Facts and Arguments about the Introduction of Initiative and ...
Facts and Arguments about the Introduction of Initiative and ...
Facts and Arguments about the Introduction of Initiative and ...
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Perhaps <strong>the</strong>re are two reasons why Aristotle’s ideas <strong>about</strong><br />
happiness (<strong>of</strong> which more below) were not generally shared.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, failure to satisfy <strong>the</strong> basic needs leads to<br />
fixation on <strong>the</strong> gratification <strong>of</strong> those needs, which means that<br />
<strong>the</strong> ‘inversion’ towards <strong>the</strong> gratification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meta-needs<br />
does not take place. Striving for pleasure <strong>the</strong>n becomes a<br />
surrogate for <strong>the</strong> striving for happiness. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is also <strong>the</strong> reality <strong>of</strong> evil. Maslow speaks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘Jonas<br />
complex’: <strong>the</strong> wilful clinging to <strong>the</strong> basic needs <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> conscious<br />
waiving <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meta-needs as motivators for our actions.<br />
That seemed to him to be <strong>the</strong> key to <strong>the</strong> evil behaviour<br />
<strong>of</strong> humans. Aristotle also knew <strong>about</strong> evil: “…<strong>the</strong>re is found<br />
[in men] ano<strong>the</strong>r element naturally opposed to <strong>the</strong> rational<br />
principle, which fights against <strong>and</strong> resists that principle. For<br />
exactly as paralysed limbs, when we intend to move <strong>the</strong>m to<br />
<strong>the</strong> right, turn on <strong>the</strong> contrary to <strong>the</strong> left, so is it with <strong>the</strong> soul;<br />
<strong>the</strong> impulses <strong>of</strong> incontinent people move in contrary directions.<br />
But while in <strong>the</strong> body we see that which moves astray,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> soul we do not. No doubt, however, we must none<strong>the</strong>less<br />
suppose that in <strong>the</strong> soul too <strong>the</strong>re is something contrary<br />
to <strong>the</strong> rational principle, resisting <strong>and</strong> opposing it.”<br />
The reality <strong>of</strong> evil dem<strong>and</strong>s courage from politicians. The<br />
expression ‘political courage’ usually suggests a situation in<br />
which ‘unpopular measures’ have to be implemented against<br />
<strong>the</strong> will <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people. This is not courage, but <strong>the</strong> undemocratic<br />
abuse <strong>of</strong> power. It is not courage, but cowardice, to<br />
avoid a confrontation with an idea that you consider wrong.<br />
Such ideas can only be defeated in an open democratic debate,<br />
in a contest <strong>of</strong> ideas. Those who avoid <strong>the</strong> contest, <strong>and</strong><br />
instead seek to ensure victory by a show <strong>of</strong> force, only succeed<br />
in <strong>the</strong> long run in streng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>the</strong> malevolent forces<br />
in society. A political culture, in which <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> power by<br />
one person over ano<strong>the</strong>r is accepted, is <strong>the</strong> natural biotope<br />
for evil. Real political courage does not consist in dealing<br />
with ideas thought to be wrong or harmful by using power,<br />
but ra<strong>the</strong>r by conducting open contests <strong>of</strong> ideas. People who<br />
have real political courage learn to recognise evil, but do not<br />
allow <strong>the</strong>mselves to be frightened <strong>of</strong>f by it. Opposing evil, political<br />
courage strives for a society in which <strong>the</strong> human desire<br />
for strong democracy <strong>and</strong> real involvement are satisfied.<br />
Democracy <strong>and</strong> happiness<br />
Happiness has also been studied quantitatively. Frey <strong>and</strong><br />
Stutzer (2002) provide a good overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most significant<br />
findings.<br />
Happiness can be measured, <strong>of</strong> course, in <strong>the</strong> sense that you<br />
can just ask people how happy <strong>the</strong>y are. Asking people to rate<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir general feeling <strong>of</strong> happiness on a scale from ‘entirely unhappy’<br />
to ‘perfectly happy’ produces consistent <strong>and</strong> very useful<br />
results. People who consider <strong>the</strong>mselves more than averagely<br />
happy are also rated by o<strong>the</strong>r people as happier. They smile<br />
more, are healthier, have fewer days <strong>of</strong>f work, make social contacts<br />
more easily, etc. (Frey <strong>and</strong> Stutzer, 2002, p. 33). There are<br />
many different factors that have an effect on happiness.<br />
Absolute wealth does not affect happiness, once a certain<br />
minimum has been achieved that allows <strong>the</strong> primary needs<br />
to be satisfied. In Japan, for example, real per capita income<br />
increased sixfold during <strong>the</strong> second half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> twentieth century,<br />
but this did not cause any increase in Japanese people’s<br />
average sense <strong>of</strong> happiness. Relative wealth, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, does have an effect on <strong>the</strong> feeling <strong>of</strong> happiness. People<br />
who are poorer than <strong>the</strong>ir neighbours will, on average,<br />
3<br />
be less happy. On average, women are happier than men,<br />
married people are happier than unmarried people, people<br />
who believe in God are a bit happier than disbelievers, people<br />
who watch television a lot are on average unhappier than<br />
occasional viewers, <strong>and</strong> inhabitants <strong>of</strong> richer countries are<br />
usually happier than inhabitants <strong>of</strong> poorer countries.<br />
Unemployment induces a very considerable loss <strong>of</strong> happiness.<br />
On a scale from 1 (not at all satisfied) to 4 (very satisfied),<br />
unemployment causes an average drop <strong>of</strong> <strong>about</strong> 0.33<br />
[units]. This is <strong>the</strong> decline in <strong>the</strong> feeling <strong>of</strong> happiness due<br />
solely to unemployment i.e. after adjustments have been<br />
made for o<strong>the</strong>r factors, such as loss <strong>of</strong> income (Frey <strong>and</strong><br />
Stutzer, 2002, p. 97). We can underst<strong>and</strong> this effect in <strong>the</strong><br />
light <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ories <strong>of</strong> Maslow <strong>and</strong> Aristotle. Work is an important<br />
opportunity for self-actualization for many people.<br />
It <strong>of</strong>fers <strong>the</strong> opportunity, in <strong>the</strong> Aristotelian sense, to practice<br />
virtuous behaviour. This is confirmed by o<strong>the</strong>r studies,<br />
which indicate that people who are self-employed feel happier<br />
than people who work for an employer <strong>and</strong> who consequently<br />
have less control over <strong>the</strong> circumstances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
work. It is not only a person’s own unemployment, but also<br />
that <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r people that affects <strong>the</strong> feeling <strong>of</strong> happiness:<br />
“...a one-percentage-point increase in <strong>the</strong> general rate <strong>of</strong><br />
unemployment from 9 percent (<strong>the</strong> European mean) to 10<br />
percent reduces <strong>the</strong> declared level <strong>of</strong> satisfaction with life<br />
by 0.028 units on <strong>the</strong> four-point scale applied.” (Frey <strong>and</strong><br />
Stutzer, 2002, p.101).<br />
Do citizens feel happier on average when <strong>the</strong>y have <strong>the</strong> opportunity<br />
to decide on issues directly by referendum? A comparative<br />
study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 26 Swiss cantons, which <strong>of</strong>fer significantly<br />
different levels <strong>of</strong> opportunity for citizens to participate<br />
directly in legislation, provides an answer to this question.<br />
Frey <strong>and</strong> Stutzer reduced <strong>the</strong> extent to which direct decisionmaking<br />
is possible to a single parameter, <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong> which<br />
can vary from 1 (not democratic) to 6 (very democratic). The<br />
canton <strong>of</strong> Basel-L<strong>and</strong>schaft (<strong>the</strong> predominantly rural area<br />
around <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Basle) had <strong>the</strong> highest score (5.69) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
canton <strong>of</strong> Geneva <strong>the</strong> lowest (1.75). As well as using all sorts<br />
<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r factors that reflect <strong>the</strong> demographic <strong>and</strong> economic<br />
differences between <strong>the</strong> cantons, Frey <strong>and</strong> Stutzer also applied<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r scale with ten gradations, which mark <strong>the</strong> degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> municipal autonomy in each canton.<br />
The results show that citizens in <strong>the</strong> more democratic cantons<br />
are significantly happier on average. An increase <strong>of</strong> a<br />
single point on <strong>the</strong> 1 to 6 scale corresponds to an increase<br />
in <strong>the</strong> feeling <strong>of</strong> happiness by 0.11 units, which matches <strong>the</strong><br />
effect <strong>of</strong> a transition from <strong>the</strong> lowest income category (below<br />
2000 Swiss francs a month) to <strong>the</strong> next higher income category<br />
(from 2000 to 3000 Swiss francs a month).<br />
More municipal autonomy also leads to an increase in reported<br />
happiness. However, Frey <strong>and</strong> Stutzer found that <strong>the</strong><br />
two parameters are not independent <strong>of</strong> each o<strong>the</strong>r: it appears<br />
that in cantons with more direct democracy, greater municipal<br />
autonomy also seems to have arisen over time. This corresponds<br />
with <strong>the</strong> overall finding that politicians generally<br />
tend to aim for less local autonomy <strong>and</strong> more centralisation,<br />
whereas citizens usually desire more local autonomy.<br />
The increase in <strong>the</strong> feeling <strong>of</strong> happiness has a general character:<br />
“The positive effect <strong>of</strong> direct democracy on happiness<br />
applies to all income classes, <strong>and</strong> is not restricted to a particular<br />
one (...) The benefits are distributed ra<strong>the</strong>r evenly<br />
among social classes.” (Frey <strong>and</strong> Stutzer, p. 145, 149).