Facts and Arguments about the Introduction of Initiative and ...

swim against the stream of public opinion and who can stand
up for the truth at great personal cost. It is just the ones who
have loved and been well loved, and who have had many deep
friendships who can hold out against hatred, rejection or
persecution. (...) It seems probable that the most important
gratifications come in the first two years of life. That is to say,
people who have been made secure and strong in the earliest
years, tend to remain secure and strong thereafter in the face
of whatever threatens.” (Maslow, 1943a, p. 388)
In the self-actualizing person, therefore, a sort of inversion of
the Maslow pyramid appears: in the series of needs and motivations,
those that manifest themselves last now become
primary. What was initially the top of the pyramid becomes
the new base. In this respect also, therefore, there is a ‘turning
inside out’ in the transition from the basic need to the
meta-needs [see 4 - 1].
An important element of Maslow’s theory of motivation is the
proposition that the basic needs can indeed be fully gratified.
These needs are not inexhaustible. The logical conclusion is
that the approach to the basic needs has to be from a ‘negative’
direction, since what we are essentially talking about is
the removal of deficiencies and annoyances – not the fulfilment
of the unlimited cravings of ‘homo economicus’. Once
these deficiencies are removed, the inversion occurs and the
meta-needs then become the driving force of our actions.
The authoritarian character according to Maslow
According to Maslow, the key to the authoritarian personality
can be found in a specific view of mankind and the world:
“Like other psychologically insecure people, the authoritarian
person lives in a world which may be conceived to be pictured
by him as a sort of jungle in which man’s hand is necessarily
against every other man’s, in which the whole world is conceived
of as dangerous, threatening, or at least challenging,
and in which human beings are conceived of as primarily selfish,
or evil and stupid. To carry the analogy further, this jungle
is peopled with animals who either eat or are eaten, who are
either to be feared or despised. Ones safety lies in ones own
strength and this strength consists primarily in the power to
dominate. If one is not strong enough the only alternative is
to find a strong protector. If this protector is strong enough
and can be relied upon, then peace of a certain sort is possible
to the individual (...) Once granted this world-view, everything
that the authoritarian person does is logical and sensible. (...)
If the world is actually jungle-like for an individual, and if human
beings have behaved to him as wild animals behave, then
the authoritarian is perfectly justified in all his suspicions, hostilities,
and anxieties. If the world is not a jungle, if people are
not completely cruel, selfish, and egocentric, then, and only
then is the authoritarian wrong.” (Maslow, 1943b, 1973, p. 141)
However, Maslow states that only a small number of people
(in particular, pronounced psychopaths) match the image of
the human being portrayed by the authoritarian personality.
Maslow includes the following in his characterisation of the
differences between the ‘authoritarian personality’ and the
‘democratic personality’:
• The authoritarian personality shows a preference for hierarchy.
“People are ranked on a vertical scale as if they were
on a ladder, and they are divided into those above and those
below the subject on this ladder. The democratic person in
contrast tends (in the pure case) to respect other human
beings in a very basic fashion as different from each other,
rather than better or worse. He is more willing to allow for
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their own tastes, goals, and personal autonomy so long as
no one else is hurt thereby. Furthermore, he tends to like
them rather than dislike them and to assume that probably
they are, if given the chance, essentially good rather than
bad individuals.” (Maslow 1943b, 1973, p.142)
• The authoritarian personality shows the tendency to generalise
‘superiority’ and ‘inferiority’. Stronger people are
considered superior in all domains. In its most caricatured
form, we recognise this in the personality cults surrounding
dictators like Mao or Kim il Sung. Propaganda slowly
converts such characters into capable leaders or outstanding
writers, artists, scientists and sportsmen [or women].
This type of personality cult takes advantage of the tendency
for authoritarian-minded people to generalise. The
democratic-minded individual does not show this tendency
to generalisation, but sees superiority or inferiority only in
specific, functional domains and in relation to the capacity
for tackling tasks efficiently.
• The authoritarian personality shows a strong craving for
power (power is essential to survival in a jungle). The democratic
personality seeks strength rather than power.
• The authoritarian personality shows a strong tendency to
see others “... as tools, as means to his end, as pawns on
his chessboard, as objects to be exploited.” (Maslow, 1943b,
1973, p.145) Here we find another reason why an authoritarian
person will usually be opposed to direct democracy.
An important element, which Maslow also addresses, is the
tendency of authoritarian people to reinterpret in an authoritarian
sense attitudes and beliefs which are diametrically opposed
to the philosophy of the jungle. Maslow gives as an
example: “... the Christian ideal [that] has been corrupted
and perverted into its very opposite by various churches and
other organized groups.” (Maslow 1943b, 1973, p. 147)
Inner motivation and democratic disposition
Maslow’s ‘self-actualizing’ person is one whose daily activities
and feelings about life are not dominated by basic needs
that have remained ungratified. Self-actualizing people act
out of very strong, personalised inner motives: “Just as the
tree needs sunshine, and water, and food, so do most people
need love, safety, and the other basic need gratifications
which can come only from without. But once these external
satisfiers are obtained, once these inner deficiencies are satiated
by outside satisfiers, the true problem of individual human
development begins, i.e., self-actualization.” (Maslow
1950, 1973, p.188)
One of the most surprising characteristics that Maslow emphasizes
with this type of person is their ‘democratic character
structure’: “All my subjects without exception may be said
to be democratic people in the deepest possible sense. (...)
These people have all the obvious or superficial democratic
characteristics. They can be, and are, friendly with anyone
of suitable character, regardless of class, education, political
belief, race, or colour. As a matter of fact, it often seems as
if they are not even aware of these differences, which are for
the average person so obvious and so important. They have
not only this most obvious quality, but their democratic feeling
goes deeper as well. For instance, they find it possible
to learn from anybody who has something to teach them
– no matter what other characteristics he may have. In such