Neut, I. <strong>van</strong> der, et al. (2007) Taal- <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong>problematiek Pabo-instromers. Tilburg: IVA.<br />
Onderwijsraad (2006) Versteviging <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis in het onderwijs. D<strong>en</strong> Haag:<br />
Onderwijsraad.<br />
West<strong>en</strong>, W. <strong>van</strong> der (2007) Van nul tot platform; Taalbeleid in het hoger onderwijs. Het<br />
schoolvak Nederlands. Confer<strong>en</strong>tiebundel 2007, 58-68.
what role for the internationally<br />
minded in smes?<br />
Analyzing the compet<strong>en</strong>ces of ‘internationals’ in SMEs<br />
Introduction 1<br />
In April 2005, the report titled ‘Internationals for SMEs’ was published (Braaksma 2005).<br />
The authors aim to focus on the ‘international’ in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises<br />
(SME), by giving an account of the professional profile of the more highly educated for<br />
international positions in SMEs.<br />
The definition of an ‘international’ is a graduate with an international education from<br />
higher professional educational institute who aims for an international position at a Small<br />
or Medium sized company. An ‘international’ employed in a small company is a colourful<br />
person: a “jack-of-all-trades”.<br />
Through joint research undertak<strong>en</strong> by the ‘<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>’<br />
(University of Applied Sci<strong>en</strong>ces, since referred to below as <strong>HAN</strong>), in particular the<br />
Associate Professorship “SMEs in International <strong>Business</strong>”, and EIM <strong>Business</strong> & Policy<br />
Research (since referred to below as simply EIM) in Zoetermeer, it has be<strong>en</strong> possible to<br />
map out the wishes and requirem<strong>en</strong>ts of SMEs regarding highly-educated professionals<br />
that set foot in the international market. The report of this qualitative research summarizes<br />
on the one hand the wishes and requirem<strong>en</strong>ts as expressed in company interviews<br />
regarding professionally active ‘internationals’ in SMEs and on the other hand it summarizes<br />
the objectives that higher professional educational institutes (<strong>Business</strong> Schools) have in<br />
mind wh<strong>en</strong> training the aspiring ‘internationals’.<br />
In order to analyze the assumed international differ<strong>en</strong>ces in the professional profile of the<br />
highly educated for international positions in SMEs, comparative research into the professional<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>cies of ‘internationals’ in SMEs in Germany was carried out in a joint<br />
effort with the Fachhochschule Bocholt in 2006.This article describes the results of this<br />
German research.<br />
Compet<strong>en</strong>ces in SMEs<br />
f r a n k v o n k<br />
Research into the compet<strong>en</strong>ces of ‘internationals’ in SMEs<br />
Based on the conclusions from the interviews, <strong>Business</strong> School graduates should have<br />
knowledge and a number of skills that stem from both practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce and education.<br />
1 This text was translated from Dutch into English by M. Susijn, Susijn Translations, Amsterdam. For further<br />
comm<strong>en</strong>ts I am grateful to Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong> and prof. dr Peter Zwart (Groning<strong>en</strong>) for their critical comm<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
on earlier drafts of this text.<br />
45
46<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
This combination of knowledge and skills is related to the international business activities<br />
of SMEs and together with a professional attitude they are called compet<strong>en</strong>ces. All compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
are set in contexts or situations that also play a decisive role wh<strong>en</strong> determining<br />
the suitability of a professional for a particular position <strong>Business</strong> Schools distinguish three<br />
levels of compet<strong>en</strong>ce:<br />
1 What is the stud<strong>en</strong>t’s capacity for studying? In other words, does the stud<strong>en</strong>t meet the<br />
<strong>en</strong>trance requirem<strong>en</strong>ts for <strong>Business</strong> Schools?<br />
2 What is the stud<strong>en</strong>t’s capacity to graduate? Is the stud<strong>en</strong>t capable of carrying out<br />
research for the bachelor thesis or final project indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>tly?<br />
3 What is the stud<strong>en</strong>t’s capacity to start a job? Can the stud<strong>en</strong>t immediately start a professional<br />
career and what are his chances of being successful?<br />
These three levels of compet<strong>en</strong>ce are expressed in differ<strong>en</strong>t types of qualities, with a distinction<br />
betwe<strong>en</strong> g<strong>en</strong>eric <strong>Business</strong> School compet<strong>en</strong>ces (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t 2) and professionspecific<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ces (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t 3). A stud<strong>en</strong>t is supposed to be able to adequately<br />
assess his effectiv<strong>en</strong>ess in specific professional situations and is being taught to reflect<br />
upon this during his studies, i.e. to gear his actions to the demands of the professional<br />
context. The acquired compet<strong>en</strong>ces feed his actions (cf. the compet<strong>en</strong>ce-model in figure 1).<br />
The acquisition of compet<strong>en</strong>ces as well as the compet<strong>en</strong>ce-specific training is the responsibility<br />
of the teaching institute, however, the performance of employees pivots around it<br />
as well. Important are a combination of knowledge, skills and professional attitude that<br />
are reflected in constructions such as: ‘the professional is able to perform …. (task) in ….<br />
(this context) and is able to reflect upon the effectiv<strong>en</strong>ess of his actions in specific professional<br />
contexts’. The figure below provides an example of compet<strong>en</strong>ces as applied in the<br />
‘<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>’. Professional conduct is facilitated by compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
(see the oval below the area) that are more or less consciously applied in professional<br />
situations. On top of that, the professional, situation-specific conduct consists of<br />
the employee’s profession-specific evaluation in terms of, for instance, results achieved.<br />
Furthermore, individual self-reflection plays a crucial role in the professional <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
During job-evaluation meetings for instance, or in new circumstances, where the<br />
employee is thrown upon his own knowledge, skills and professional attitude.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
professional situation<br />
context (situations)<br />
evaluation action reflection<br />
knowledge<br />
compt<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
(ability to)<br />
personality<br />
skills<br />
professional<br />
attitude<br />
Figure 1 A Compet<strong>en</strong>ce-model (source: Final report of the C<strong>en</strong>tre of Expertise for Learning and<br />
Training 2004)<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> we submitted our questionnaire to director owners, export-managers and<br />
HR-managers of the companies interviewed for their views on this model (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
1), we obtained the following feedback: the important aspects of the performance of<br />
<strong>Business</strong> School graduates in international professional <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>ts are the managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
and acquisition of international relations as well as their negotiating skills. These are skills<br />
that are dealt with more or less explicitly during their training at the <strong>Business</strong> School, but<br />
are above all related to the personal qualities of the professionally internationally active<br />
graduates. In the day-to-day activities, the interviewees value personal attitude and developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
more highly. These are not exclusively shaped during their training. Another<br />
important aspect that resulted from the interviews is the graduate’s context of activities<br />
within which the graduate carries out in international business. What does his working<br />
day look like? What positions does he have? What determines these positions and what<br />
is the desired expected output from a <strong>Business</strong> School graduate? The interviews focus on<br />
actual practice as well as education and its importance to graduates that are professionally<br />
active within an international <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t. Since many interviewees declare the international’s<br />
‘personality’ as crucial, we find the standard answers: command of languages,<br />
understanding of national and company culture, technical or expert knowledge, telephone<br />
selling skills, etcetera.<br />
Below, we have a closer look at the discrepancy betwe<strong>en</strong> what education can offer college<br />
‘internationals’ and what skills SMEs require from them.<br />
47
48<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
The Research<br />
From September to December 2004, the professorship “SMEs in International <strong>Business</strong>”<br />
in cooperation with the EIM, carried out qualitative research with 47 SMEs in various<br />
lines of business. By means of a questionnaire (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t 1), the interviewees plotted<br />
the day-to-day activities of an ‘international’. The interviewees consisted of director<br />
owners, export-managers and HR-managers. The interviews are set up around knowledge,<br />
skills and personal qualities or characteristics that the ‘international’ should possess to successfully<br />
perform according to the interviewees. On the one hand ‘expected’ knowledge,<br />
skills and personal qualities were considered and, on the other hand, the role that vocational<br />
educational institutions could or should play in the acquisition of those qualities.<br />
The starting point of the research was ‘internationalisation’ in the widest s<strong>en</strong>se of the<br />
word. The importance that the interviewees attached to internationalisation varied from<br />
import and export to strategic alliances with foreign partners, outsourcing and joint-<br />
v<strong>en</strong>tures.<br />
Selection of trades<br />
The table below shows an overview of the participating branches as well as the number of<br />
interviews conducted:<br />
#<br />
High-tech industry 9<br />
Traditional industry 10<br />
ICT 9<br />
Wholesale trade 8<br />
<strong>Business</strong> Services 9<br />
Table 1 Number of interviews per trade (source: Braaksma 2005:22)<br />
The above lines of business were selected based on the size of their international trade<br />
(10% exports or more). In technology, ICT, industry, business services and trade, there<br />
are business relations worldwide, from Germany and Belgium to China, the USA and<br />
Scandinavia (Braaksma 2005).
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Which compet<strong>en</strong>ces does the ‘international’ need to have?<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> asked about the required knowledge, skills and personal qualities, the interviewees<br />
list the following (elem<strong>en</strong>ts of) compet<strong>en</strong>ces:<br />
Knowledge<br />
1 understanding of culture<br />
a make contact, inspire confid<strong>en</strong>ce, relations;<br />
b elem<strong>en</strong>tary do’s and don’ts in the (in)formal associations with relations;<br />
c habits and customs of a country;<br />
d good manners;<br />
e g<strong>en</strong>eral education.<br />
2 command of languages (German, English, Fr<strong>en</strong>ch, Spanish and in some cases a Slavic<br />
language, e.g. Russian).<br />
3 technical or expert knowledge<br />
a ranging from technical know-how to selling techniques;<br />
b knowledge of commercial techniques as well as product knowledge.<br />
Skills<br />
4 commercial skills<br />
a landing orders from abroad;<br />
b commercial work experi<strong>en</strong>ce.<br />
5 practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
a knowledge of product-market combinations and commercial experi<strong>en</strong>ce;<br />
b work placem<strong>en</strong>t and/or other practical training (short term yield; school learning<br />
was g<strong>en</strong>erally viewed as limited and volatile).<br />
Personality/attitude<br />
6 personal qualities<br />
a analytical powers;<br />
b sales tal<strong>en</strong>t;<br />
c pot<strong>en</strong>tial, m<strong>en</strong>tality and attitude.<br />
(Braaksma 2005: 25ff.)<br />
According to the interviewees the future candidate for an international position would<br />
need to possess the above quality traits. It proves that skills and personality in particular<br />
are considered key to successful performance within a company that operates at an<br />
international level. Knowledge and skills are mainly left in the hands of the educational<br />
institute. It is assumed that stud<strong>en</strong>ts will have ample opportunity and time to acquire the<br />
knowledge and skills during work placem<strong>en</strong>ts or external projects for and assigned by<br />
49
50<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
companies. As far as personal attitude is concerned, stud<strong>en</strong>ts are chall<strong>en</strong>ged to a lesser<br />
degree. Not many stud<strong>en</strong>ts aspire to a work placem<strong>en</strong>t or study abroad for instance, while<br />
many institutes provide countless opportunities to do so (e.g. through agreem<strong>en</strong>ts with<br />
associate institutes abroad). The question arises as to whether schools and institutes educating<br />
these ‘internationals’ should not make these international experi<strong>en</strong>ce a compulsory<br />
part of their curriculum.<br />
Skills in <strong>Business</strong> schools<br />
Part of the research questionnaire put to the companies m<strong>en</strong>tioned before concerned a list<br />
of skills that form a standard part of the curriculum of internationally ori<strong>en</strong>ted training<br />
institutes. This list consisted of the following skills:<br />
1 execute country analyses and market research;<br />
2 draw up marketing plans;<br />
3 draw up export plans;<br />
4 evaluate a company’s foreign policy;<br />
5 perform research into customer satisfaction and company image;<br />
6 managem<strong>en</strong>t and acquisition of international relations;<br />
7 negotiate with parties abroad on behalf of the company;<br />
8 perform SWOT-analyses of the company and suggest adjustm<strong>en</strong>t of foreign activities if<br />
necessary;<br />
9 determine whether the internal organization is in line with foreign activities and suggest<br />
adjustm<strong>en</strong>ts if necessary. (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t 1)<br />
Assuming that professional tasks such as ‘draw up an export plan’, ‘perform research’,<br />
‘perform SWOT-analyses’, etc. are linked to profession-specific compet<strong>en</strong>ces offered by<br />
the educational institute in conjunction with the related field of interest, most professional<br />
products 2 that the ‘international’ yields during his studies contain several of the skills in<br />
the list. However, many of the compet<strong>en</strong>ces to be acquired are oft<strong>en</strong> expressed in measurable<br />
professional products, i.e. based on knowledge and skills. We observe that of the<br />
nine skills taught in international commercial trainings that were put to them, (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
1, question 17), the companies interviewed consider the operational tasks to be the<br />
most important, i.e.:<br />
1 customer relationship managem<strong>en</strong>t;<br />
2 acquisition;<br />
2 The ‘professional product’ is the <strong>en</strong>d result of professional tasks performed. Several professional tasks can<br />
result in one professional product and one professional task can result in several professional products. Both,<br />
professional task and product, are determined by several training-specific and g<strong>en</strong>eric compet<strong>en</strong>ces for Higher<br />
Professional Education, as well as by nationally set compet<strong>en</strong>ces for bachelor courses in the ‘commerce’ domain.<br />
Attachm<strong>en</strong>ts 2 and 3 show the g<strong>en</strong>eric compet<strong>en</strong>ces for Higher Professional Education and the bachelor compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
for the commerce domain respectively.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
3 negotiations;<br />
4 suggest adjustm<strong>en</strong>ts.<br />
The companies interviewed deemed as less important managem<strong>en</strong>t tasks such as ‘evaluate<br />
foreign policy’, and ‘determine whether the internal organization is in line with the<br />
foreign activities and suggest possible adjustm<strong>en</strong>ts if necessary’. It is remarkable that marketing-<br />
and export-plans and customer satisfaction research are not se<strong>en</strong> to be as important.<br />
One would expect these international commercial activities to be valued more highly.<br />
Country analyses and market research, both of major importance during the international<br />
commercial studies, are similarly not valued as highly by <strong>Business</strong> Schools as had g<strong>en</strong>erally<br />
be<strong>en</strong> assumed (cf. image on page XX; source: Braaksma 2005: 23). Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurs set<br />
more store by a graduates’ personal qualities. Further research into these personal qualities<br />
would be of interest in a new research study.<br />
The above information was distilled from the question what the activities of internationally<br />
active employees within SMEs consist of: what are their tasks and what do international<br />
their contacts <strong>en</strong>tail in practice? The emphasis is on communicative skills and personal<br />
qualities that underlie the intercultural setting of international business (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t 1,<br />
question 11).<br />
Based on the above, we can infer that the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs interviewed deem the desired<br />
communicative skills 3 and personal qualities 4 (compet<strong>en</strong>ces) more important than the ability<br />
to carry out research and to draw up marketing or export plans, while these are the specific<br />
knowledge aspects that are well-prepared in <strong>Business</strong> Schools’ curricula and teaching<br />
plans. The practical skills and personal qualities listed under points 5 and 6 respectively on<br />
page XX, form the basis for successful execution of international tasks by those who are<br />
more highly educated that work within SMEs. 5<br />
3 Communicative skills include mainly the ability to: list<strong>en</strong> (including understanding the language of the customer<br />
that is being negotiated with), network, interpret a customers’ wishes as well as pick up signals and<br />
translate those to the organisation at home. In other words: what can we do for our customer and what are the<br />
experi<strong>en</strong>ces with inter-personal and intercultural relations as well as foreign negotiation styles. The question is<br />
to what ext<strong>en</strong>t international training programmes within Dutch Higher Professional Education Institutes can<br />
shape these contacts and negotiation habits in a lifelike manner. Do courses on intercultural communication or<br />
intercultural managem<strong>en</strong>t suffice? What would provide added value compared to curr<strong>en</strong>t courses in intercultural<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t? Focusing on our own culture and cultural habits as well as considering the importance of an<br />
understanding of and ability to use differ<strong>en</strong>t ways of communication fit in this scope too.<br />
4 Apart from the required communication skills, personal qualities consist of aspects of attitudes, i.e. the ability<br />
to deal with differ<strong>en</strong>ces in work ethic and social skills and to be op<strong>en</strong> to and appreciative of other cultures,<br />
have a curiosity for other cultures, the ability to apply knowledge and insights in other cultures. The Higher<br />
Professional Education Institutes hardly touch upon these qualities. Ev<strong>en</strong> though stud<strong>en</strong>ts are evaluated on their<br />
commitm<strong>en</strong>t, teamwork etc., these skills are difficult to train in practice and highly personal.<br />
5 The underlying research is a qualitative one. We can filter out some differ<strong>en</strong>ces betwe<strong>en</strong> trades based on a comparison<br />
(Cf. further on in this analysis), however, the basic idea of the results remains unchanged: practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
and personal qualities.<br />
51
52<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
The <strong>Business</strong> School stud<strong>en</strong>t has clocked up a considerable amount of ‘flying hours’ in<br />
practice during his studies. Work placem<strong>en</strong>ts and graduation assignm<strong>en</strong>ts are curr<strong>en</strong>tly the<br />
most important practical compon<strong>en</strong>ts. Furthermore, there are a number of major projects<br />
that include practical elem<strong>en</strong>ts: acquisition, small-scale research, etc., ev<strong>en</strong> though these<br />
are usually executed on home turf. A large number of the companies interviewed indicate<br />
that they would not mind seeing an increase in the number of those projects, while<br />
emphasising the importance of making and maintaining international contacts as well as<br />
networking. The internationally trained graduate will have to gain practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
outside the institute’s curriculum.<br />
Such practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce could be obtained by working for internationally active companies<br />
in The Netherlands, be it under clear conditions as to the nature and scope of the<br />
work placem<strong>en</strong>t. The interviewees are of the opinion that work placem<strong>en</strong>ts cannot consist<br />
solely of research and that the stud<strong>en</strong>t should get some responsibilities regarding contacts<br />
and agreem<strong>en</strong>ts with customers abroad. To that <strong>en</strong>d, the associated professorship “SMEs<br />
in International <strong>Business</strong>” has now set up the <strong>HAN</strong>-export office, where stud<strong>en</strong>ts can gain<br />
actual practical international experi<strong>en</strong>ce under the guidance of experi<strong>en</strong>ced export managers.<br />
Professional skills and compet<strong>en</strong>ce developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
How do <strong>Business</strong> schools, in practice, <strong>en</strong>sure that the curriculum meets the standards that<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>ts are required to meet by SMEs in order to be able to work for them effectively, in<br />
an international context?<br />
We already indicated above that there is a discrepancy betwe<strong>en</strong> skills and knowledge on<br />
the one hand, and personal qualities, attitudes and the views of SMEs regarding the ideal<br />
training for ‘internationals’ on the other. It is important to determine how to prepare the<br />
future ‘international’ candidate during his training for the activities specific to his professional<br />
context. We use Braaksma’s tables (2005: 23ff) as a starting point. A concise version,<br />
with aggregate or overall scores of all skills is shown in the following graph:
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
TOTAL (ALL SECTORS)<br />
8.0<br />
6.0<br />
4.0<br />
2.0<br />
0.0<br />
6,1 5,0 4,3 4,1 3,9 3,9 3,5 3,0 2,4<br />
relation managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
and acquisition<br />
negotiating<br />
SWOT analyses and<br />
possible suggestions for<br />
adjustm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
country studies and<br />
market research<br />
Figure 2 Skills by importance according to SMEs (all trades)<br />
(Braaksma 2005: 23)<br />
marketing plans<br />
The graph shows that relationship managem<strong>en</strong>t and acquisition are considered as the<br />
most important skills. In terms of professional tasks 6 , these skills can more specifically be<br />
described as:<br />
– managem<strong>en</strong>t of relationships;<br />
– acquisition of, or canvassing for new customers and orders (acquisition);<br />
– negotiations with customers (buyers), interested parties at various levels (also based on<br />
product knowledge), managem<strong>en</strong>t and employees, etc.;<br />
– suggesting adjustm<strong>en</strong>ts (and ev<strong>en</strong>tually their implem<strong>en</strong>tation).<br />
By implem<strong>en</strong>ting the above tasks in the courses (Braaksma 2005: 28 et seq), they become<br />
an integral part of the program and specific professional products can help contribute<br />
to <strong>en</strong>abling stud<strong>en</strong>ts to perform these tasks in an increasingly professional manner.<br />
Within the framework of demand-driv<strong>en</strong> education, this approach is shaped more clearly<br />
during the final study phase. This results in a teaching <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t that is increasingly<br />
chall<strong>en</strong>ging teaching <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t, applying the various professional products. In the<br />
fourth year’s course a feasible assignm<strong>en</strong>t must have be<strong>en</strong> writt<strong>en</strong> and tested against reality.<br />
The quality of the <strong>en</strong>d product, i.e. the thesis, plays an important, if not decisive, role.<br />
customer satisfaction<br />
and branding research<br />
6 The term ‘professional task’ is nowadays used in the demand-driv<strong>en</strong> HBO-curriculum to d<strong>en</strong>ominate the specific<br />
tasks that a stud<strong>en</strong>ts needs to acquire during the course of his studies in order to ev<strong>en</strong>tually become compet<strong>en</strong>t<br />
<strong>en</strong>ough to start. In this approach, the profession or the professional context, and no longer the material<br />
offered, are leading. The latter does not get meaning until applied in the said professional context.<br />
export plan<br />
internal organization and<br />
possible suggestions for<br />
adjustm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
evaluation of<br />
foreign policy<br />
53
54<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
The interviewees assume an ‘average’ college graduate, i.e. a graduate with a bachelor<br />
degree in <strong>en</strong>gineering, economy or some such, who is applying for a position at this level.<br />
We are not considering intermediate graduates, nor employees who gained work experi<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
elsewhere. Similarly, we are not differ<strong>en</strong>tiating betwe<strong>en</strong> ‘good’, ‘average’ and ‘bad’<br />
college graduates: does the graduate who during his studies, work placem<strong>en</strong>ts or thesis has<br />
shown excell<strong>en</strong>ce have an ad<strong>van</strong>tage over the average graduate? Further new research into<br />
the quality of the graduates would be of interest.<br />
The aforem<strong>en</strong>tioned skills and professional attitude must certainly be included in the<br />
developm<strong>en</strong>t of powerful educational <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>ts where the focus is on the stud<strong>en</strong>t’s<br />
own responsibilities. Reported shortcomings are:<br />
– inadequate self-organizing ability;<br />
– inadequate multi-tasking ability (as opposed to university-trained employees).<br />
These two aspects also determine during his studies whether a stud<strong>en</strong>t ev<strong>en</strong>tually will<br />
have the capacity to study and graduate (the first two levels in the curr<strong>en</strong>t higher professional<br />
education system), as well as the ability to start working in a specific international<br />
professional <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t. At the highest level of the bachelor course it would make s<strong>en</strong>se<br />
to question what compet<strong>en</strong>ces (skills and attitudes) a ready-to-start ‘international’ should<br />
have, i.e. which yardstick to use. The input from professionals, among others repres<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
by various professional advisory committees is of the utmost importance.<br />
It is obvious that there are differ<strong>en</strong>ces betwe<strong>en</strong> the skills in the participating selection of<br />
trades. In g<strong>en</strong>eral we can state however, that the developm<strong>en</strong>t of personal skills needs to<br />
receive higher priority within the curricula to be developed.<br />
Compet<strong>en</strong>ce tables<br />
Based on research (Braaksma 2005) and the skills and traits m<strong>en</strong>tioned, we can draw up<br />
several tables 7 below, in which specifically knowledge, skills and attitude have be<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>tered<br />
as elem<strong>en</strong>ts m<strong>en</strong>tioned by the interviewed companies. We have included a compet<strong>en</strong>ce-table<br />
as well as a table specifically stating all personal qualities deemed crucial by the<br />
companies interviewed for the successful performance of an ‘international’.<br />
With these tables, we would like to show the elem<strong>en</strong>ts of skills, attitude and knowledge<br />
that are rele<strong>van</strong>t to the international professional. A larger-scale research would possibly<br />
r<strong>en</strong>der more information, although we doubt whether the conclusions would differ dra-<br />
7 These tables are based on Braaksma (2005), chapters 4 and 5 (p 19-39).
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
matically. Prevailing research into the performance of <strong>Business</strong> School graduates in international<br />
jobs shows similar results (Boorsma et al. 2004, Vermeul<strong>en</strong> et al. 2005).<br />
We use the following coding to distinguish differ<strong>en</strong>t characteristics of the performance of<br />
the internationally operating professional in international business. This coding symbolizes<br />
in g<strong>en</strong>eral the ‘international’ in SMEs, a colourful and skilled person, a “jack-of-alltrades”,<br />
with suffici<strong>en</strong>t knowledge, skills, inter- or cross-cultural experi<strong>en</strong>ce:<br />
Abbreviation Compet<strong>en</strong>ce (knowledge, skills and professional attitude)<br />
K Knowledge of international business<br />
S Skills<br />
A Professional attitude and personal skills (qualifications)<br />
I Inter- or cross cultural thinking and acting (cultural awar<strong>en</strong>ess)<br />
E Having experi<strong>en</strong>ce in export (export activities)<br />
First of all, we will use two tables to show the compet<strong>en</strong>ces that SME <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs deem<br />
necessary for international trade as well as the contributions from educational institutes<br />
towards the training of ‘internationals’:<br />
Necessary compet<strong>en</strong>ces according to companies<br />
interviewed<br />
(K) Product knowledge: export managem<strong>en</strong>t and<br />
activities, expert knowledge<br />
(I) Cultural knowledge and skills: knowledge of the<br />
country including from a macro-economic perspective.<br />
Furthermore, knowledge of the EU and its laws<br />
and rules, ability to deal with cultural differ<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
(K) Quality care: knowledge of the quality of international<br />
trade processes and the ability to safe-guard<br />
these qualities<br />
(S) Communication skills: pres<strong>en</strong>tation and writing<br />
skills<br />
(A) Innovative and creative thinking: ability to think<br />
out-of-the-box, outside existing frameworks, ability to<br />
participate in international meetings and to respond<br />
appropriately<br />
The task at hand for education: according to companies<br />
interviewed the compet<strong>en</strong>ce-driv<strong>en</strong> training of<br />
‘internationals’<br />
(K) Product knowledge: international developm<strong>en</strong>ts,<br />
cost-b<strong>en</strong>efit analyses, market research<br />
(I) Cultural knowledge and skills: know the customs<br />
of a particular country habits and their role in international<br />
trade<br />
(K) Quality control: models and schools of thought<br />
on quality managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
(A) Customer-ori<strong>en</strong>tation: respond to customers’<br />
wishes<br />
(A) Act innovatively and creatively: ability to put alternative<br />
procedures in an international context, ability<br />
to avoid inflexibility of thought and in actions<br />
(S) Data collection and analysis, model-thinking and<br />
the ability to recognize specific problems that need<br />
creative solutions<br />
55
(A) Flexibility: ability to let go of the rigid way of thinking<br />
in The Netherlands (as opposed to our conviction<br />
that we are flexible)<br />
56<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
(A) Flexibility (ability to use differ<strong>en</strong>t modes of conduct<br />
as well as to interpret multilaterally)<br />
(K/S) Command of languages (K/S) Command of languages and cultural knowledge:<br />
English and a second foreign language<br />
(German, Fr<strong>en</strong>ch, Spanish, Italian, Russian)<br />
(S) Consultative skills (at differ<strong>en</strong>t levels) (S) Consultative skills (g<strong>en</strong>eric)<br />
(E) Ability to adapt to foreign export activities (E) Ability to adapt to foreign export activities (respond<br />
to curr<strong>en</strong>t processes)<br />
Table 2 Compet<strong>en</strong>ces of starting “internationals” in SMEs: an overview<br />
In actual fact, both columns in table 2 m<strong>en</strong>tion compet<strong>en</strong>ces that g<strong>en</strong>erally belong to<br />
the curricula of <strong>Business</strong> Schools and that can be found in the compet<strong>en</strong>ce lists of the<br />
respective commercial trainings (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t 3 for the compet<strong>en</strong>ces in the bachelor<br />
domain ‘commerce’). The question that we consequ<strong>en</strong>tly need to ask ourselves however,<br />
is whether these compet<strong>en</strong>ce are being taught suffici<strong>en</strong>tly well (at the desired level) and<br />
in the right manner. Are they geared towards the specific professional profiles? This is<br />
especially important where the companies interviewed indicate that initially it is not the<br />
knowledge and skills, but rather attitudes that are crucial (cf. table 3; cf. “Van schol<strong>en</strong><br />
hoor je soms wek<strong>en</strong>lang niets” (2006) 8 ). It is remarkable that g<strong>en</strong>erally speaking, SME<br />
<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs are very satisfied with the quality of work placem<strong>en</strong>ts and bachelor theses.<br />
The question remains: how justified is their satisfaction? 9 Does this have to do with the<br />
‘average’ level of tasks to be carried out or are there other reasons to be considered, such<br />
as the personal qualities of the trainee that match those desired by the companies interviewed?<br />
This could lead to the question whether there is still any specific added value to<br />
the institutions. Further research into the matter is necessary in the future.<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> we consider the list of specific attitudes that have be<strong>en</strong> m<strong>en</strong>tioned by the interviewees,<br />
it is striking that the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs seem to think that they learn this from<br />
interaction with their classmates rather than through formal course work (cf. question 9<br />
in attachm<strong>en</strong>t 1). The answers to question 13 of the questionnaire (cf. attachm<strong>en</strong>t 1) regarding<br />
the specific skills the institutions should teach showed that <strong>Business</strong> School graduates<br />
rarely contained any of the personality traits listed (randomly) on the next page:<br />
8 Title translates as: “Sometimes weeks go by without a sign of life from the institutes”<br />
9 This is at odds with the conclusion by Vermeul<strong>en</strong> et al (2005: 9), which states that “in respect of higher education<br />
in the Netherlands the axiom applies that signs of education, shown through command of languages, time<br />
sp<strong>en</strong>t studying, time sp<strong>en</strong>t on extra-curricular activities, work experi<strong>en</strong>ce abroad and training have no influ<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
on a particular graduate’s job opportunities”.<br />
In our case, the interviewees’ reactions show a differ<strong>en</strong>t picture regarding at least a number of the above-m<strong>en</strong>tioned<br />
elem<strong>en</strong>ts.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Personality traits assumed pres<strong>en</strong>t by the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur<br />
1 Good business s<strong>en</strong>se<br />
2 S<strong>en</strong>sitive to atmosphere<br />
3 Ability to work indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>tly<br />
4 Ability to work in a team (both nationally an internationally)<br />
5 Pot<strong>en</strong>tial to be the king pin of the company<br />
6 Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurship 10<br />
7 Be a personality and have personality<br />
8 Have integrity and a s<strong>en</strong>se of responsibility<br />
9 Have the guts to take decisions<br />
10 Be a problem-solver<br />
11 Show motivation and ambition<br />
12 Be flexible<br />
13 Not have a 9-5 m<strong>en</strong>tality<br />
14 Be immune to stress<br />
15 Have a helicopter view<br />
16 Be pres<strong>en</strong>table<br />
Table 3: Personality traits that ‘internationals’ should possess according to the interviewees<br />
The above are all personality characteristics that stud<strong>en</strong>ts gain from previous experi<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
such as experi<strong>en</strong>ces at home and at sports clubs or other social clubs, upbringing or predisposition.<br />
Our question is therefore whether these skills are being assumed as suffici<strong>en</strong>tly<br />
pres<strong>en</strong>t, or whether they need to be incorporated into the curriculum of internationally<br />
ori<strong>en</strong>ted study programmes. Consequ<strong>en</strong>tly, the question arises as to whether evaluation<br />
or testing of these skills at the <strong>en</strong>d of modules such as international <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship,<br />
training personal effectiv<strong>en</strong>ess, the work placem<strong>en</strong>t or a bachelor thesis is advisable or<br />
ev<strong>en</strong> required – what exactly is tested?<br />
Professional field and education<br />
An important conclusion from the research is that a large number of <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs interviewed<br />
assumes that the more highly educated have such ess<strong>en</strong>tial personal qualities at their disposal<br />
wh<strong>en</strong> they graduate successfully. There is not a lot training institutes can do about that.<br />
10 Regarding ‘<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship’ PiMedia offers some interesting points of departure to divide the compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
‘<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship’ into: <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship, market- and customer-ori<strong>en</strong>tation and networking (2002: 44-57).<br />
Every subdivision distinguishes ‘attitude examples’, ‘particulars’, ‘START questions’, ‘coaching activities’<br />
(inform, assist, defer) and is rounded off with ‘DIY-tips for the employee’ as well as a description of the ‘fit’ and<br />
‘non-fit’ with the personality. For <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship a fit would be: “is inquisitive and recoils easily”, and a nonfit<br />
would be: “is retic<strong>en</strong>t about the unknown and sometimes recoils”. (PiMedia 2002: 47). By defining <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurial<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ces in this manner, a fair professional profile, in which personality traits play an important<br />
role, emerges. To our opinion, it provides HBOs with the means to evaluate stud<strong>en</strong>ts as to their suitability for<br />
professions where <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship is an ess<strong>en</strong>tial compet<strong>en</strong>ce (which is the case in SMEs).<br />
57
58<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
The largest problem is that <strong>Business</strong> Schools can hardly simulate realistic situations and<br />
judge the stud<strong>en</strong>ts on their performance in those situations. The first test is oft<strong>en</strong> the work<br />
placem<strong>en</strong>t in year three. However, the emphasis during these work placem<strong>en</strong>ts is more<br />
oft<strong>en</strong> than not on a well-defined assignm<strong>en</strong>t that does not chall<strong>en</strong>ge the creativity of the<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t . In view of the importance of the work placem<strong>en</strong>ts for the companies this cannot<br />
be expected. The work concerns mostly operational tasks that are executed based on<br />
knowledge. A stud<strong>en</strong>t’s personality traits can tip the scales to an internship that is successful<br />
or to one that is less successful. This could th<strong>en</strong> be stated as part of a review which in<br />
turn could serve as input for a final assignm<strong>en</strong>t, where more indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>ce and creativity<br />
are expected of the stud<strong>en</strong>t. According to the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs, stud<strong>en</strong>ts have to be trained in<br />
reflection during their studies. In view of rec<strong>en</strong>t developm<strong>en</strong>ts towards a more demanddriv<strong>en</strong><br />
educational format, this is indeed likely to gain a more promin<strong>en</strong>t position. It can<br />
be done for example by having them write and manage a personal developm<strong>en</strong>t and training<br />
plan. The authors feel that there is real progress to be made in this area.<br />
Scoring or measuring personality traits such as decisiv<strong>en</strong>ess, appearance, indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
and/or teamwork remains a difficult point. These characteristics oft<strong>en</strong> dep<strong>en</strong>d on the<br />
situation and specific tasks that the international employee carries out. Practical reality<br />
constitutes an important source for developm<strong>en</strong>t or ev<strong>en</strong> discovery of these characteristics.<br />
Nevertheless, education will most probably (continue to) play a marginal role. At<br />
the same time, stud<strong>en</strong>ts could be confronted with issues such as working under pressure,<br />
working as a team, and the need to increasingly assume responsibilities (for example by<br />
being informed of, and judged on, whether or not they join in desired behaviour , as could<br />
sometimes be the case, or whether they showing unacceptable behaviour). In our opinion<br />
this means that in many cases a larger input from trade and industry (SMEs) in tasks and<br />
assignm<strong>en</strong>ts that are of an international nature is needed. More oft<strong>en</strong> than not the initiative<br />
lies with the teaching staff, while a stud<strong>en</strong>t should be increasingly confronted with the<br />
consequ<strong>en</strong>ces of his own decisions (i.e. his behaviour). Compet<strong>en</strong>ce-directed education in<br />
conjunction with input from SMEs could have a positive contribution.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Research into “matching the more highly educated with the international professional reality”<br />
is a core activity for the Associate Professorship SMEs in International <strong>Business</strong> (Van<br />
Weerd<strong>en</strong> 2005: 21). Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurs, as future employers of these higher educated as well as<br />
educational programmes b<strong>en</strong>efit from this activity. Matching training and practice would<br />
appear to state the obvious, however the interviews and the above gathered conclusions<br />
indicate that it is not. In what way does business show an interest in professional trainings<br />
institutes’ plans and actions?
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
To what ext<strong>en</strong>t are teachers and their organizations familiar with the developm<strong>en</strong>ts in<br />
trade and industry? Stud<strong>en</strong>ts have their work placem<strong>en</strong>ts, write their theses commissioned<br />
by companies, but the synergy betwe<strong>en</strong> education and practice remains limited. We have<br />
visualized this in the figure below (figure 3). Education should be immersed in practice,<br />
but in actual fact there are only occasional connections. The focus should be on the practical<br />
reality. The figure below should be turned over vertically so that education returns to<br />
the c<strong>en</strong>tre of professional reality. If that were to be the case, there is a risk that education<br />
becomes too dep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t on professional practice, diminishing education’s responsibility<br />
for training stud<strong>en</strong>ts. For instance, in order for creativity and innovation to develop, it is<br />
unwise to take only a professional’s wishes into account only. It is important to develop<br />
proper creative and innovative force from within the educational institutes.<br />
Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurs<br />
(practical reality)<br />
Lecturers<br />
Figure 3 Integration of education and practice<br />
Organization<br />
Stud<strong>en</strong>ts Education<br />
Perhaps it would be interesting to review compet<strong>en</strong>ce-directed education by aiming for<br />
more int<strong>en</strong>sive integration of vocational education and <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurial reality. It could<br />
th<strong>en</strong> be assessed to what ext<strong>en</strong>t wishes of SME-<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs regarding the compet<strong>en</strong>ces,<br />
in particular personality traits or the professional attitude, of their ready-to-start ‘internationals’<br />
do deserve a place in vocational education. Further research will tell.<br />
59
Literature<br />
60<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
Boorsma, E.I. de Vries (2004) De vraag naar hbo’ers bij mkb-bedrijv<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> onderzoek in<br />
vijf mkb-branches. Delft: MKB-Nederland.<br />
Braaksma, R. (i.s.m. het lectoraat Internationale Handel voor het MKB) (2005)<br />
‘Internationals’ voor het MKB. Wat moet e<strong>en</strong> HBO-er wet<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> voor de internationale<br />
beroepspraktijk in het MBK? Zoetermeer: EIM; <strong>Arnhem</strong>: <strong>HAN</strong>.<br />
Expertisec<strong>en</strong>trum voor Ler<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> Opleid<strong>en</strong> Eindrapport deelproject studie-loopbaanbegeleiding.<br />
Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>, January 2004.<br />
PiMedia (2002) Coach<strong>en</strong> op gedrag <strong>en</strong> resultaat. Praktijkgids voor het ontwikkel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
resultaatgericht gedrag. Utrecht: PiMedia.<br />
“Van schol<strong>en</strong> hoor je wek<strong>en</strong>lang niets”. <strong>HAN</strong>-Blad 03 March 2006, 19-21.<br />
Vermeul<strong>en</strong>, A. et al (2005) Brug tuss<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> bedrijfslev<strong>en</strong>. Utrecht.<br />
“Wat will<strong>en</strong> internationale ondernemers?” <strong>HAN</strong>-Blad 1 June 2005, 27-28.<br />
Weerd<strong>en</strong>, L. <strong>van</strong> (2005) The Vital few and the Trivial many: over gr<strong>en</strong>zeloos ondernem<strong>en</strong>.<br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong>: <strong>HAN</strong>.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
attachm<strong>en</strong>t 1<br />
Checklist<br />
1 briefly ask, or find out through the website what the company’s activities are<br />
2 what is the nature of your company’s foreign activities [op<strong>en</strong> question; circle answer;<br />
th<strong>en</strong> continue. Re. turnover rough indications suffice!; does not need to be split up in<br />
turnover by country]; cf. reporting manual further on<br />
a export > to which countries > turnover share (roughly)<br />
b import > from which countries > turnover share (roughly)<br />
c outsourcing abroad > which countries > turnover share (roughly)<br />
d production facility abroad > in which country?<br />
e company-owned sales office(s) > in which<br />
abroad country/countries?<br />
f strategic alliance > in which<br />
(=informal cooperation) with (a) country/countries?<br />
foreign partner(s)<br />
g joint v<strong>en</strong>ture with (a) > in which<br />
foreign partner(s) country/countries?<br />
h Lic<strong>en</strong>see of foreign lic<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
3 what is the expected developm<strong>en</strong>t of your company’s foreign activities in the next three<br />
years? [grow or shrink, considerably or limited, which (new) activities]<br />
4 to what ext<strong>en</strong>t are these planned activities? [probe why: vision for the future}<br />
5 does your company have a special departm<strong>en</strong>t / dedicated employee(s) for your foreign<br />
activities?<br />
6 how many Dutch employees have direct relations with your foreign partner(s)?<br />
7 which position(s) do(es) the dedicated employee(s) have?<br />
8 how many of those employees are higher educated (<strong>Business</strong> School), and what are<br />
their positions?<br />
9 name the five most important connotations that you have with the skills you deem<br />
ess<strong>en</strong>tial for a <strong>Business</strong> School graduate to successfully perform foreign activities for<br />
your company [what must he be capable of /have, in five key-words; probe for exact<br />
meaning!]<br />
10 [if command of language is not m<strong>en</strong>tioned] how important is a command of foreign languages?<br />
[probe wh<strong>en</strong> of lesser importance]<br />
11 [in case of more than one answer on international activities, select the most important<br />
one] could you give us a short description of the typical activities of this employee in<br />
an ordinary working week? [what specific tasks does the employee perform]<br />
61
62<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
12 which output do you expect from this employee (e.g. export orders, business plans for<br />
new export activities, letter of credit), or, in other words: what are the performance<br />
indicators in order to judge a performance as good or bad?<br />
[questions 13 and 14 are crucial questions; therefore, take the time and push the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur<br />
to give some thought to the tasks of educational institutes, ev<strong>en</strong> if it is hard!!]<br />
13 which skills do you believe should be taught during a stud<strong>en</strong>ts’ training period and are<br />
the responsibility of the educational institute? [probe into <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur’s opinion regarding<br />
the curr<strong>en</strong>t situation and possibly find out which elem<strong>en</strong>ts are underexposed]<br />
14 [if more than three skills are m<strong>en</strong>tioned] if you were having to choose” which three<br />
skills would need to be taught regardless? [probe why, and how in practice; make it as<br />
tangible as possible]<br />
15 will you be making greater demands on your ‘internationals’ compet<strong>en</strong>ces? [probe why]<br />
16 do you expect to hire (more) <strong>Business</strong> School graduates in the future? [probe why]<br />
Put list below to the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur<br />
17 how much importance do you attach to skills learned by stud<strong>en</strong>ts during their studies?<br />
Please score the following skills in desc<strong>en</strong>ding order, i.e. 1 = most important, ….., 9 = least<br />
important<br />
Please note: every score can only be used once<br />
Skill importance<br />
(fill in score)<br />
j execute country analyses and market research #…<br />
1 draw up marketing plans #…<br />
2 draw up export plan #…<br />
3 evaluate company’s foreign policy #…<br />
4 execute research into customer satisfaction and company image #…<br />
5 international relations managem<strong>en</strong>t and acquisition #…<br />
6 negotiate with parties abroad on behalf of the company #…<br />
7 execute SWOT-analyses of the company and suggest adjustm<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
to foreign policy if necessary #…<br />
8 assess whether the internal organization is in line with foreign<br />
activities and suggest adjustm<strong>en</strong>ts if necessary #…<br />
18 Which skill(s) are lacking from this list?
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
attachm<strong>en</strong>t 2<br />
G<strong>en</strong>eric compet<strong>en</strong>ces <strong>Business</strong> Schools<br />
(Source: Prikkel<strong>en</strong>, Prester<strong>en</strong>, Profiler<strong>en</strong>; eindrapport <strong>van</strong> de commissie Accreditatie<br />
Hoger Onderwijs; September 2001)<br />
1 Wide professionalization: means that the stud<strong>en</strong>t is evid<strong>en</strong>tly equipped with actual<br />
knowledge in keeping with rec<strong>en</strong>t (sci<strong>en</strong>tific) know-how, understandings, concepts,<br />
research results, as well as with (international) developm<strong>en</strong>ts in the professional field of<br />
interest as defined in the professional profile, with the object of qualifying for:<br />
a the indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t execution of tasks appropriate for a novice in the profession;<br />
b performing within an organization;<br />
c the further professionalization of his own profession/performance.<br />
2 Multidisciplinary integration: the integration of knowledge, insights, attitudes and<br />
skills (from various professional disciplines), from a perspective of acting professionally.<br />
3 Sci<strong>en</strong>tific application: the application of available rele<strong>van</strong>t (sci<strong>en</strong>tific) insight, theories,<br />
concepts and research results to issues graduates will be confronted with during their<br />
professional life.<br />
4 Transfer and wide employability: the application of knowledge, insights and skills in<br />
various professional situations.<br />
5 Creativity and complexity in proceedings: professional issues, the complexity of<br />
which is not obvious and to which standard procedures do not apply.<br />
6 Problem-directed operation: indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t definition and analysis of complex problematic<br />
professional situations on the basis of rele<strong>van</strong>t knowledge and (theoretical)<br />
insights, the developm<strong>en</strong>t and application of useful (new) strategies to solve the problems<br />
and the evaluation of their effectiv<strong>en</strong>ess.<br />
7 Methodical and reflective thinking and operating: setting realistic goals, planning<br />
and/or systematic approach to tasks and reflecting on (professional) conduct, based on<br />
the collection and analysis of rele<strong>van</strong>t information.<br />
8 Social-communicative capability: communication to and cooperation with others in<br />
a multicultural, international and/or multidisciplinary <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t and meeting the<br />
demands put to participation in a professional organization.<br />
9 Basic qualification for managem<strong>en</strong>t positions: execute simple executive and managerial<br />
tasks.<br />
10 S<strong>en</strong>se of social responsibility: understanding of, and involvem<strong>en</strong>t with ethical, normative<br />
and social issues in conjunction with the application of knowledge in the (future)<br />
professional <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
63
attachm<strong>en</strong>t 3<br />
Domain-compet<strong>en</strong>ces Bachelor of Commerce<br />
Short characterization<br />
64<br />
What role for the internationally minded in SMEs?<br />
This domain applies mainly to areas where the organization touches on specific parts<br />
of the outside world, but it can also refer to the primary activity of an organization<br />
with specific business objectives: acquires raw materials, materials and capacities from<br />
elsewhere that are instrum<strong>en</strong>tal to the operation or results and achieves the sales products<br />
or services in the market; organizes and manages sales and buying, marketing and<br />
negotiations, informative communication concerning products and services; works in an<br />
inter national and national context with a pot<strong>en</strong>tial appeal to the compet<strong>en</strong>ce of multilingualism;<br />
indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship; trade specific aspects always play a role.<br />
Marketing is used in the widest s<strong>en</strong>se of the word, i.e. market- and consumer driv<strong>en</strong> and<br />
with systematically attuned company processes, including commercial processes: marketing<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t and policy, consumer marketing and business-to-business, market<br />
research (including research into quality of use and users, such as ergonomic and s<strong>en</strong>sory<br />
aspects).<br />
Domain-compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
1 Initiate and create products and services, indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>tly and doing business.<br />
2 Execute, interpret, check and evaluate market research.<br />
3 Determine rele<strong>van</strong>t tr<strong>en</strong>ds and developm<strong>en</strong>t, str<strong>en</strong>gths and weaknesses of the company<br />
and its opportunities and threats on the national and international market, as well as<br />
advise on actions to be tak<strong>en</strong>.<br />
4 Develop marketing policy within the decided company strategy based on a risk analysis<br />
of market opportunities and activities of a locally, nationally or internationally operating<br />
company.<br />
5 Draw up, execute and adjust plans on the basis of marketing strategy.<br />
6 Acquire and manage business relationships for the b<strong>en</strong>efit of sales and services.<br />
7 Communicate in various languages, taking into account cultural differ<strong>en</strong>ces, internal<br />
and external, national and international.<br />
8 Manage (part of) a company, company processes or a project.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
The two g<strong>en</strong>eric domain-compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
9 Social and communicative compet<strong>en</strong>ce (interpersonal, organization):<br />
- cooperate in a professional <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t and help think about objectives and makeup<br />
of an organization, resulting in requirem<strong>en</strong>ts regarding the following aspects:<br />
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary organization, customer-ori<strong>en</strong>tation, collegiality,<br />
managerial qualities (the social aspect of this compet<strong>en</strong>ce);<br />
- communication, verbally and in writing, internally at all levels, effectively and in<br />
contemporary corporate language, oft<strong>en</strong> in Dutch and/or English (in terms of professional<br />
tasks, this includes drawing up and writing plans and memo’s, inform, discuss,<br />
create support, stimulate, motivate, convince, verbalize decisions)<br />
10 Self-managing compet<strong>en</strong>ce:<br />
- manage and regulate own developm<strong>en</strong>t concerning learning, result-ori<strong>en</strong>ted performance,<br />
taking initiative, indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>cy, flexibility;<br />
- contemplate and reflect on, and take responsibility for, own conduct, which indicates<br />
involvem<strong>en</strong>t and critical self-evaluation;<br />
- develop a professional attitude with initiative or room for normative-cultural<br />
aspects, respect for others, a professional code and ethical principles regarding professional<br />
conduct;<br />
- contribute to further professionalization of the trade, publish, contribute to confer<strong>en</strong>ces,<br />
etc.<br />
65
global marketing control<br />
“Half the money you sp<strong>en</strong>d on marketing is wasted.<br />
The trouble is: you don't know which half!"<br />
William Lever<br />
Abstract<br />
The reasoning issue of this work is to research and define the effici<strong>en</strong>t methods of global<br />
marketing control. The report is focused on the following aspects: the importance of<br />
the control systems in global marketing <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t, the relationship betwe<strong>en</strong> planning<br />
and controlling, types and the process of establishm<strong>en</strong>t of the control systems, common<br />
problems and approaches to control.<br />
A full Marketing Audit reviews the company’s marketing <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t, competition,<br />
objectives, strategies, organisation, systems, procedures and practices in every area of<br />
the marketing mix providing a basis for developing and improving the company’s overall<br />
marketing effectiv<strong>en</strong>ess. The Balanced Scorecard repres<strong>en</strong>ts a methodology which<br />
turns a business’s strategic objectives into specific measures in four key dim<strong>en</strong>sions:<br />
finance, customer, internal processes and innovation and learning for employees. Another<br />
approach connected with the Global Account Managem<strong>en</strong>t can be used to monitor international<br />
marketing operations focused on company’s global strategic customers.<br />
The recomm<strong>en</strong>dations for the international companies who want to effectively control<br />
global marketing activities and b<strong>en</strong>efit from “think global, act local” control strategy are:<br />
to dec<strong>en</strong>tralize and delegate control functions to subsidiaries; adapt and differ<strong>en</strong>tiate the<br />
evaluation standards to each geographical area; implem<strong>en</strong>t feedforward type of control;<br />
use marketing audit and b<strong>en</strong>chmarking to track, compare and improve the performance of<br />
local marketing; exercise c<strong>en</strong>tralized control by means of global account managem<strong>en</strong>t and<br />
financial compon<strong>en</strong>t of the balanced scorecards.<br />
Introduction<br />
g a l i n a z h i lt s o va a n d j o h n r a n c e<br />
The control process is always se<strong>en</strong> as the final, but oft<strong>en</strong> neglected stage of international<br />
market planning. However, these activities not only are important for the performance<br />
evaluation, but provide the feedback necessary for the start of the next planning cycle.<br />
67
68<br />
Global marketing control<br />
And nowadays the evaluation and control probably repres<strong>en</strong>ts one of the weakest areas of<br />
the marketing activities in many international companies.<br />
The reason is that global marketing pres<strong>en</strong>ts a number of problems and chall<strong>en</strong>ges to<br />
managers responsible for marketing control. Each national market is differ<strong>en</strong>t from every<br />
other market. Distance and differ<strong>en</strong>ces in language, custom and practices create communication<br />
problems. In larger companies, the size of operations and number of country<br />
subsidiaries oft<strong>en</strong> result in the creation of intermediate headquarters. These factors<br />
add a certain complexity to the control systems. This report, as a part of International<br />
Marketing Managem<strong>en</strong>t module, was created in order to highlight the importance of control<br />
in global marketing managem<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Problem definition<br />
There are several methods and a number of important issues in marketing control which<br />
have vital implications for the process of establishing and adapting the control system. In<br />
order to analyze them and conclude the findings the following research will be focused on<br />
the question:<br />
How to adapt a global control mechanism to the local market conditions?<br />
Planning or control?<br />
To begin with, it is necessary to define what ‘control’ actually means. In the managerial<br />
literature, control is defined as the process by which managers <strong>en</strong>sure that resources are<br />
used effectively and effici<strong>en</strong>tly in the accomplishm<strong>en</strong>t of the organizational objectives.<br />
Control activities are directed towards marketing programs and other projects initiated<br />
by planning process. Data measures and evaluations g<strong>en</strong>erated by the control process in<br />
the form of a global audit are also input to the planning process (Keegan & Schlegelmilch<br />
2000: 551). Figure 1 illustrates the connection betwe<strong>en</strong> the marketing plan, the marketing<br />
budget and the control systems (Holl<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> 2004: 658).<br />
Building the marketing plan:<br />
global marketing decisions regarding<br />
the 4Ps: Product, Price, Place and<br />
promotion Budgeting<br />
Controlling<br />
Alter if actual performance does not meet standards/objectives<br />
Figure 1 Relationships betwe<strong>en</strong> budget, plan and control system within marketing
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Thus there is no planning without control. And nowadays it becomes an ev<strong>en</strong> more<br />
important part of the cycle. The <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t in which businesses operate is constantly<br />
changing. So it is obvious that business must adapt to reflect changes in the <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
and make decisions about how to change the marketing mix in order to succeed.<br />
Sometimes this is quite a straightforward task. For example, in many small businesses<br />
there is only one geographical market and a limited number of products. However, there<br />
is another situation, the chall<strong>en</strong>ge faced by marketing managem<strong>en</strong>t in a multinational<br />
business, with hundreds of business units located around the globe, producing a wide<br />
range of products. In this case well-organised marketing planning was usually considered<br />
as a vital activity to keep control of marketing decision-making (source: tutor2u.net).<br />
While control processes were undervalued.<br />
However, all the planning systems failed to help businesses to overcome the complexity<br />
that was brought to the market by the credit crunch in 2008. The companies operating in<br />
the automobile industry, for example, were not able to predict demand and future sales<br />
of the vehicles correctly, as well as Microsoft Corporation who was <strong>en</strong>forced to reduce<br />
planned and officially announced sales pipelines for 2009.<br />
The problem was not in the lack of planning, but it showed the inability of the planning<br />
system to intercept quickly the emerging problems. This function is related to the control<br />
process which was probably underused in the majority of organizations. Today the<br />
importance of marketing controlling is realised and companies turn to establishing and<br />
optimizing their control mechanisms: evaluation processes, control styles, feedback and<br />
corrective actions. Moreover, marketing control system should become forward looking<br />
and perspective, instead of being remedial in its outlook. The control with feedback information<br />
should be replaced by feedforward control (Holl<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> 2004: 662) which starts at<br />
the same time as the planning process.<br />
International<br />
marketing strategy<br />
Early<br />
symptoms<br />
Feedforward<br />
Feedback<br />
Marketing<br />
impact<br />
Changes in the<br />
marketing strategy<br />
Figure 2 Feedback and forward control systems within marketing<br />
Revised<br />
marketing impact<br />
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Global marketing control<br />
By means of feedforward control system the deviations could be controlled before their<br />
full impact is felt. Such a system is a proactive and would help to <strong>en</strong>sure that planning and<br />
control are treated as concurr<strong>en</strong>t activities.<br />
Types of control<br />
Both theory and practice divides the marketing control into two complem<strong>en</strong>tary processes:<br />
strategic control and operations control. Strategic control refers to a company’s goals,<br />
objectives, strategies and capacity to perform. It <strong>en</strong>sures that the organization is following<br />
the right direction and on the one hand defines the fit betwe<strong>en</strong> the capabilities and objectives<br />
of an organization and on the other hand its <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>tal threats and opportunities.<br />
While the operations control is concerned with the task of how well the organization performs<br />
its marketing activities regarding its planned outcomes.<br />
The design of the control system used in regulating subsidiaries can be divided into two<br />
groups dep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t on the object of control. The first one is output, or formalised, control<br />
which is typically based on financial measures (i.e. balance sheets, sales and production<br />
data, product line growth, etc.) (Keegan & Schlegelmilch 2000: 551), which are accumulated<br />
at regular intervals and typically forwarded from the foreign subsidiary to headquarters,<br />
where they are evaluated and criticised based on comparison to the plan or budget.<br />
This type is widely used in western organizations where managers are usually judged on<br />
financial criteria – profit contribution.<br />
In countries, where formal control mechanisms are less important, in Japan, for example,<br />
values and culture are objects of control. This behavioural, or cultural, control oft<strong>en</strong><br />
requires an ext<strong>en</strong>sive socialisation process, and informal, personal interaction. Substantial<br />
resources are sp<strong>en</strong>t to train the individual to share the corporate culture (Holl<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> 2004:<br />
659).<br />
It is assumed that in global companies, shared values are more appropriate to link the<br />
subsidiaries than formal control methods. However, there is no clear link betwe<strong>en</strong> these<br />
two types of control and it is still more likely for companies to use traditional financial<br />
criteria and treat behavioural ones with a degree of scepticism.<br />
Another classification of control in marketing was made by Kotler and it distinguishes<br />
four types of control each involving differ<strong>en</strong>t approaches, purposes and allocation of<br />
responsibilities (Holl<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> 2004: 663-664):<br />
– Strategic control with its purpose to examined if planned results are being achieved;<br />
– Effici<strong>en</strong>cy control with the purpose to examine ways of improving the effici<strong>en</strong>cy of<br />
marketing through the sales force, advertisem<strong>en</strong>t, or distribution means;
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
– Annual plan control aimed to determine the ext<strong>en</strong>t to which marketing efforts over the<br />
year have be<strong>en</strong> successful;<br />
– Profit control which examines where the company is making and losing money.<br />
Establishm<strong>en</strong>t of a control system: stages and problems<br />
There are several stages in the process of establishing a global marketing control system,<br />
all in all it consists of deciding marketing objectives, setting performance standards,<br />
locating responsibility, evaluating performance against standards, and taking corrective<br />
or supportive action. Each of these elem<strong>en</strong>ts is simple to understand, but in practice they<br />
create t<strong>en</strong>sions and problems. It is important for a company to set reliable control system,<br />
not only the illusion of control. An ineffective of defective control could cause a lot of<br />
problems and ev<strong>en</strong> harm the corporate strategy.<br />
Establishm<strong>en</strong>t of standards is a necessary part of the system. In g<strong>en</strong>eral, the corporate<br />
headquarters’ personnel together with the local marketing organization set the standard<br />
through a joint process. Efforts of managers are directed through the standards which<br />
they should clearly define and accept. Due to their extreme importance, standards should<br />
be strongly connected to the strategy of the corporation and the sources of long-term<br />
competitive ad<strong>van</strong>tage. There are no doubts, that marketing performance measures and<br />
standards will vary by company and product according to the goals and objectives stated<br />
in the marketing plan. However, the compatibility of standards established for differ<strong>en</strong>t<br />
markets is vital as well.<br />
Regarding the locating of responsibility, in some cases it ultimately falls on one person<br />
(brand manager, for example); in others it is shared betwe<strong>en</strong> the sales manager and sales<br />
force, for instance. Anyway, people involved needed to be convinced that the purpose of<br />
the control is to improve their own levels of success and that of the company.<br />
The monitoring and evaluating of the performance can occur at various levels in the organization.<br />
Three financial measures are used most to evaluate international performance:<br />
return on investm<strong>en</strong>t, budget analysis and historical comparison. Actually, in 95% of the<br />
cases the same evaluation technique is used for both foreign and domestic operations.<br />
And the rate of return was m<strong>en</strong>tioned as the single most important measure (Keegan &<br />
Schlegelmilch 2000: 554). Because of aspects such as foreign curr<strong>en</strong>cies, differ<strong>en</strong>t rates of<br />
inflation or differ<strong>en</strong>t tax law the return on investm<strong>en</strong>t can cause problems wh<strong>en</strong> applied<br />
to international operations. Both the net income figure and the investm<strong>en</strong>t base may be<br />
seriously distorted.<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> the actual performance falls short of the expected standard, managem<strong>en</strong>t is forced<br />
to initiate actions. In order to achieve the corporate goals and to reduce the variation<br />
betwe<strong>en</strong> established standards and actual performance, several options exist: either the<br />
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Global marketing control<br />
actual performance is improved, the performance standard is changed, or both options<br />
applied. In an international setting this can be rather difficult because of geographical and<br />
cultural differ<strong>en</strong>ces.<br />
However, ev<strong>en</strong> a well-organized marketing managem<strong>en</strong>t control system is affected by<br />
many aspects. One of these is a communication, the distance betwe<strong>en</strong> the head office and<br />
the overseas divisions. The greater the distance, the more likely time, exp<strong>en</strong>se and errors<br />
will increase. Ev<strong>en</strong> the use of electronic communication systems that operate in real time<br />
cannot fully reduce this negative effect. Besides the distance, the location plays an important<br />
role in communication: the more ad<strong>van</strong>ced the telecommunications of a country, the<br />
easier the communication process; as well as developed IT systems reduces a lot of geographical<br />
constraints.<br />
The other aspect that creates problems is the availability of economic, industrial and<br />
consumer information necessary for controlling. In countries where this data is readily<br />
available and reliable, both marketing planning and control could be done on basis of<br />
these external data. Where such data are not readily available or reliable (for instance,<br />
in Russia some companies still report lower output to avoid taxation), as is the case in<br />
many developing countries and markets, there are problems. Such aspect as a diversity of<br />
the <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t is also influ<strong>en</strong>cing the developm<strong>en</strong>t of the marketing plans and thus its<br />
implem<strong>en</strong>tation and control. The following variables could affect and cause problems in<br />
international control process compared to domestic one (source: www.fao.org) :<br />
Domestic Environm<strong>en</strong>t International Environm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Single language and nationality Multilingual/multinational/multicultural factors<br />
Relatively homog<strong>en</strong>eous market Fragm<strong>en</strong>ted and diverse markets<br />
Data available, usually accurate and collection easy Data collection a large task requiring significantly<br />
higher budgets and personnel allocation<br />
Political factors relatively unimportant Political factors frequ<strong>en</strong>tly vital<br />
Relative freedom from governm<strong>en</strong>t interfer<strong>en</strong>ce Involvem<strong>en</strong>t in national economic plans; governm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
influ<strong>en</strong>ces business decisions<br />
Individual corporation has little effect on <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t "Gravitational" distortion by large companies<br />
Chauvinism helps Chauvinism hinders<br />
Relatively stable business <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t Multiple <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>ts, many of which are highly<br />
unstable (but may be highly profitable)<br />
Uniform financial climate Variety of financial climates ranging from over-conservative<br />
to wildly inflationary<br />
Single curr<strong>en</strong>cy Curr<strong>en</strong>cies differing in stability and real value<br />
<strong>Business</strong> "rules of the game" mature and understood Rules diverse, changeable and unclear<br />
Managem<strong>en</strong>t g<strong>en</strong>erally accustomed to sharing Managem<strong>en</strong>t frequ<strong>en</strong>tly unautonomous and<br />
responsibilities and using financial controls unfamiliar with budgets and controls<br />
Table 1 Domestic versus International Environm<strong>en</strong>t
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
All these factors and variables bring a certain complexity to the process of global marketing<br />
control.<br />
Global marketing control tools<br />
Marketing audit<br />
The term ‘audit’ is typically associated with financial audits where accountants and professional<br />
auditors pore over company financial statem<strong>en</strong>ts to <strong>en</strong>sure that appropriate procedures<br />
are established and followed. In this way, an audit, whether conducted internally<br />
or by external auditors, can help a company refine its business practices and improve its<br />
productivity and profitability. Marketing audit is a compreh<strong>en</strong>sive examination of a company's<br />
or business unit’s marketing organization, strategies, tactics, objectives, and activities,<br />
which is conducted with the objective of id<strong>en</strong>tifying existing and pot<strong>en</strong>tial problems<br />
and opportunities and recomm<strong>en</strong>ding a plan of action to pinpoint more effective uses for<br />
the marketing resources and improve a company’s marketing performance. A good marketing<br />
audit is also:<br />
– Systematic. It follows a logical, predetermined framework - an orderly sequ<strong>en</strong>ce of<br />
diagnostic steps. The marketing audit will indicate improvem<strong>en</strong>ts needed to accomplish<br />
your company’s goals. An audit results in a compreh<strong>en</strong>sive action plan to address short<br />
and long term marketing needs of the company.<br />
– Compreh<strong>en</strong>sive. It considers all factors affecting marketing performance, not just<br />
obvious trouble spots. Marketers can be fooled into addressing symptoms rather than<br />
underlying problems. A compreh<strong>en</strong>sive audit id<strong>en</strong>tifies the real sources of problems.<br />
– Indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t. Audits where managers complete a checklist lack objectivity and indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>ce;<br />
the best audits come from outside consultants who are objective, have broad<br />
exposure in a number of industries, and some familiarity with your industry.<br />
– Periodic. Marketing operates in a dynamic <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t with an ever-increasing rate of<br />
change. Marketing audits are typically done in a crisis, after sales have fall<strong>en</strong> and morale<br />
is low. Periodic audits can b<strong>en</strong>efit companies in both good and bad times<br />
(source: www.wmg-mn.com).<br />
A marketing audit begins with a meeting betwe<strong>en</strong> the company’s s<strong>en</strong>ior managem<strong>en</strong>t and<br />
the individual conducting the audit – it could be conducted internally or by external auditors.<br />
They decide on the audit’s objectives, report format, timing, and other matters. The<br />
audit could be broad or it could be a narrowly focused assessm<strong>en</strong>t. A full marketing audit<br />
reviews the company’s marketing <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t, competition, objectives, strategies, organisation,<br />
systems, procedures and practices in every area of the marketing mix, including<br />
product, pricing, distribution, communication, customer service, and research strategy and<br />
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policy. The audit also pres<strong>en</strong>ts a number of problems and pitfalls. Setting objectives can be<br />
a pitfall, if indeed objectives are blind to a major problem. It is important for the auditor<br />
to be op<strong>en</strong> to expanding or shifting objectives and priorities while conducting the audit<br />
(Keegan & Schlegelmilch 2000: 557), as well as be flexible to new directions and sources<br />
that appear in the course of the audit investigation.<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> the audit is complete, it will provide a basis for developing compreh<strong>en</strong>sive action<br />
plans to improve your overall marketing effectiv<strong>en</strong>ess. A marketing audit provides three<br />
major b<strong>en</strong>efits to a company.<br />
– Firstly, s<strong>en</strong>ior managem<strong>en</strong>t will gain an indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t, objective view of their firm’s<br />
marketing performance.<br />
– Secondly, the assessm<strong>en</strong>t of the firm may lead to an <strong>en</strong>tire re-evaluation of the company’s<br />
direction, not just a fine-tuning of curr<strong>en</strong>t marketing efforts.<br />
– Thirdly, the marketing audit will help managem<strong>en</strong>t set priorities for the marketing<br />
programs. The auditor can help managem<strong>en</strong>t focus on important changes, while<br />
avoiding the political struggles that hinder change<br />
(source: www.wmg-mn.com).<br />
In fact the specific cont<strong>en</strong>ts of a marketing audit are unique to each firm and each audit<br />
conducted for that firm. For instance, a new approach to the audit was pres<strong>en</strong>ted by<br />
KPMG in 1994 (Keegan & Schlegelmilch 2000: 560). Their idea concerning <strong>Business</strong><br />
Measurem<strong>en</strong>t Process (BMP) delivers an audit focusing on the cli<strong>en</strong>t’s business processes<br />
and risk. Being an accounting and consultancy firm, KPMG decided to go beyond the<br />
numbers and traditional transaction-based auditing in order to provide the cli<strong>en</strong>t with<br />
insight about its business and industry. BMG adds another dim<strong>en</strong>sion to the audit process<br />
by evaluating business processes and risks. BMG approach is defined by five principles:<br />
strategic analysis of the cli<strong>en</strong>t’s operations, business process analysis, risk assessm<strong>en</strong>t, business<br />
performance measurem<strong>en</strong>t, and continuous improvem<strong>en</strong>t. This last principle includes<br />
the gap-analysis aimed to id<strong>en</strong>tify cli<strong>en</strong>t’s performance improvem<strong>en</strong>t opportunities. In this<br />
stage, the team focused on both financial and non-financial measures most likely to g<strong>en</strong>erate<br />
the improvem<strong>en</strong>t the cli<strong>en</strong>t seeks.<br />
One of the KPMG cli<strong>en</strong>t said: “BMP is not just a once-a-year-audit – it’s a year round<br />
relationship.” As well as traditional marketing audit that has a “value as a one-off freestanding<br />
exercise, but its greatest use is as an ongoing regular practice of the company, so<br />
that comparison can be made betwe<strong>en</strong> the results of each audit” (Wilson 2002). It is one<br />
of the reliable control tools for evaluating and improving a company’s global marketing<br />
operations.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
The balanced scorecard<br />
Many companies, such as IKEA, have recognised that the traditional command-andcontrol<br />
budgeting systems do not fit into a changing <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t, thus they decrease the<br />
emphasis on formal budgeting and control and implem<strong>en</strong>t balanced scorecard.<br />
The balanced scorecard is defined as a strategic planning and managem<strong>en</strong>t system used to<br />
align business activities to the vision and strategy of the organization, improve internal<br />
and external communications, and monitor organizational performance against strategic<br />
goals (source: www.balancedscorecard.org). This concept offers a way for a corporation<br />
to a wider perspective on its strategic decisions rather than looking at financial measures<br />
alone in assessing organisational performance. It repres<strong>en</strong>ts a methodology which turns<br />
a business’s strategic objectives into specific measures in four key dim<strong>en</strong>sions: finance,<br />
customer, internal processes and innovation and learning for employees (Keegan &<br />
Schlegelmilch 2000: 561) The modified approach to scorecards, called a "strategy map",<br />
links the long-term plan or competitive strategy of a business with its operational activities.<br />
It illustrates the cause-and-effect relationships betwe<strong>en</strong> differ<strong>en</strong>t key performance<br />
indicators that are included in a balanced scorecard.<br />
While implem<strong>en</strong>ting this control tool, it is necessary to id<strong>en</strong>tify five or six goals within<br />
each of the perspectives, and th<strong>en</strong> make inter-linking betwe<strong>en</strong> these goals by plotting<br />
causal links on the diagram. Having reached some cons<strong>en</strong>sus about the objectives and how<br />
they inter-relate, the balanced scorecard has to be devised by stating suitable measures for<br />
each objective.<br />
The reasons to use balanced scorecards may be the following:<br />
– Drive strategy execution;<br />
– Clarify strategy and make strategy operational;<br />
– Id<strong>en</strong>tify and align strategic initiatives;<br />
– Link budget with strategy;<br />
– Align the organization with strategy;<br />
– Conduct periodic strategic performance reviews to learn about and improve strategy.<br />
Despite the conv<strong>en</strong>i<strong>en</strong>ce and b<strong>en</strong>efits of the balances scorecards, there are several problem<br />
areas. The first is that the scores are not based on any prov<strong>en</strong> economic or financial theory.<br />
The process is <strong>en</strong>tirely subjective and makes no provision to assess quantities (e.g., risk<br />
and economic value) in a way that is economically well-founded. And another one is that<br />
the balanced scorecard does not provide a bottom line score or a unified view with clear<br />
recomm<strong>en</strong>dations: it is simply a list of metrics.<br />
To sum up, the implem<strong>en</strong>tation of such a control tool requires a lot of changes in existing<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t information and reporting systems. However, international practice shows<br />
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Global marketing control<br />
that ev<strong>en</strong> financial organizations, such as banks, namely, the Royal Bank of Scotland,<br />
introduce and implem<strong>en</strong>t balanced scorecards as a method of global control.<br />
Besides marketing audit and balanced scorecard methods of control, the approach connected<br />
with the Global Account Managem<strong>en</strong>t (GAM) can be used to monitor international<br />
marketing operations. GAM is defined as an organizational form used in the global organization<br />
to coordinate and manage worldwide activities, by serving an important customer<br />
c<strong>en</strong>trally from the headquarters (Holl<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> 2004: 649). Thus the controlling activities<br />
connected to the certain global account could be c<strong>en</strong>tralized as well. This approach could<br />
not replace the standard system of control, in which differ<strong>en</strong>t markets and subsidiaries are<br />
evaluated separately, but could significantly narrow down the number of operations that<br />
should be controlled worldwide.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The key issue for good controlling in global marketing is a flexible structure or framework<br />
which <strong>en</strong>ables organizations to respond to rele<strong>van</strong>t differ<strong>en</strong>ces in the markets in<br />
which they operate, but, at the same time, delineates relationships clearly betwe<strong>en</strong> parts<br />
and personnel of the company. Organizations can only work effectively if structure is<br />
defined, standards of performance are designed and communicated, and the control framework<br />
is fair, clear to all and agreeable. This is not to say that once the structure is defined,<br />
it cannot be changed. In fact, the curr<strong>en</strong>t situation is forcing international companies to<br />
re-evaluate their control systems and adapt them to the local <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Recomm<strong>en</strong>dations<br />
The establishm<strong>en</strong>t, continuous improvem<strong>en</strong>t and rele<strong>van</strong>t adaptation of the global<br />
marketing managem<strong>en</strong>t control system is a great chall<strong>en</strong>ge for organization. Answering<br />
the question how an international company could adapt its control system to the local<br />
conditions, the following list with key recomm<strong>en</strong>dations was created:<br />
– Dec<strong>en</strong>tralization – to delegate the control functions to the local subsidiaries, divisions,<br />
or intermediate headquarters responsible for the certain geographical regions;<br />
– Differ<strong>en</strong>tiation – to adapt evaluation standards and performance measurem<strong>en</strong>ts to the<br />
local markets;<br />
– Feedforward control – to be proactive and anticipate the <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>tal changes;<br />
– Marketing audit – to track and improve the performance of local marketing processes<br />
and actions;<br />
– B<strong>en</strong>chmarking – to control the position on the certain geographical market and <strong>en</strong>sure<br />
the competitiv<strong>en</strong>ess of the curr<strong>en</strong>t marketing strategy;
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
– Global account managem<strong>en</strong>t and control – to create long-term global relationships with<br />
strategic customers;<br />
– Modified balanced scorecards (see figure 3) – to provide a headquarter with clear and<br />
comparable financial results (in ratios, like the rate of return) to <strong>en</strong>sure the effective<br />
allocation of the corporate financial recourses, which is vital in the curr<strong>en</strong>t crisis situation.<br />
Local<br />
customer<br />
Figure 3 Modified balanced scorecards<br />
Applying these recomm<strong>en</strong>dations to practice, international companies will be able to<br />
control effectively their marketing activities worldwide and b<strong>en</strong>efit from “think global, act<br />
local” control strategy.<br />
Literature<br />
Local marketing<br />
strategy<br />
Local<br />
financial<br />
Learning<br />
and growth<br />
International<br />
business processes<br />
Holl<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong>, S. (2004) Global Marketing: a decision-ori<strong>en</strong>ted approach, 3 d edition. Essex,<br />
England, Pearson Education.<br />
Keegan, W.J. & Schlegelmilch. B.B. (2000) Global Marketing managem<strong>en</strong>t: a European<br />
perspective. Inglewood, New Jersey, USA, Financial Times/Pr<strong>en</strong>tice Hall.<br />
Keller, K.L. & Kotler, P. (2005) Marketing Managem<strong>en</strong>t, 12 th edition. Inglewood, New<br />
Jersey, USA, Pr<strong>en</strong>tice Hall.<br />
Wilson, A., (2002) The marketing audit handbook: tools, techniques & checklists to exploit<br />
your marketing resources. London, Kogan Page.<br />
http://tutor2u.net/business/marketing/planning_strategic_link.asp(accessed 12.05.2009)<br />
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5973E/w5973e0h.htm#global marketing planning (accessed<br />
14.05.2009)<br />
http://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_control.htm<br />
http://www.wmg-mn.com/Articles/marketing_audit.htm (accessed 17.05.09)<br />
http://www.businessballs.com/balanced_scorecard.htm<br />
http://www.balancedscorecard.org/ (accessed 17.05.09)<br />
77
‘internationals’ employed in german smes<br />
What is the professional profile of highly educated stud<strong>en</strong>ts from German <strong>Business</strong><br />
Schools in German Small to Medium-sized Enterprises?<br />
A research into the professional compet<strong>en</strong>ces of internationals among 45 German<br />
SMEs 1<br />
Introduction<br />
A Chinese colleague of mine said to me the other day: “You’re an old man!” I was really<br />
hurt by this remark, because first of all do I not feel old and secondly, there are things<br />
that I would definitively not like to hear from a young woman. My colleague on her part<br />
probably wondered why my reaction was so reserved; in her view she had just made<br />
me a huge complim<strong>en</strong>t. In Chinese tradition, age has a very positive value, while in my<br />
European <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t it is rather se<strong>en</strong> as an insult (Seelmann-Holzmann 2004: 7).<br />
Research executed among Dutch <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs in SMEs in five industrial sectors<br />
(Braaksma 2005, Vonk 2006), had a sequel in August 2006. In cooperation with the<br />
Fachhochschule Gels<strong>en</strong>kirch<strong>en</strong>/Bocholt a similar research was set up on the basis of<br />
an equal number of interviews in German kleinere- und mittelständische Unternehm<strong>en</strong><br />
(KMU) in the same five industrial sectors.<br />
The research question for this research was the same as in the Netherlands: ‘What requirem<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
do SME-<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs set for business school graduates that need to perform internationally?’<br />
(Braaksma 2005). The three sub questions are:<br />
1 What does a bachelor of commerce need to know or what are his/her skills?<br />
2 What has to be taught at Bachelor (or Master) level?<br />
3 Which requirem<strong>en</strong>ts have to be met by future bachelors of commerce?<br />
f r a n k v o n k<br />
International practical reality consists of a number of international activities for which a<br />
Dutch <strong>Business</strong> School or German Fachhochschule (FH) stud<strong>en</strong>t is trained:<br />
– export;<br />
– import;<br />
– outsourcing to international companies;<br />
– international cooperation;<br />
- foreign investm<strong>en</strong>ts (sales offices, production facilities and joint v<strong>en</strong>tures abroad).<br />
1 This article is a summary of a more ext<strong>en</strong>sive one. The original research report and research data can be<br />
obtained from the author, Frank.Vonk@han.nl. <strong>HAN</strong> University of Applied Sci<strong>en</strong>ces, Ruit<strong>en</strong>berglaan 31,<br />
NL-6826 CC <strong>Arnhem</strong>.<br />
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‘Internationals’ employed in german SMEs<br />
The purpose of the research is to r<strong>en</strong>der a description of the compet<strong>en</strong>ces that <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs<br />
of 45 internationally active German SMEs expect pot<strong>en</strong>tial employees with a business<br />
school certificate to have. Compet<strong>en</strong>ces in this research are understood to be those<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ces acquired during their studies, in theory and/or practical training (e.g. work<br />
placem<strong>en</strong>ts or final projects), and mainly drawn on in international activities.<br />
With the results of this research we show the requirem<strong>en</strong>ts for business school graduates<br />
who aspire to a job with an internationally active SME as well as the bottl<strong>en</strong>ecks that curr<strong>en</strong>tly<br />
occur. We hope that business schools in both the Netherlands and Germany will<br />
b<strong>en</strong>efit from our findings wh<strong>en</strong> drawing up their curricula.<br />
The differ<strong>en</strong>ces betwe<strong>en</strong> the two countries, Dutch business studies have a broad practical<br />
compon<strong>en</strong>t (fourty weeks or a quarter of their education consists of a work placem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
and final project within a company) and their bachelor course takes on average four to 4.5<br />
years to complete, while their German counterparts have relatively few practical compon<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
and takes about five years, which will be expressed in the interviewees’ answers.<br />
The research was carried out in the following sectors in 2006:<br />
<strong>Business</strong> Services<br />
Number of interviews<br />
10<br />
Trade 10<br />
Traditional industry 10<br />
IT 8<br />
High-tech industry 7<br />
Table 1 Numbers of interviews per sector<br />
# of perman<strong>en</strong>t employees Services Trade Industry IT Hi-Tech<br />
1-5 1 0 0 1 0<br />
6-25 4 5 2 1 1<br />
26-50 4 3 1 2 3<br />
51-100 0 1 2 1 0<br />
>100 1 1 5 3 3<br />
Table 2 Number of employees per sector<br />
There is a wide spread of activities and perman<strong>en</strong>t employees per sector, in particular in<br />
industrial companies, we see many large companies with more than hundred employees,<br />
while most SMEs interviewed have less than fifty employees. Regarding the nature of the
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
companies within the various sectors, interviews have be<strong>en</strong> conducted in the following<br />
subsectors: in trade there were wholesalers as well as retailers selling adhesive materials,<br />
wood, machines, toothbrushes, yarn and heaters. In High-Tech companies, we see the<br />
developm<strong>en</strong>t of a variety of high-grade specialist products: medical products, glass fibre,<br />
optical products and tube systems. The industrial companies interviewed produce textile,<br />
technical equipm<strong>en</strong>t, <strong>en</strong>gravings and etchings, paint compon<strong>en</strong>ts, packaging equipm<strong>en</strong>t,<br />
dyes, bodyworks, steel and wallpaper. IT-companies are active in the field of telecommunication,<br />
production of software (applications), system managem<strong>en</strong>t. <strong>Business</strong> Services<br />
showed carriers, tax and legal advisors, lawyers, business consultants, a cruise operator,<br />
financial advisors and a headhunter.<br />
Internationalization in SMEs<br />
What is internationalization? What are the critical success factors?<br />
Internationalization is difficult to define. G<strong>en</strong>erally, all cross-border activities of companies,<br />
organizations or ev<strong>en</strong> individuals are considered to be a form of internationalization<br />
or international activities (Sulli<strong>van</strong> 1994). A company or organization’s strategic decision<br />
oft<strong>en</strong> underlies internationalization:<br />
Traditionally, internationalization, e.g. export, was se<strong>en</strong> as a strategy to increase a company’s<br />
turnover. Export, the traditional form of internationalization, is still significant. Yet at<br />
the same time, the last dec<strong>en</strong>nium has shown the developm<strong>en</strong>t of an increasing number of<br />
differ<strong>en</strong>t forms of internationalization that are ess<strong>en</strong>tial for the protection and appearance<br />
of a company’s competitiv<strong>en</strong>ess (Beobachtungsnetz 2004/4:7).<br />
Internationalization in SMEs concerns a cross-border activity where various factors that<br />
r<strong>en</strong>der the internationalization more or less successful play a part. It would be interesting<br />
to compare these factors to those considered successful for multinationals. The nature and<br />
composition of SMEs prohibits or at the very least hampers such a comparison, e.g. multinationals’<br />
financial position and their (international) work force are complicating factors.<br />
For this research it is more rewarding to draw up a list of factors that could possibly be<br />
called critical success factors in SMEs (Armbrust 2007: 4ff). We are dealing with schrittweiser<br />
Aufbau, multi-stage phasing, of cross-border activities here.<br />
What th<strong>en</strong>, is the customary way for SMEs to internationalize step by step? Various opinions<br />
relating to this subject exist. The Beobachtungsnetz (2004/4:24) describes a four-step<br />
Stuf<strong>en</strong>theorie:<br />
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The dominating model of internationalization is the step theory, according to which internationalization<br />
takes place in consecutive steps, starting with low involvem<strong>en</strong>t/risk and<br />
increasing to higher involvem<strong>en</strong>t/risk:<br />
1 No regular export activities (possibly sporadic export);<br />
2 Export through indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t ag<strong>en</strong>ts;<br />
3 Establishm<strong>en</strong>t of own sales offices abroad;<br />
4 Production facilities abroad.<br />
The principle underlying this model is that a step-by-step strategy minimizes the risks and<br />
maturing investm<strong>en</strong>ts. The companies most oft<strong>en</strong> start their export activities in neighbouring<br />
countries. Once they have gathered experi<strong>en</strong>ce from these first export activities, they<br />
wid<strong>en</strong> their activities to markets further removed. (Beobachtungsnetz 2003/4: 24).<br />
The lack of motivating and necessary factor that play a part in the companies’ (increasing)<br />
internationalization is striking. In short, what determines the step from one to two, from<br />
two to three etc. as a necessity? The rationale will differ from case to case. Some products<br />
will for instance by nature be ripe to cross borders or for global markets, or some production<br />
processes may, based on their specialist nature, be more appropriate in certain<br />
countries. A geographically small home market may necessitate internationalization and<br />
<strong>en</strong>hances the need to acquire ‘international compet<strong>en</strong>ces’ as well as demand them from<br />
new employees at an earlier stage.<br />
Furthermore, teams in the home markets are increasingly more of a multicultural composition<br />
(the ‘melting pot’). In view of increasing cross-border activities, this composition<br />
not only shows an external movem<strong>en</strong>t, but an internal one as well: a culturally diverse<br />
composition of personnel. This worldwide movem<strong>en</strong>t of personnel is a sign of internationalization<br />
too, one that is g<strong>en</strong>erally paid little att<strong>en</strong>tion to. The cross-border activities are<br />
key in this research.<br />
The need for internationalization<br />
Regarding internationalization of SMEs in Germany it turns out that both the German<br />
governm<strong>en</strong>t and the European Union employ many activities to support innovation<br />
within SMEs, and internationalization is considered one of these innovations – although<br />
EU-support in itself is not a condition to ‘go international’. Sci<strong>en</strong>tific compet<strong>en</strong>ces (more<br />
academic compet<strong>en</strong>ces in the field of basic and applied research), strategic technological<br />
developm<strong>en</strong>ts and the growth of for instance job opportunities are important innovative<br />
factors. Within the total European Union SMEs constitute about 99% of all 3.38 million<br />
<strong>en</strong>terprises with a yearly turnover of less than 50 million euro, employing 65 million<br />
people (Armbrust 2007: 6). The EU and the governm<strong>en</strong>t play a stimulating part for the<br />
acquisition of capital to realise growth and to promote innovation.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Internationalization of SMEs is the result of the necessity of looking for new markets<br />
abroad, but more importantly is the fact that internationalization is a gateway to knowledge,<br />
customers and technology elsewhere (Friedman 2005 for some insight as to the role<br />
of ‘technologization’ in the worldwide process of internationalization and globalization).<br />
On top of that, high production costs, legal restrictions and regulations in the home<br />
market, as well as the necessary production capacity, access to capital and man power<br />
(e.g. lower wages and a more favourable tax climate) form reasons to internationalize<br />
(Beobachtungsnetz 2003/4: 30). Thus labour costs can in many cases be reduced, ev<strong>en</strong><br />
though it is important for the national economy to keep looking for innovation opportunities<br />
without all sorts of goods and services seep abroad (Mahone 1995).<br />
Forms of internationalization<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> we look at forms of internationalization and foreign activities, the interviewees<br />
indicate that these are linked with import and export activities, especially wh<strong>en</strong> it concerned<br />
industrial and High-Tech companies. Further international contacts are formed<br />
by strategic alliances (33 of the 45 companies interviewed), and sales offices abroad (15 of<br />
the 45 companies interviewed). Furthermore, there are production facilities abroad and<br />
outsourcing, but to a lesser ext<strong>en</strong>t (7 and 9 of the 45 companies interviewed respectively).<br />
As far as the various forms of internationalization are concerned, the following table<br />
shows the subdivisions per sector (these are the foreign activities as specified by the interviewees):<br />
Industry<br />
(10 companies)<br />
Export 9 7 8 10 10 44<br />
Strategic alliances with foreign partners 7 6 7 5 8 33<br />
Import 7 6 4 9 6 32<br />
Sales offices abroad 4 2 3 3 3 15<br />
In consignm<strong>en</strong>t 3 2 1 3 1 9<br />
Production facility abroad 2 2 0 2 1 7<br />
Lic<strong>en</strong>see for foreign lic<strong>en</strong>ser 0 3 2 1 0 6<br />
Joint v<strong>en</strong>ture with foreign partner 0 2 0 2 0 4<br />
Table 3 Branches and international activities<br />
High-Tech<br />
(7 companies)<br />
IT<br />
(8 companies)<br />
Trade<br />
(10 companies)<br />
Services<br />
(10 companies)<br />
As can be concluded from the table above, export is the most important turnover g<strong>en</strong>erator<br />
– note that company size has not be<strong>en</strong> tak<strong>en</strong> into account: export is an important<br />
turnover g<strong>en</strong>erator in all cases, but with both larger (100 perman<strong>en</strong>t employees or more)<br />
Total (n=45)<br />
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and smaller companies (fewer than 50 perman<strong>en</strong>t employees) we find strategic alliances<br />
and sales offices abroad. Strategic alliances with foreign partners nowadays are an important<br />
means to remain competitive in various international markets for practically all companies<br />
interviewed. The perc<strong>en</strong>tages have not be<strong>en</strong> brok<strong>en</strong> down in terms of turnover, but<br />
g<strong>en</strong>erally, export covers 30 to 80% of turnover compared to 5 to 20% for import, with a<br />
few peaks to certain export and import countries. It is also clear that especially High-Tech<br />
and IT-companies work with foreign (software) lic<strong>en</strong>ses and produce applications based<br />
on these. Outsourcing to companies abroad happ<strong>en</strong>s very rarely, particularly by the service<br />
sector. Dutch SMEs consider outsourcing an effici<strong>en</strong>t and money-saving measure and<br />
is high on their ag<strong>en</strong>das. A possible explanation could be that German companies, more so<br />
than their Dutch counterparts, are inclined to control their activities. Quality and reliability<br />
– German companies still pride themselves in those traits – are rather controlled than<br />
delegated. In this context the widely branched exhibition system is worth m<strong>en</strong>tioning,<br />
where many contacts with customers are made and maintained. However, research into<br />
the specific reasons for little outsourcing (‘in Auftrag geb<strong>en</strong>’) would be interesting.<br />
Constraints to internationalization<br />
During the interviews the following factors possibly constraining internationalization of<br />
SMEs were m<strong>en</strong>tioned: curr<strong>en</strong>t laws and regulations, lack of capital and finance problems,<br />
insuffici<strong>en</strong>t support and advice, cultural and language barriers. Wh<strong>en</strong> we link these to the<br />
curr<strong>en</strong>t theories on constraints to internationalization, the most important trade barriers<br />
are political factors, EU-regulations, national protectionist measures, technical requirem<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
or safety regulations, consumer interests etc. (Beobachtungsnetz 2004/4:42). In<br />
many cases however, lack of expert knowledge, including legal expertise and command of<br />
languages, as well as social skills are se<strong>en</strong> as constraints to internationalization.<br />
The international manager in SMEs<br />
Obviously, internationalization is not a matter-of-course, certainly not in education. Many<br />
export managers, <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs and salesm<strong>en</strong> acquire international experi<strong>en</strong>ces that would<br />
be more than instructive to future managers and <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs. Nevertheless we see that<br />
these experi<strong>en</strong>ces are only used in driblets. By contrast, stud<strong>en</strong>ts highly appreciate anecdotes,<br />
tr<strong>en</strong>ds, tips and images connected to these experi<strong>en</strong>ces. In this respect, there is a<br />
big part to play by external business stakeholders towards education. Not only towards<br />
Dutch higher professional education (specifically the Dutch fulltime internationally ori<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
courses such as business schools and logistics polytechnics), but most certainly for the<br />
German professional business schools (Fachhochschul<strong>en</strong>).<br />
Internationalization and higher professional education<br />
In the German interviews compet<strong>en</strong>ce developm<strong>en</strong>t is also m<strong>en</strong>tioned as an important<br />
factor in the growth of a company’s human capital. In Europe the following compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
that a company will frequ<strong>en</strong>tly get into touch with in the future are listed:
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
− Ability to learn (learn how to learn)<br />
− Information processing and managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
− Logical and analytical skills<br />
− Decision making skills<br />
− Communication skills and linguistic skills<br />
− Group work, group-based learning and teaching<br />
− Creative thinking and problem solving skills<br />
− Managing people and strategic thinking<br />
− Self-managem<strong>en</strong>t and self-developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
− Flexibility (Beobachtungsnetz 2003/1: 11)<br />
The obvious question would be what can be done within the company to develop or<br />
acquire the above-m<strong>en</strong>tioned compet<strong>en</strong>ces. The initial line of approach will be the knowledge<br />
compon<strong>en</strong>t, being less dep<strong>en</strong>dant on personal qualities (that are already being<br />
addressed during the studies) as well as being easier to measure, i.e. knowledge is op<strong>en</strong> to<br />
objectification. Education, however, is its opposite: compet<strong>en</strong>ces are not being assumed,<br />
on the contrary, they are being developed or taught and are thus more subject, i.e. stud<strong>en</strong>t<br />
ori<strong>en</strong>ted. A 2001 research among FH-graduates showed that that graduates, i.e. stud<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
in the last year of their studies, dispose of various compet<strong>en</strong>ces at various levels (Schaeper/<br />
Briedis 2004:1). The table below shows the perc<strong>en</strong>tages:<br />
Methods or strategic compet<strong>en</strong>ces ± 75%<br />
Wide basic knowledge 62%<br />
Knowledge of electronic data processing (EDP) 55%<br />
Multilateral thinking 52%<br />
Knowledge of scholarly and/or sci<strong>en</strong>tific methods 50%<br />
Self-organizing skills ± 50%<br />
Pres<strong>en</strong>tation skills ± 50%<br />
Specialized professional compet<strong>en</strong>ces 40%<br />
Social compet<strong>en</strong>ces 31%<br />
Command of foreign language insuffici<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Legal and economic knowledge insuffici<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Practical application of sci<strong>en</strong>tific data and concepts insuffici<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Table 4 Acquired compet<strong>en</strong>ces in higher professional education in Germany<br />
This table also shows a large proportion of compet<strong>en</strong>ces that were discussed in the interviews.<br />
Especially social compet<strong>en</strong>ces, i.e. social skills (hardly pres<strong>en</strong>t according to the table<br />
above!), method and strategic compet<strong>en</strong>ces (widely pres<strong>en</strong>t), wide basic knowledge (amply<br />
pres<strong>en</strong>t) gained high scores.<br />
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In other words, higher professional educational institutes in Germany pay suffici<strong>en</strong>t att<strong>en</strong>tion<br />
to basic knowledge (basic knowledge and EDP), but they pay insuffici<strong>en</strong>t att<strong>en</strong>tion<br />
to social compet<strong>en</strong>ces, command of foreign languages, legal and economic knowledge and<br />
the practical application of theory.<br />
Professional<br />
Compet<strong>en</strong>ce Market, legal and Cost-. profit- and<br />
Strategic Compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
company knowledge risk-awar<strong>en</strong>ess<br />
Professional knowledge<br />
in the field of activity<br />
(International) professional<br />
expier<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
Knowledge of the<br />
technological level of<br />
the target country<br />
Team-playing<br />
Ability to adapt and<br />
assimilate (flexibility)<br />
Taking the initiative<br />
Kommunikationsfähigkeit<br />
Descriptive and explanatory<br />
respect to local, foreign and intercultural<br />
processes. Command of<br />
foreing languages<br />
Intercultural Compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
Communication skills, intercultural<br />
willingness to learn, load capacity,<br />
ambiguity of tolerance, role<br />
distance, polyc<strong>en</strong>trism<br />
Knowledge managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Organizational skills<br />
Figure 1 Intercultural managem<strong>en</strong>t compet<strong>en</strong>ces, Source: Bolt<strong>en</strong> (2001: 375)<br />
Problem solving and<br />
judgm<strong>en</strong>t ability,<br />
synergy thinking<br />
Self-motivation<br />
Load capacity<br />
Self-organization, ability<br />
to control a situation<br />
Empathe, tolerance<br />
Fundam<strong>en</strong>tally optimistic<br />
attitude<br />
Social Compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
Leadership skills<br />
Ability of self-criticism<br />
Individuel Compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
The figure above clearly shows how cultural compet<strong>en</strong>ces are embedded in a knowledge,<br />
skills and professional attitude-matrix. Internationalization demands a large number of<br />
qualities of the employee, including intercultural experi<strong>en</strong>ce <strong>en</strong> command of foreign languages.<br />
International studies as well as studies that train future ‘internationals’, should do<br />
more about this. Companies themselves indicate that investing in these skills take a lot of<br />
time and money with the risk of losing qualified personnel to (better paying and better<br />
opportunities for developm<strong>en</strong>t offering) competitors. The intercultural compet<strong>en</strong>ces, that<br />
have be<strong>en</strong> positioned as a spider in the c<strong>en</strong>tre of its compet<strong>en</strong>ce-web by Bolt<strong>en</strong>, are formed<br />
by a combination of:<br />
– personal qualities, including load capacity, immunity to stress, indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t learning,<br />
control of differ<strong>en</strong>t and varying and situations,<br />
– professional or expert knowledge, including international professional experi<strong>en</strong>ce, specific<br />
knowledge in various international contexts,
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
– social compet<strong>en</strong>ces, such as working in (intercultural and multicultural) teams, communication<br />
skills (including command of languages), empathy and tolerance, and finally<br />
– strategic skills, such as knowledge managem<strong>en</strong>t, organizational tal<strong>en</strong>t, problem solving<br />
and synergetic abilities.<br />
Bolt<strong>en</strong>’s German compet<strong>en</strong>ce system as blueprint for compet<strong>en</strong>ce requirem<strong>en</strong>ts in professional<br />
practice<br />
German professional literature (e.g. Bolt<strong>en</strong> 2001 and Erp<strong>en</strong>beck et al. 2001, 2003) distinguishes<br />
the following compet<strong>en</strong>ce areas in which the international is active and for which<br />
he needs to be suffici<strong>en</strong>tly prepared during his studies. First of all it makes s<strong>en</strong>se to define<br />
the usual descriptions of the compet<strong>en</strong>ce areas used:<br />
Method<strong>en</strong>kompet<strong>en</strong>z (Mek)<br />
Method or strategic compet<strong>en</strong>ces The following aspects are therefore included: Analytical and decision<br />
making skills, the ability to acquire experi<strong>en</strong>ce and effici<strong>en</strong>tly<br />
store experi<strong>en</strong>ce indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>tly, pres<strong>en</strong>tation skills, organizational<br />
skills, pres<strong>en</strong>tation techniques, <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurial thinking, holistic<br />
thinking and the ability to transfer knowledge to practice. The last<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ce is m<strong>en</strong>tioned most oft<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Analytical skills and power of discernm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Ability to learn indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>tly<br />
Organizational skills<br />
Sozialkompet<strong>en</strong>z (Sok)<br />
Social compet<strong>en</strong>ces This includes: To work in a team, contact with customers, empathy,<br />
leadership compet<strong>en</strong>ces, communication skills, i.e. command<br />
of foreign languages as well as mother tongue and intercultural<br />
skills and ethics.<br />
Teamplayer<br />
Empathy<br />
Leadership skills<br />
Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z (SeK)<br />
Individual compet<strong>en</strong>ces This includes: Motivation, critical self-awar<strong>en</strong>ess, self-reflection,<br />
immunity to stress, creativity, all soft skills related to flexibility,<br />
mobility, responsibility and loyalty. Finally the self-study compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
that is extremely important to maintain international contacts.<br />
Motivation skills<br />
Critical skills<br />
Immunity to stress<br />
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Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z (FaK)<br />
Professional compet<strong>en</strong>ces We include: Technical and (business) economic knowledge, expert<br />
knowledge in various fields (barring languages), such as market<br />
knowledge and marketing, legal knowledge, national as well as<br />
international (treaties, customs, import and export regulations,<br />
etc.), computer skills and practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce in these fields, especially<br />
abroad.<br />
Technical and/or business-specific professional knowledge<br />
Market, legal and company knowledge<br />
Interkulturelle Kompet<strong>en</strong>z (IkK)<br />
Intercultural compet<strong>en</strong>ces Nevertheless, IkK will be included as a separate analytical category,<br />
since it is indeed cultural knowledge and knowledge of country and<br />
people that <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs and owner-directors associate with internationalization<br />
Foreign / practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
Knowledge of other countries and cultures<br />
Polyc<strong>en</strong>trism<br />
Sprachkompet<strong>en</strong>z (SpK)<br />
Command of languages Command of foreign languages is stated in many advertisem<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
as an important condition to develop international activities within<br />
and outside the company. East European languages, Chinese,<br />
Russian, and English of course, are important languages. The interviewees<br />
<strong>en</strong>dorse their increasing importance.<br />
Communication (foreign languages)<br />
Knowledge of foreign languages (according to European<br />
refer<strong>en</strong>ces)<br />
Table 5 Overview of the six compet<strong>en</strong>ce areas used, Source: Armbrust (2007: 16-24, 32ff)<br />
The question at hand is whether an international’s education should cover all these compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
areas, in other words whether the stud<strong>en</strong>t can expect from his studies to <strong>en</strong>ter the<br />
professional world as an ‘experi<strong>en</strong>ced professional’. This is the field of t<strong>en</strong>sion betwe<strong>en</strong><br />
what education at a FH or an institute for professional education can offer on the one<br />
hand and the compet<strong>en</strong>ces that can be acquired elsewhere.<br />
Export. Choosing markets abroad<br />
Western Europe is still Germany’s principal trading partner, followed by Asia, North-<br />
America, Russia, Eastern Europe and finally African and Latin-American countries.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Research in Germany into export activities shows the following countries as the major<br />
growth markets: Eastern Europe (m<strong>en</strong>tioned by 15 companies), Asia or the Far East<br />
(m<strong>en</strong>tioned by 13 companies), followed by Western Europe (9 companies) – e.g. the<br />
Netherlands and France are important trade partners for Germany – , North-America<br />
(3 companies), Russia (3 companies) and the Middle East, Africa and South-America. It<br />
would be interesting to break this down per sector (industry, High-Tech, IT, trade or service)<br />
and find the causes for certain t<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>cies towards internationalization.<br />
Examples of internationalization (from the interviews conducted)<br />
1 High-Tech company: Company C for instance (for reasons of anonymity the companies<br />
in these examples are d<strong>en</strong>oted by a letter), a High-Tech company from Gels<strong>en</strong>kirch<strong>en</strong><br />
(40 employees), has 30 to 40% of its turnover from export to countries such as North-<br />
Africa, Switzerland, Austria and South-Africa. Furthermore, there is a strategic alliance<br />
with Novell in North-America. Report has it that there is a growth market, and<br />
together with Novell more than 40 countries will be reached. It is also feasible that an<br />
interesting take-over bid will be made, but at the same time extreme growth and high<br />
profitability cannot be ruled out. Strategically this involves a systematic and structured<br />
market approach, using the system of ‘customer following’: in a s<strong>en</strong>se the customers act<br />
as growth multipliers. This way of growing is fairly aggressive and requires continuous<br />
feedback of new customer data and growth pot<strong>en</strong>tial. This strategy is the result of<br />
company C’s finance structure, i.e. through v<strong>en</strong>ture capital and its high risk profile but<br />
at the same time it g<strong>en</strong>erates high profits. International contacts are made through an<br />
active approach of various markets simultaneously and for distribution purposes, company<br />
C has a departm<strong>en</strong>t for the German market and one for other markets. Dep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>t<br />
on customer growth these departm<strong>en</strong>ts will be ext<strong>en</strong>ded or disposed of. The organization<br />
knows a divisional structure, which is remarkable for a company of this size as a<br />
similar structure is more oft<strong>en</strong> used by multinationals, ministries or large organizations<br />
and hardly ever by smaller companies. Perhaps it is due to managem<strong>en</strong>t’s strategic decisions<br />
and the tasks being performed by primarily natural sci<strong>en</strong>tists, mathematicians and<br />
computer sci<strong>en</strong>tists. The departm<strong>en</strong>ts work indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>tly and with their own budgets<br />
and are headed by a deputy manager who, as repres<strong>en</strong>tative of the board, can operate<br />
indep<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong>tly. High-Tech companies’ necessity to internationalize is the result of, on<br />
the one hand v<strong>en</strong>ture capital financing, and on the other hand the subsequ<strong>en</strong>t impulse<br />
for growth. While software and other computer related products have no ‘national’<br />
boundaries. C’s divisional structure will, in case of failing profitability, lead to disposing<br />
of or shutting down divisions.<br />
2 Industrial company: G, a larger industrial company and producer and supplier of packaging<br />
machines for food and pharmaceutical industry, employing 120 people and with<br />
a turnover of 50% in export (worldwide, mainly in Europe and Asia). The company<br />
uses freelancers who are very familiar with the various markets and work on the basis<br />
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of personal contacts. Exhibitions and customers are visited on the spot for instances.<br />
G’s organizational structure is fairly flat, employees work in German as well as other<br />
markets, and distribution is not structurally divided according to language areas. This<br />
means that there is a need for ‘g<strong>en</strong>eralists’ rather than specialists – whether that means<br />
that you know a lot of few things, is not clear. The procedures used within the company<br />
reflect that. In the compet<strong>en</strong>ces required and the personal qualities too reflect<br />
the organizational structure: personalities are needed, people with manners and human<br />
relations skills, adept at negotiations, responsible, flu<strong>en</strong>cy, good command of English,<br />
etc. For purposes of comparison: with company C the important skills m<strong>en</strong>tioned were:<br />
expert knowledge and commercial skills, command of German and English, good fit<br />
with the company and innovative and creative thinking and acting.<br />
3 Service: A headhunter from Frankfurt/M, A, employs an aggressive strategy of expansion.<br />
Various sales offices abroad have be<strong>en</strong> op<strong>en</strong>ed and there are more to follow worldwide<br />
(including Milan, Moscow and Hong Kong) in the next few years. Customers<br />
start their own office somewhere in the world and hire the services of a headhunting<br />
ag<strong>en</strong>cy, to which A responds immediately. A follows in the wake of the economic<br />
expansion of others. Their information does not come from ext<strong>en</strong>sive market research<br />
– it is not about a product that needs to be put on the market – but rather from data on<br />
financial markets. The company does not have specialists for special geographical areas<br />
or special branches, but customers are paired with employees who counsel them from<br />
beginning to <strong>en</strong>d. Thus project managem<strong>en</strong>t, the ability to supervise a project from start<br />
to finish, is oft<strong>en</strong> m<strong>en</strong>tioned as the most important skill, as well as business s<strong>en</strong>se. Here<br />
too, foreign experi<strong>en</strong>ce plays a major part in the hiring policy. Furthermore, soft skills<br />
or managerial skills, communication and social skills as well as certain personal qualities<br />
such as flexibility and the willingness to continuously learn evid<strong>en</strong>tly play a part. Eight<br />
out of A’s 27 employees have a university degree, in humanities, business economics<br />
and math, 6 employees have an FH-degree (four economic and administrative schools<br />
and two with a degree in banking). A background in economics or arithmetic can be<br />
se<strong>en</strong> with many companies, but in this case employees with a differ<strong>en</strong>t background<br />
such as languages have turned out to be suitable employees. This is due to the fact that<br />
in most cases personality is the deciding factor wh<strong>en</strong> considering suitability.<br />
Evaluation<br />
It is difficult to properly divide compet<strong>en</strong>ces, knowledge, skills, and professional attitude<br />
on the basis of imprecise meaning of terms and expressions. However, on the basis of<br />
the results of the interviews, a number of constants can be determined, both concerning<br />
the curr<strong>en</strong>t requirem<strong>en</strong>ts for employees and for higher professional education and future<br />
employees in SMEs.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
By way of conclusion of this evaluation and description of the shortcomings of<br />
FH-graduates I will try to summarize and break down in perc<strong>en</strong>tages the compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
areas as defined by Bolt<strong>en</strong> (2001) and used in this research as well the three questions<br />
m<strong>en</strong>tioned above.<br />
An evaluation of the interviews<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> we assume the said compet<strong>en</strong>ce areas, a division of the three questions per sector is<br />
possible. The following matrix expresses the data in absolute numbers, brok<strong>en</strong> down per<br />
question according to the five sectors interviewed.<br />
Mek SoK SeK FaK IkK SpK Total<br />
Industry Question 1 7 9 14 14 8 10 62<br />
Question 2 9 10 12 13 8 6 58<br />
Question 3 4 3 9 7 8 3 34<br />
High-Tech Question 1 4 11 9 11 4 7 46<br />
Question 2 7 10 10 5 7 5 44<br />
Question 3 6 5 6 9 7 2 35<br />
IT Question 1 5 5 5 13 7 7 42<br />
Question 2 12 4 8 11 4 6 45<br />
Question 3 6 4 3 9 10 5 37<br />
Trade Question 1 4 9 11 10 10 9 53<br />
Question 2 14 10 17 5 12 4 62<br />
Question 3 7 3 6 7 9 6 38<br />
Service Question 1 8 4 11 10 9 10 52<br />
Question 2 13 1 11 7 9 6 47<br />
Question 3 14 2 5 11 12 5 49<br />
Total 120 90 137 142 124 91 704<br />
Table 6 Compet<strong>en</strong>ces by sector<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> we look at the matrix above we can conclude that there are differ<strong>en</strong>t priorities within<br />
the various branches, which, however, does not become clear from working out the<br />
interviews. A first glance at the matrix (see the totals in the bottom row) makes clear that<br />
especially the professional compet<strong>en</strong>ce, the body of knowledge (Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z) with<br />
a relatively high score of 142 (= 20.2%) takes an important place with the interviewees<br />
regarding their expectations of FH-graduates as well as FH-education.<br />
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All in all, we see a varying picture with differ<strong>en</strong>t c<strong>en</strong>tres of gravity for every sector. It is<br />
striking that personal qualities (Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z) score points with trading companies and<br />
in the service industry, as to be expected considering the fact that personality is ess<strong>en</strong>tial in<br />
maintaining external contacts.<br />
With the service industry the Method<strong>en</strong>kompet<strong>en</strong>z scores for questions 2 and 3 catch the<br />
eye, both concerning education and the long-term requirem<strong>en</strong>ts. On the other hand, for<br />
question 1, Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z, Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z and Sprachkompet<strong>en</strong>z score points.<br />
Compet<strong>en</strong>ce in education and practice<br />
Many of the compet<strong>en</strong>ces and characteristics m<strong>en</strong>tioned before are specifically linked to<br />
the companies for which they are valid according to the interviewees. Frequ<strong>en</strong>tly stated<br />
matters such as command of languages at a certain, internationally approved, higher level<br />
appear with all companies. It is remarkable that the level varies considerably per sector.<br />
Legal service companies demand flu<strong>en</strong>t use of a foreign language, whereas for industrial<br />
companies, IT or High-Tech companies a lower communication level. In 43 of the 45<br />
interviews conducted command of foreign languages does appear as an ess<strong>en</strong>tial elem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
in an international’s proper functioning and as an important task for educational institutes.<br />
Interestingly <strong>en</strong>ough, there are no pointers as to feasibility in a four-year bachelor<br />
education in the Netherlands or a five-year on in Germany. It would be obvious to link<br />
this to the practical clusters in the curriculum (work placem<strong>en</strong>t and final in-company<br />
assignm<strong>en</strong>ts; which incid<strong>en</strong>tally are less strongly repres<strong>en</strong>ted in the curricula in Germany<br />
than in the Dutch ones), which should by and large be filled with experi<strong>en</strong>ces abroad<br />
(apart from work placem<strong>en</strong>t and final assignm<strong>en</strong>ts, one or two semesters studying abroad<br />
could be considered). Unfortunately, only a small perc<strong>en</strong>tage of Dutch stud<strong>en</strong>ts have work<br />
placem<strong>en</strong>ts abroad; the figures for German stud<strong>en</strong>ts are unknown. As far as social compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
are concerned, it is notable that IT and High-Tech companies m<strong>en</strong>tioned these relatively<br />
just as oft<strong>en</strong> as trading, industrial and service companies, while one would expect<br />
expert knowledge to be considered more important in IT and High-Tech. Interestingly,<br />
the concept Sozialkompet<strong>en</strong>z is frequ<strong>en</strong>tly m<strong>en</strong>tioned in the High-Tech sector, both as an<br />
<strong>en</strong>try requirem<strong>en</strong>t and as requirem<strong>en</strong>t for the educational institutes; it seems that this has<br />
to do with the assumption that this aspect could do with a lot more att<strong>en</strong>tion in technical<br />
education anyway, ev<strong>en</strong> if less importance will be attached to it in the future. Technical<br />
qualifications as such do not suffice and more att<strong>en</strong>tion should be paid to social and personal<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ces.<br />
Technique and soft skills<br />
The differ<strong>en</strong>ce is also remarkable in personal qualities and/or soft skills. These too are not<br />
as common in especially IT but appear more oft<strong>en</strong> in High-Tech companies (in particular<br />
as <strong>en</strong>try requirem<strong>en</strong>t). Interculturally, knowledge of other countries and cultures receive
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
lower score in IT and High-Tech companies. On the other hand we can see higher scores<br />
for expert knowledge in trade, IT and industry, while IT obviously presumes knowledge<br />
of software, computers, etc. In this respect it is noteworthy that knowledge of PCs and<br />
software receives higher scores in industrial companies, presumably because IT and High-<br />
Tech companies assume that these subjects are being taught anyway and that the employee<br />
to be appointed has suffici<strong>en</strong>t knowledge.<br />
Services and compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
As far as education’s role in the acquisition of compet<strong>en</strong>ces is concerned, we see that<br />
with logistic service companies, expert knowledge, especially in logistics, score points.<br />
Languages and intercultural compet<strong>en</strong>ces and s<strong>en</strong>sibility score points across the board.<br />
Social compet<strong>en</strong>ces are explicitly m<strong>en</strong>tioned here and there by High-Tech and industrial<br />
companies. The important task of teaching how to implem<strong>en</strong>t theory in practice lies with<br />
education. The same goes for especially IT, trade and service. Communication skills as<br />
such are in turn required by the High-Tech sector. Appar<strong>en</strong>tly, education scores badly in<br />
this matter, although it is conceivable that the ‘type of stud<strong>en</strong>t’ that applies for a position<br />
within this sector arguably has received a technical education where there is little training<br />
in communication compet<strong>en</strong>ces. This would be the g<strong>en</strong>eral view of the technically educated.<br />
Remarks concerning shortcomings in education<br />
Regarding education the g<strong>en</strong>eral response is that it is lacking integration concerning expert<br />
knowledge. There are no suggestions as to how things can be improved, although it is<br />
obvious that a practical interpretation is being referred to, where various compet<strong>en</strong>ces are<br />
appealed to simultaneously and are acquired or improved.<br />
Communication skills<br />
The communication skills of FH-stud<strong>en</strong>ts are oft<strong>en</strong> comm<strong>en</strong>ted on. Matters such as pres<strong>en</strong>tations<br />
(both internal and external), handling customers etc. are se<strong>en</strong> as important and<br />
many an interviewee is critical: know what a customer wants, how to put yourself in the<br />
customer’s shoes is an important skill. Small talk, sales talks, writt<strong>en</strong> correspond<strong>en</strong>ce etc<br />
are also part of the list. Most oft<strong>en</strong> the command of two foreign languages ‘with a certain<br />
amount of confid<strong>en</strong>ce’ is presumed. This involves many simulations or role plays during<br />
classes and in particular a focus on the results of these simulations or role plays.<br />
A recurring question in many interviews is whether the FH is indeed the place to teach<br />
soft skills, including a wide variety of individual skills, in particular. Practical reality is<br />
oft<strong>en</strong> the test of their pres<strong>en</strong>ce. This also means that soft skills can oft<strong>en</strong> be acquired in<br />
practice, should the not be pres<strong>en</strong>t with FH-graduates.<br />
Internationally, but nationally as well, speech varies <strong>en</strong>ormously: not every customer,<br />
every supplier, nor every buyer speaks Hochdeutsch or Que<strong>en</strong>’s English. The same goes<br />
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for other languages. The question is whether you can prepare stud<strong>en</strong>ts for this. It is interesting<br />
to study which strategies can be used to deal with these situations. Here too, practice,<br />
experi<strong>en</strong>ces abroad, seems to be the best teacher. Practical clusters with international<br />
companies will supply the necessary experi<strong>en</strong>ces. A combination of a command of languages<br />
and a (long) stay abroad oft<strong>en</strong> go hand in hand with the statem<strong>en</strong>ts, which seems<br />
logical from the point of view of somebody with practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce.<br />
English<br />
In IT English is a necessary means of communication, other than that there are no specific<br />
demands as to the stud<strong>en</strong>ts’ command of languages. Regarding languages, apart from list<strong>en</strong>ing<br />
skills an active command of probably company-specific jargon that is used in emails<br />
and fax messages is required. Basic grammar and vocabulary seem inevitable. The jargon<br />
itself can best be learned within the company.<br />
Flu<strong>en</strong>t English is a presumed skill by many companies. Experi<strong>en</strong>ce shows however that<br />
due to a lacking professional attitude, the command of English is insuffici<strong>en</strong>t (school<br />
English versus professional English).<br />
Transfer of knowledge to practice<br />
Transferring theoretical knowledge to practice remains difficult according to SMEmanagers.<br />
Stud<strong>en</strong>ts themselves should really have the skills to implem<strong>en</strong>t theory in practice,<br />
but those skills have oft<strong>en</strong> not be<strong>en</strong> taught. Here lies another important task for higher<br />
professional education.<br />
Intercultural s<strong>en</strong>sitivity<br />
Another recurring theme is the difficulty of teaching intercultural s<strong>en</strong>sitivity, experi<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
and knowledge at FH. A lot is learned ‘on the spot’ (by means of APL), and practical<br />
experi<strong>en</strong>ce should therefore constitute a large part of professional education.<br />
Motivation of the international<br />
Another important aspect is the ‘motivation’ that FH instil into stud<strong>en</strong>ts. What does<br />
motivation comprise? Higher professional education will have to put considerable effort<br />
into exploring the professional field in order to be able to provide the stud<strong>en</strong>ts with the<br />
ability to with the self-confid<strong>en</strong>ce to <strong>en</strong>ter into future professional roles (e.g. through<br />
professional advisory committees and teacher training). Within the scope of school career<br />
counselling as well of education by projects, the Netherlands curr<strong>en</strong>tly put in efforts<br />
regarding careers guidance, where many stud<strong>en</strong>ts actively canvass practical assignm<strong>en</strong>ts.<br />
For international contacts and based on the appar<strong>en</strong>t lack of flu<strong>en</strong>cy in the rele<strong>van</strong>t<br />
foreign language, many companies employ the services of interpreter/ translators. This<br />
involves legal docum<strong>en</strong>ts or treatises in particular, the complexity of which does not allow<br />
for mistakes.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
SME and multinationals<br />
Stud<strong>en</strong>ts are oft<strong>en</strong> not prepared for working with SMEs: FH and universities oft<strong>en</strong> teach<br />
‘global company thinking’, which is of little use in SMEs. It is advisable, in conjunction<br />
with SMEs, to determine a more precise set-up of the FH-curricula, thus making sure<br />
education and practice are better attuned.<br />
9-to-5 m<strong>en</strong>tality<br />
Lacking is commitm<strong>en</strong>t, e.g. no 9-to-5 m<strong>en</strong>tality, and practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce. This is only<br />
m<strong>en</strong>tioned once, whereas the interviewees in the Dutch research oft<strong>en</strong> criticize the lacking<br />
9-to-5 m<strong>en</strong>tality. In our research this m<strong>en</strong>tality was listed under personal qualities<br />
(Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z), but it was only m<strong>en</strong>tioned that one time during an interview with a<br />
trading company. Disappointing experi<strong>en</strong>ces with company loyalty may have be<strong>en</strong> at the<br />
basis of this complaint.<br />
The three questions compared<br />
In the table below the scores from earlier tables are brok<strong>en</strong> down to the differ<strong>en</strong>t compet<strong>en</strong>ces.<br />
The decision to class the said aspects with one compet<strong>en</strong>ce or the other is determined<br />
by Armbrust’s description (2007: 25). The various answers have be<strong>en</strong> classed with<br />
the most obvious overall compet<strong>en</strong>ce, which results in the following figures and perc<strong>en</strong>tages:<br />
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Total<br />
What do FH-graduates What does the What is required of<br />
need to know and be curriculum of higher the future<br />
able to do wh<strong>en</strong> they professional education FH-graduate?<br />
want to start Working need to contain?<br />
in SMEs?<br />
Method<strong>en</strong>kompet<strong>en</strong>z 28 55 37 120<br />
Sozialkompet<strong>en</strong>z 38 35 17 (!) 90<br />
Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z 50 58 29 137<br />
Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z 58 41 43 142<br />
Interkulturelle Kompet<strong>en</strong>z 38 40 46 124<br />
Sprachkompet<strong>en</strong>z 43 27 21 91<br />
Table 7 Summary table of compet<strong>en</strong>ces and questions<br />
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The figures in the table above have be<strong>en</strong> calculated according to a classification of all<br />
skills, compet<strong>en</strong>ces and knowledge areas m<strong>en</strong>tioned in one of the six compet<strong>en</strong>ce areas.<br />
Curr<strong>en</strong>t employees particularly know and have the Sozialkompet<strong>en</strong>z<strong>en</strong>, ev<strong>en</strong> though it<br />
is rated as relatively less important for education (especially in view of the future!). The<br />
interviewees attach more value to the Method<strong>en</strong>kompet<strong>en</strong>z where the ability to learn,<br />
pres<strong>en</strong>tation skills and ability to implem<strong>en</strong>t theory to practice influ<strong>en</strong>ce the relatively<br />
high score. Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z is a relatively stable factor and remains important under all<br />
circumstances; although it is striking that in the future it is not the personal qualities,<br />
but the Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z<strong>en</strong>, the body of knowledge and the interkulturelle Kompet<strong>en</strong>z<br />
that will be the deciding factors. The professional educational institutes (the Dutch ones<br />
too) that teach internationals for positions with SMEs will be able to focus on these<br />
wh<strong>en</strong> structuring their curricula. It is notable that Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z scores relatively low<br />
for the future. Compared to the matrix on page 58 and the table from Schaeper/Briedis’<br />
research on page 18, Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z forms an important compet<strong>en</strong>ce for the international,<br />
both in everyday practice and on the basis of what is being taught during his studies.<br />
The Method<strong>en</strong>kompet<strong>en</strong>z scores points for education too, although for question 3 the<br />
emphasis is rather on Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z and especially the oft<strong>en</strong>-m<strong>en</strong>tioned interkulturelle<br />
Kompet<strong>en</strong>z. Thus, compared to the table from Schaeper/Briedel’s (2004) research<br />
(cf. page XX), education should ideally put less emphasis on Method<strong>en</strong>kompet<strong>en</strong>z and<br />
Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z, and again focus on the body of knowledge (Fachwiss<strong>en</strong>, Fachk<strong>en</strong>ntnisse),<br />
(40-50% of the graduates has this expert knowledge; 62% has a broad basic knowledge,<br />
but this seems to be too little for the future), as well as on the Sozialkompet<strong>en</strong>z (pres<strong>en</strong>t<br />
in only 31% of the FH-graduates according to the Schaeper/Briedis research). Simply distressing<br />
is the fact that a command of foreign languages scores points as a prerequisite in<br />
all researches, but that less than 31% of the graduates are suffici<strong>en</strong>tly compet<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Conclusions<br />
The previous contains a fair amount of conclusions drawn from the interview data already.<br />
In short the following matters are striking:<br />
1 Education must be better geared towards what professional practice requires from<br />
future internationals. This involves expert knowledge too. Expert knowledge remains a<br />
prerequisite; without it, SMEs have little to offer the future international (many of the<br />
45 interviewees answers boil down to this). With respect to cont<strong>en</strong>t, professional education,<br />
especially where it concerns internationalization, will have to better tune into<br />
those aspects that will result from applied research in the business world (e.g. access to<br />
international markets, possible and successful forms of cooperation, forms of international<br />
cooperation and company strategies concerning internationalization, advice prac-
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tice concerning internationalization or the necessity for survival for local companies in<br />
a global context).<br />
2 The implem<strong>en</strong>tation skills with respect the theories learned in professional practice<br />
deserve a lot more att<strong>en</strong>tion that they curr<strong>en</strong>tly get. We are referring to the Dublin<br />
descriptors that has giv<strong>en</strong> professional education many a gray hair. How can stud<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
prove during their studies that they are fit for a position in the professional world (and<br />
how can a teacher judge that)? How can they make the transfer from certain processes<br />
in company X to company Y, without the necessary insight and knowledge in the professional<br />
practice on the one hand and the assumed or required theoretical knowledge<br />
on the other? What complicates this transfer? Perhaps theory and practice are not in<br />
line? Perhaps more practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce should be incorporated into education (e.g. by<br />
external experts)?<br />
3 In the eyes of <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs, the role of foreign languages, with English in first place,<br />
followed by Eastern European languages (Polish, Russian) and Chinese and Indian,<br />
remains very important and is oft<strong>en</strong> m<strong>en</strong>tioned in the first instance. What it <strong>en</strong>tails in<br />
concrete terms for a foreign language to be mastered at an acceptable level, does not<br />
become clear from the interviews. If, however, the higher level is aspired after, a critical<br />
examination of FH-graduates’ flu<strong>en</strong>cy will learn that spontaneous and flu<strong>en</strong>t usage of<br />
a language is aiming too high in various situations. Investing in language education at<br />
higher professional educational institutes teaching internationals would seem no luxury.<br />
4 Knowledge of language, country and culture form an important point of interest for the<br />
economic FH according to the interviewees. Command of languages, at least in excell<strong>en</strong>t<br />
command of the mother tongue and th<strong>en</strong> two or three other languages gives the<br />
employees in SMEs added value. It is difficult to determine the need for knowledge of<br />
languages in ad<strong>van</strong>ce. Among other things, it dep<strong>en</strong>ds on international developm<strong>en</strong>ts,<br />
the markets that need to be developed, the flu<strong>en</strong>cy level, employees’ language skills, etc.<br />
The acquisition of a second or third language is oft<strong>en</strong> a matter for education. It would<br />
be wise to look from the point of view of professional practice at what that knowledge<br />
of language should consist of: this could range from writing few emails in a foreign<br />
language to a full product pres<strong>en</strong>tation and answering complicated technical questions.<br />
This need should be made more appar<strong>en</strong>t in the professional profiles. I can acquire a<br />
language at differ<strong>en</strong>t levels, but the question is whether there are any programs tailored<br />
to these needs, preferably for the various sectors. World trade language English<br />
is an ad<strong>van</strong>tage in practically all cases, ev<strong>en</strong> though the command of basic Russian or<br />
Chinese by German internationals is a good option where it concerns service companies<br />
or companies with many customer relations in Russia or China respectively. In<br />
connection with this it is oft<strong>en</strong> stated that a prolonged stay in a certain country is an<br />
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ad<strong>van</strong>tage, especially wh<strong>en</strong> the rele<strong>van</strong>t language has be<strong>en</strong> acquired – without ev<strong>en</strong> considering<br />
the training costs this saves the company!<br />
5 Integral education. A more integral approach towards company, product and rele<strong>van</strong>t<br />
sector, as well as the connection with the type of people needed form important input<br />
for the educational institutes: the various institutes prepare stud<strong>en</strong>ts for a certain professional<br />
profile and draw from the integral approach towards price, product, personnel,<br />
place, etc. With respect to the four Ps for the international in SMEs, the following<br />
could be interesting for education and professional practice:<br />
– Personality<br />
– Professionalism<br />
– Place on the Planet<br />
– Performance<br />
6 Intercultural knowledge or s<strong>en</strong>sitivity is oft<strong>en</strong> m<strong>en</strong>tioned as an important condition<br />
for a proper functioning in an international business <strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t. The term comprises<br />
matters such as Landeskunde, knowledge of country and people, obviously the language<br />
spok<strong>en</strong> elsewhere, the rele<strong>van</strong>t uses or habits, awar<strong>en</strong>ess of certain non-verbal and<br />
paraverbal aspects, such as gestures or intonation. During a course in cross-cultural<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t for a group of Germans in Groning<strong>en</strong>, there turned out to be a lot of professional<br />
appreciation for the do’s and don’ts, i.e. what is and what is not appropriate<br />
behaviour in other countries. The drawback of this approach is that it highlights stereotypical<br />
behaviour and expressions, which could well insult the more cosmopolitan<br />
Japanese or Chinese, because they may for instance have learned that certain greeting<br />
ceremonies or eating habits are differ<strong>en</strong>t elsewhere and they would like to behave<br />
accordingly.<br />
7 Commercial skills (kaufmännische Kompet<strong>en</strong>z<strong>en</strong>) are high on the list of requirem<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
for future employees. From the German interviews especially business economic knowledge<br />
and insights and international legal knowledge prove to be well-appreciated.<br />
8 Although the ability to implem<strong>en</strong>t theory in practice is an important<br />
Method<strong>en</strong>kompet<strong>en</strong>z, in practice Sozialkompet<strong>en</strong>z and to a lesser ext<strong>en</strong>t personal qualities<br />
(Selbstkompet<strong>en</strong>z) prove to play an important part. SMEs’ increasing focus on<br />
internationalization does give companies reason to aim for Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z, including<br />
experi<strong>en</strong>ce abroad.<br />
9 For smaller companies, the jack-of-all-trades, the ‘egg laying wool milk sow’ (eierleg<strong>en</strong>de<br />
Wollmilchsau), and perhaps the chameleon too, with his skills and professional<br />
attitude remain the specialist’s competitor. With smaller companies we see the recurring
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
use of the term broader g<strong>en</strong>eral education (breite g<strong>en</strong>eralistische Ausbildung), while larger<br />
SMEs prefer specialization (Spezialisierung), e.g. in certain regions of the world on<br />
which the economic activities are focussed.<br />
10 Under requirem<strong>en</strong>ts for future internationals are listed characteristics such as creative,<br />
mobile, preparedness to travel, innovative and committed. Moreover it is an ad<strong>van</strong>tage<br />
if the international to be appointed has experi<strong>en</strong>ce abroad and/or has done a work<br />
placem<strong>en</strong>t abroad (Armbrust 2007: 33). An important question in this respect remains<br />
where the international should acquire or improve these characteristics, if they have not<br />
be<strong>en</strong> developed yet in the international who made the conscious choice for an international<br />
career.<br />
Ev<strong>en</strong> though the following points do not <strong>en</strong>tirely belong to the subject at hand, they are<br />
worth m<strong>en</strong>tioning in the framework of internationalization and education’s role therein:<br />
a In the Netherlands, the British business schools serve as an example. During this<br />
research Canadian and American business schools were m<strong>en</strong>tioned. This needs to be<br />
put into perspective: the Dutch and German business schools are the result of experi<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
in education in the respective countries. It may be wise not to blindly copy business<br />
school models from elsewhere – just like some universities like to promote themselves<br />
as the Dutch Berkeley or Harvard. It is important to put your own str<strong>en</strong>gths to the<br />
fore.<br />
b Within SMEs there is hardly ever any career planning. This should be addressed in the<br />
FH / <strong>Business</strong> school careers guidance.<br />
c Building and ext<strong>en</strong>ding international networks was not m<strong>en</strong>tioned oft<strong>en</strong>, but is not<br />
unimportant in the global economic world. The initial impetus to teach the communicative<br />
skills needed to achieve that could already be giv<strong>en</strong> during the (international)<br />
work placem<strong>en</strong>ts or assignm<strong>en</strong>ts – although many interviewees were of the opinion that<br />
<strong>en</strong>tering into and maintaining contacts is not important until the FH-graduate is actually<br />
employed by a company. Practical business experi<strong>en</strong>ce is acquired in work placem<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
of shorter or longer duration, practical assignm<strong>en</strong>ts or the acquisition of practical<br />
assignm<strong>en</strong>ts or during final assignm<strong>en</strong>ts within companies. As became clear from the<br />
interviews, the practical compon<strong>en</strong>t plays a less important part in German FH than in<br />
the Netherlands. The German FH-bachelor course takes 5 years, opposed to 4 years for<br />
the Dutch bachelor course. The Dutch business schools require at least 25% in practical<br />
assignm<strong>en</strong>ts (work placem<strong>en</strong>t, education by projects, final assignm<strong>en</strong>ts). In the scope<br />
of professional guidance, many guest speakers are invited in the Netherlands to expand<br />
on the professional profile. On top of that professional advisory committees play an<br />
important part in education’s evaluation in term of practical value.<br />
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d Dutch and German stud<strong>en</strong>ts oft<strong>en</strong> choose the option of a dual diploma: a course in<br />
their own country and two semesters at another institute, oft<strong>en</strong> abroad. Not only do<br />
stud<strong>en</strong>ts improve their language skills, the differ<strong>en</strong>t points of view on Fachkompet<strong>en</strong>z<br />
help to achieve the desired broader perspective on working in differ<strong>en</strong>t cultures.<br />
Differ<strong>en</strong>ces betwe<strong>en</strong> the Netherlands and Germany<br />
Introduction<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> we compare the results of the analysis in the previous to those of the Dutch<br />
research, there are a number of points that clarify similarities as well as differ<strong>en</strong>ces betwe<strong>en</strong><br />
the two countries.<br />
Multifunctionality: should the national ‘piglet’ become an international ‘chameleon’? First<br />
of all, in view of the <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurship, multifunctionality is important: terms such as g<strong>en</strong>eral<br />
dogsbody, jack-of-all-trades or, in German, an egg-laying Wollmilchsau are m<strong>en</strong>tioned.<br />
An SME-employee is an all-rounder, speaks his languages, can read and interpret balance<br />
sheets and yearly reports, and has a large number of compet<strong>en</strong>ces making him employable<br />
in various places and at various levels. In that respect the Sau (all-rounder-piglet) differs<br />
from the suggested image of the Dutch chameleon, which does not assume qualifications<br />
externally, but has the innate capability to adapt to a situation and act appropriately.<br />
Specialization<br />
The ext<strong>en</strong>t of specialization is another important differ<strong>en</strong>ce betwe<strong>en</strong> German and Dutch<br />
internationals. The image of a degree of specialization coincides with the cont<strong>en</strong>ts of the<br />
various FH-curricula; indeed, as opposed to the Netherlands, Germany is more production-ori<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
than service-ori<strong>en</strong>ted, which has consequ<strong>en</strong>ces for the type of compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
that are deemed important as well as their developm<strong>en</strong>t. The Dutchman will sooner ask:<br />
‘What can you do with it?’ (customer-ori<strong>en</strong>ted), while the German will ask: ‘What do you<br />
mean?’ (product-ori<strong>en</strong>ted) and will th<strong>en</strong> launch into a profound speculation of the underlying<br />
theme. A more ext<strong>en</strong>sive research into the differ<strong>en</strong>ces betwe<strong>en</strong> Dutch and German<br />
FH, which is outside the scope of the research at hand, is in order.<br />
Succession within a company<br />
In Germany the matter of succession is of the utmost importance. Many smaller family<br />
businesses do not stay in the hands of the owner-director, which leads to an uncertain<br />
future. The offspring or other family members do not succeed him.<br />
In the Netherlands this problem will surface less oft<strong>en</strong>, because the matter of succession is<br />
oft<strong>en</strong> resolved outside the family circle.
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Compet<strong>en</strong>ce dispute<br />
Th<strong>en</strong> the compet<strong>en</strong>ce dispute: in the Netherlands the aim is to the right man in the right<br />
place. This task-ori<strong>en</strong>ted approach can result in a new employee to be appointed is better<br />
or higher qualified than for instance the departm<strong>en</strong>t manager or owner-director. This<br />
approach does not pose any problems in g<strong>en</strong>eral. In Germany however, the personal compet<strong>en</strong>ce<br />
dispute is a factor that could hinder the ‘right man in the right place’-principle.<br />
Competition based on level of education (and therefore status) leads to appointm<strong>en</strong>ts of<br />
employees in the wrong positions more oft<strong>en</strong> than had be<strong>en</strong> assumed up until now. After<br />
all, the owner-director does not tolerate competition. His expertise is beyond questioning.<br />
Knowledge or skill?<br />
The question th<strong>en</strong> is whether the available types of education, the expert knowledge<br />
acquired and internalized compet<strong>en</strong>ces during the studies, do lead to the type of employee<br />
needed. There is the impression, and rightly so it turns out from the interviews conducted<br />
with 45 <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs and from the colleagues in Bocholt, that Dutch professional<br />
education are g<strong>en</strong>erally speaking more practice- or profession-ori<strong>en</strong>ted (one could say:<br />
more pragmatic), while the German Fachhochschul<strong>en</strong> still focus their att<strong>en</strong>tion on knowledge<br />
and technical skills (EDP-knowledge, sector-knowledge, knowledge and skills<br />
regarding business economics). In that respect the differ<strong>en</strong>ce betwe<strong>en</strong> key qualifications<br />
(Schlüsselqualifikation<strong>en</strong>), referring to technical and expert knowledge, and the Dutch key<br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ces, which focus on the broader practical skills and practical experi<strong>en</strong>ce in particular,<br />
is striking. In many cases the Dutch stud<strong>en</strong>t is better employable, because careers<br />
guidance, work placem<strong>en</strong>ts and practical final assignm<strong>en</strong>ts (oft<strong>en</strong> including implem<strong>en</strong>tation<br />
plans for internal change processes) form a fixture in the Dutch higher professional<br />
education curricula. The contacts and relations betwe<strong>en</strong> FH and the business world, for<br />
instance through professional advisory committees, is underdeveloped in Germany. This is<br />
the case in particular for SMEs’ involvem<strong>en</strong>t in FH-courses.<br />
Outsourcing<br />
One of the striking elem<strong>en</strong>ts from the research is that German companies outsource less<br />
than their Dutch colleagues. A possible explanation is a psychological one: the German<br />
<strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eur prefers to remain in control in order to be able to continue to deliver reliable<br />
and qualitative products. The German system of exhibitions and fairs, where <strong>en</strong>trepr<strong>en</strong>eurs<br />
themselves pres<strong>en</strong>t their own products and have the customers come to them (see further).<br />
Exhibitions as a world market place<br />
Compared to the Netherlands, exhibitions are greatly valued in Germany – in a s<strong>en</strong>se this<br />
is linked to the previous point. As long as we do not operate as much externally, we will<br />
have to bring in the external world. German exhibitions and fairs are such small-scale<br />
world market places, where the home turf is used to display the goods. Rec<strong>en</strong>t research of<br />
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the IfM in Bonn (April 2007) remarkably shows that many SMEs are relatively reluctant<br />
to move: ‘moving the business seat is g<strong>en</strong>erally speaking no option for SMEs. Small and<br />
medium-sized companies rather distinguish themselves through their extreme loyalty to<br />
their places of business’ (Haunschild et al. 2007: 4).<br />
Strategic thinking and leadership<br />
The importance of strategic (or long-term) thinking is another interesting aspect. What<br />
part does this play in their education and how do stud<strong>en</strong>ts come into contact with it: in<br />
Germany the emphasis is so much more on the operational side of leadership or managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
of for instance production, sales or buying, whereas in the Netherlands, more in line<br />
with Anglo-Saxon thought about leadership and managem<strong>en</strong>t, the strategic side (cultural,<br />
structural and strategic aspects) predominates. In Haijtema’s booklet (2005) with interviews<br />
with great thinkers in the area of leadership and managem<strong>en</strong>t for instance, contains<br />
only names and portrayals of Anglo-Saxon (British and American) gurus or, if they originate<br />
from other countries, graduates from universities such as Harvard University. The<br />
German type of managem<strong>en</strong>t or leadership, including the differ<strong>en</strong>t company cultures, may<br />
have (but does necessarily have) certain consequ<strong>en</strong>ces for the internationalization process.<br />
Consider the failed merger of BMW and Rover for instance.<br />
The learning organization<br />
In the Netherlands the emphasis is more in the importance of compet<strong>en</strong>ces acquired<br />
earlier or elsewhere, whereas in Germany it is on leb<strong>en</strong>slangem Lern<strong>en</strong> (perpetual learning).<br />
This in fact explains the differ<strong>en</strong>ce betwe<strong>en</strong> on the one hand the specifically trained<br />
employee who follows various follow-up courses to acquire or catch up the knowledge<br />
and skills appropriate for his position and to exercise his duties at an up-to-date<br />
level (Germany), and on the other hand the employee who, based on his compet<strong>en</strong>ces,<br />
applies for a position in which he or she can further develop (the Netherlands). In the<br />
Netherlands it is more a matter of the individual employee choosing a job and working<br />
<strong>en</strong>vironm<strong>en</strong>t. Employers too can select pot<strong>en</strong>tial employees on the basis of their compet<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
acquired elsewhere or at an earlier stage; expert knowledge, with the exception of<br />
technical professions, is oft<strong>en</strong> made subordinate to skills (communicative compet<strong>en</strong>ces).<br />
The need for internationalization<br />
Finally, there is ‘abroad’ as a market for German and Dutch companies respectively.<br />
Although both economies are active internationally, the need for internationalization is<br />
primarily ess<strong>en</strong>tial for Dutch SMEs. Cross-border compet<strong>en</strong>ces and all it <strong>en</strong>tails, will sooner<br />
be part of the Dutch SME-employee’s profile than of the German’s. The question is,<br />
and this should lead to a profound comparative study betwe<strong>en</strong> Dutch higher professional<br />
educational studies and German Fachhochschulstudi<strong>en</strong>gänge, in which specific parts of<br />
the curricula in both countries att<strong>en</strong>tion is paid to internationalization: language, intercul-
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
tural knowledge and skills, intercultural awar<strong>en</strong>ess and s<strong>en</strong>sitivities, personal qualities or<br />
profession-specific matters such as marketing concepts or finance.<br />
For their critical comm<strong>en</strong>ts I am grateful to Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong>, Anne-Marie Haanstra,<br />
Matthieu <strong>van</strong> d<strong>en</strong> Bosch, Gé Gro<strong>en</strong>eweg<strong>en</strong> and Gerard <strong>van</strong> Hal.<br />
Literature<br />
Armbrust, K. (2007) “Internationals für die mittelständische Wirtschaft”. Welche für die<br />
internationale Berufspraxis spezifisch<strong>en</strong> Anforderung<strong>en</strong> stell<strong>en</strong> deutsche kleine- und<br />
mittelständische Unternehm<strong>en</strong> an Hochschulabsolv<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>? Bocholt (Diplomarbeit<br />
im Fachbereich Wirtschaftswiss<strong>en</strong>schaft<strong>en</strong> an der Fachhochschule Gels<strong>en</strong>kirch<strong>en</strong>,<br />
Abteilung Bocholt).<br />
Beobachtungsnetz der europäisch<strong>en</strong> KMU (2003/1) Entwicklung von Kompet<strong>en</strong>z<strong>en</strong> und<br />
Qualifikation<strong>en</strong> in KMU (2003/1). Luxemburg: Europäische Kommission.<br />
Beobachtungsnetz der europäisch<strong>en</strong> KMU (2004/4) Internationalisierung von KMU<br />
(2004/4). Luxemburg: Europäische Kommission.<br />
Bolt<strong>en</strong>, J. (2001) Interkulturelles Coaching, Mediation, Training und Consulting als<br />
Aufgab<strong>en</strong> des Personalmanagem<strong>en</strong>ts internationaler Unternehm<strong>en</strong>. In: A. Clem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
red. Strategisches Personalmanagem<strong>en</strong>t in Global<strong>en</strong> Unternehm<strong>en</strong>. Münch<strong>en</strong>, 909-926<br />
(reprint in: Jürg<strong>en</strong> Bolt<strong>en</strong>, Claus Erhardt eds. (2002) Interkulturelle Kommunikation.<br />
Texte und Übung<strong>en</strong> zum interkulturell<strong>en</strong> Handeln. Stern<strong>en</strong>feld: Verlag Wiss<strong>en</strong>schaft &<br />
Praxis, 369-394).<br />
Braaksma, R. (2005) ‘Internationals’ voor het MKB. Wat moet e<strong>en</strong> HBO’er wet<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong><br />
voor de internationale beroepspraktijk in het MKB? Zoetermeer: EIM.<br />
Briedis, K. & Schaeper, H. (2003) Kompet<strong>en</strong>z<strong>en</strong> von Hochschulabsolv<strong>en</strong>tinn<strong>en</strong><br />
und Hochschulabsolv<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>, berufliche Anforderung<strong>en</strong> und Folgerung<strong>en</strong> für die<br />
Hochschulreform. Hannover: HIS.<br />
Erp<strong>en</strong>beck, J. & Ros<strong>en</strong>stiel, L. von (2001, 2003) Handbuch Kompet<strong>en</strong>zmessung. Stuttgart:<br />
Schäffer-Poeschel.<br />
Haijtema, D. (2005) Leiderschap in de 21ste eeuw. Amsterdam, Antwerp<strong>en</strong>: Uitgeverij<br />
<strong>Business</strong> Contact.<br />
Haunschild, L. et al. (2007) Kurzfassung: Die Bedeutung der auß<strong>en</strong>wirtschaftlich<strong>en</strong><br />
Aktivität<strong>en</strong> für d<strong>en</strong> deutsch<strong>en</strong> Mittelstand. Bonn: IfM. Consulted 3 May 2007.<br />
www.ifm-bonn.org/<br />
Mahone Jr, C.E. (1995) A comparative analysis of the differ<strong>en</strong>ces in perceived obstacles to<br />
exporting by small- and medium-sized manufacturers and traders. The International<br />
Trade Journal 9/3, 325-332.<br />
Seelmann-Holzmann, H. (2004) Global Players brauch<strong>en</strong> Kulturkompet<strong>en</strong>z. So sichern Sie<br />
Ihre Wettbewerbsvorteile im Asi<strong>en</strong>geschäft. Nürnberg: BW Bildung und Wiss<strong>en</strong>.<br />
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Sulli<strong>van</strong>, D. (1994) Measuring the degree of internationalisation of a firm. Journal of<br />
International <strong>Business</strong> Studies, Vol. 25, 325-42.<br />
Vonk, F. (2006) Kleur gev<strong>en</strong> aan ‘internationals’ in het MKB. Over compet<strong>en</strong>ties <strong>van</strong><br />
‘internationals’ in het MKB. <strong>Arnhem</strong>: <strong>HAN</strong> University Press.<br />
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de wadd<strong>en</strong>unit op weg naar de wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot<br />
Krimptaakstelling Rijksoverheid<br />
Sam<strong>en</strong>vatting<br />
Het regeerakkoord 2007-2011 k<strong>en</strong>t e<strong>en</strong> forse bezuinigtaakstelling voor de rijksoverheid.<br />
In opdracht <strong>van</strong> het ministerie <strong>van</strong> Landbouw, Natuur <strong>en</strong> Voedselkwaliteit (LNV), directie<br />
Regionale Zak<strong>en</strong> (DRZ) vestiging Noord in Groning<strong>en</strong> is onderzocht óf <strong>en</strong> hoe de krimptaakstelling<br />
<strong>van</strong> twintig proc<strong>en</strong>t bij één <strong>van</strong> de bedrijfsonderdel<strong>en</strong>, de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit, gerealiseerd<br />
kan word<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Inleiding<br />
De Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit is e<strong>en</strong> onderdeel <strong>van</strong> het ministerie <strong>van</strong> LNV. De unit bestaat uit vier<br />
inspectieschep<strong>en</strong>, derti<strong>en</strong> fulltime medewerkers <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> coördinator. Deze vier schep<strong>en</strong><br />
zijn de ‘Phoca’ <strong>en</strong> de ‘Stormvogel’ (var<strong>en</strong>d in het westelijke deel <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee), de<br />
‘Krukel’ (var<strong>en</strong>d in het midd<strong>en</strong>gedeelte <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee) <strong>en</strong> de ‘Harder’ (var<strong>en</strong>d in het<br />
oostelijke deel <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee). De Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit voert voor verschill<strong>en</strong>de opdrachtgevers<br />
op de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee tak<strong>en</strong> uit.<br />
Figuur 1 De Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit<br />
a f i n a d e n o o r d e n t i n e k e k r a m e r-klein<br />
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106<br />
De wadd<strong>en</strong>unit op weg naar de wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot<br />
Het werkgebied bestaat uit het Nederlandse deel <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> gedeelte <strong>van</strong> de<br />
Noordzeekustzone, totaal 395.000 hectare. De omstandighed<strong>en</strong> waaronder de medewerkers<br />
moet<strong>en</strong> werk<strong>en</strong> zijn zeer bijzonder te noem<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>merk <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee is dat<br />
ze tweemaal per dag gedeeltelijk leegstroomt <strong>en</strong> ook tweemaal onder water staat. Door de<br />
op<strong>en</strong>ing<strong>en</strong> tuss<strong>en</strong> de eiland<strong>en</strong> (zeegat<strong>en</strong>) stroomt het water uit de Noordzee de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee<br />
in <strong>en</strong> uit. E<strong>en</strong> wantij is de plaats waar de vloedstrom<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de beide zeegat<strong>en</strong> aan weerszijd<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> eiland elkaar ontmoet<strong>en</strong>. Hier is de vloedstroom het zwakst <strong>en</strong> bezinkt het<br />
meeste slib. Er is op die plek wel eb- <strong>en</strong> vloedbeweging, maar nauwelijks stroming, met<br />
als gevolg dat het wantij de meest ondiepe zone is. Dit kan voor de bemanning <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
inspectieschip betek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> dat ze niet terug kunn<strong>en</strong> var<strong>en</strong> naar de thuisbasis <strong>en</strong> op het schip<br />
’s nachts op zee moet<strong>en</strong> blijv<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Onderzoeksaanpak<br />
De onderzoeksvraag luidde:<br />
‘Onderzoek wat de tak<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> de rol <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit zijn, de voor- <strong>en</strong> nadel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de<br />
voorligg<strong>en</strong>de opties voor de krimptaakstelling <strong>en</strong> onderbouw deze met e<strong>en</strong> risicoanalyse.<br />
Doe op grond hier<strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> voorstel voor e<strong>en</strong> advies <strong>van</strong> het Landelijk Managem<strong>en</strong>tteam<br />
<strong>van</strong> DRZ aan de Bestuursraad (ambtelijk bestuur <strong>van</strong> het ministerie)’.<br />
De bevinding<strong>en</strong> zijn gebaseerd op:<br />
– interviews met de medewerkers <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit;<br />
– interviews met beleidsmedewerkers <strong>van</strong> het ministerie <strong>van</strong> LNV directie Regionale<br />
Zak<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– interviews met medewerkers <strong>van</strong> Rijkswaterstaat directie Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee;<br />
– interne LNV-docum<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– vakliteratuur;<br />
– websites.<br />
Tak<strong>en</strong><br />
Om e<strong>en</strong> verantwoorde keuze te mak<strong>en</strong> hoe de krimptaakstelling kan word<strong>en</strong> gerealiseerd,<br />
is het onderzoek gestart met e<strong>en</strong> inv<strong>en</strong>tarisatie <strong>van</strong> alle werkzaamhed<strong>en</strong>. Daarna is het aantal<br />
b<strong>en</strong>odigde vaardag<strong>en</strong> aan de werkzaamhed<strong>en</strong> gekoppeld.<br />
De opsomming <strong>van</strong> alle tak<strong>en</strong> per opdrachtgever geeft e<strong>en</strong> compleet beeld <strong>van</strong> alle tak<strong>en</strong><br />
die door de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit word<strong>en</strong> uitgevoerd. Hieruit blijkt e<strong>en</strong> diversiteit aan tak<strong>en</strong>. Als<br />
alle vaardag<strong>en</strong> bij elkaar word<strong>en</strong> opgeteld, komt de totale inzet <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit op 656<br />
vaardag<strong>en</strong> op jaarbasis. Als deze vaardag<strong>en</strong> gelijkmatig over de schep<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> verdeeld,
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
komt dit neer op 164 vaardag<strong>en</strong> per schip. Rek<strong>en</strong>inghoud<strong>en</strong>d met onderhoud <strong>van</strong> het<br />
schip, verlofdag<strong>en</strong> personeel, et cetera is e<strong>en</strong> inzet <strong>van</strong> maximaal 180 vaardag<strong>en</strong> per schip<br />
haalbaar.<br />
Figuur 2 De bodem <strong>van</strong> de drooggevall<strong>en</strong> Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee<br />
De kerntak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit zijn:<br />
– inbr<strong>en</strong>g <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis in het beleid over het wadd<strong>en</strong>gebied, over de natuur in het gebied<br />
<strong>en</strong> over het gebruik <strong>van</strong> het gebied;<br />
– toezicht houd<strong>en</strong> op de vergunning op grond <strong>van</strong> de Natuurbeschermingswet 1998 voor<br />
LNV <strong>en</strong> de noordelijke provincies;<br />
– toezicht houd<strong>en</strong> op vergunning op grond <strong>van</strong> de Visserijwet;<br />
– uitvoer<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> tak<strong>en</strong> die nodig zijn in het kader <strong>van</strong> het verpacht<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> mosselpercel<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– gastheerrol, nam<strong>en</strong>s het Rijk, voor gebruikers <strong>en</strong> bezoekers <strong>van</strong> het gebied.<br />
In de nabije toekomst zull<strong>en</strong> extra werkzaamhed<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit word<strong>en</strong> gevraagd<br />
t<strong>en</strong> behoeve <strong>van</strong> het ‘Monitoringsplan conv<strong>en</strong>ant vaarrecreatie Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee’ <strong>en</strong> ‘Plan <strong>van</strong><br />
Uitvoering conv<strong>en</strong>ant transitie mosselsector <strong>en</strong> natuurherstel Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee’. In de berek<strong>en</strong>ing<br />
<strong>van</strong> de vaardag<strong>en</strong> zijn deze reeds toegezegde tak<strong>en</strong> niet opg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong>, omdat t<strong>en</strong> tijde<br />
<strong>van</strong> het onderzoek nog ge<strong>en</strong> duidelijkheid bestond over de gevraagde inzet in dag<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Krimptaakstelling op m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> middel<strong>en</strong><br />
Tijd<strong>en</strong>s e<strong>en</strong> brainstormsessie met de medewerkers <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit zijn verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
opties bedacht om tot invulling <strong>van</strong> de krimptaakstelling op m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> middel<strong>en</strong><br />
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108<br />
De wadd<strong>en</strong>unit op weg naar de wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot<br />
te kom<strong>en</strong>. Vervolg<strong>en</strong>s zijn deze opties nader verk<strong>en</strong>d. Aan de hand <strong>van</strong> die verk<strong>en</strong>ning<br />
is bepaald welke opties haalbaar zoud<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> zijn <strong>en</strong> nadere uitwerking behoev<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Hiervoor kwam<strong>en</strong> twee opties in aanmerking:<br />
Van vier naar twee schep<strong>en</strong><br />
Deze optie vergt e<strong>en</strong> behoorlijke investering in nieuwe grotere schep<strong>en</strong> (€ 2,5 à 3 miljo<strong>en</strong><br />
per schip). De invoering <strong>van</strong> continudi<strong>en</strong>st<strong>en</strong> maakt dat het huidige aantal fte’s minimaal<br />
moet word<strong>en</strong> behoud<strong>en</strong> of zelfs moet word<strong>en</strong> uitgebreid, hetge<strong>en</strong> betek<strong>en</strong>t dat de krimp<br />
op m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> niet kan word<strong>en</strong> verwez<strong>en</strong>lijkt. Het aantal vaardag<strong>en</strong> (540) neemt aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijk<br />
af t<strong>en</strong> opzichte <strong>van</strong> het maximaal haalbare met vier schep<strong>en</strong> (720), hetge<strong>en</strong> zal leid<strong>en</strong> tot<br />
minder toezicht. T<strong>en</strong> slotte kwam uit de interviews naar vor<strong>en</strong> dat er slechts bij e<strong>en</strong> paar<br />
medewerkers <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit draagvlak is voor continudi<strong>en</strong>st<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong>wege de consequ<strong>en</strong>ties<br />
voor het sociale lev<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> het thuisfront.<br />
Van vier naar drie schep<strong>en</strong><br />
Deze optie betek<strong>en</strong>t dat één schip uit de vaart wordt g<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong>, hetge<strong>en</strong> betek<strong>en</strong>t dat de<br />
krimp op m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> gerealiseerd kan word<strong>en</strong>. Het aantal vaardag<strong>en</strong> (540) neemt aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijk<br />
af t<strong>en</strong> opzichte <strong>van</strong> het maximaal haalbare met vier schep<strong>en</strong> (720), hetge<strong>en</strong> zal leid<strong>en</strong> tot<br />
minder toezicht. Voor deze optie bestaat iets meer draagvlak.<br />
Uit alle interviews is overig<strong>en</strong>s geblek<strong>en</strong> dat voor de krimp als zodanig ge<strong>en</strong> draagvlak is<br />
<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> ieder de voorkeur geeft aan het in de vaart houd<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> vier schep<strong>en</strong>. De eerlijkheid<br />
gebiedt te vermeld<strong>en</strong> dat e<strong>en</strong> onderbouwing/nuancering hierbij ontbrak <strong>en</strong> dit meer e<strong>en</strong><br />
gevoelsmatig standpunt was.<br />
Af te stot<strong>en</strong> tak<strong>en</strong><br />
Met e<strong>en</strong> duidelijk overzicht <strong>van</strong> huidige <strong>en</strong> toekomstige tak<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> de daaraan gekoppelde<br />
vaardag<strong>en</strong> is de volg<strong>en</strong>de stap in het onderzoek gezet, namelijk bepal<strong>en</strong> welke werkzaamhed<strong>en</strong><br />
afgestot<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> kleiner word<strong>en</strong>de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit betek<strong>en</strong>t dat niet alle<br />
werkzaamhed<strong>en</strong> meer kunn<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> uitgevoerd. De insteek hierbij is dat de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit<br />
alle<strong>en</strong> nog vaart voor de eig<strong>en</strong> (LNV) vaarbehoefte. Aan de hand <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> risicoanalyse is<br />
vervolg<strong>en</strong>s gekek<strong>en</strong> of het verantwoord <strong>en</strong> haalbaar is de krimp te realiser<strong>en</strong>.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Figuur 3 Sleepnet met mossel<strong>en</strong><br />
Risico’s<br />
Na onderzoek zijn de interne <strong>en</strong> externe analyses in e<strong>en</strong> matrix (figuur 4) gezet. De<br />
interne analyse geeft de sterkt<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> zwakt<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> organisatie weer. Hierop kun je als<br />
organisatie invloed uitoef<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>. De externe analyse geeft de kans<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> bedreiging<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
organisatie weer. Op deze factor<strong>en</strong> kun je als organisatie ge<strong>en</strong> invloed uitoef<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>.<br />
Kans<strong>en</strong><br />
Bedreiging<strong>en</strong><br />
Figuur 4 SWOT-analyse<br />
sterkt<strong>en</strong><br />
vs.<br />
kans<strong>en</strong><br />
sterkt<strong>en</strong><br />
vs.<br />
bedreiging<strong>en</strong><br />
zwakt<strong>en</strong><br />
vs.<br />
kans<strong>en</strong><br />
zwakt<strong>en</strong><br />
vs.<br />
bedreiging<strong>en</strong><br />
109
110<br />
De wadd<strong>en</strong>unit op weg naar de wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot<br />
De interne <strong>en</strong> externe analyse kunn<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> sam<strong>en</strong>gevoegd in e<strong>en</strong> confrontatiematrix.<br />
Dan kunn<strong>en</strong> antwoord<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> verkreg<strong>en</strong> op de volg<strong>en</strong>de vrag<strong>en</strong>: welke kans kun je<br />
b<strong>en</strong>utt<strong>en</strong> met e<strong>en</strong> sterk punt? Welke bedreiging kun je afw<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong> met behulp <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> sterk<br />
punt? Door welk zwak punt wordt het b<strong>en</strong>utt<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> kans verhinderd? Door welk<br />
zwak punt wordt het afw<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> bedreiging verhinderd? Aan de hand <strong>van</strong> de antwoord<strong>en</strong><br />
op deze vrag<strong>en</strong> zijn e<strong>en</strong> aantal conclusies getrokk<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Krimp<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit heeft als gevolg dat er minder wordt gevar<strong>en</strong> omdat er minder<br />
m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> minder materieel zijn. Het gevolg <strong>van</strong> minder beschikbare schep<strong>en</strong> is dat<br />
het te bevar<strong>en</strong> gebied per schip groter wordt. De hieruit voortvloei<strong>en</strong>de to<strong>en</strong>ame <strong>van</strong> het<br />
aantal wantij<strong>en</strong> per gebied maakt het haast onmogelijk nog op dagbasis te blijv<strong>en</strong> var<strong>en</strong>. Er<br />
zal vaker op zee overnacht moet<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong>, omdat e<strong>en</strong> schip e<strong>en</strong> wantij niet meer over kan<br />
var<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Als de krimp gerealiseerd moet word<strong>en</strong>, moet<strong>en</strong> de tak<strong>en</strong>, die buit<strong>en</strong> de eig<strong>en</strong> vaarbehoefte<br />
vall<strong>en</strong>, word<strong>en</strong> afgestot<strong>en</strong>. Gezi<strong>en</strong> de rec<strong>en</strong>te ontwikkeling<strong>en</strong> rondom de mossel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> het<br />
project ‘gastheerschap’ is het op dit mom<strong>en</strong>t niet raadzaam deze tak<strong>en</strong> af te stot<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong>wege<br />
de politieke consequ<strong>en</strong>ties <strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisverlies t<strong>en</strong> behoeve <strong>van</strong> beleidsontwikkeling.<br />
E<strong>en</strong> andere ontwikkeling, het opzett<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> rijksbrede Wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot, biedt weer allerlei<br />
kans<strong>en</strong>. De kwetsbaarheid wordt minder <strong>en</strong> de dekking <strong>van</strong> het gebied kan word<strong>en</strong> geoptimaliseerd.<br />
M<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong>, middel<strong>en</strong>, k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>en</strong> vaardighed<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> gedeeld met als<br />
doel het op termijn behal<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> synergiewinst.<br />
Conclusie<br />
E<strong>en</strong> krimp levert alle<strong>en</strong> nadel<strong>en</strong> op. Deze moet<strong>en</strong> echter zo beperkt mogelijk blijv<strong>en</strong> voor<br />
de medewerkers, het materieel, het gebied <strong>en</strong> voor de k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>van</strong> natuur <strong>en</strong> visserij. Op<br />
basis <strong>van</strong> dit onderzoek moet word<strong>en</strong> geconcludeerd dat krimp<strong>en</strong> nu ge<strong>en</strong> optie is.<br />
De huidige formatie <strong>en</strong> het huidige aantal schep<strong>en</strong> bij de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit is nodig voor het kunn<strong>en</strong><br />
uitvoer<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> alle (LNV-)tak<strong>en</strong> op de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee. Afstoting <strong>van</strong> tak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> derd<strong>en</strong> levert<br />
ge<strong>en</strong> dusdanige vermindering op <strong>van</strong> vaardag<strong>en</strong> dat er e<strong>en</strong> schip minder zou kunn<strong>en</strong> var<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Met het oog op de toekomstige ontwikkeling<strong>en</strong> zal het werk alle<strong>en</strong> nog maar to<strong>en</strong>em<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Het advies is om de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit zichtbaar te lat<strong>en</strong> zijn <strong>en</strong> te houd<strong>en</strong> op de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee,<br />
met de huidige formatie <strong>en</strong> het aantal schep<strong>en</strong>, <strong>en</strong> de krimptaakstelling op dit bedrijfsonderdeel<br />
niet te realiser<strong>en</strong>. Wel moet de kom<strong>en</strong>de jar<strong>en</strong> de sam<strong>en</strong>werking word<strong>en</strong> gezocht<br />
<strong>en</strong> gerealiseerd met de andere var<strong>en</strong>de rijksdi<strong>en</strong>st<strong>en</strong> in e<strong>en</strong> rijksbrede wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Meerwaarde onderzoek<br />
Eind maart 2009 heeft het ministerie <strong>van</strong> LNV, mede op basis <strong>van</strong> de uitkomst<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
dit onderzoek, beslot<strong>en</strong> dat de krimptaakstelling voor de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit voorlopig <strong>van</strong> de<br />
baan is. Onderzocht zal word<strong>en</strong> of het mogelijk is de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit sam<strong>en</strong> te lat<strong>en</strong> gaan<br />
met andere overheidsdi<strong>en</strong>st<strong>en</strong> die tak<strong>en</strong> uitvoer<strong>en</strong> op het Wad. Het opzett<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
Wadd<strong>en</strong>vloot maakt het wellicht alsnog mogelijk te bespar<strong>en</strong> op m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> middel<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Literatuur<br />
Ar<strong>en</strong>ds, C. (2009) Stagerapport Gastheerschap m/v op de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee, uitwerking <strong>van</strong> activiteit<br />
11 “Wadwacht” uit het Conv<strong>en</strong>ant Varrecreatie wadd<strong>en</strong>zee 2007.<br />
Block, P. (1996) Feilloos adviser<strong>en</strong>, E<strong>en</strong> praktische gids voor adviesvaardighed<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Schoonhov<strong>en</strong>: Academic Service.<br />
Caluwé, L. de & Vermaak, H. (2006) Ler<strong>en</strong> verander<strong>en</strong>, e<strong>en</strong> handboek voor de veranderkundige.<br />
Kluwer.<br />
Dam, N. <strong>van</strong> & Marcus, J. (2005) Organisatie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t. Groning<strong>en</strong>: Wolters-<br />
Noordhoff.<br />
Keizer, J. & Kemp<strong>en</strong>, P. (2006) Compet<strong>en</strong>t afstuder<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> stagelop<strong>en</strong>, E<strong>en</strong> advieskundige<br />
b<strong>en</strong>adering. Groning<strong>en</strong>: Wolters Noordhoff.<br />
LNV (2007) Leidraad reorganisaties LNV, Geactualiseerde versie<br />
LNV (2003) Sam<strong>en</strong>werking Wadd<strong>en</strong>vaartuig<strong>en</strong> LNV, Eindrapport.<br />
LNV (2008) DRZ nog slimmer <strong>en</strong> slanker.<br />
LNV (2009) Voorg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> Organisatiebesluit Beleidskern.<br />
LNV (2009) Plan <strong>van</strong> Uitvoering conv<strong>en</strong>ant transitie mosselsector <strong>en</strong> natuurherstel<br />
Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee, Natuurlijk Voorwaarts.<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Binn<strong>en</strong>landse Zak<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> Koninkrijksrelaties (2008) Rechtspositie<br />
rijksambt<strong>en</strong>aar.<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Binn<strong>en</strong>landse Zak<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> Koninkrijksrelaties (2008) Algeme<strong>en</strong><br />
Rijksambt<strong>en</strong>ar<strong>en</strong>reglem<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Binn<strong>en</strong>landse Zak<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> Koninkrijksrelaties (2008) Bezoldigingsbesluit<br />
Burgerlijke Rijksambt<strong>en</strong>ar<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Verkeer <strong>en</strong> Waterstaat (2008) Projectplan “Versterk<strong>en</strong> sam<strong>en</strong>werking<br />
inspectiedi<strong>en</strong>st<strong>en</strong> Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee”.<br />
Oosterbaan, W. (2008) E<strong>en</strong> leesbare scriptie. Amsterdam: Prometheus.<br />
Aanwijzingsbesluit Natura 2000 Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee.<br />
Aanwijzingsbesluit Natura 2000 Noordzeekustzone.<br />
Conv<strong>en</strong>ant Vaarrecreatie Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee 2007.<br />
Concept functiebeschrijving coördinator wadd<strong>en</strong>beheer.<br />
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Regionale innovatie als economische strategie<br />
Coördinatieplan Ramp<strong>en</strong>bestrijding Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee.<br />
Jaarverslag Staatsbosbeheer 2007.<br />
Jaarverslag Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit 2005, 2006 <strong>en</strong> 2007.<br />
Jaarverslag Stormvogel 2008.<br />
www.minlnv.nl<br />
www.wadd<strong>en</strong>zee.nl<br />
www.wadd<strong>en</strong>zeewerelderfgoed.nl<br />
www.overheid.nl/wett<strong>en</strong> t.b.v. de Arbeidsomstandighed<strong>en</strong>wet, Regeling vaartijd<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
bemanningssterkte binn<strong>en</strong>vaart.<br />
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www.wikipedia.nl
personal developm<strong>en</strong>t plan:<br />
designing a career plan<br />
Abstract<br />
A personal developm<strong>en</strong>t plan or PDP helps companies and employers to keep track of set<br />
commitm<strong>en</strong>ts and developm<strong>en</strong>ts on the career plan. This paper discusses various models<br />
(EFQM, Iip and BSC) and managem<strong>en</strong>t styles which can be used to use PDP more effectively<br />
witin HRM.<br />
This article is writt<strong>en</strong> on account of my graduation in Italy in August 2009. KEMA<br />
Quality Italia gave me the opportunity to ext<strong>en</strong>d my stay after my internship in Italy.<br />
As the cont<strong>en</strong>t of my internship report was about Recruitm<strong>en</strong>t and Retaining in KEMA<br />
Italia, the possibility to prepare a career plan design for KEMA Italia employees for my<br />
graduation assignm<strong>en</strong>t evolved. Therefore, I would like to express my gratitude to those<br />
who gave me the possibility to complete my graduation assignm<strong>en</strong>t. I want to thank the<br />
G<strong>en</strong>eral Manager of KEMA Italia, Mr. Franco Vasta and my colleagues, who <strong>en</strong>couraged<br />
me to go ahead with my graduation assignm<strong>en</strong>t and for their stimulating support.<br />
Introduction<br />
f at m a k ay m a z<br />
As companies may have short term and long term objectives, employees within those<br />
companies surely have their own short and long term objectives too. What do you do<br />
wh<strong>en</strong> you experi<strong>en</strong>ce your employees wanting to develop and grow? Do you avoid it,<br />
or will you take action? If not, perhaps it is time to take an honest look at the state of<br />
yourself, your employee relations and your company HR culture as it stands today.<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> accomplishing your company’s objectives, it is ess<strong>en</strong>tial to look at things from your<br />
employees perspective. Today’s high performing employees are looking for more than<br />
comp<strong>en</strong>sation packages and b<strong>en</strong>efits. Employees today might move to another job for better<br />
comp<strong>en</strong>sation, but they are also looking for growth. Does your company provide suffici<strong>en</strong>t<br />
developm<strong>en</strong>t programs and is the work appealing to people, or is it the same boring<br />
thing every day? Constantly keeping these kind of questions in your mind wh<strong>en</strong> taking<br />
further actions, will provide you a result of an effective developm<strong>en</strong>t in your Human<br />
Resource departm<strong>en</strong>t. However, it is necessary to have a detailed plan of action including<br />
instrum<strong>en</strong>ts that can contribute to an effici<strong>en</strong>t implem<strong>en</strong>tation.<br />
The Personal Developm<strong>en</strong>t Plan, or in short PDP, is a report that maintains a previously<br />
set up agreem<strong>en</strong>ts betwe<strong>en</strong> employer and employee. Only this one refers specifically to<br />
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Personal developm<strong>en</strong>t plan: designing a career plan<br />
the aspiration of the employee regarding personal developm<strong>en</strong>t. We make plans every<br />
day, but do not always write them down; a PDP allows employees to set their own personal<br />
targets and find the best way to achieve them. Also, employees make a critical self<br />
evaluation and get insight of their available and or to be improved compet<strong>en</strong>ces and skills<br />
in order to develop and grow in their position. Thus making it easier for the company to<br />
recognize the employee’s interest and which training is needed to realize the goals of the<br />
employee. Providing such a platform for employees creates a positive attitude towards the<br />
employer and awar<strong>en</strong>ess of his or her career. The employee will be able to know what he<br />
or she wants and needs, in order to contribute to the organization and will take the right<br />
decisions in accepting new chall<strong>en</strong>ging tasks and or responsibilities.<br />
PDP in the framework of the organization’s developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
PDP should not be se<strong>en</strong> as just a tool but as an integrated useful instrum<strong>en</strong>t where it can<br />
be an added value for the growth of the individual as well for the company. In this paper<br />
I will try to explain the connection betwe<strong>en</strong> PDP and some concepts and models for the<br />
developm<strong>en</strong>t of an organization, view the relation betwe<strong>en</strong> PDP and compet<strong>en</strong>cy managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
and explain the place of PDP within HRM-cycle.<br />
PDP and Managem<strong>en</strong>t Styles<br />
There are differ<strong>en</strong>t methods and styles that can improve the quality of HRM and where<br />
PDP as instrum<strong>en</strong>t can be transformed into an influ<strong>en</strong>cing role. Within this context, the<br />
EFQM-model, IiP (Investors in People) and the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) can be kept in<br />
mind.<br />
The EFQM-model<br />
The EFQM-model exists of nine att<strong>en</strong>tion areas (five organizational and four result areas)<br />
and a feedback loop. The five organizational areas, which <strong>en</strong>close internal and controllable<br />
factors and define the status of the organization are: leadership, managem<strong>en</strong>t of employees,<br />
strategy and policy, managem<strong>en</strong>t of sources and managem<strong>en</strong>t of processes. The four<br />
result areas, which define the status of accomplishm<strong>en</strong>t of the organization are: employee<br />
appreciation, customer and supplier appreciation, society appreciation and board and<br />
financial partners. The model distinguishes five differ<strong>en</strong>t developm<strong>en</strong>t phases for an organization<br />
as follows:<br />
– phase I: Activity-ori<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
– phase II: Process-ori<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
– phase III: System-ori<strong>en</strong>ted
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
– phase IV: Chain-ori<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
– phase V: Transformation-ori<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
An organization is in one of the five organization fields, indicating what pot<strong>en</strong>tial developm<strong>en</strong>ts<br />
are possible. In the context of PDP wh<strong>en</strong> we look at Phase I, the managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
team describes an interpretation of the career developm<strong>en</strong>t policy. In Phase II, the<br />
employee takes the initiative for choosing or taking an education. In Phase III, the personnel<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t and the organization policy are geared to one another and followed with<br />
Phase IV with the aim for a maximum added value in the chain. In Phase V, the HRM<br />
policy is inspiring and leads to excell<strong>en</strong>t performance, where the organization is perceptible<br />
as learning and developing organization.<br />
IiP<br />
Investor in People is a standard which sets out a level of good practice for the training<br />
and developm<strong>en</strong>t of people in order to achieve business goals. The standard is based on<br />
three main principals, namely, plan, do and review. The standard provides a framework<br />
for improving business performance and competitiv<strong>en</strong>ess through a planned approach<br />
to setting and communicating business objectives and developing people to meet these<br />
objectives. The result is what people can and are motivated to do, what the organization<br />
needs them to do. This in fact is a continuous improvem<strong>en</strong>t tool and with the PDP basis an<br />
employee and his manager can reach, on a personal level, the objectives of the organization.<br />
Balanced Scorecard<br />
The Balanced Scorecard is a strategic planning and managem<strong>en</strong>t system to align business<br />
activities to the vision and strategy of the organization, improve internal and external<br />
communications, and monitor organization performance against strategic goals. According<br />
to Kaplan and Norton, “The Balanced Scorecard provides managers with the instrum<strong>en</strong>tation<br />
they need to navigate to future competitive success”. Although it helps to focus<br />
managers’ att<strong>en</strong>tion on strategic issues and the managem<strong>en</strong>t of the implem<strong>en</strong>tation of<br />
strategy, it is important to remember that the Balanced Scorecard itself has no role in the<br />
strategy formation. In fact, Balanced Scorecards can comfortably co-exist with strategic<br />
planning systems and other tools.<br />
PDP in context of compet<strong>en</strong>cy managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Compet<strong>en</strong>cy managem<strong>en</strong>t system helps the organization match the tal<strong>en</strong>ts and str<strong>en</strong>gth<br />
of their employees with the positions that can be best utilize those skills. Compet<strong>en</strong>cy<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t makes a differ<strong>en</strong>ce betwe<strong>en</strong> the traditional personnel managem<strong>en</strong>t, whereas<br />
it creates possibilities in areas of vertical (linking the individual compet<strong>en</strong>cies of employ-<br />
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Personal developm<strong>en</strong>t plan: designing a career plan<br />
ees to the core compet<strong>en</strong>cies of organizations and individual performance to the strategic<br />
aims of the organization) and horizontal integration (where the instrum<strong>en</strong>ts of personnel<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t are all linked and co-ordinated) (Horton & Hondeghem 2002: 175).<br />
Compet<strong>en</strong>cy managem<strong>en</strong>t can provide an ideal <strong>en</strong>trance to imbed the PDP within the<br />
organization. This comes along by providing an explicit att<strong>en</strong>tion for the developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
that compet<strong>en</strong>cy managem<strong>en</strong>t implies and with the above m<strong>en</strong>tioned vertical and horizontal<br />
integration. In order to work with the PDP, the organization has to take in consideration<br />
that the objectives and the demands of the employees should be clearly formulated<br />
and recognised. Also another condition is that employees have to know what they want to<br />
do and which skills, compet<strong>en</strong>cies and position to develop.<br />
PDP in HRM<br />
Wh<strong>en</strong> PDPs are integrated, it has to be recorded in the Human Resource Developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
system. PDP and PDP meetings have to take a promin<strong>en</strong>t position in the HRM cycle<br />
combined with other meetings such as performance and appraisal meetings. PDP meetings<br />
can be brought round and planned separately, where the organization shows explicitly<br />
and visibly the att<strong>en</strong>tion of the developm<strong>en</strong>t of the employees. A constructed argum<strong>en</strong>t to<br />
organize the PDP meetings will th<strong>en</strong> be as follows; PDP meetings are regarding their construction,<br />
aims, character and the type of communication differ<strong>en</strong>t to other conversational<br />
forms. The annually planned PDP meeting is about the wished objectives, developm<strong>en</strong>t<br />
activities regarding their position, commitm<strong>en</strong>t and support of the organization (source<br />
www.hcg.net).<br />
However, in practice the PDP meeting are mostly integrated as a part of differ<strong>en</strong>t meetings<br />
of the annual cal<strong>en</strong>dar. Many companies bring up the PDP meeting along with the performance<br />
meeting, the reasons for this purpose is based on the preparation, execution and the<br />
follow up time and the platform that performance meeting creates to discuss the personal<br />
developm<strong>en</strong>t of employees.<br />
Implem<strong>en</strong>ting PDP successfully<br />
In the matter of successful PDP implem<strong>en</strong>tation, involvem<strong>en</strong>t is the key word. There has<br />
to be suffici<strong>en</strong>t involvem<strong>en</strong>t from managem<strong>en</strong>t, supervisors and employees. The involvem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
is ess<strong>en</strong>tial for both the acceptation and the creation of a base for career design<br />
within the organization. How to involve people is by means of <strong>en</strong>couragem<strong>en</strong>t in new<br />
projects, activities, list<strong>en</strong>ing, providing trust by clear and transpar<strong>en</strong>t managem<strong>en</strong>t style.<br />
Furthermore, employees have to be well-informed about the PDP if the organization<br />
wants to have it implem<strong>en</strong>ted successfully. Therefore it is recomm<strong>en</strong>ded to make a com-
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
munication plan and an action plan, where it states what and wh<strong>en</strong> has to happ<strong>en</strong> and who<br />
to keep responsible for carrying out the PDP.<br />
Communication is especially important in order to sweep any possible distrust of employees<br />
towards the managem<strong>en</strong>t. The PDP meetings should not be se<strong>en</strong> by employees as<br />
s<strong>en</strong>sitive personal material that can be used for counterattack by managem<strong>en</strong>t. Therefore,<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t has to carefully carry out the implem<strong>en</strong>tation plan and communicate each<br />
stage of the process.<br />
Conclusion<br />
By use of the PDP instrum<strong>en</strong>t, de career developm<strong>en</strong>t of an employee will not meet by<br />
chance, but will be a recorded process that is undertak<strong>en</strong> by employees to reflect systematically<br />
upon their compet<strong>en</strong>cies and skills. Guidance from the company will make the<br />
outcomes, or results more explicit, id<strong>en</strong>tify the achievem<strong>en</strong>ts of learning and support the<br />
concept that personal growth is a lifetime activity.<br />
Literature<br />
Berg, I. <strong>van</strong> d<strong>en</strong> & Kanters, T. (2003) Werk<strong>en</strong> met persoonlijke ontwikkelplann<strong>en</strong>: e<strong>en</strong> wegwijzer<br />
voor organisaties. Zaltbommel: Thema.<br />
Cobbold, I. & Lawrie, G. (2002) The Developm<strong>en</strong>t of the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic<br />
Managem<strong>en</strong>t Tool. Performance Measurem<strong>en</strong>t Association.<br />
Dong<strong>en</strong>, T. <strong>van</strong> (2003) Compet<strong>en</strong>tie managem<strong>en</strong>t. En dan?, e<strong>en</strong> m<strong>en</strong>sgerichte visie op compet<strong>en</strong>tiemanagem<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Zaltbommel: Thema.<br />
Futch, K. (2005) Take Your Best Shot: Turning Situations Into Opportunities.<br />
Atlanta: Wagrub Press.<br />
Gaspers, J.B.R. & Hove N.H.L. <strong>van</strong> d<strong>en</strong> (2002) Investors in People: De sleutel tot het tal<strong>en</strong>t<br />
in uw organisatie. Dev<strong>en</strong>ter: Samson.<br />
Gullestrup, H. (2006) Cultural Analysis, towards cross-cultural understanding. Cop<strong>en</strong>hag<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>Business</strong> School Press.<br />
Hondeghem, A. & Horton, S. (2002) Compet<strong>en</strong>cy Managem<strong>en</strong>t in the Publich Sector.<br />
European Group of Public Administration, University of Portsmouth.<br />
Keizer, A.J. & Kemp<strong>en</strong>, P.M (2006) <strong>Business</strong> Research Projects, A solution-ori<strong>en</strong>ted approach,<br />
Groning<strong>en</strong>: Wolters-Noordhoff.<br />
Lievers, B. & Lubberding, J.B. (1996) Change Managem<strong>en</strong>t. Groning<strong>en</strong>: Wolters-<br />
Noordhoff.<br />
Neuij<strong>en</strong>, B. & Sanders, G. (1999) Bedrijfscultuur, diagnose <strong>en</strong> beïnvloeding. Gorchum B.V..<br />
Http://www.hcg.net/activiteit<strong>en</strong>/praktijkvraagstukk<strong>en</strong>.asp: last visited on 28 May 2009<br />
117
topcoaches voor toptal<strong>en</strong>t<br />
De auteurs <strong>van</strong> de volg<strong>en</strong>de twee publicaties zijn Maurijn Hell<strong>en</strong>thal <strong>en</strong> Harm Verweij<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Zij zijn stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> die hebb<strong>en</strong> deelg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> aan Topcoaches voor Toptal<strong>en</strong>t (TvT). Wat<br />
houdt dit in?<br />
Het programma<br />
r e d a c t i e<br />
TvT is ontsprot<strong>en</strong> uit het K<strong>en</strong>nisakkoord Logistiek, dat in 2005 werd opgestart door<br />
TLN, EVO, KNV <strong>en</strong> de Lector<strong>en</strong> Logistiek <strong>van</strong> vijf hogeschol<strong>en</strong> met e<strong>en</strong> logistieke opleiding,<br />
waaronder die <strong>van</strong> de <strong>HAN</strong>. De begeleiding <strong>van</strong> toekomstig logistiek toptal<strong>en</strong>t als<br />
onderdeel <strong>van</strong> het k<strong>en</strong>nisakkoord is <strong>van</strong> meet af aan in hand<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> EVO, de belang<strong>en</strong>behartiger<br />
in Nederland voor verladers, ont<strong>van</strong>gers <strong>en</strong> eig<strong>en</strong> vervoerders. TvT is e<strong>en</strong> uniek<br />
traject waarbij de aansluiting <strong>van</strong> theorie <strong>en</strong> praktijk c<strong>en</strong>traal staat. EVO weet door de vele<br />
contact<strong>en</strong> met het bedrijfslev<strong>en</strong> wat er in de praktijk speelt. Door de sam<strong>en</strong>werking tuss<strong>en</strong><br />
EVO, hogeschol<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> het bedrijfslev<strong>en</strong> wordt aankom<strong>en</strong>d logistiek toptal<strong>en</strong>t dus nog<br />
beter voorbereid op de arbeidsmarkt <strong>en</strong> wordt logistiek, nu <strong>en</strong> in de toekomst, naar e<strong>en</strong><br />
hoger niveau gebracht! De doelstelling <strong>van</strong> het programma is om topstud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> logistiek de<br />
mogelijkheid te gev<strong>en</strong> int<strong>en</strong>sief begeleid te word<strong>en</strong> tijd<strong>en</strong>s het afstudeerjaar door e<strong>en</strong> topcoach<br />
<strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> topbedrijf. Dit betek<strong>en</strong>t dat deze speciaal geselecteerde stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> niet alle<strong>en</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> afstudeerstage uitvoer<strong>en</strong> bij het bedrijf, maar in bredere vorm word<strong>en</strong> voorbereid op<br />
de arbeidspraktijk. Hierbij komt niet alle<strong>en</strong> het aspect logistieke k<strong>en</strong>nis aan bod, maar<br />
vooral ook compet<strong>en</strong>ties die steeds belangrijker word<strong>en</strong> in het arbeidsveld, zoals leiderschap,<br />
communicatieve <strong>en</strong> sociale compet<strong>en</strong>ties <strong>en</strong> de toepassing <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>en</strong> inzicht.<br />
Het K<strong>en</strong>nisakkoord Logistiek was de winnaar <strong>van</strong> de hbo-innovatieprijs 2008. De jury<br />
bekroonde dit project als beste uit vier g<strong>en</strong>omineerde initiatiev<strong>en</strong> omdat het de hoogste<br />
bijdrage levert aan vernieuwing <strong>en</strong> innovatie <strong>van</strong> het onderwijs <strong>en</strong> de beroepspraktijk. De<br />
jury was bijzonder te sprek<strong>en</strong> over de concrete resultat<strong>en</strong> die in korte tijd zijn bereikt met<br />
zoveel partij<strong>en</strong>. Zowel stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> als bedrijv<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> hier aantoonbaar baat bij. Het TvTproject<br />
is daar één voorbeeld <strong>van</strong>.<br />
119
Zwaar toelatingstraject<br />
120<br />
Topcoaches voor toptal<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> die in aanmerking d<strong>en</strong>k<strong>en</strong> te kom<strong>en</strong> voor het programma, moet<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> zware<br />
selectieprocedure door. In eerste instantie maakt de hogeschool de selectie welke stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> sollicitatiegesprek mog<strong>en</strong> voer<strong>en</strong> om te kijk<strong>en</strong> of zij geschikt zijn voor het traject. Als<br />
de uitkomst positief is, stuurt de opleidingsmanager e<strong>en</strong> aanbevelingsbrief naar de selectiecommissie.<br />
Hierna volgt e<strong>en</strong> tweede sollicitatiegesprek met de selectiecommissie, EVO <strong>en</strong><br />
de hogeschol<strong>en</strong>. Als die positief is, volgt e<strong>en</strong> zware compet<strong>en</strong>tietest. Pas daarna volgt de<br />
definitieve selectie voor deelname. Die test wordt uitgevoerd door e<strong>en</strong> onafhankelijk psychologisch<br />
testbureau <strong>en</strong> de uitslag is voor e<strong>en</strong> groot deel bepal<strong>en</strong>d of e<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t wel of<br />
niet mag deelnem<strong>en</strong> aan het programma.<br />
De vierdejaars hbo-stud<strong>en</strong>t logistiek die wordt toegelat<strong>en</strong> tot Topcoaches voor Toptal<strong>en</strong>t,<br />
doorloopt in zijn laatste studiejaar e<strong>en</strong> door EVO sam<strong>en</strong>gesteld programma. De coaching<br />
gaat <strong>van</strong> start op het mom<strong>en</strong>t dat er e<strong>en</strong> koppeling tuss<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> bedrijf heeft plaatsgevond<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Het duurt nog e<strong>en</strong> aantal maand<strong>en</strong> voordat de stud<strong>en</strong>t daadwerkelijk met het<br />
afstudeerproject begint. Daaraan voorafgaand vind<strong>en</strong> al e<strong>en</strong> aantal voorbereiding<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
contactmom<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> plaats. Het vergt dus al direct inzet <strong>en</strong> betrokk<strong>en</strong>heid <strong>van</strong> de coach <strong>en</strong><br />
het logistieke toptal<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Betrokk<strong>en</strong> partij<strong>en</strong> bij het programma<br />
TvT is geïnitieerd door EVO <strong>en</strong> vormgegev<strong>en</strong> in sam<strong>en</strong>werking met het K<strong>en</strong>nisakkoord<br />
Logistiek, waarin vijf hogeschol<strong>en</strong> participer<strong>en</strong>. Deze hogeschol<strong>en</strong> zijn:<br />
– <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong><br />
– Fontys <strong>Hogeschool</strong> V<strong>en</strong>lo<br />
– <strong>Hogeschool</strong> Rotterdam<br />
– <strong>Hogeschool</strong> Amsterdam<br />
– <strong>Hogeschool</strong> Windesheim, Zwolle.<br />
Bedrijv<strong>en</strong> waar TvT met succes is toegepast zijn onder andere:<br />
– Arrow Electronics DLC B.V.<br />
– Bührmann Ubb<strong>en</strong>s B.V.<br />
– Corus Staal B.V.<br />
– C<strong>en</strong>traal Boekhuis B.V.<br />
– DAF Trucks NV<br />
– Deli XL B.V.<br />
– DHL Exel Supply Chain B.V.<br />
– Heinek<strong>en</strong> Nederland B.V.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
– KN B.V.<br />
– OCÉ Technologies B.V.<br />
– Overtoom International Nederland B.V.<br />
– Sabic Europe B.V.<br />
– Schuitema N.V.<br />
– Siem<strong>en</strong>s Nederland B.V.<br />
– De Stiho Groep<br />
– Technisch Handelsbureau R<strong>en</strong>sa B.V.<br />
– Technische Unie B.V.<br />
– TNT Express B.V.<br />
Opbr<strong>en</strong>gst<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> voordel<strong>en</strong><br />
Aan het TvT-programma zijn uiteraard kost<strong>en</strong> verbond<strong>en</strong>. Alle deelnem<strong>en</strong>de partij<strong>en</strong><br />
drag<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> deel <strong>van</strong> de kost<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast wordt e<strong>en</strong> subsidie ont<strong>van</strong>g<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het Platform<br />
K<strong>en</strong>nisakkoord Logistiek. Bedrijv<strong>en</strong> drag<strong>en</strong> 2 2.000,- bij per stud<strong>en</strong>t. Zij betal<strong>en</strong> deze<br />
kost<strong>en</strong> alle<strong>en</strong> als er daadwerkelijk e<strong>en</strong> match plaatsvindt tuss<strong>en</strong> het bedrijf/coach <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
stud<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
TvT gaat er<strong>van</strong> uit dat de deelnem<strong>en</strong>de bedrijv<strong>en</strong> hun bijdrage ook zi<strong>en</strong> als e<strong>en</strong> investering<br />
die r<strong>en</strong>dem<strong>en</strong>t kan oplever<strong>en</strong>. Deelname aan het project kan voor de bedrijv<strong>en</strong> voordel<strong>en</strong><br />
met zich meebr<strong>en</strong>g<strong>en</strong>. D<strong>en</strong>k hierbij aan:<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> toekomstige werknemer met hbo-niveau;<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> publicitaire spin-off;<br />
– ingang<strong>en</strong> bij hogeschol<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– de mogelijkheid om invloed uit te oef<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> op het onderwijsprogramma;<br />
– gebruikmaking <strong>van</strong> resultat<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de afstudeeropdracht.<br />
Verdere informatie<br />
Actuele informatie over het project is te vind<strong>en</strong> via www.topcoachesvoortoptal<strong>en</strong>t.nl of E<br />
tvt@evo.nl.<br />
Bronn<strong>en</strong><br />
www.logistiek.nl<br />
www.evo.nl<br />
121
magazijnoptimalisatie<br />
Looptijdreductie in orderpick<strong>en</strong><br />
Sam<strong>en</strong>vatting<br />
Binn<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> groot Europees distributiec<strong>en</strong>trum moet het orderpick<strong>en</strong> geoptimaliseerd word<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Door de opslagmethode <strong>en</strong> aanverwante orderpickvariabel<strong>en</strong> te verander<strong>en</strong>, wordt<br />
e<strong>en</strong> aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijke verbetering <strong>van</strong> het proces t<strong>en</strong> opzichte <strong>van</strong> looptijd<strong>en</strong> gerealiseerd.<br />
Inleiding<br />
E<strong>en</strong> wereldspeler in de distributie <strong>van</strong> elektronicaonderdel<strong>en</strong> heeft in V<strong>en</strong>lo e<strong>en</strong> Europees<br />
distributiec<strong>en</strong>trum (EDC) staan. In dit EDC vind<strong>en</strong> naast de traditionele distributiewerkzaamhed<strong>en</strong>,<br />
zoals orderpicking <strong>en</strong> verpakk<strong>en</strong>, ook waardetoevoeg<strong>en</strong>de activiteit<strong>en</strong> plaats.<br />
Door e<strong>en</strong> steeds verander<strong>en</strong>de markt is de onderneming g<strong>en</strong>oodzaakt te innover<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> te<br />
optimaliser<strong>en</strong> om aan de klant<strong>en</strong>w<strong>en</strong>s te voldo<strong>en</strong>. Door macro-economische omstandighed<strong>en</strong><br />
ziet ook deze organisatie zich g<strong>en</strong>oodzaakt om voorrad<strong>en</strong> te c<strong>en</strong>traliser<strong>en</strong>. De Koster<br />
et al. (2007) gev<strong>en</strong> aan dat steeds kleiner word<strong>en</strong>de lotsizes, verkorte doorlooptijd<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
steeds snellere levertijd<strong>en</strong> ervoor zorg<strong>en</strong> dat het manag<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> process<strong>en</strong> in magazijn<strong>en</strong><br />
steeds complexer wordt. Door integratie <strong>van</strong> kleinere distributiec<strong>en</strong>tra in het EDC heeft<br />
de focus <strong>van</strong> de organisatie zich gericht op integratie <strong>van</strong> process<strong>en</strong>. Le-Duc et al. (2007)<br />
betog<strong>en</strong> dat door al deze verandering<strong>en</strong> het orderpick<strong>en</strong> de belangrijkste activiteit binn<strong>en</strong><br />
het magazijn is geword<strong>en</strong>. Dit artikel, gebaseerd op e<strong>en</strong> afstudeeronderzoek, richt zich<br />
op het orderpick<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> beschrijft hoe het orderpick<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> de organisatie verbeterd kan<br />
word<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Orderpicking<br />
m a u r i j n h e l l e n t h a l<br />
Er is veel onderzoek gedaan naar mogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> om de looptijd<strong>en</strong> te verminder<strong>en</strong>. Het<br />
verminder<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> looptijd wordt vaak onderschat in magazijn<strong>en</strong>. Het lop<strong>en</strong> voegt ge<strong>en</strong><br />
waarde toe aan de activiteit, het kost echter alle<strong>en</strong> maar tijd. Daarom zijn er in de loop <strong>van</strong><br />
tijd concept<strong>en</strong> bedacht om looptijd<strong>en</strong> te reducer<strong>en</strong>. In figuur 1 zijn vele mogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> om<br />
te orderpick<strong>en</strong> sam<strong>en</strong>gevat.<br />
123
124<br />
Picker-to-parts<br />
Systems<br />
– Low level<br />
– High level<br />
Pick by article Pick by order<br />
Not zoned (1) Zoned<br />
Progressive Synchronized<br />
– Sort-while pick<br />
– Pick and pass<br />
– Pick and sort<br />
– Wave picking<br />
Order-picking<br />
Methods<br />
Figuur 1 Overzicht orderpick method<strong>en</strong> (De Koster 2004)<br />
Magazijnoptimalisatie<br />
Employing Humans Employing Machines<br />
Put Systems<br />
Parts-to-picker<br />
Systems<br />
– AS/RS machines<br />
– Miniload<br />
– VLM<br />
– Hor. Carousel<br />
– Ver. Carousel<br />
Automated<br />
picking<br />
– A frame<br />
– Disp<strong>en</strong>sers<br />
Robot<br />
picking<br />
Bij parts-to-picker system<strong>en</strong> wordt de looptijd bijna helemaal gereduceerd. Bij de bouw<br />
<strong>van</strong> nieuwe magazijn<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> deze system<strong>en</strong> vaak geïmplem<strong>en</strong>teerd. In bestaande magazijn<strong>en</strong><br />
is het echter niet altijd haalbaar om <strong>van</strong> bestaande system<strong>en</strong>, zoals picker-to-parts<br />
system<strong>en</strong>, te verander<strong>en</strong> naar parts-to-picker system<strong>en</strong>. De kost<strong>en</strong> zijn vaak erg hoog <strong>en</strong><br />
er is niet altijd ruimte voor. Binn<strong>en</strong> de organisatie in V<strong>en</strong>lo vindt het orderpick<strong>en</strong> plaats<br />
op de picker-to-parts systematiek. Daarbij wordt per artikel gepicked, zonder gebruik te<br />
mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> zones. Het orderpickgebied bevindt zich in twee bouwdel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het magazijn<br />
<strong>en</strong> vindt plaats op verschill<strong>en</strong>de verdieping<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> deze del<strong>en</strong>. De picks word<strong>en</strong> via conveyorband<strong>en</strong><br />
naar de consolidatiemachines gestuurd <strong>en</strong> als complete order uitgeleverd aan<br />
de verpakkingstafels.<br />
Brynzer et al. (1995) gev<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> overzicht <strong>van</strong> variabel<strong>en</strong> die <strong>van</strong> invloed zijn op de orderpickprestaties:<br />
– batchstrategieën;<br />
– routestrategieën;<br />
– opslagstrategieën;<br />
– in- <strong>en</strong> verdeling <strong>van</strong> zones;<br />
– lay-out <strong>van</strong> het magazijn;<br />
– materiaal waarmee gepickt wordt.<br />
Batch- <strong>en</strong> routestrategieën zijn erg met elkaar verwev<strong>en</strong>, net zoals opslagstrategieën <strong>en</strong><br />
het gebruik mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> zones. Volg<strong>en</strong>s Peters<strong>en</strong> et al. (2004) kan met opslagstrategieën<br />
<strong>en</strong> het gebruik mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> zones tuss<strong>en</strong> de zev<strong>en</strong>ti<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> 22 proc<strong>en</strong>t bespaard word<strong>en</strong> op<br />
looptijd<strong>en</strong>. Kantek<strong>en</strong>ing daarbij is dat deze uitkomst<strong>en</strong> per branche verschill<strong>en</strong>. Binn<strong>en</strong> de<br />
organisatie kan de lay-out <strong>van</strong> het magazijn <strong>en</strong> het materiaal waarmee gepickt wordt niet<br />
veranderd word<strong>en</strong>.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Vanwege de semi-automatische strategie <strong>van</strong> het bedrijf, is de locatie <strong>van</strong> de product<strong>en</strong><br />
t<strong>en</strong> opzichte <strong>van</strong> de conveyorband<strong>en</strong> (in de studies ook wel depot g<strong>en</strong>oemd) <strong>van</strong> belang.<br />
In figuur 2 wordt e<strong>en</strong> overzicht gegev<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> opslagmogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> t<strong>en</strong> opzichte <strong>van</strong> het<br />
depot.<br />
C C C C B B A A B B<br />
C C C C<br />
Figuur 2 Opslagmethod<strong>en</strong> naar ABC (De Koster et al. 2007)<br />
De Koster et al. (2007) betog<strong>en</strong> dat Across-aisle storage e<strong>en</strong> zo goed als optimale opslag is<br />
waarbij congestie in gang<strong>en</strong>, zoals mogelijk is bij ‘Within-aisle storage’, wordt voorkom<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Uit deze uite<strong>en</strong>zetting over orderpicking kan geconcludeerd word<strong>en</strong> dat er e<strong>en</strong> aantal<br />
variabel<strong>en</strong> zijn die de prestaties <strong>van</strong> het orderpick<strong>en</strong> beïnvloed<strong>en</strong>. Door deze variabel<strong>en</strong><br />
optimaal voor de desbetreff<strong>en</strong>de situatie in te zett<strong>en</strong>, kan er e<strong>en</strong> significante verbetering<br />
bereikt word<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> de activiteit <strong>van</strong> het orderpick<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Probleemstelling<br />
Depot<br />
Within-aisle storage<br />
Probleemstelling bij het onderzoek is het verminder<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de looptijd<strong>en</strong> die orderpickers<br />
mak<strong>en</strong>, waarbij kwaliteit <strong>en</strong> productiviteit gewaarborgd blijv<strong>en</strong>. Binn<strong>en</strong> de organisatie<br />
war<strong>en</strong> in eerste instantie ge<strong>en</strong> gegev<strong>en</strong>s aanwezig over de tijdsduur <strong>van</strong> de huidige activiteit<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Daarom zijn meting<strong>en</strong> uitgevoerd om duidelijk te krijg<strong>en</strong> hoe lang activiteit<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong><br />
het orderpick<strong>en</strong> dur<strong>en</strong>. De volg<strong>en</strong>de aspect<strong>en</strong> zijn gemet<strong>en</strong>:<br />
– administratieve handeling<strong>en</strong><br />
– gebruik <strong>van</strong> lift;<br />
– lop<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– pick<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> volle verpakkingse<strong>en</strong>hed<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– pick<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> niet volle verpakkingse<strong>en</strong>hed<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– aflad<strong>en</strong>;<br />
C<br />
B<br />
A<br />
C<br />
C<br />
B B<br />
A A<br />
C<br />
C<br />
B B<br />
A A<br />
C<br />
C<br />
B B<br />
A A<br />
C<br />
C<br />
B B<br />
A A<br />
C<br />
C<br />
B B<br />
A A<br />
Depot<br />
Across-aisle storage<br />
C<br />
C<br />
B B<br />
A A<br />
C<br />
B<br />
A<br />
125
– verpakk<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– oploss<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> problem<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– overige handeling<strong>en</strong>.<br />
126<br />
Magazijnoptimalisatie<br />
Resultat<strong>en</strong> wez<strong>en</strong> uit dat het lop<strong>en</strong> maar dertig proc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de tijd in beslag neemt. Dit<br />
is e<strong>en</strong> laag perc<strong>en</strong>tage voor e<strong>en</strong> picker-to-parts ingericht magazijn. Tompkins et al. (1996)<br />
gev<strong>en</strong> aan dat ongeveer vijftig proc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de tijd wordt gelop<strong>en</strong> door orderverzamelaars.<br />
Het perc<strong>en</strong>tage bij deze onderneming ligt e<strong>en</strong> stuk lager, <strong>van</strong>wege de extra handeling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
controles tijd<strong>en</strong>s het pick<strong>en</strong>. Alle onderdel<strong>en</strong> moet<strong>en</strong> tijd<strong>en</strong>s het pick<strong>en</strong> goed verpakt zijn<br />
om beschadiging te voorkom<strong>en</strong>. Daardoor nem<strong>en</strong> de activiteit<strong>en</strong> zoals pick<strong>en</strong>, verpakk<strong>en</strong>,<br />
administratieve handeling<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> controles e<strong>en</strong> groot deel <strong>van</strong> de tijd in beslag.<br />
Verder is onderzoek gedaan naar de oorzaak <strong>van</strong> de looptijd<strong>en</strong>. Verschill<strong>en</strong>de aspect<strong>en</strong> zijn<br />
aan het licht gekom<strong>en</strong>; de belangrijkste word<strong>en</strong> hieronder weergegev<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Opslagmethodiek<br />
In de huidige situatie word<strong>en</strong> de goeder<strong>en</strong> random opgeslag<strong>en</strong>. Dat kan zorg<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong><br />
hoge bezettingsgraad in het magazijn. Deze methode is aan te rad<strong>en</strong> zo lang de voordel<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> hoge bezettingsgraad opweg<strong>en</strong> teg<strong>en</strong> de extra kost<strong>en</strong> die gemaakt word<strong>en</strong> door het<br />
lop<strong>en</strong>. Zeker in e<strong>en</strong> groot magazijn zoals dit EDC zal de balans sneller doorslaan naar te<br />
veel lop<strong>en</strong>. Inslag, opslag <strong>en</strong> uitslag zijn variabel<strong>en</strong> die door de opslagmethodiek word<strong>en</strong><br />
beïnvloed.<br />
Aflaadmethodiek<br />
Na het aflad<strong>en</strong> (de picks in e<strong>en</strong> miniload op de conveyor belt zett<strong>en</strong>) krijgt de orderpicker<br />
nieuwe picks toegewez<strong>en</strong>. Deze toewijzing gebeurt niet op basis <strong>van</strong> de huidige locatie<br />
maar op basis <strong>van</strong> prioriteitsindex. Deze index zorgt ervoor dat de orders die het eerst verstuurd<br />
moet<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong>, als eerste gepicked word<strong>en</strong>. Looptijd<strong>en</strong> na aflad<strong>en</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
38 second<strong>en</strong> naar bijna vijf minut<strong>en</strong>, afhankelijk <strong>van</strong> de standplaats <strong>en</strong> de nieuw toegewez<strong>en</strong><br />
picklocatie. Jaarlijks wordt er binn<strong>en</strong> de organisatie minimaal 150.000 keer afgelad<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Inher<strong>en</strong>t aan het laatste aspect <strong>van</strong> het toewijz<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> nieuwe picks is de batchstrategie<br />
<strong>en</strong> de uitwerking daar<strong>van</strong> op de orderpickprocess<strong>en</strong>. Vanwege de complexiteit binn<strong>en</strong> de<br />
organisatie is gekoz<strong>en</strong> om dit niet mee te nem<strong>en</strong> in het onderzoek; zo is het onderzoek<br />
afgebak<strong>en</strong>d <strong>en</strong> wordt voorkom<strong>en</strong> dat door het onderzoek<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> te veel onderwerp<strong>en</strong><br />
de doelstelling<strong>en</strong> uit het oog word<strong>en</strong> verlor<strong>en</strong>. Het wordt echter zeer aanbevol<strong>en</strong> aan de<br />
organisatie om hier extra onderzoek naar te do<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Niet alle<strong>en</strong> de opslagmethodiek moet onderzocht word<strong>en</strong>, er moet ook gekek<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong><br />
naar wat wordt opgeslag<strong>en</strong>: de aard <strong>van</strong> de product<strong>en</strong>. Door e<strong>en</strong> voorraadanalyse te
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
mak<strong>en</strong>, wordt duidelijk hoe het voorraadverloop in het magazijn is. E<strong>en</strong> veel gehanteerde<br />
regel voor voorraadanalyse is de ‘80/20-regel’ <strong>van</strong> Pareto. In tabel 1 de uitwerking <strong>van</strong><br />
deze regel.<br />
PARETO-MODEL<br />
Aantal product<strong>en</strong> Aantal Picks<br />
20% Cumulatief 80% Cumulatief<br />
20% 40% 15% 95%<br />
60% 100% 5% 100%<br />
Tabel 1 Pareto-model<br />
In werkelijkheid ziet de verdeling <strong>van</strong> de voorraad er uit als in tabel 2.<br />
Product<strong>en</strong> Picks<br />
(A)20% 73,5%<br />
(B)40% 15,5%<br />
(C)60% 11,0%<br />
Tabel 2 Pareto werkelijkheid<br />
De verdeling <strong>van</strong> de voorraad is niet optimaal. Er zijn te weinig snellop<strong>en</strong>de product<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
te veel langzaam lop<strong>en</strong>de product<strong>en</strong>, e<strong>en</strong> zog<strong>en</strong>oemde lange longtail. Oorzak<strong>en</strong> zijn onder<br />
andere de productlev<strong>en</strong>scycli <strong>van</strong> de product<strong>en</strong> (vaak e<strong>en</strong> lumpy afzetpatroon) <strong>en</strong> het feit<br />
dat de product<strong>en</strong> in opslag niet eig<strong>en</strong>dom zijn <strong>van</strong> het bedrijf, maar <strong>van</strong> de verkooppartij<br />
<strong>van</strong> de moederorganisatie. Deze partij mist de prikkel om de voorraad ‘op te mak<strong>en</strong>‘<br />
omdat de kost<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> voorraad niet door h<strong>en</strong> gedrag<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Sam<strong>en</strong>gevat: er zijn e<strong>en</strong> aantal aspect<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> het bedrijf waar zeker e<strong>en</strong> optimalisatieslag<br />
valt te mak<strong>en</strong>. Vooral in de opslagmethode <strong>en</strong> daarbij behor<strong>en</strong>de subprocess<strong>en</strong> kan e<strong>en</strong><br />
verbetering word<strong>en</strong> behaald.<br />
Oplossing<strong>en</strong><br />
Na e<strong>en</strong> analyse <strong>van</strong> de voorraad <strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de veroorzakers <strong>van</strong> het vele lop<strong>en</strong>, is e<strong>en</strong> oplossingsplan<br />
geschrev<strong>en</strong>. In dit oplossingsplan staan hoofdoplossing<strong>en</strong> met aanbeveling<strong>en</strong><br />
voor verder onderzoek <strong>en</strong> ook kleine verandering<strong>en</strong>. De oplossing<strong>en</strong> drag<strong>en</strong> bij aan kwaliteit<br />
<strong>en</strong> leverbetrouwbaarheid, maar bov<strong>en</strong>al aan het verminder<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de looptijd<strong>en</strong>. De<br />
volg<strong>en</strong>de drie voorstell<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> gedaan.<br />
127
128<br />
Magazijnoptimalisatie<br />
Geclassificeerde opslagmethode<br />
Voorraad is geclassificeerd naar A-, B- <strong>en</strong> C-product<strong>en</strong>. Door de A-product<strong>en</strong> op de kortste<br />
lijn<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> inslag naar uitslag te legg<strong>en</strong>, word<strong>en</strong> deze product<strong>en</strong> op de beste locaties<br />
opgeslag<strong>en</strong>. Door het Across-aisle principe toe te pass<strong>en</strong>, wordt congestie in de gang<strong>en</strong><br />
voorkom<strong>en</strong>. Door de product<strong>en</strong> die tachtig proc<strong>en</strong>t gepicked word<strong>en</strong> dicht bij het depot<br />
te legg<strong>en</strong>, kan de gemiddelde looptijd naar de volg<strong>en</strong>de pick met ti<strong>en</strong> second<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong><br />
verminderd.<br />
Gebruik mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> zones<br />
Door zones te gebruik<strong>en</strong>, wordt het gebied <strong>van</strong> de orderpicker verkleind. Zo blijft de<br />
orderpicker in e<strong>en</strong> klein gebied in plaats <strong>van</strong> het hele magazijn. Daarmee wordt de juiste<br />
aansturing <strong>van</strong> de pickers belangrijker. Gemiddelde looptijd<strong>en</strong> zull<strong>en</strong> ge<strong>en</strong> uitschieters<br />
meer hebb<strong>en</strong> naar <strong>en</strong>kele minut<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong>wege het lop<strong>en</strong> naar e<strong>en</strong> ander deel in het magazijn.<br />
Ook wordt het liftgebruik geëlimineerd voor de pickers. De looptijd<strong>en</strong> zull<strong>en</strong> zich c<strong>en</strong>trer<strong>en</strong><br />
rond de dertig second<strong>en</strong> (met invoering <strong>van</strong> geclassificeerde opslag zal dit nog kleiner<br />
word<strong>en</strong>).<br />
Aflaadproces verbeter<strong>en</strong><br />
Dit proces moet aangepast word<strong>en</strong> aan de nieuwe situatie waar in zones gewerkt gaat word<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In de nieuwe situatie moet m<strong>en</strong> niet de pick met de hoogste prioriteit krijg<strong>en</strong> maar de<br />
eerst volg<strong>en</strong>de pick in het gebied waar de picker zich bevindt. Zo wordt het vele lop<strong>en</strong> na<br />
het aflad<strong>en</strong> geëlimineerd.<br />
Verwacht wordt dat in ieder geval 2 130.000,- per jaar wordt bespaard op het orderpickproces.<br />
De oplossing<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> versterk<strong>en</strong>d karakter op elkaar. Dit synergie-effect is<br />
echter moeilijk te berek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>. Daarom is tijd<strong>en</strong>s de berek<strong>en</strong>ing<strong>en</strong> gebruik gemaakt <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
‘worstcase-sc<strong>en</strong>ario’.<br />
Tot slot zal er e<strong>en</strong> projectteam opgestart word<strong>en</strong> om deze bov<strong>en</strong>g<strong>en</strong>oemde oplossing<strong>en</strong> te<br />
realiser<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Conclusie<br />
De organisatie heeft inzicht gekreg<strong>en</strong> in de activiteit<strong>en</strong> die rond het orderpick<strong>en</strong> plaatsvind<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Ondanks dat de looptijd<strong>en</strong> korter zijn dan in e<strong>en</strong> gemiddeld magazijn, kan er e<strong>en</strong><br />
optimalisatieslag gemaakt word<strong>en</strong>. Door geclassificeerde opslag volg<strong>en</strong>s het Across-aisle<br />
principe <strong>en</strong> het gebruik mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> zones, kan de gemiddelde looptijd naar de volg<strong>en</strong>de<br />
pick met bijna ti<strong>en</strong> seconde verminderd word<strong>en</strong>. Door gebruik te mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> zones, wordt<br />
door de orderpicker alle<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> de zone gepicked <strong>en</strong> niet meer in het hele magazijn.<br />
Daardoor word<strong>en</strong> looptijd<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> vijf minut<strong>en</strong> geëlimineerd <strong>en</strong> wordt het gebruik <strong>van</strong> de
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
lift geminimaliseerd. Door het aflaadproces te verbeter<strong>en</strong>, blijft m<strong>en</strong> in hetzelfde gebied<br />
pick<strong>en</strong>. Tot slot moet opgemerkt word<strong>en</strong> dat deze oplossing<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> versterk<strong>en</strong>d synergieeffect<br />
op elkaar hebb<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Literatuur<br />
Aase, G. & Peters<strong>en</strong>, C.G. (2004) A comparison of picking, storage, and routing policies<br />
in manual order picking. International journal of Production Economics, 92, 11-19.<br />
Bozer, Y.A., Frazelle, E.H., Tanchoco, J.M.A., Tompkins, J.A., & White, J.A., (2003)<br />
Facilities Planning. NJ: John Wiley & Sons. In: Koster, R. de, Le-Duc, T. &<br />
Roodberg<strong>en</strong>, K.J. (2007).<br />
Brynzer, H. & Johnsson, M. I. (1995) Design and performance of kitting and order<br />
picking systems. International Journal of Production Economics, 4(1), 115–125. In:<br />
Hwang, H.S. & Cho, G.S. (2006).<br />
De Koster, M.B.M., Van der Poort, E.S. & Wolters, M. (1999) Effici<strong>en</strong>t orderbatching<br />
methods in warehouses. International Journal of Production Research, 37 (7), 1479-<br />
1504. In: Peters<strong>en</strong>, C.G. & Aase, G. (2004).<br />
Koster, R. de, Le-Duc, T. & Roodberg<strong>en</strong>, K.J. (2007) Design and control of warehouse<br />
order picking: A literature review. European Journal of Operational Research, 182,<br />
481-501.<br />
Koster, R. de & Le-Duc, T. (2007) Travel time estimation and order batching in a 2-block<br />
warehouse. European Journal of Operational Research, 176, 373-388.<br />
129
etourlogistiek bij e<strong>en</strong> groothandel voor<br />
klimaatbeheersingsproduct<strong>en</strong><br />
h a r m v e r w e i j e n<br />
Dit artikel is gebaseerd op e<strong>en</strong> onderzoek dat is uitgevoerd in het eerste halfjaar <strong>van</strong> 2009.<br />
Het onderzoek is uitgevoerd in het kader <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> afstudeeropdracht <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Logistiek <strong>en</strong> Economie <strong>van</strong> de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>. Het onderzoek is<br />
uitgevoerd bij de technische groothandel R<strong>en</strong>sa, gevestigd in Didam.<br />
De afstudeeropdracht heeft ook e<strong>en</strong> speciaal ‘tintje’ omdat deze verworv<strong>en</strong> is via het<br />
‘TVT-programma’ <strong>van</strong> EVO. De afkorting ‘TVT’ staat voor topcoaches voor toptal<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Verschill<strong>en</strong>de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> hogeschol<strong>en</strong> uit heel Nederland zijn geselecteerd om hier aan<br />
deel te nem<strong>en</strong>. Het gevolg was dat h<strong>en</strong> de mogelijkheid gebod<strong>en</strong> is om af te studer<strong>en</strong> bij<br />
e<strong>en</strong> vooraanstaand logistiek bedrijf in Nederland, dit onder e<strong>en</strong> zeer goede begeleiding.<br />
E<strong>en</strong> goede sam<strong>en</strong>werking tuss<strong>en</strong> R<strong>en</strong>sa <strong>en</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de hogeschool was de basis voor<br />
e<strong>en</strong> geslaagd onderzoek.<br />
Inleiding<br />
Technisch Handelsbureau R<strong>en</strong>sa is e<strong>en</strong> grote speler op de markt als het gaat om klimaatbeheersingproduct<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Hierbij moet gedacht word<strong>en</strong> aan radiator<strong>en</strong>, ketels <strong>en</strong> dergelijke.<br />
Vanuit e<strong>en</strong> modern logistiek concept levert R<strong>en</strong>sa goeder<strong>en</strong> door heel Nederland aan de<br />
professionele installateur in de woning- <strong>en</strong> utiliteitsbouw.<br />
Als bron voor dit rapport is onder andere e<strong>en</strong> rapport <strong>van</strong> PriceWaterhouseCoopers<br />
(Rosier <strong>en</strong> Janz<strong>en</strong> 2008) gebruikt waarin aangegev<strong>en</strong> wordt dat retourlogistiek steeds meer<br />
aandacht krijgt <strong>van</strong> het hoger managem<strong>en</strong>t binn<strong>en</strong> bedrijv<strong>en</strong>. Bij Technisch Handelsbureau<br />
R<strong>en</strong>sa is dit ook het geval geweest. M<strong>en</strong> was <strong>van</strong> m<strong>en</strong>ing dat het nuttig was om het<br />
retourproces <strong>van</strong> het bedrijf e<strong>en</strong>s te analyser<strong>en</strong>. Door middel <strong>van</strong> het mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> knelpuntanalyse<br />
is eerst het retour<strong>en</strong>proces doorgelicht <strong>en</strong> daarna zijn er verbetervoorstell<strong>en</strong><br />
aangedrag<strong>en</strong>. De verbetervoorstell<strong>en</strong> moet<strong>en</strong> er uiteindelijk voor zorg<strong>en</strong> dat het retour<strong>en</strong>proces<br />
efficiënter ingericht wordt, zoals beschrev<strong>en</strong> staat in de probleemstelling:<br />
‘Hoe kan het interne retour<strong>en</strong>proces <strong>van</strong> R<strong>en</strong>sa verbeterd word<strong>en</strong>, zodat het proces<br />
efficiënter verloopt <strong>en</strong> de perceptie <strong>van</strong> de klant verbeterd wordt?’<br />
Het proces di<strong>en</strong>t efficiënter te verlop<strong>en</strong> door:<br />
– kost<strong>en</strong>besparing<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– meer transparantie;<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> kortere doorlooptijd.<br />
131
132<br />
Retourlogistiek bij e<strong>en</strong> groothandel voor klimaatbeheersingsproduct<strong>en</strong><br />
Naast reguliere logistieke strom<strong>en</strong>, zoals levering<strong>en</strong> naar de klant, zijn er ook vaak retourstrom<strong>en</strong><br />
waarmee bedrijv<strong>en</strong> zoals R<strong>en</strong>sa te mak<strong>en</strong> krijg<strong>en</strong>. In de praktijk blijkt dat deze<br />
retourstrom<strong>en</strong> niet altijd de aandacht krijg<strong>en</strong> die ze nodig hebb<strong>en</strong>. Retourstrom<strong>en</strong> zijn<br />
namelijk niet de ‘core business’ <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> bedrijf. Daar<strong>en</strong>teg<strong>en</strong> br<strong>en</strong>g<strong>en</strong> zij wel aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijke<br />
kost<strong>en</strong> met zich mee <strong>en</strong> ook heeft deze logistieke stroom invloed op de perceptie <strong>van</strong> de<br />
klant met betrekking tot de geleverde di<strong>en</strong>st<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de logistieke onderneming. Toch is het<br />
beheers<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> deze retourstroom ook e<strong>en</strong> hele opgave. Er di<strong>en</strong>t namelijk e<strong>en</strong> bepaalde<br />
mate <strong>van</strong> synergie te zijn tuss<strong>en</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong>de afdeling<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het bedrijf.<br />
In het onderzoek zijn de retour<strong>en</strong> behandeld die terugkom<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de klant. Er zijn verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
red<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> aan te wijz<strong>en</strong> waarom e<strong>en</strong> artikel terugkomt. Het kan zijn dat er e<strong>en</strong><br />
verkeerde levering plaatsgevond<strong>en</strong> heeft of dat het artikel defect is, ook kan m<strong>en</strong> te veel<br />
besteld hebb<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast zijn er nog verschill<strong>en</strong>de mogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> waarom e<strong>en</strong> artikel<br />
teruggestuurd wordt.<br />
De bevinding<strong>en</strong> in dit onderzoek zijn gebaseerd op interviews met verschill<strong>en</strong>de medewerkers<br />
<strong>van</strong> R<strong>en</strong>sa. Daarnaast is er e<strong>en</strong> literatuurstudie gedaan waarbij geïnv<strong>en</strong>tariseerd is hoe<br />
ander<strong>en</strong> de problematiek met betrekking tot retourstrom<strong>en</strong> aangepakt hebb<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Het proces<br />
E<strong>en</strong> retour<strong>en</strong>proces is bij veel bedrijv<strong>en</strong>, zo ook bij R<strong>en</strong>sa, e<strong>en</strong> erg gevoelig <strong>en</strong> complex<br />
proces. Het proces is vooral complex omdat het via veel verschill<strong>en</strong>de afdeling<strong>en</strong> gaat. Er<br />
zijn zodo<strong>en</strong>de ook veel m<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> dagelijks bezig met het proces. M<strong>en</strong>s<strong>en</strong> op de verkoopafdeling<br />
nem<strong>en</strong> de retourbon aan. Chauffeurs hal<strong>en</strong> de retourbon op <strong>en</strong> op de afdeling<br />
fysieke retour<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> de retour<strong>en</strong> verwerkt <strong>en</strong> indi<strong>en</strong> mogelijk teruggeplaatst naar de<br />
voorraad. Dit zijn <strong>en</strong>kele afdeling<strong>en</strong> die e<strong>en</strong> direct belang hebb<strong>en</strong> bij het proces. Wat het<br />
proces nou zo gevoelig maakt is dat alle afdeling<strong>en</strong> ook goed met elkaar moet<strong>en</strong> communicer<strong>en</strong>,<br />
de <strong>en</strong>e afdeling is namelijk afhankelijk <strong>van</strong> de andere.<br />
Bij veel logistiek georiënteerde bedrijv<strong>en</strong> wordt het retour<strong>en</strong>proces als minder belangrijk<br />
ervar<strong>en</strong>, <strong>van</strong>wege het feit dat het proces niet tot de core business <strong>van</strong> het bedrijf behoort.<br />
Dit wordt onderstreept door Sv<strong>en</strong> Verstrep<strong>en</strong> (Sv<strong>en</strong> Verstrep<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> Ludo Sys 2009): “Veel<br />
logistieke spelers in de markt b<strong>en</strong>utt<strong>en</strong> het pot<strong>en</strong>tieel <strong>van</strong> de retourmarkt nog onvoldo<strong>en</strong>de.<br />
Meestal baser<strong>en</strong> ze de process<strong>en</strong> voor retourlogistiek op hun bestaande distributieprocess<strong>en</strong>.<br />
De aard <strong>van</strong> het retour<strong>en</strong>proces vergt echter gespecialiseerde bedrijfsprocess<strong>en</strong>,<br />
system<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> organisaties.”
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Theorieonderzoek heeft belangrijke resultat<strong>en</strong> opgeleverd, deze resultat<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong> de basis<br />
gevormd voor de aanbeveling<strong>en</strong> zoals deze gedaan zijn aan R<strong>en</strong>sa. Mathieu Rosier <strong>en</strong><br />
Bertjan Janz<strong>en</strong> (2008) hebb<strong>en</strong> onderzoek gedaan naar de retourlogistiek in de markt <strong>van</strong><br />
consum<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> elektronica. Zij kwam<strong>en</strong> tot de conclusie dat het manag<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> retourlogistieke<br />
stroom zeer complex is. Hun bevinding<strong>en</strong> zijn sam<strong>en</strong>gebracht in het model dat te<br />
zi<strong>en</strong> is in Figuur 1.<br />
Uiteindelijk zijn er <strong>en</strong>kele kritische succesfactor<strong>en</strong> opgesteld die bepal<strong>en</strong>d zijn voor het<br />
verloop <strong>van</strong> het proces, namelijk:<br />
– strategische focus op het vermijd<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> retour<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– gedetailleerde inzage in kost<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> performance;<br />
– commitm<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> het managem<strong>en</strong>t (commerciële <strong>en</strong> logistieke afdeling<strong>en</strong>);<br />
– gestandaardiseerde process<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Daarnaast heeft het onderzoek, uitgevoerd bij R<strong>en</strong>sa, nog twee kritische succesfactor<strong>en</strong><br />
opgeleverd:<br />
– de juiste organisatiestructuur;<br />
– goede interne communicatie.<br />
Belemmering<strong>en</strong>:<br />
– Er wordt weinig belang<br />
gehecht aan retourlogistiek<br />
m.b.t. het creër<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
concurr<strong>en</strong>tievoordeel<br />
– Ge<strong>en</strong> duidelijkheid kost<strong>en</strong><br />
retourlogistiek<br />
– Retourlogistiek is niet<br />
geïntegreerd in de gehele<br />
supply chain<br />
– Gebrek aan goede<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>trapportages<br />
– Gebrek aan duidelijke<br />
process<strong>en</strong><br />
– Onduidelijke doorlooptijd<br />
– Onvoldo<strong>en</strong>de<br />
informatievoorzi<strong>en</strong>ing<br />
Tr<strong>en</strong>ds in de markt:<br />
– Groei<strong>en</strong>d belang internetverkop<strong>en</strong><br />
– Duurzaamheid<br />
– Klant<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> steeds<br />
machtiger<br />
Complexiteit <strong>van</strong><br />
het manag<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> retourstroom<br />
Tr<strong>en</strong>ds in het manag<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
de retourstroom:<br />
– Strategische focus<br />
retourlogistiek<br />
– Betere sam<strong>en</strong>werking tuss<strong>en</strong><br />
de supply chain partners<br />
m.b.t. retourlogistiek<br />
– Grotere impact retourlogistiek<br />
op imago bedrijf<br />
Figuur 1 Complexiteit <strong>van</strong> het manag<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> retourstroom<br />
Kritische Succes Factor<strong>en</strong>:<br />
– Commitm<strong>en</strong>t managem<strong>en</strong>t<br />
– Gestandaardiseerde<br />
process<strong>en</strong><br />
– Inzicht in de kost<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
performance <strong>van</strong> het proces<br />
– Strategische focus op het<br />
vermijd<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> retour<strong>en</strong><br />
– De juiste organisatiestructuur<br />
– Goede communicatie<br />
133
134<br />
Retourlogistiek bij e<strong>en</strong> groothandel voor klimaatbeheersingsproduct<strong>en</strong><br />
In dit artikel zull<strong>en</strong> verschill<strong>en</strong>de aspect<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> bov<strong>en</strong>staand model belicht word<strong>en</strong> met<br />
betrekking tot de retourlogistiek <strong>van</strong> de technische groothandel R<strong>en</strong>sa.<br />
In het artikel zal er gesprok<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> over bepaalde fases in het retour<strong>en</strong>proces. Om e<strong>en</strong><br />
globale indruk te krijg<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het retour<strong>en</strong>proces is het goed om te wet<strong>en</strong> dat het proces uit<br />
vier verschill<strong>en</strong>de fases bestaat. Deze fases zijn weergegev<strong>en</strong> in figuur 2.<br />
Accepter<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> retourorder<br />
Ophal<strong>en</strong><br />
retourorder<br />
Figuur 2 De vier fases <strong>van</strong> het retour<strong>en</strong>proces bij R<strong>en</strong>sa<br />
Knelpunt<strong>en</strong> in het retour<strong>en</strong>proces <strong>van</strong> R<strong>en</strong>sa<br />
Verwerking<br />
fysieke retour<strong>en</strong><br />
Ev<strong>en</strong>tuele<br />
garantieafhandeling<br />
Uiteraard is het dan de vraag wat deze bevinding<strong>en</strong> betek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> voor R<strong>en</strong>sa. Door middel<br />
<strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> knelpuntanalyse is het retour<strong>en</strong>proces <strong>van</strong> R<strong>en</strong>sa geanalyseerd. Naar aanleiding<br />
<strong>van</strong> vele interviews, data research <strong>en</strong> empirisch onderzoek is naar vor<strong>en</strong> gekom<strong>en</strong> waar<br />
verschill<strong>en</strong>de verbetermogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> ligg<strong>en</strong> met betrekking tot het retour<strong>en</strong>proces <strong>van</strong> de<br />
technische groothandel.<br />
De doorlooptijd <strong>van</strong> het behandel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> retourorders bleek soms te lang te zijn. Dit kwam<br />
mede doordat het proces niet transparant g<strong>en</strong>oeg was, dit betek<strong>en</strong>t dat de doorlooptijd <strong>van</strong><br />
het proces inzichtelijk di<strong>en</strong>t te zijn. Het proces bestaat bij R<strong>en</strong>sa uit verschill<strong>en</strong>de fases <strong>en</strong><br />
deze fases zijn alle afhankelijk <strong>van</strong> elkaar. Om mogelijke bottl<strong>en</strong>ecks uit te filter<strong>en</strong> tuss<strong>en</strong><br />
deze fases is het eerst noodzakelijk dat er e<strong>en</strong> duidelijk beeld bestaat <strong>van</strong> de doorlooptijd<br />
<strong>van</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de fases. Dit beeld kan gecreëerd word<strong>en</strong> door juiste managem<strong>en</strong>tinformatie,<br />
deze was echter niet voldo<strong>en</strong>de voorhand<strong>en</strong>. De doorlooptijd werd in veel gevall<strong>en</strong><br />
ook verl<strong>en</strong>gd <strong>van</strong>wege het feit dat ingeplande retourorders niet opgehaald werd<strong>en</strong>. Dit wil<br />
zegg<strong>en</strong> dat wanneer er e<strong>en</strong> levering plaatsvond bij de klant, de aangemelde <strong>en</strong> ingeplande<br />
retourorder niet meeg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> werd. Meestal was dit <strong>van</strong>wege het feit dat e<strong>en</strong> retourorder<br />
niet klaar stond bij de klant. Het gevolg was dus dat de retourorder e<strong>en</strong> volg<strong>en</strong>de keer<br />
opgehaald moet word<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> dus de doorlooptijd verl<strong>en</strong>gd werd.<br />
Om de fases <strong>van</strong> het proces goed op elkaar aan te lat<strong>en</strong> sluit<strong>en</strong> is het ook belangrijk dat<br />
er e<strong>en</strong> goede input aan het proces gegev<strong>en</strong> wordt. Met input wordt bedoeld dat er goede<br />
informatie aangeleverd moet word<strong>en</strong>. Dit bleek echter niet altijd het geval te zijn. Vooral<br />
wanneer het garantie-retour<strong>en</strong> (artikel<strong>en</strong> die op garantie beoordeeld moest<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong>)<br />
betrof, werd<strong>en</strong> er niet altijd voldo<strong>en</strong>de gegev<strong>en</strong>s aangeleverd. Wanneer m<strong>en</strong> dan in de laatste<br />
fase <strong>van</strong> het proces ging beoordel<strong>en</strong> of e<strong>en</strong> artikel in aanmerking kwam voor e<strong>en</strong> garan-
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
tieprocedure bleek bepaalde informatie niet voorhand<strong>en</strong> te zijn. Hetge<strong>en</strong> resulteerde in<br />
e<strong>en</strong> langere doorlooptijd. Het aanlever<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de juiste informatie was ook om e<strong>en</strong> andere<br />
red<strong>en</strong> belangrijk. De bewerkingstijd per retourregel bleek namelijk aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijk lager te zijn<br />
wanneer er g<strong>en</strong>oeg informatie aangeleverd was. De informatie di<strong>en</strong>t aangeleverd te word<strong>en</strong><br />
door medewerkers <strong>van</strong> de verkoopafdeling<strong>en</strong>. Het bleek dat m<strong>en</strong> ook niet altijd op de<br />
hoogte was <strong>van</strong> hetge<strong>en</strong> er <strong>van</strong> h<strong>en</strong> verwacht werd. Verkoopmedewerkers war<strong>en</strong> zich niet<br />
altijd bewust <strong>van</strong> het feit dat zij het proces kond<strong>en</strong> bespoedig<strong>en</strong> door middel <strong>van</strong> het aanlever<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> bepaalde informatie. Er was dus in zekere zin sprake <strong>van</strong> communicatieruis.<br />
Naast inzichtelijkheid in de doorlooptijd <strong>van</strong> het proces is het ook belangrijk om inzicht<br />
te creër<strong>en</strong> in de kost<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het proces. Het retour<strong>en</strong>proces behoort niet tot de kernactiviteit<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> het bedrijf, maar er zijn wel behoorlijk wat kost<strong>en</strong> mee gemoeid. Geblek<strong>en</strong> is<br />
dat het proces veel meer kost dan dat het oplevert. Dit is niet zo’n hele vreemde conclusie<br />
aangezi<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> retour<strong>en</strong>proces toch e<strong>en</strong> vorm is <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> after-sales service. E<strong>en</strong> goed ingericht<br />
retour<strong>en</strong>proces kan namelijk als verkoopargum<strong>en</strong>t di<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> voor de klant. Dit betek<strong>en</strong>t<br />
echter niet dat er niet gekek<strong>en</strong> hoeft te word<strong>en</strong> naar de kost<strong>en</strong>. Alvor<strong>en</strong>s er dus mogelijke<br />
effici<strong>en</strong>cyverbetering<strong>en</strong> behaald kunn<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> door het bedrijf, di<strong>en</strong>t er eerst inzichtelijk<br />
te zijn wat de huidige kost<strong>en</strong>structuur is.<br />
Dus de belangrijkste knelpunt<strong>en</strong> in het retour<strong>en</strong>proces <strong>van</strong> R<strong>en</strong>sa war<strong>en</strong>:<br />
– de doorlooptijd <strong>van</strong> het proces bleek soms te lang te zijn;<br />
– het proces was niet transparant g<strong>en</strong>oeg (kost<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> doorlooptijd);<br />
– er was niet voldo<strong>en</strong>de managem<strong>en</strong>tinformatie beschikbaar;<br />
– er werd niet altijd de juiste <strong>en</strong>/of voldo<strong>en</strong>de informatie-input aan het proces gegev<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Oplossing<strong>en</strong><br />
Zoals gezegd is de transparantie <strong>van</strong> de kost<strong>en</strong>structuur belangrijk. Vandaar dat er e<strong>en</strong><br />
kostprijscalculatie is gemaakt <strong>van</strong> het proces. Zo is inzichtelijk geword<strong>en</strong> wat de totale<br />
kost<strong>en</strong> zijn, maar ook is e<strong>en</strong> beeld gecreëerd <strong>van</strong> de gemiddelde kost<strong>en</strong> per retourregel.<br />
E<strong>en</strong> kostprijscalculatie kan zorg<strong>en</strong> voor e<strong>en</strong> bepaalde bewustwording. In het geval <strong>van</strong> de<br />
retourlogistiek betek<strong>en</strong>t dit dat de kost<strong>en</strong> per retourregel vrij hoog op kunn<strong>en</strong> lop<strong>en</strong>. Het<br />
is dus zaak om het proces de aandacht te gev<strong>en</strong> die het nodig heeft.<br />
Kost<strong>en</strong> (<strong>en</strong> opbr<strong>en</strong>gst<strong>en</strong>) monitor<strong>en</strong> is niet voldo<strong>en</strong>de. Er zijn meer rapportages nodig om<br />
e<strong>en</strong> goed overzicht te krijg<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> logistiek proces. Voor de afhandeling <strong>van</strong> retour<strong>en</strong><br />
bij R<strong>en</strong>sa betek<strong>en</strong>t dit dat de doorlooptijd <strong>van</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de fases <strong>van</strong> het proces in<br />
kaart gebracht di<strong>en</strong>t te word<strong>en</strong>. Er zijn meerdere mom<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> in het proces ess<strong>en</strong>tieel voor<br />
het verloop er<strong>van</strong>. Deze mom<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> moet<strong>en</strong> meetbaar gemaakt word<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> sam<strong>en</strong>gebracht<br />
word<strong>en</strong> in e<strong>en</strong> overzichtelijke rapportage. Het gevolg hier<strong>van</strong> is dat m<strong>en</strong> precies af kan<br />
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lez<strong>en</strong> waar er ongew<strong>en</strong>ste vertraging<strong>en</strong> in het proces optred<strong>en</strong>. Als er uiteindelijk e<strong>en</strong> duidelijk<br />
beeld ontstaat <strong>van</strong> de mogelijke vertraging<strong>en</strong> kan het proces beter beheerst word<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Hetge<strong>en</strong> uiteindelijk moet leid<strong>en</strong> tot e<strong>en</strong> verkorte doorlooptijd <strong>en</strong> zo e<strong>en</strong> betere service<br />
naar de klant.<br />
Voor het verbeter<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de informatie-input zijn er eig<strong>en</strong>lijk twee aspect<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> belang:<br />
– commitm<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de commerciële afdeling<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– mogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> in het systeem.<br />
De retourorder wordt aang<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> op de commerciële afdeling<strong>en</strong>. Hier krijgt m<strong>en</strong> ook de<br />
informatie <strong>van</strong> de klant met betrekking tot de desbetreff<strong>en</strong>de retourorder. Allereerst moet<br />
er dus commitm<strong>en</strong>t zijn <strong>van</strong> de commerciële afdeling<strong>en</strong>. M<strong>en</strong> moet bereidwillig zijn om<br />
moeite te do<strong>en</strong> om de juiste informatie aan te lever<strong>en</strong>. Maar daarnaast moet<strong>en</strong> er ook de<br />
mogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> in het systeem bestaan om deze informatie op e<strong>en</strong> juiste manier in te voer<strong>en</strong>,<br />
zodat deze informatie later in het proces voor de juiste person<strong>en</strong> beschikbaar is.<br />
Interne informatievoorzi<strong>en</strong>ing is belangrijk, maar ev<strong>en</strong> zo belangrijk is de externe informatievoorzi<strong>en</strong>ing.<br />
Namelijk de informatie die naar de klant gestuurd wordt. Hiermee kan<br />
het probleem met betrekking tot de niet-opgehaalde retourbonn<strong>en</strong> opgelost word<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong><br />
klant weet nu nog niet wanneer R<strong>en</strong>sa e<strong>en</strong> retourbon op komt hal<strong>en</strong>. Gevolg is dus dat<br />
bepaalde artikel<strong>en</strong> die retour gestuurd moet<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> niet klaar staan. Uit onderzoek is<br />
geblek<strong>en</strong> dat de klant er behoefte aan heeft om geïnformeerd te word<strong>en</strong> over het mom<strong>en</strong>t<br />
<strong>van</strong> ophal<strong>en</strong>. En voor R<strong>en</strong>sa zou dit e<strong>en</strong> aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijke effici<strong>en</strong>cyverbetering oplever<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Dec<strong>en</strong>traliser<strong>en</strong> of (gedeeltelijk) c<strong>en</strong>traliser<strong>en</strong>?<br />
E<strong>en</strong> veelgestelde vraag als het gaat om het aanstur<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> (logistieke) process<strong>en</strong> is: moet<strong>en</strong><br />
de process<strong>en</strong> c<strong>en</strong>traal of dec<strong>en</strong>traal aangestuurd word<strong>en</strong>? Beheersbaarheid <strong>van</strong> het proces<br />
wordt vaak als argum<strong>en</strong>t aangevoerd om het proces c<strong>en</strong>traal aan te stur<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast is<br />
er minder sprake <strong>van</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nisversnippering. E<strong>en</strong> gedec<strong>en</strong>traliseerde aansturing heeft echter<br />
ook voordel<strong>en</strong>. Zo word<strong>en</strong> beslissing<strong>en</strong> dichter bij de praktijk g<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong>. Daardoor is de<br />
responsiviteit <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> dergelijke organisatie hoger.<br />
Mom<strong>en</strong>teel wordt er bij R<strong>en</strong>sa gewerkt met e<strong>en</strong> gedec<strong>en</strong>traliseerde aansturing <strong>van</strong> het<br />
retour<strong>en</strong>proces. Wanneer m<strong>en</strong> besluit over te gaan naar e<strong>en</strong> meer gec<strong>en</strong>traliseerde vorm<br />
<strong>van</strong> aansturing dan zou dit de volg<strong>en</strong>de voordel<strong>en</strong> op kunn<strong>en</strong> lever<strong>en</strong>:<br />
– snelle besluitvorming;<br />
– tak<strong>en</strong>, bevoegdhed<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> verantwoordelijkhed<strong>en</strong> zijn goed af te bak<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> toe te del<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– kortere doorlooptijd;<br />
– goede informatievoorzi<strong>en</strong>ing;<br />
– beheersbaarheid.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Logistiek gezi<strong>en</strong> zou de gec<strong>en</strong>traliseerde organisatiestructuur ideaal zijn. Dit wil zegg<strong>en</strong><br />
dat er dan één persoon is die verantwoordelijk is voor alle fases <strong>van</strong> het retour<strong>en</strong>proces.<br />
Als er e<strong>en</strong> bepaalde afdeling komt die verantwoordelijk is voor het aannem<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> alle<br />
retour<strong>en</strong> zoud<strong>en</strong> medewerkers altijd naar de b<strong>en</strong>odigde informatie kunn<strong>en</strong> vrag<strong>en</strong> omdat<br />
hun focus ligt bij het aannem<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> retour<strong>en</strong>. Zo kan de doorlooptijd <strong>van</strong> het proces in<br />
veel gevall<strong>en</strong> aanzi<strong>en</strong>lijk verkort word<strong>en</strong>. Dit omdat er dan gewerkt wordt met gedeelde<br />
doelstelling<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong>wege het feit dat het retour<strong>en</strong>proces dan meer prioriteit heeft.<br />
Retour<strong>en</strong> zijn echter vaak e<strong>en</strong> commerciële overweging <strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> bepaalde relatie met de<br />
klant is dan erg belangrijk. Het is dus niet verstandig om naast de bestaande verkoopafdeling<strong>en</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> extra ‘retour<strong>en</strong>afdeling’ op te richt<strong>en</strong> waarop m<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>kel retourbonn<strong>en</strong> aanneemt.<br />
Tev<strong>en</strong>s is het lastig om de aansturing <strong>van</strong> fases twee <strong>en</strong> drie sam<strong>en</strong> te voeg<strong>en</strong>. De<br />
verantwoordelijkheid voor beide fases is mom<strong>en</strong>teel verdeeld tuss<strong>en</strong> twee verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
afdelingshoofd<strong>en</strong> op basis <strong>van</strong> de bestaande distributieprocess<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Het ev<strong>en</strong>tueel sam<strong>en</strong>voeg<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de verantwoordelijkheid voor de hiervoor g<strong>en</strong>oemde<br />
process<strong>en</strong> is niet verstandig gezi<strong>en</strong> de aard, om<strong>van</strong>g <strong>en</strong> complexiteit <strong>van</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
procesonderdel<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Op basis <strong>van</strong> hiervoor g<strong>en</strong>oemde overweging<strong>en</strong> was mijn advies om het retour<strong>en</strong>proces<br />
niet te c<strong>en</strong>traliser<strong>en</strong>. In het geval <strong>van</strong> R<strong>en</strong>sa is het ook niet noodzakelijk om het proces<br />
c<strong>en</strong>traal aan te stur<strong>en</strong>. E<strong>en</strong> gedec<strong>en</strong>traliseerde aansturing is ook mogelijk. Maar dan moet<br />
er wel synergie zijn tuss<strong>en</strong> de betreff<strong>en</strong>de person<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> afdeling<strong>en</strong>. Om synergie te creër<strong>en</strong><br />
binn<strong>en</strong> het proces kan het daarom <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> veel groter belang zijn om concrete doelstelling<strong>en</strong><br />
te formuler<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> verantwoordelijkhed<strong>en</strong> toe te wijz<strong>en</strong> aan aanstur<strong>en</strong>de person<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Conclusie<br />
Doelstelling <strong>van</strong> het onderzoek was e<strong>en</strong> effici<strong>en</strong>cyverbetering in de vorm <strong>van</strong>:<br />
– kost<strong>en</strong>besparing<strong>en</strong>;<br />
– meer transparantie;<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> kortere doorlooptijd.<br />
Er is meer transparantie verworv<strong>en</strong> door e<strong>en</strong> managem<strong>en</strong>trapportage te ontwikkel<strong>en</strong><br />
waarmee de doorlooptijd <strong>van</strong> het retour<strong>en</strong>proces gemet<strong>en</strong> kan word<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast is er<br />
ook inzicht verkreg<strong>en</strong> in de kost<strong>en</strong>structuur <strong>van</strong> het proces. Beide maatregel<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> transparanter beeld <strong>van</strong> het proces opgeleverd. Het inzichtelijk mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de doorlooptijd<br />
betek<strong>en</strong>t in deze ook dat bottl<strong>en</strong>ecks in het proces aangepakt <strong>en</strong> verbeterd kunn<strong>en</strong><br />
word<strong>en</strong>. Op termijn zal dit voordel<strong>en</strong> oplever<strong>en</strong> met betrekking tot de doorlooptijd.<br />
Kost<strong>en</strong>besparing<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> op de kortere termijn met name gehaald word<strong>en</strong> in het voorzi<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> informatie naar de klant. Er zull<strong>en</strong> dan meer ingeplande retourorders opgehaald<br />
word<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> hierdoor zull<strong>en</strong> de transportkost<strong>en</strong> verminder<strong>en</strong>.<br />
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Tot slot is er aandacht besteed aan de aansturing <strong>van</strong> het proces. E<strong>en</strong> gec<strong>en</strong>traliseerde<br />
aansturing is <strong>van</strong>wege de complexe situatie niet mogelijk, maar e<strong>en</strong> gedec<strong>en</strong>traliseerde aansturing<br />
is ook mogelijk <strong>en</strong> kan nog steeds voordel<strong>en</strong> oplever<strong>en</strong>. Hierbij is synergie tuss<strong>en</strong><br />
de verschill<strong>en</strong>de afdeling<strong>en</strong> wel noodzakelijk. Er zal dan sprake moet<strong>en</strong> zijn <strong>van</strong> duidelijke<br />
verantwoordelijkhed<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> algeme<strong>en</strong> geaccepteerde doelstelling<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Literatuur<br />
Janz<strong>en</strong>, B. & Rosier, M. (2008) Reverse Logistics: How to realise an agile and effici<strong>en</strong>t<br />
reverse chain within the Consumer Electronics industry. PriceWaterhouseCoopers.<br />
Ploos <strong>van</strong> Amstel, Prof. Dr. W. Logistieke organisatie: c<strong>en</strong>traal of dec<strong>en</strong>traal. De Bilt:<br />
Involvation.<br />
Sys, L. & Verstrep<strong>en</strong>, S. (2009) Retourlogistiek: nieuwe groeikans<strong>en</strong> voor logistiek di<strong>en</strong>stverl<strong>en</strong>ers.<br />
Expertartikel. Geraadpleegd op 15 oktober 2009: http://www.logistiek.nl/<br />
experts/id12299-Retourlogistiek_nieuwe_groeikans<strong>en</strong>_voor_logistiek_di<strong>en</strong>stverl<strong>en</strong>ers.<br />
html<br />
Vieve<strong>en</strong>, J. (2008) Gebrek aan inzicht <strong>en</strong> actuele informatie. Blog Transportmanagem<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Geraadpleegd op 15 oktober 2009: http://www.logistiek.nl/blogs/artikel<strong>en</strong>/id28-<br />
Gebrek_aan_inzicht_<strong>en</strong>_actuele_informatie.html
lectorat<strong>en</strong> verbond<strong>en</strong> aan de fem<br />
De lectorat<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> verricht<strong>en</strong> belangrijk werk<br />
op het gebied <strong>van</strong> onderzoek <strong>en</strong> onderwijsvernieuwing. Zij onderhoud<strong>en</strong> e<strong>en</strong> groei<strong>en</strong>d<br />
netwerk met andere onderwijsinstelling<strong>en</strong>, het bedrijfslev<strong>en</strong>, overhed<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> non-profitorganisaties<br />
in de regio.<br />
Lector<strong>en</strong> spel<strong>en</strong> met onderzoek in op praktijkvrag<strong>en</strong> die bij deze organisaties lev<strong>en</strong>. Ze<br />
betrekk<strong>en</strong> daarbij (master)stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>, doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> promov<strong>en</strong>di. Ieder lectoraat heeft zijn<br />
eig<strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>niskring, e<strong>en</strong> groep <strong>van</strong> deskundig<strong>en</strong> uit het onderwijs <strong>en</strong> het werkveld. Op die<br />
manier is e<strong>en</strong> voortdur<strong>en</strong>de afstemming met de beroepspraktijk verzekerd.<br />
Meer informatie is te vind<strong>en</strong> op: www.han.nl/lectorat<strong>en</strong>.<br />
De Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t (FEM) k<strong>en</strong>t de volg<strong>en</strong>de lectorat<strong>en</strong>:<br />
HuMAN COMMuNICATION DEVELOPMENT<br />
Lector dr. Els <strong>van</strong> der Pool<br />
E Els.<strong>van</strong>derPool@han.nl<br />
T 026 369 11 39<br />
Secretariaat:<br />
E Danielle.Resok@han.nl<br />
T 026 369 10 24<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 5171<br />
6802 ED <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
Ruit<strong>en</strong>berglaan 31<br />
6826 CC <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
139
INNOVATIE IN DE PuBLIEKE SECTOR<br />
Lector drs. Frans Nauta<br />
E frans@nauta.org<br />
T 026 369 18 80<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 5171<br />
6802 ED <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
IJssellaan 82<br />
6826 DW <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
INTERNATIONALE <strong>HAN</strong>DEL VOOR HET MKB<br />
Lector drs. Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong><br />
T 026 369 10 24<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 5171<br />
6802 ED <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
Ruit<strong>en</strong>berglaan 31<br />
6826 CC <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
140<br />
Lectorat<strong>en</strong> verbond<strong>en</strong> aan de FEM
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
KuNST, CuLTuuR EN ECONOMIE<br />
Lector prof. dr. Dany Jacobs<br />
E Dany.Jacobs@han.nl<br />
T 026 353 58 28<br />
Secretariaat:<br />
E n.pill<strong>en</strong>@artez.nl<br />
T 026 353 57 22 / 026 353 56 00<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 49<br />
6800 AA <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
ArtEZ<br />
Gebouw Kraton<br />
Kamer K1.20<br />
Utrechtsestraat 85<br />
6811 LW <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
LOGISTIEK EN ALLIANTIES<br />
Lector drs. Stef Weijers<br />
E Stef.Weijers@han.nl<br />
Secretariaat:<br />
E Marlies.deJonge@han.nl<br />
T 026 369 17 89<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 5171<br />
6802 ED <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
Ruit<strong>en</strong>berglaan 31<br />
Kamer C2.32<br />
6826 CC <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
141
PROFESSIONAL & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT<br />
Lector ir. Hans Timmermans<br />
E Hans.Timmermans@han.nl<br />
Secretariaat:<br />
E Marlies.deJonge@han.nl<br />
T 026 369 17 89<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 5171<br />
6802 ED <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
Ruit<strong>en</strong>berglaan 31<br />
6826 CC <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
142<br />
Lectorat<strong>en</strong> verbond<strong>en</strong> aan de FEM<br />
TOTAL QuALITY MANAGEMENT IN ORGANISATIENETWERKEN<br />
Lector drs. Gerard Ber<strong>en</strong>ds<strong>en</strong><br />
E Gerard.Ber<strong>en</strong>ds<strong>en</strong>@han.nl<br />
Secretariaat:<br />
E Ilse.Dann<strong>en</strong>@han.nl<br />
T 026 369 11 09<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 5171<br />
6802 ED <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
Ruit<strong>en</strong>berglaan 31<br />
6826 CC <strong>Arnhem</strong>
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
HuMAN RESOuRCE MANAGEMENT<br />
Lector Dr. Robert Verburg<br />
NB: deels <strong>van</strong>uit Faculteit Gezondheid, Gedrag <strong>en</strong> Maatschappij<br />
E Robert.Verburg@han.nl<br />
T 024 353 11 93 / 06 250 252 91<br />
Secretariaat:<br />
E Lilian.Wijnhov<strong>en</strong>@han.nl<br />
T 024 353 03 95<br />
Postadres:<br />
Postbus 6960<br />
6503 GL Nijmeg<strong>en</strong><br />
Bezoekadres:<br />
Verl<strong>en</strong>gde Gro<strong>en</strong>estraat 75<br />
6525 EJ Nijmeg<strong>en</strong><br />
143
auteurs<br />
Hans Broekhuis<br />
Hans Broekhuis (1947) studied at the University of Amsterdam, before going on to<br />
lecture in Work and Organisational Studies at the University of Groning<strong>en</strong> from 1975<br />
to 1987. He took his doctorate in 1986 with a thesis on the organisation of the Dutch<br />
social security system. He has worked as a self-employed professional in the Netherlands<br />
and Germany since 1987. Hans Broekhuis is shareholder of various small firms and is<br />
a supervisory director of three companies. He was appointed a part-time Professor of<br />
Entrepr<strong>en</strong>eurship at the Hanze University of Groning<strong>en</strong> in March 2002, and was appointed<br />
as the Academic Director of the Via Vinci University in Breda. Hans Broekhuis is<br />
a member of the Governing Board of the Old Jakarta Foundation (an organisation that<br />
seeks to preserve Jakarta’s cultural heritage), the Governing Board of the Groning<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>Business</strong> Prize Foundation, the Governing Board of the Grass Foundation (a platform for<br />
local architecture and town planning in Groning<strong>en</strong>), the Board of Trustees of Professional<br />
Vision (a training c<strong>en</strong>tre for supervisory board members) and the Board of Energy<br />
<strong>Business</strong> Campus.<br />
Bas <strong>van</strong> Eerd<br />
Bas <strong>van</strong> Eerd coördineert de hbo-schakeltraject<strong>en</strong> voor <strong>Hogeschool</strong> INHolland <strong>en</strong> is<br />
doc<strong>en</strong>t Nederlands <strong>en</strong> Nt2 aan de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>. Hier is hij<br />
betrokk<strong>en</strong> bij taaltoetsing <strong>en</strong> de plaats <strong>van</strong> taal in de doorlop<strong>en</strong>de leerlijn<strong>en</strong> binn<strong>en</strong> de<br />
Faculteit Economie <strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t. Daarnaast geeft hij training<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> workshops over<br />
– met name de praktische kant <strong>van</strong> – het opstell<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> uitvoer<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> taalbeleid in het onderwijs<br />
<strong>en</strong> deed hij onderzoek naar taalbeleid in het basis-, voortgezet <strong>en</strong> hoger onderwijs.<br />
Marijn Giel<strong>en</strong><br />
Marijn Giel<strong>en</strong> (1982) is onderzoeker bij het lectoraat Innovatie in de Publieke Sector.<br />
Binn<strong>en</strong> het lectoraat onderzoekt hij regionale innovatiesystem<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> innovatie in de zorg.<br />
Hij studeerde Sociale Geografie in Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> woonde korte tijd in Finland, waar hij<br />
International Relations studeerde. Marijn werkt e<strong>en</strong> dag in de week bij de Stadsregio<br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Maurijn Hell<strong>en</strong>thal<br />
Maurijn Hell<strong>en</strong>thal (1985) is in 2009 afgestudeerd aan de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>, opleiding Logistiek <strong>en</strong> Economie. Tijd<strong>en</strong>s zijn afstudeerstage heeft hij deelg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong><br />
aan het traject Topcoach voor Toptal<strong>en</strong>t, waarvoor e<strong>en</strong> uitgebreide selectieprocedure<br />
bestond. Via dit traject, onderdeel <strong>van</strong> het K<strong>en</strong>nisakkoord Logistiek, is hij gekoppeld<br />
145
146<br />
Auteurs<br />
aan Arrow Electronics DLC te V<strong>en</strong>lo. Na zijn afstuder<strong>en</strong> is hij bij dit bedrijf gaan werk<strong>en</strong><br />
om de verbeteringsvoorstell<strong>en</strong> als Logistic Engineer te implem<strong>en</strong>ter<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Fatma Kaymaz<br />
Fatma Kaymaz is a former Human Resource and Quality Managem<strong>en</strong>t stud<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Tineke Kramer-Klein<br />
Tineke Kramer-Klein (1965) is sinds vijf jaar in di<strong>en</strong>st bij de geme<strong>en</strong>te Appingedam. Daar<br />
is zij adviseur, voert geme<strong>en</strong>tebreed project<strong>en</strong> uit, is betrokk<strong>en</strong> bij het vormgev<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> uitvoer<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> crisismanagem<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> begeleidt stagiaires personeelsmanagem<strong>en</strong>t. Mom<strong>en</strong>teel<br />
werkt zij als projectsecretaris aan het opzett<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> Vergunning<strong>en</strong>, Toezicht <strong>en</strong><br />
Handhaving (VTH) organisatie voor de vier DEAL-geme<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> (Delfzijl, Eemsmond,<br />
Appingedam <strong>en</strong> Loppersum). Daarnaast is zij projectleider voor het invoer<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong><br />
nieuw functiebeschrijving- <strong>en</strong> waarderingsysteem bij de geme<strong>en</strong>te Appingedam in het<br />
kader <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> organisatiekanteling. Tineke studeerde Managem<strong>en</strong>t, Economie <strong>en</strong> Recht bij<br />
de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>. Sam<strong>en</strong> met Afina de Noord studeerde zij af op<br />
het onderzoek naar de krimptaakstelling bij het bedrijfsonderdeel ‘de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit’ <strong>van</strong> het<br />
Ministerie <strong>van</strong> Landbouw, Natuur <strong>en</strong> Voedselkwaliteit.<br />
Frans Nauta<br />
Frans Nauta (1966) is lector Innovatie in de Publieke Sector. Hij was onder meer<br />
oprichter <strong>en</strong> voorzitter <strong>van</strong> d<strong>en</strong>ktank Stichting Nederland K<strong>en</strong>nisland (KL), de leid<strong>en</strong>de<br />
Nederlandse d<strong>en</strong>ktank op het gebied <strong>van</strong> de k<strong>en</strong>niseconomie. Hij was ook de eerste secretaris<br />
<strong>en</strong> lid <strong>van</strong> het Innovatieplatform, onder voorzitterschap <strong>van</strong> de minister-presid<strong>en</strong>t.<br />
Hierover heeft hij e<strong>en</strong> boek gepubliceerd. Frans Nauta schrijft voor Managem<strong>en</strong>t Scope,<br />
Binn<strong>en</strong>lands Bestuur <strong>en</strong> Sci<strong>en</strong>ceGuide <strong>en</strong> hij blogt op lifehacking.nl <strong>en</strong> het weblog Slimme<br />
Overheid. Hij is regelmatig te gast bij <strong>Business</strong> News Radio.<br />
Afina de Noord<br />
Afina de Noord (1970) is sinds 1998 werkzaam bij het ministerie <strong>van</strong> Landbouw, Natuur<br />
<strong>en</strong> Voedselkwaliteit (LNV), directie Regionale Zak<strong>en</strong> vestiging Noord in Groning<strong>en</strong>; eerst<br />
als managem<strong>en</strong>tassist<strong>en</strong>te <strong>en</strong> sinds 2007 als beleidsondersteun<strong>en</strong>d medewerker. Zij houdt<br />
zich bezig met de uitvoering <strong>van</strong> de Natuurbeschermingswet, communicatie Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee<br />
algeme<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> met het ontwikkel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> planningssysteem t<strong>en</strong> behoeve <strong>van</strong> de LNVinspectieschep<strong>en</strong><br />
op de Wadd<strong>en</strong>zee (‘de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit’). Afina volgde de deeltijdstudie<br />
Managem<strong>en</strong>t, Economie <strong>en</strong> Recht aan de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>. In mei<br />
2009 studeerde zij sam<strong>en</strong> met Tineke Kramer-Klein af op e<strong>en</strong> onderzoek naar de krimptaakstelling<br />
bij ‘de Wadd<strong>en</strong>unit’ <strong>van</strong> het ministerie <strong>van</strong> LNV.
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
John Rance<br />
John Rance is hoofddoc<strong>en</strong>t international marketing <strong>en</strong> daarnaast werkzaam als Study<br />
Abroad Coordinator <strong>en</strong> Graduation Assignm<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> Placem<strong>en</strong>t Coordinator voor de<br />
Engelstalige International <strong>Business</strong> & Managem<strong>en</strong>t Studies aan de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Harm Verweij<strong>en</strong><br />
Harm Verweij<strong>en</strong> (1988) rondde in 2009 zijn studie Logistiek & Economie aan de<br />
<strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> af met onderzoek bij de technische groothandel<br />
R<strong>en</strong>sa. Bij dit bedrijf heeft hij onderzoek gedaan naar de inrichting <strong>van</strong> de retourlogistiek.<br />
Tev<strong>en</strong>s heeft hij deelg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> aan het EVO-traject ‘topcoaches voor toptal<strong>en</strong>t’. E<strong>en</strong> traject<br />
dat door EVO in het lev<strong>en</strong> is geroep<strong>en</strong> om de relatie tuss<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> de beroepspraktijk<br />
te verbeter<strong>en</strong>. Inmiddels studeert hij Logistics & Operations managem<strong>en</strong>t aan de universiteit<br />
<strong>van</strong> Tilburg.<br />
Frank Vonk<br />
Frank Vonk (1960) is hoofddoc<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> s<strong>en</strong>ior onderzoeker aan de Faculteit voor Economie<br />
<strong>en</strong> Managem<strong>en</strong>t <strong>van</strong> de <strong>Hogeschool</strong> <strong>van</strong> <strong>Arnhem</strong> <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong>. Hij studeerde Duitse<br />
taal- <strong>en</strong> Letterkunde <strong>en</strong> wijsbegeerte in Utrecht <strong>en</strong> Nijmeg<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> schreef e<strong>en</strong> proefschrift<br />
over historiografie, filosofie <strong>en</strong> psychologie <strong>van</strong> de linguïstiek. Hij maakt deel uit <strong>van</strong> de<br />
k<strong>en</strong>niskring<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de lectorat<strong>en</strong> Human Communication Developm<strong>en</strong>t <strong>en</strong> Internationale<br />
Handel voor het MKB <strong>en</strong> doet mom<strong>en</strong>teel onderzoek op het gebied <strong>van</strong> communicatie <strong>en</strong><br />
compet<strong>en</strong>ties in relatie tot het hoger onderwijs, internationalisering, (bedrijfs-)ethiek <strong>en</strong><br />
gyroscopisch managem<strong>en</strong>t, alsmede wet<strong>en</strong>schapsfilosofie <strong>en</strong> de sociologie <strong>van</strong> historiografisch<br />
onderzoek.<br />
Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong><br />
Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong> (1963) took a degree in Dutch Language and Literature at the<br />
University of Groning<strong>en</strong>, where she minored in <strong>Business</strong> Studies. After sp<strong>en</strong>ding a year<br />
studying Communications at Concordia University in Montreal, and working at the<br />
United Nations in New York, she moved to Tokyo to conduct research into the differ<strong>en</strong>ces<br />
betwe<strong>en</strong> Japanese and Western managem<strong>en</strong>t styles. She set up her own export<br />
managem<strong>en</strong>t ag<strong>en</strong>cy, called Top Trade Matching, in 1997. Working for Dutch and German<br />
cli<strong>en</strong>ts from a range of industries, the export managers contracted by Top Trade Matching<br />
conduct international trade through a variety of channels. Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong> received<br />
the European Job Chall<strong>en</strong>ge Award in 1998 for her work. This prestigious award was pres<strong>en</strong>ted<br />
by the European Commission for the innovative way in which her ag<strong>en</strong>cy helps to<br />
promote the growth of international business.<br />
In addition to running Top Trade Matching, Louise <strong>van</strong> Weerd<strong>en</strong> was also the Vice Chair<br />
of the Groning<strong>en</strong> branch of Rabobank, member of the National Advisory Council of<br />
147
148<br />
Auteurs<br />
Synt<strong>en</strong>s (an innovation network for business) and consultant for the Health Campus<br />
Boxmeer and Hansa Oncology Clinics.<br />
Since October 2002, she has also worked at the <strong>HAN</strong> University of Applied Sci<strong>en</strong>ces in<br />
<strong>Arnhem</strong> as associate professor in ‘SMEs in International <strong>Business</strong>”.<br />
Galina Zhiltsova<br />
Galina Zhiltsova (1986) has obtained an <strong>en</strong>gineer degree in Appraisal and Real Estate<br />
Managem<strong>en</strong>t at the South Ural State University of Chelyabinsk, Russia in 2008. During<br />
her study she worked as an Evaluator’s Assistant (Real Estate evaluation). The title of her<br />
graduation assignm<strong>en</strong>t was <strong>Business</strong> plan of the office-c<strong>en</strong>tre construction. In 2008-2009<br />
she followed the Bridging course before the Master International <strong>Business</strong> at <strong>Arnhem</strong><br />
<strong>Business</strong> School. This program included D- and G-cluster IBMS. Her future plans are<br />
obtaining a Master degree in International <strong>Business</strong> Administration in Germany.
voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> boek<strong>en</strong> geschrev<strong>en</strong><br />
door fem-medewerkers<br />
Studieloopbaanbegeleiding –Training<strong>en</strong> SLB voor de doc<strong>en</strong>t<br />
Auteur: Marian Corneliss<strong>en</strong><br />
Als studieloopbaanbegeleider b<strong>en</strong> je coach, m<strong>en</strong>tor <strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>tbegeleider<br />
tegelijkertijd. Gesprekk<strong>en</strong> over ler<strong>en</strong> ler<strong>en</strong>, studieaanpak,<br />
studiekeuze, deficiënties, loopbaankeuze <strong>en</strong> persoonlijke<br />
ontwikkeling hor<strong>en</strong> bij het tak<strong>en</strong>pakket <strong>van</strong> de SLB’er.<br />
In ‘Studieloopbaanbegeleiding. Training<strong>en</strong> SLB voor de doc<strong>en</strong>t’<br />
kom<strong>en</strong> alle b<strong>en</strong>odigde coachingsvaardighed<strong>en</strong> aan bod, met aansprek<strong>en</strong>de<br />
voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> uit de dagelijkse praktijk.<br />
Het boek bestaat uit drie del<strong>en</strong>:<br />
– theorie<br />
– oef<strong>en</strong>ing<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> opdracht<strong>en</strong><br />
– casuïstiek<br />
Studieloopbaanbegeleiding is vraaggestuurd <strong>van</strong> opzet. Leervraag <strong>en</strong> uitwisselingsbehoefte<br />
bepal<strong>en</strong> de keuze uit de oef<strong>en</strong>ing<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> opdracht<strong>en</strong>, die zowel geschikt zijn voor beginn<strong>en</strong>de<br />
als meer ervar<strong>en</strong> doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> op het gebied <strong>van</strong> begeleid<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> coach<strong>en</strong>. Met dit boek<br />
kunn<strong>en</strong> doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> zich oef<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong> in de voorbereiding op <strong>en</strong> het voer<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> SLB-gesprekk<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> de daarbij behor<strong>en</strong>de coachingsvaardighed<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> beroepshouding. Ook biedt het training<br />
in het beoordel<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> reflectieverslag<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> leerdoel<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Uitgeverij: Boom-onderwijs.<br />
ISBN: 978904373000472<br />
149
E<strong>en</strong> goed onderzoek<br />
Auteurs: Marjon Elshof <strong>en</strong> Ineke Pieters<br />
150<br />
Voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> boek<strong>en</strong> geschrev<strong>en</strong> door FEM-medewerkers<br />
Onderzoek<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> met de regelmaat <strong>van</strong> de klok uitgevoerd<br />
<strong>en</strong> ev<strong>en</strong> regelmatig schiet<strong>en</strong> ze hun doel voorbij. Zonde!<br />
Structuur in aanpak <strong>en</strong> uitvoering zorgt ervoor dat e<strong>en</strong> onderzoek<br />
leidt tot e<strong>en</strong> doeltreff<strong>en</strong>d resultaat.<br />
Hoe dat in zijn werk gaat, laat ‘E<strong>en</strong> goed onderzoek’ zi<strong>en</strong>. Het<br />
leidt de lezer door de verschill<strong>en</strong>de fas<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> onderzoek:<br />
<strong>van</strong> de briefing <strong>en</strong> de onderzoeksopdracht via het plan <strong>van</strong> aanpak,<br />
het verzamel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> verwerk<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> gegev<strong>en</strong>s, naar het onderzoeksverslag.<br />
Elk hoofdstuk eindigt met tips <strong>en</strong> valkuil<strong>en</strong> die<br />
specifiek voor deze fase geld<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Naast deze praktische theorie, zorg<strong>en</strong> de oef<strong>en</strong>ing<strong>en</strong> per fase<br />
voor verbeterpunt<strong>en</strong>. T<strong>en</strong> slotte bied<strong>en</strong> de checklists handvatt<strong>en</strong> die direct in de praktijk<br />
zijn toe te pass<strong>en</strong>, bijvoorbeeld voor het mak<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> plan <strong>van</strong> aanpak, het opstell<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> vrag<strong>en</strong>lijst <strong>en</strong> het schrijv<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> onderzoeksverslag. E<strong>en</strong> goed onderzoek komt<br />
hiermee binn<strong>en</strong> ieders handbereik.<br />
Uitgeverij: ThiemeMeul<strong>en</strong>hoff<br />
ISBN-13: 9789006950847
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Contract<strong>en</strong> in de internationale handel<br />
1e druk 2008<br />
Auteur: Sonja <strong>van</strong> Hall<br />
‘Contract<strong>en</strong> in de internationale handel’ biedt e<strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nismaking<br />
met de belangrijkste contract<strong>en</strong> die bedrijv<strong>en</strong> sluit<strong>en</strong> bij<br />
gr<strong>en</strong>soverschrijd<strong>en</strong>d handelsverkeer. In het eerste deel komt de<br />
internationale koopovere<strong>en</strong>komst aan bod alwaar wordt uitgelegd<br />
hoe de Incoterms 2000 <strong>en</strong> de betalingsvoorwaard<strong>en</strong> in de<br />
internationale handelspraktijk word<strong>en</strong> toegepast. Als voorbeeld<br />
is het ICC-model koopovere<strong>en</strong>komst opg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In het tweede deel kom<strong>en</strong> andere contract<strong>en</strong> uit de internationale<br />
handel aan bod, zoals de internationale ag<strong>en</strong>tuur- <strong>en</strong><br />
distributieovere<strong>en</strong>komst, de arbeidsovere<strong>en</strong>komst <strong>en</strong> de vervoerovere<strong>en</strong>komst.<br />
Via casestudies krijg<strong>en</strong> stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> praktisch inzicht in het verloop <strong>van</strong> het inkoop- dan wel<br />
exportproces met alle verschill<strong>en</strong>de partij<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast mak<strong>en</strong> de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>nis met de<br />
Engelse juridische terminologie <strong>van</strong> de import <strong>en</strong> export. De hoofdstukk<strong>en</strong> zijn geschrev<strong>en</strong><br />
aan de hand <strong>van</strong> op<strong>en</strong>ingscasus <strong>en</strong> vele voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> uit de praktijk, zodat zelfstudie<br />
(deels) ook tot de mogelijkhed<strong>en</strong> behoort. Elk hoofdstuk wordt afgeslot<strong>en</strong> met e<strong>en</strong> juridische<br />
vraag <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> bedrijf aan de FENEDEX (e<strong>en</strong> ver<strong>en</strong>iging <strong>van</strong> exporter<strong>en</strong>de bedrijv<strong>en</strong>)<br />
<strong>en</strong> het antwoord <strong>van</strong> hun juridische di<strong>en</strong>st.<br />
De stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> kunn<strong>en</strong> hun k<strong>en</strong>nis <strong>en</strong> vaardighed<strong>en</strong> op diverse wijz<strong>en</strong> toets<strong>en</strong>. T<strong>en</strong> eerste<br />
zijn er goed/fout-vrag<strong>en</strong> opg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> waarbij de stud<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong> de gemotiveerde antwoord<strong>en</strong><br />
achter in het boek kunn<strong>en</strong> terugvind<strong>en</strong>. Daarnaast zijn er vrag<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> casus opg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong> om<br />
de nieuw opgedane k<strong>en</strong>nis verder te ler<strong>en</strong> toepass<strong>en</strong>. De antwoord<strong>en</strong> hierop zijn opg<strong>en</strong>om<strong>en</strong><br />
in de doc<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>handleiding die te vind<strong>en</strong> is op www.recht.noordhoff.nl<br />
Uitgeverij: Noordhoff Uitgevers<br />
ISBN: 978-90-01-70683-8<br />
151
Organiser<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> manag<strong>en</strong><br />
1e druk 2006<br />
Auteurs: Aldert Doel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> R<strong>en</strong>é Weber<br />
152<br />
Voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> boek<strong>en</strong> geschrev<strong>en</strong> door FEM-medewerkers<br />
‘Organiser<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> manag<strong>en</strong>’ is e<strong>en</strong> inleiding in de organisatiekunde.<br />
De auteurs Doel<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> Weber besprek<strong>en</strong> de belangrijkste<br />
thema’s op het gebied <strong>van</strong> organiser<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> manag<strong>en</strong>. Daarbij<br />
plaats<strong>en</strong> zij de diverse onderwerp<strong>en</strong> in het kader <strong>van</strong> het<br />
beproefde 7S-model <strong>en</strong> wordt de relatie gelegd naar de beroepspraktijk.<br />
Het boek k<strong>en</strong>merkt zich door:<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> compet<strong>en</strong>tiegerichte <strong>en</strong> beroepsvoorbereid<strong>en</strong>de aanpak<br />
(compet<strong>en</strong>tieschema’s);<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> sterke praktijkcompon<strong>en</strong>t (voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> casuïstiek);<br />
– duidelijke sam<strong>en</strong>hang in de leerstof (7S-model);<br />
– geschiktheid voor zelfstudie (vrag<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> opdracht<strong>en</strong> per hoofdstuk);<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> toegankelijke schrijfstijl;<br />
– e<strong>en</strong> website met ondersteun<strong>en</strong>d materiaal <strong>en</strong> uitwerking<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de vrag<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> opdracht<strong>en</strong>.<br />
In het eerste hoofdstuk wordt e<strong>en</strong> algem<strong>en</strong>e schets gegev<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> de thema’s die met organiser<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> manag<strong>en</strong> te mak<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong>. In de daarop volg<strong>en</strong>de hoofdstukk<strong>en</strong> word<strong>en</strong> de<br />
belangrijkste onderwerp<strong>en</strong> verder besprok<strong>en</strong> aan de hand <strong>van</strong> het 7S-model <strong>van</strong> McKinsey.<br />
Daarbij word<strong>en</strong> vooral de sam<strong>en</strong>hang<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> de relaties tuss<strong>en</strong> de verschill<strong>en</strong>de thema’s<br />
b<strong>en</strong>adrukt. Het laatste hoofdstuk laat zi<strong>en</strong> hoe je aan de hand <strong>van</strong> het 7S-model tot e<strong>en</strong><br />
organisatiediagnose <strong>en</strong> -advies kunt kom<strong>en</strong>.<br />
‘Organiser<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> manag<strong>en</strong>’ prikkelt de lezer om meer te wet<strong>en</strong> te kom<strong>en</strong> over de werkwoord<strong>en</strong><br />
die zijn (aanstaande) beroepslev<strong>en</strong> k<strong>en</strong>merk<strong>en</strong>: organiser<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> manag<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Noordhoff Uitgevers<br />
ISBN-13: 9789001700027<br />
ISBN-10: 9001700020
han business publications december 2009, nr 2<br />
Logistiek in de praktijk<br />
Auteur: Reinder Pieters<br />
Logistiek is e<strong>en</strong> vakgebied waarmee we in het dagelijkse lev<strong>en</strong><br />
vaak te mak<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong>. Soms zijn we daar niet blij mee. Dan<br />
staan we in de file achter grote vrachtwag<strong>en</strong>s.<br />
In de meeste gevall<strong>en</strong> gaat het beter. Onze dagelijkse boodschapp<strong>en</strong><br />
zijn zo uit het schap te hal<strong>en</strong>. In het war<strong>en</strong>huis hebb<strong>en</strong><br />
we de keuze uit duiz<strong>en</strong>d<strong>en</strong> artikel<strong>en</strong>. Gaan we naar e<strong>en</strong><br />
bouwmarkt dan geldt hetzelfde verhaal: kijk<strong>en</strong>, me<strong>en</strong>em<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong><br />
afrek<strong>en</strong><strong>en</strong>. Zelfs bij speciaalzak<strong>en</strong> als juweliers <strong>en</strong> cosmeticawinkels<br />
hoev<strong>en</strong> we zeld<strong>en</strong> iets te bestell<strong>en</strong>. En als dat wel het geval<br />
is, bijvoorbeeld bij meubels of maatkleding, dan kan m<strong>en</strong> ons<br />
precies vertell<strong>en</strong> wanneer onze bestelling zal word<strong>en</strong> geleverd.<br />
Achter dit gemak gaat e<strong>en</strong> belangrijke bedrijfstak schuil die aan vel<strong>en</strong> werk biedt. Hierin<br />
speelt het logistieke vakgebied de hoofdrol. Of het nu de goeder<strong>en</strong>stroom betreft binn<strong>en</strong><br />
e<strong>en</strong> onderneming - <strong>van</strong> inkoop naar productie <strong>en</strong> verkoop - of de opslag <strong>van</strong> het verplaats<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>van</strong> goeder<strong>en</strong> buit<strong>en</strong> de onderneming, alles staat in het tek<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> optimale logistieke<br />
aanpak. Medewerkers die e<strong>en</strong> hogere opleiding in dit vakgebied hebb<strong>en</strong> gevolgd zijn<br />
dan ook zeer gewild.<br />
Met dit boek maakt de lezer k<strong>en</strong>nis met het vakgebied <strong>van</strong> de logistiek. Met vele cases <strong>en</strong><br />
voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> wordt de theorie aanschouwelijk gemaakt. Dat maakt het e<strong>en</strong> uitnodig<strong>en</strong>d <strong>en</strong><br />
prettig leesbaar boek. Ge<strong>en</strong> vakjargon, wel e<strong>en</strong> heldere <strong>en</strong> begrijpelijke uitleg <strong>van</strong> de noodzakelijke<br />
basisbegripp<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Uitgeverij: MBES<br />
ISBN-10: 9078438010<br />
ISBN-13: 9789078438014<br />
153
De financiële functie: Risicobeheer<br />
2e druk 2006<br />
Auteurs: Teun Ammeraal <strong>en</strong> Andre Heez<strong>en</strong><br />
154<br />
Voorbeeld<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> boek<strong>en</strong> geschrev<strong>en</strong> door FEM-medewerkers<br />
Financieel managem<strong>en</strong>t is e<strong>en</strong> vakgebied dat op verschill<strong>en</strong>de<br />
manier<strong>en</strong> b<strong>en</strong>aderd kan word<strong>en</strong>. Het gaat om managem<strong>en</strong>tbeslissing<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> de financiële consequ<strong>en</strong>ties daar<strong>van</strong>. De serie<br />
‘Financieel Managem<strong>en</strong>t’ bestaat uit zes dunne, los <strong>van</strong> elkaar<br />
te gebruik<strong>en</strong> del<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> is inzetbaar in alle opleiding<strong>en</strong> warvoor<br />
financieel managem<strong>en</strong>t rele<strong>van</strong>t is.<br />
De zes del<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> deze serie zijn afgestemd op de noodzakelijke<br />
(financiële) compet<strong>en</strong>ties <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> manager. Naast k<strong>en</strong>nis zijn<br />
ook vaardighed<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> houding belangrijke aspect<strong>en</strong> die deze<br />
manager in het oog moet houd<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Na de ‘Inleiding’ kan elk ander deel op elke gew<strong>en</strong>ste manier in het onderwijsproces<br />
word<strong>en</strong> ingezet, afhankelijk <strong>van</strong> het gew<strong>en</strong>ste profiel. De serie sluit daardoor aan op de<br />
behoeft<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong> het onderwijs met e<strong>en</strong> duidelijke praktische b<strong>en</strong>adering, geschikt voor zelfstudie.<br />
Elk deel bevat veelzijdig opgav<strong>en</strong>materiaal <strong>en</strong>, waar rele<strong>van</strong>t, digitale toepassing<strong>en</strong><br />
<strong>en</strong> internetverwijzing<strong>en</strong>. Voor deze serie is er e<strong>en</strong> ondersteun<strong>en</strong>de website, waarop aanvull<strong>en</strong>de<br />
opgav<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> rek<strong>en</strong>modell<strong>en</strong> te vind<strong>en</strong> zijn.<br />
Met <strong>en</strong>ige regelmaat verschijn<strong>en</strong> er in het financiële nieuws bericht<strong>en</strong> over organisaties<br />
die t<strong>en</strong> gevolge <strong>van</strong> koersbeweging<strong>en</strong> op de financiële markt<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong>orme verliez<strong>en</strong> hebb<strong>en</strong><br />
geled<strong>en</strong>. Dergelijke bericht<strong>en</strong> onderstrep<strong>en</strong> het belang <strong>van</strong> e<strong>en</strong> adequate beheersing <strong>van</strong><br />
risico’s. In het deel ‘De financiële functie: Risicobeheer’ staat dit onderwerp dan ook c<strong>en</strong>traal.<br />
Hoe kan de onderneming financiële risico’s in kaart br<strong>en</strong>g<strong>en</strong> <strong>en</strong> welke instrum<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong><br />
zijn er om deze risico’s te beperk<strong>en</strong>? Wat is de reikwijdte <strong>en</strong> wat zijn de beperking<strong>en</strong> <strong>van</strong><br />
deze instrum<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>? Tev<strong>en</strong>s wordt aandacht geschonk<strong>en</strong> aan de prijsvorming <strong>van</strong> te gebruik<strong>en</strong><br />
externe financiële instrum<strong>en</strong>t<strong>en</strong>.<br />
Uitgeverij: Noordhoff Uitgevers<br />
ISBN-13: 9789001034283<br />
ISBN-10: 9001034284
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