Physical Evidence Handbook - Crime Scene Investigator Network

Physical Evidence
Handbook
7th Edition
Wisconsin Department of Justice
State Crime Laboratories

Physical Evidence Handbook
7th Edition
Wisconsin Department of Justice
State Crime Laboratories

Please direct orders to:
Wisconsin Department of Administration
Document Sales Unit
202 S Thornton Avenue
PO Box 7840
Madison, WI 53707-7840
Prepayment is required. Checks should be payable to:
Wisconsin Department of Administration
VISA ® or MasterCard ® orders are also accepted.
Call 1-800-DOC-SALE (362-7253) to place a credit card order.
Local customers may place credit card orders by calling 264-9419.
For general information, please call: (608) 266-3358.
Copyright © 2003 by the State of Wisconsin Department of Justice.
All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in part or in whole in any form without the express permission of
the Department of Justice.
Printed in the United States of America
____________________
First Edition - 1968
Second Edition - 1973
Third Edition - 1981
Fourth Edition - 1987
Fifth Edition - 1993
Sixth Edition - 2001
Seventh Edition - 2003
____________________

Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
1. Bloodborne Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Evidence Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Field Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4. Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5. Videotapes and Audiotapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6. Body Fluid Stains and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7. Firearms and Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8. Casts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9. Latent and Inked Prints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10. Footwear and Tire Impressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
11. Burglary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12. Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
13. Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
14. Woods and Sawdust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
15. Tool Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
16. Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
17. Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
18. Clothing and Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
19. Fracture and Tear Matches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
20. Autopsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
21. Identification of Unknown Deceased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
22. Dental Identification of Human Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
23. Bite Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
24. Sexual Offenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
25. Hairs and Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
26. Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
27. Poisoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
28. Drug Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
29. Arson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
30. Explosives, Bombs, Fireworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
31. Soils and Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
32. Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
33. Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
34. Computer Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Preface
The need for proper recognition, collection, and preservation of
physical evidence is apparent to all who are involved in the criminal
justice system. Physical evidence can directly or indirectly lead to the
solution of a crime. Charging and prosecution decisions may be affected
by the quality of the physical evidence supporting the case. United States
and Wisconsin Supreme Court decisions have placed great emphasis
upon physical evidence in criminal cases.
The Wisconsin State Crime Laboratories provide an important link
between collection and court presentation of such evidence—most
agencies within the state rely on the Laboratories for forensic
examinations. It sometimes happens, however, that materials submitted
to the Laboratory prove inadequate for proper analysis, or that improper
collection or packaging methods destroy valuable evidence.
It is unrealistic to expect that all submitters will know how to
collect evidence in the manner required by the Laboratory, however,
submitters should have at least general knowledge of proper techniques
to guide them.
This handbook is offered in the belief that increased knowledge
leads to understanding and that understanding leads to excellence. It was
written to provide information regarding the legal and Laboratory
requirements surrounding collection and preservation of physical
evidence.
This handbook is not intended to be a comprehensive treatment of
all of the factors involved in criminal investigation. Rather, it is a general
procedural guide outlining methods for collecting and preserving
physical evidence. Readers should keep in mind that the information and
procedures presented here are intended to be used as guidelines when
encountering other types of evidence not specifically covered.
Because the laws and legal precedents concerning collection of
physical evidence are subject to change, it is impossible to give specific,
up-to-date information on acceptable procedures. It is, however, of the
i

Preface
utmost importance that great care be taken to use only approved methods
when obtaining evidence of any kind. Therefore, it is imperative that
during an investigation, close liaison be maintained between the
prosecutor’s office and those persons responsible for the collection of
physical evidence.
The staff of the State Crime Laboratories has revised and updated
this 6th edition of the Handbook in the hope that it will continue to be of
value to our users. Grateful acknowledgement is made to former
Laboratory staff members for their many contributions to the work, to our
colleagues in other crime Laboratories who have offered valuable
comments and suggestions.
ii

Introduction
State Crime Laboratories
There are three crime laboratories within the Division of Law
Enforcement Services, Wisconsin Department of Justice:
State Crime Laboratory-Madison
4706 University Avenue
Madison, WI 53705-2174
Phone: (608) 266-2031
Fax: (608) 267-1303
State Crime Laboratory-Milwaukee
1578 South 11th Street
Milwaukee, WI 53204-2860
Phone: (414) 382-7500
Fax: (414) 382-7507
State Crime Laboratory-Wausau
7100 West Stewart Avenue
Wausau, WI 54401-8410
Phone: (715) 845-8626
Fax: (715) 848-5833
The first Wisconsin State Crime Laboratory, located in Madison,
was created by the Legislature in 1947. A second laboratory was opened
in the Milwaukee area in 1975. In 1991, the Wausau facility opened (See
map in Chapter 3). These laboratories provide technical assistance in
criminal matters when requested by authorized parties.
iii

Introduction
Staff and Services
The Laboratory 1 provides specialists in the fields of Drug
Identification, DNA, Toxicology, Trace Evidence 2, Questioned
Documents, Identification (finger, foot, and palm prints, and footwear),
Firearms, Toolmarks, Imaging, Computer Evidence, and Crime Scene
Assistance. The experienced staff examines and identifies materials such
as suspected accelerants, drugs, explosive residues, fingerprints, fibers,
glass, metals, paints, poisons, biological stains, and soils to extract as
much information as possible.
The Laboratory examines questioned 3 materials and compares
them with known4 materials to determine whether or not the source is the
same, or whether or not a relationship exists. The Laboratory’s findings
may serve to focus an investigation in an entirely different area from that
originally thought to be most significant.
At present, the laboratories located in Madison and Milwaukee are
full service facilities while the Wausau laboratory supports Drug
analysis, Fingerprint/Footwear analysis, Imaging, Audio Tape
Enhancement, and Field Response.
______________________________
1 The capitalized term “Laboratory” is used in this handbook to refer specifically to the Wisconsin
State Crime Laboratories.
2 Where “Trace” or “Trace Evidence” is used in this book, the term refers to minute particles that
normally require the use of a microscope for preparation and/or manipulation for further physical
and chemical testing (examples: explosive residues, fibers, glass, metal fragments, paint, and soil).
3 Where “questioned” is used in this book with reference to evidence of any type, it refers to
evidence or material of an unknown or unacknowledged source. Example: paint chips recovered
from clothing of a victim of a hit-and-run vehicle accident would be questioned material.
4 Where “known” is used in this book with reference to evidence of any type, the term refers to
genuine evidence or material from a known or acknowledged source which is to be compared to
unknown or questioned material. Example: paint scrapings from a suspect automobile to be used
for comparison with paint chips from hit-and-run victim, would be known material. “Knowns”
can consist of blood, paper, grease, wood, handwriting, etc.
iv

Procedure For Requesting Aid
Introduction
The Laboratory is authorized to participate in a criminal
investigation only at the request of authorized governmental officials (see
table). Services of the Laboratory are available to the defendant in a
felony action upon his or her request and with the approval of the
presiding judge (Wis.Stat. §165. 79(1)). The Laboratory also cooperates
with federal and other state agencies.
Governmental Officials Authorized
to Request Laboratory Assistance
(Wis. Stat. §165.75(3)(b))
___________________________________________
Sheriff Chief of Police
Coroner Attorney General
Medical Examiner Governor
District Attorney Head of any State Agency
___________________________________________
The head of any Wisconsin State department may request investigations.
In such cases, the services provided by the Laboratory shall be
limited to the fields of health, welfare, and law enforcement responsibility
which has by statute been vested in the particular state department.
Examples of such state departments include the Department of Natural
Resources, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Health and
Family Services, and others.
When laboratory assistance is desired, it is suggested that the
district attorney of the appropriate county be advised that an investigation
is being undertaken and the Laboratory’s services are needed and
requested. The Department is authorized by statute to decline to provide
Laboratory service in any matter not involving a potential felony charge.
v

Introduction
Technical Support
Whether or not it may accept a case, the Laboratory is available for
consultation. If in doubt, law enforcement officials are urged to
communicate with the Laboratory for advice, counsel, and/or recommendations
relative to the particular problems confronting them in their
investigation. The Laboratories are open Monday through Friday, 7:45
AM to 4:30 PM, except holidays. Forensic Scientists are available 24
hours a day to answer questions concerning evidence recognition,
collection, and preservation. Contact the Laboratory in your service area.
If unable to reach a Forensic Scientist or the Field Response Team after
business hours, contact the Time Control Center at (608) 266-7633.
Court Presentation of Findings
In addition to returning a written report of scientific findings, staff
members are authorized and qualified to appear in courts of law as expert
witnesses. At preliminary hearings, a Forensic Scientist’s report can stand
in place of an actual appearance. Wisconsin Statutes §970. 03 (12)(b)
reads, in part:
vi
At any preliminary examination, a report of one of the crime
laboratory’s ... findings with reference to ... the evidence
submitted, certified as correct by the attorney general ... or a
person designated by ... them, shall, when offered by the state or
the accused, be received as evidence ... The expert who made the
findings need not be called as a witness.
A pretrial conference between the expert who conducted the
examination and the prosecutor assigned the case, or with the defense
attorney (if the expert is to appear as a witness for the defense) is
recommended in all cases where expert testimony by a Forensic Scientist
is presented at trial. Forensic Scientists are available for consultation and
assistance in preparation of those portions of the case involving their
testimony.

Field Services
Introduction
When requested by an authorized law enforcement official, the
Laboratory provides field services to assist in processing crime scenes of
major offenses. Mobile units are equipped to aid in the recognition,
recovery, and preservation of physical materials which may have
evidentiary value, and to transport these materials to the Laboratory for
processing. Laboratory personnel are not vested with power of arrest and,
therefore, require that suitable law enforcement personnel be present to
protect and assist laboratory personnel when processing scenes for
physical evidence.
Informational and Training Services
The Laboratory presents training programs and seminars
throughout the state for law enforcement, professional, and medical
groups. Special training sessions for law enforcement officers may be
held at the local level from time to time when deemed feasible. Requests
for training by Laboratory personnel should be made through the
Training Coordinator at the Wausau Laboratory.
Special articles are written by the Laboratory staff when warranted.
Often these articles appear in the Law Enforcement Bulletin, published by
the Wisconsin Department of Justice. If you are interested in receiving a
subscription, contact the Division of Law Enforcement Services at (608)
266-7751. Ask to speak with the Bulletin Editor.
District attorneys, coroners, sheriffs, chiefs of police, and members
of their staffs are invited to visit our Laboratories for an informational
tour when in Madison, Milwaukee, or Wausau. If desired and if advance
arrangements are made, the staff is available to explain and demonstrate
some of the scientific methods used in collecting, preserving, and
processing evidence. Laboratory tours are limited to law enforcement
personnel and to technical and professional groups by prior arrangement.
vii

1
Bloodborne Pathogens
________________________________________________
AIDS, hepatitis, and other diseases have brought public attention to
the term bloodborne pathogens. Bloodborne pathogens are microorganisms
present in blood, or other potentially infectious materials,
which can cause illness or death. The Bloodborne Pathogen Control
Exposure Plan is required by the State of Wisconsin. The purpose of this
plan is to offer guidelines to minimize your chances of exposure to these
pathogens.
A basic premise of the plan is the use of universal precautions.
This means all human blood and other potentially infectious materials are
treated as infectious for HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus [AIDS])
or HBV (Hepatitis B Virus).
I. Bloodborne Exposure Control Plan
Each agency is required to develop and implement a plan to
encompass your needs in potential exposure situations. The plan should
include training and information on the types of exposures, record
keeping, engineering and work practice controls, personal protective
equipment, housekeeping schedules, Hepatitis B vaccinations, postexposure
evaluations, the use of biohazard labels and other means to aid
in your protection.
It is your employer’s responsibility to offer Hepatitis B
vaccinations at no cost. Vaccination is not mandatory and you may
refuse. However, vaccinations must be provided at no cost if you later
change your mind.
A copy of your agency’s Bloodborne Exposure Control Plan should
be readily available. For more information on exposure control contact
the Wisconsin Department of Commerce.
The Laboratory has added this topic to the Handbook as a reminder
to be aware of exposures. Disease may be spread when you are in contact
1

1 - Bloodborne Pathogens
with blood or other potentially infectious materials. Become familiar
with your agency’s procedures for bloodborne pathogen exposure
control. Actively implement these precautions for your own health and
that of your co-workers.
Other potentially infectious materials include, but are not limited to:
2
seminal fluid pleural fluid (lungs)
vaginal secretions pericardial fluid (around heart)
cerebrospinal fluid peritoneal fluid (abdominal)
synovial fluid (joint) amniotic fluid (around fetus).
Feces, nasal secretions, sweat, tears, vomit and urine (when they
are not contaminated with blood) are not addressed under universal
precautions. However, they can transmit other infectious diseases so
caution is advised. Any body fluid must be handled with caution.
II. General Guidelines
A. Assess a situation beforehand and wear appropriate personal
protective equipment (gloves, mask, goggles, shoe coverings,
coveralls, etc.).
B. Protect eyes, nose and mouth by using goggles and a mask.
These provide a barrier to spraying, splashing or aerosol
transmission of infectious materials.
C. Gloves minimize the risk of infectious materials entering the
body through a cut or other skin lesion. Most latex gloves have
microscopic “holes” and openings. Double gloving (wearing
two pair of gloves at the same time) and changing gloves
frequently aids in protection.
D. Wash your hands after removing gloves. Frequent hand
washing is a good safety practice.
E. Items that are soaked with blood or other body secretions
should be carefully air dried. Dry in a manner that minimizes
the exposure of other staff to the liquid or dried material.
F. Do not assume that a dried sample is risk-free. Current research
indicates that the infectious activity of some organisms persists
more than several days after drying.

Bloodborne Pathogens - 1
G. Minimize or avoid direct handling of contaminated sharp or
pointed objects. Collect syringes in puncture-resistant, leakproof
containers and attach a biohazard label. Never shear,
break or bend a contaminated sharp.
H. Smoking, drinking or eating at a crime scene is hazardous.
Avoid these activities when handling evidence.
3

4
Notes

2
Evidence Integrity
_________________________________________________________
In any criminal investigation, the validity of information derived
from examination of the physical evidence depends entirely upon the care
with which the evidence has been protected from contamination. In other
words, if the evidence has been improperly collected, handled, or stored,
its value may be destroyed and no amount of laboratory work will be of
assistance. Therefore, it is important that items of evidence be collected,
handled, and stored in a way that will ensure their integrity. In doing so,
the likelihood is increased that useful information can be extracted by
examination and that the item will be considered admissible in court
proceedings.
Protecting the Crime Scene
The first officer at the scene of a crime has several immediate
responsibilities. As you near the scene, you should note persons and
vehicles in the general area. This information may provide valuable leads
later during the investigation. If persons are seen leaving the scene itself,
attempt to obtain identification - either personally or by requesting that
back-up officers do so.
As the first officer on the scene, you must attempt to “freeze” the
scene as closely as possible to the condition in which it was found. This
means that no one is allowed to needlessly move about or alter the scene.
Persons present - victims or witnesses - must be isolated or removed from
the scene so that they do not purposely or inadvertently alter or destroy
evidence.
There are other responsibilities to fulfill. First, you must ensure
your own safety and the safety of others. If there is any question in this
regard, check the scene as soon as it can be done safely. The welfare of
victims is also important. Render first aid if required, but do so in a way
that minimizes destruction of evidence (e.g., do not cut through holes in
clothing).
5

2 - Evidence Integrity
Once these other responsibilities have been fulfilled, concern for
the integrity of the scene becomes preeminent. The crime scene must be
protected until all physical evidence has been collected. Consult a
recognized text on crime scene investigation for detailed information on
techniques of crime scene search, security, etc.
One of the most difficult challenges is to exclude “official sightseers”:
officers, superiors, or government officials who are not involved
in processing the scene or investigating the incident but who demand to
be admitted. Every attempt should be made to exclude such persons,
explaining the potential consequences of disturbing the scene.
It is a good practice to keep a crime scene log in which the name,
department, and badge number or other identifying information of each
person at the scene is recorded. The log should include the time of arrival
and departure. If there is a later question regarding who was present, such
a log is invaluable.
6
Fig. 2-1
Example of a crime scene visitor log

Collection of Evidence
Evidence Integrity - 2
It is important to properly collect, seal, and identify collected items
for two reasons. First, you must be able to prove that the item introduced
in court is the same item that was collected at the scene. Second, you
must ensure that the item is not altered or contaminated between the time
it is collected and the time it is examined forensically or entered as
evidence. These objectives are best achieved by proper packaging and
sealing of evidence.
I. Packaging
Packaging materials should protect the item from contamination,
tampering, or alteration. To help select an appropriate packaging method,
ask two questions:
1. What information is sought from analysis?
2. What could cause the item itself or the sample sought to
deteriorate?
With respect to the first question, ask yourself, “Why am I
collecting this item? What piece of information might it give me that will
help prove this case?” Knowing what you’re seeking will help to identify
unacceptable packaging methods.
Sometimes preservation of the underlying surface may be as
important as preserving the evidence sought itself. Packaging materials
should not cause deterioration. For instance, a shirt or pair of shoes
should not be packaged in material that traps moisture. A certain amount
of moisture is imparted during wear and if it cannot escape, samples may
be destroyed and the item itself can eventually disintegrate.
Therefore, items that might contain residual moisture should be
packaged using a material that allows moisture to pass through-paper or
cardboard. (Note: items for DNA examination should always be
packaged in paper or cardboard, even if they appear dry.) Unless it is
intended to be a liquid sample, items that are wet should be allowed to
dry before being packaged and then packaged in paper or cardboard.
On the other hand, there are occasions when a vapor-tight barrier is
required. One example is when flammable liquid vapors are sought in fire
debris. Such an item must be packaged in a vapor-impervious container.
7

2 - Evidence Integrity
Another way that packaging could contribute to deterioration is
through abrading the surface of the item, thereby removing surface
deposits. Fingerprints can be obliterated by friction between the
container and the item, for instance.
Only new, unused materials should be used to package evidence. If
the packaging has been previously used, trace evidence can be imparted
to the item, negating the value of some examinations. Common
packaging materials include: paper, cardboard, plastic, metal cans, and
glass.
A. Paper. Paper goods are appropriate packaging for many different
types of items. Paper is porous-it allows water vapor to escape. As a
result, it is the packaging of choice for items which may contain
residual moisture (unless it is important that the vapors be trapped).
Clothing and other cloth items which are to be examined for DNA
evidence should always be packaged in paper; moisture can destroy
the evidentiary value of these DNA samples.
8
Plant materials such as marijuana or mushrooms which are
confiscated fresh, should be thoroughly dried before submission to
the Laboratory. When stored in plastic, plant material will mold, or,
with enough time elapsed, may decompose into a moldy ooze (see
Drugs in the Form of Plant Material, Chapter 28, Drug Identification).
Paper is also more appropriate than plastic for very small samples
such as hairs, paint chips, and other small items. Surface treatments
and static electricity may cause trace evidence to cling to plastic. This
is not as great a problem with paper. The primary concern when using
paper with trace samples is that the paper is securely folded and
sealed so that the sample cannot escape through an opening.
Bags. Paper bags come in many sizes. Bags are a good choice for
bulky items. Choose a bag that is sized to the item-don’t use a fullsize
grocery bag to collect a wrist watch or a paint chip. Bags may
leak at the seams and corners, and may not be suitable for powdery
evidence unless all possible openings are taped.
Envelopes. Envelopes also come in a variety of sizes. Manila
“coin envelopes” are good for small samples. Letter-size
envelopes work well for many items. Large manila envelopes can
be useful for larger moderately heavy items. Some manila
envelopes designed to hold evidence are constructed with a clear

Evidence Integrity - 2
acetate window which allows the contents to be viewed while
retaining the breathability of paper. Like paper bags, envelopes
may leak at the seams and may not be suitable for powdery
evidence unless the seams are taped.
B. Cardboard Boxes. Large cardboard boxes work well for heavy or
bulky items. Unless they have a waxy finish, cardboard shares
paper’s porous nature and is a good choice for items that might
contain residual moisture or for DNA samples. Cardboard boxes
should not be used for trace evidence or when the item is to be
examined for trace evidence.
Small “slide boxes” are useful for samples such as bullets and bullet
fragments.
Fig. 2-2
Paper bags come in an assortment of sizes. It is wise to have an assortment of sizes
available so that the bag can be sized to the item.
9

2 - Evidence Integrity
10
Fig. 2-3
The large variety of envelopes available make it easy to match the item to
an appropriately sized container.
Fig. 2-4
Some commercially available manila envelopes have a clear acetate
window which allows inspection of the contents while retaining the
advantages of paper.

Evidence Integrity - 2
C. Plastic. Plastic has several obvious advantages: it has great strength
for its weight and transparent plastic allows inspection of the
contents. There are several disadvantages which must be respected,
however.
First, water vapor does not freely pass through plastic. Most evidence
is adversely affected by prolonged exposure to water: steel will rust,
cardboard or paper may decompose, biological materials (blood,
semen, etc.) are destroyed, natural clothing materials (leather, wool,
cotton) mold and degrade.
Paradoxically, some vapors other than water can pass through plastic
and therefore may allow sought-after samples to escape. See the next
section, “Metal cans” for further details.
Plastic is acceptable for items that you are certain are dry, especially
plastics, paper, drug powders and tablets, etc.
Fig. 2-5
Example of condensation that can build in a sealed plastic bag. Plastic
bags allow good visual access to the contents. They should only be used
for items that are absolutely dry, such as powders, capsules, plastics, and
so forth.
11

2 - Evidence Integrity
D. Metal cans. New, clean paint cans are ideal for storing nonbiological
samples that could evaporate. The most common examples
are flammable liquid accelerants found in fire debris (e.g., gasoline,
charcoal lighter fluid, etc.) It should be obvious that a previously
used can is not acceptable; paints contain solvents that are similar to
an arsonist’s accelerants. For the same reason, you should never reuse
any evidence packaging materials, including cans.
E. Glass vials and jars. Glass vials and jars are useful for liquid
samples: blood, alcohol, flammable liquids, water and so forth.
Blood samples should be collected by following instructions
contained in Handbook chapters on Toxicology, DNA samples and
Autopsy. The vial or jar must have a tight-fitting top and must be
protected from breakage once collected.
12
As noted above, plastic allows hydrocarbon vapors to escape. Plastic
may also be attacked and destroyed by high concentrations of vapors.
For these reasons, volatile samples should only be stored in metal and
never in plastic.
Fig. 2-6
New metal paint cans are usually available from paint wholesalers or
retailers. Once again, use a can that is sized to the sample.

Evidence Integrity - 2
Fig. 2-7
Glass vials are available from hospital and scientific supply outlets.
Fig. 2-8
Use a new clean pipette to transfer liquids to glass vials. Use a rubber bulb
or other device designed for the purpose of providing suction. Never use
your mouth-the practice is dangerous and may contaminate the sample.
13

2 - Evidence Integrity
This general discussion is intended to give guidance in situations
where specific instructions are not provided elsewhere in the Handbook.
Consult chapters dealing with specific types of cases or evidence and
follow instructions given there, if they are provided.
II. Sealing
Evidence received by the Laboratory must be properly sealed.
A proper seal provides proof that an item has not been accessible and
therefore could not have been altered or contaminated during storage. The
primary requisite of a good seal is that if it is tampered with, the
tampering can be detected.
There are many recognized sealing methods and a number are
discussed below. All are used by the Laboratory. Methods of sealing
evidence include: heat sealing in plastic, staples and tape, tamper-proof
tapes, tamper proof adhesive strips, or a combination of these methods.
14
Fig. 2-9
Use an indelible pen to write your initials across the heat seal to
authenticate it. There are several different types of plastics that can be used
with heat sealers, but each requires a different time/temperature
combination. Make sure that you sufficiently heat the plastic to ensure the
halves are fused together.

Evidence Integrity - 2
A. Heat sealing. The heat sealing method partially melts the (plastic)
packaging and fuses it together. When using this method, emboss an
identifiable mark into the seal and use an indelible marker to write
your initials across the seal. These markings provide evidence that
the package was not opened and then resealed.
B. Tape and staples. Cellophane or cloth tape can provide a tamperevident
seal on some surfaces. However, tape on plastic does not
provide an acceptable seal because it can be easily removed and
replaced. Paper and other fibrous materials will adhere to the adhesive
surface of the tape and tear, revealing tampering. The security of this
method is improved by use of tapes with organizational names printed
thereon (thereby limiting the number of persons who could reseal the
item). Use an indelible pen to write your initials across the junction
of the tape ends. If disturbed, it will be nearly impossible to
reposition the tape so that it precisely matches.
Fig. 2-10
Close the opening of the container by folding over the opening more
than once. Staple the fold in several places and cover the staples with
tape. Use a wax seal or an indelible pen to write the sealers initials
across the junction of the tape ends.
15

2 - Evidence Integrity
16
Do Not
Place Seal
in This Area
Fig. 2-11
An example of a cloth tape and wax seal across the junction of the tape ends,
authenticated by impressing an identifying mark (usually a fingerprint). Do
not place the seal over the manufacturer’s opening. The Laboratory attempts
to leave the original seal in place, poor positioning will require its
destruction to open.
Fig. 2-12
An example of a tamper-proof tape and a wax seal across the junction of
the tape ends, authenticated by impressing an identifying mark (usually a
fingerprint).

Evidence Integrity - 2
C. Wax. One of the oldest methods to assure the authenticity of a seal is
the use of sealing wax and an imprint across the junction of the tape
ends. When used for sealing evidence, this is often combined with
staples and white cloth tape: the opening of the package is closed,
stapled, and secured with cloth tape; then, heated, liquid sealing wax
is pooled over the junction of the tape ends and onto the packaging.
When the sealing wax has cooled somewhat but is still soft and
pliable, some object (usually a finger print) is impressed into the wax
to leave a mark of authenticity. Be aware that wax does not adhere
well to certain types of tape.
D. Tamper-proof tapes. Tamper-proof tapes are destroyed by efforts to
remove them. Traditionally, the security feature was created by a
combination of a tenacious adhesive and a low tensile strength
backing. Some new tapes change color or have words develop when
disturbed. The tapes come both in long rolls and in short, individual
strips.
These tapes are advertised as providing tamper-proof seals on all
surfaces. In reality, some brands of tape can be removed from plastic
bags without evidence of tampering. Always check for permanence
on an identical test object before using a particular tape. If the brand
of tape or packaging is changed, retest.
Fig. 2-13
Tamper-proof tape is available from a number of suppliers and in several
different forms.
17

2 - Evidence Integrity
18
Fig. 2-14
Use an indelible pen to write the sealer’s initials across the junction of
the tape ends. It is nearly impossible to reposition the tape correctly
once disturbed.
Fig. 2-15
Use an indelible pen to write the sealer’s initials on the plastic bag over
the adhesive seal.

Evidence Integrity - 2
One advantage of tamper-proof tapes is that they are designed to
shred or tear when pulled or stressed. This advantage is a potential
disadvantage, however, if a mechanically strong joint is required.
Unless somehow reinforced, the tape may spontaneously shred if
stressed. When the tape joint may be strained, use another method to
secure the joint (tape, staples, etc.) and then use tamper-proof tape
across the joint.
Some tamper-proof tapes will not adhere to very cold metal surfaces.
E. Tamper-proof adhesive strip. Tamper-proof adhesive strips
attached to plastic bags are a quick and easy method of sealing plastic
bags. Remove the plastic protective cover from the adhesive and
either squeeze the sides of the plastic bag together or on some bags
fold the plastic flap over the adhesive strip and squeeze together.
Write your initials on the plastic bag directly over the adhesive seal.
Any attempt to disturb the seal results in distortion of the plastic bag
and/or the initials.
F. Staples. Stapling by itself is not a proper or acceptable method to
seal evidence. However, it can be used in conjunction with other
sealing materials. Be aware, exposed staples can present a sharps
hazard.
19

2 - Evidence Integrity
III. Chain of Custody
The chain of custody is a written record that documents every
person that had custody and control of an item from the time it was
collected until its introduction into court. It allows the courts to question
all persons who possessed an item regarding their handling procedures
and the actions they took.
The importance of a properly documented chain of custody cannot
be overemphasized. The chain is often closely scrutinized. Evidence is
challenged and sometimes rejected because of improper handling or
documentation. Thus it is extremely important that proper methods be
used in collecting, preserving, and documenting physical evidence.
The chain should be no longer than necessary. Ideally, it should
include only:
20
• The investigator who recovers the evidence
• The departmental evidence custodian (in cases when the item is
not immediately transported to the Laboratory by the recovering
investigator)
• The person who transports it to the Laboratory (if possible, one
of the two preceding individuals)
• The person (normally the evidence specialist) who receives the
evidence at the Laboratory.
• The Laboratory scientist who examines the evidence.
• The person that retrieves it from the Laboratory (if possible, one
of the first two individuals)

Evidence Integrity - 2
Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form
When submitting a new case or additional items for a case already
submitted, a Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form must accompany the
evidence (Fig. 2-16). This form supplies important details that are needed
for Crime Laboratory record management. It also ensures that reports of
analysis will be associated with the correct offense. If your agency does
not have these forms or if you have any questions about proper
completion, contact the Laboratory in your service area. An electronic
version of the Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form is available upon
request from the Laboratory in your service area.
Each offense should be submitted as a separate case. For instance, if
fingerprints were found at three businesses burglarized on the same night
in the same strip mall, each burglary could result in a separate criminal
count. Therefore, each incident should be submitted on a separate form.
In a drug case, if more than one buy/deal occurs involving the same
suspect on the same day, the Laboratory considers each buy/deal a
separate case which must be submitted on a separate transmittal form.
Make sure all entries are legibly recorded. Hand printing or
typewriting is preferred. If there are special instructions, note them on the
Transmittal form or include them in a letter in the same envelope.
Information to be supplied includes:
1. Submitting Agency. Name of agency submitting case (Police
Department, Sheriff’s Office, MEG Unit, etc.)
2. Submitting Agency Case Number.
3. City of Agency. Municipality where agency is located.
4. County of Agency. County where agency is located.
5. Date Transmitted. Date case is mailed/brought to the Laboratory.
6. Offense Committed in City/Town/Village. If known.
7. County of Offense. List only one county.
8. Offense Date. Only one incident per transmittal form. Must be one
specific date, not between a general time frame.
21

2 - Evidence Integrity
9. Criminal Offense. List all charge(s) defendant(s) face. Be specific. In
drug cases, this is typically possession, possession with intent,
delivery, manufacturing, etc. In cases such as arson, burglary, or theft,
be sure to indicate the type of property burned, burglarized, or stolen.
10. Trial Date. Date of jury trial, if known.
11. Victim(s). Victim(s) of the crime. In drug cases, there are usually no
victims. In the case of multiple burglaries, each burglary is a
separate case even though the same suspect(s) may be involved.
Each victim must be listed on a separate transmittal form. If a
business is involved, include name of business, owner and any
employees involved; list the cashier in armed robbery, etc.
12. Suspect(s). All suspect(s) in the crime, whether or not charged.
13. Sex/Race. Sex and race of victim(s) and suspect(s). This information
is necessary in sexual assault cases for both victim and suspect.
14. Age/Date of Birth. Age and date of birth of victim(s) and suspect(s).
15. Agency Exhibit Number. If submitting agency has a an exhibit
number, item number or inventory number for the piece of evidence,
it may be listed here.
16. Number of Items. Number of pieces of evidence being submitted
under your item number or inventory number.
17. Item Description and Source. Brief description of evidence.
18. Full Name of Submitting Officer. Full, printed name of officer
submitting case. (No initials or nick names—i.e., James J. not J.J.;
William not Bill.)
19. Phone Number. Phone number of submitting agency.
If evidence is mailed or shipped to the Laboratory, place the
Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form in an envelope and attach it to the
outside of the package.
22
A packaging checklist follows Figure 2-16.

Evidence Integrity - 2
Fig. 2-16
Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form
Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form. The form is available upon request from the
Laboratory in your service area. The form should be used whenever a case is submitted
to the Laboratory.
23

2 - Evidence Integrity
Packaging Checklist
24
Before shipping evidence ask yourself:
• Has evidence been properly collected, preserved, and sealed for
submission to the Laboratory (heat seals marked with the sealer’s
initials, all tape seals marked with the sealer’s initials across the
junction of the tape ends?
• Has evidence, to include fingerprint cards, been properly sealed?
• Has evidence been properly packaged for shipping to the
Laboratory?
• Has Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form been properly
completed?
• Has Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form been put in an
envelope attached to the outside of the package?
• When using certified mail, the envelope containing the
Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form must be attached to the
outside of the package.
• When using registered mail, the edges of the envelope must be
completely covered with brown paper tape.

3
Field Service
_________________________________________________________
The Field Response unit provides field assistance in cases of
priority, primarily death investigations. It is staffed and equipped to aid
in the recognition, proper recovery, and preservation of physical
materials which may have evidentiary value, and to transport those
materials to the Laboratory for examination. Laboratory examinations
are not conducted in the field.
Field assistance may be requested by those governmental officials
authorized to do so. (See table, below.)
Governmental Officials Authorized to Request
Laboratory Assistance
(Wis. Stats §165. 75(3)(b))
_______________________________________________
Sheriff Chief of Police
Coroner Attorney General
Medical Examiner Governor
District Attorney Head of any State Agency
________________________________________________
When field assistance is requested, it is important that the crime
scene be protected and kept secured by law enforcement personnel. All
personnel must remain outside the perimeter of the scene. The requesting
agency should assign the officer most familiar with the case to assume
responsibility for the investigation. Also, during the examination and
processing of the crime scene, the officer who is assigned the case and
other officers who have attended the death investigation and/or evidence
technician courses, should be made available to assist the Laboratory
personnel.
Law enforcement agencies requesting assistance for crime scene
investigations may contact the Madison and Wausau Crime Laboratories
at the following telephone numbers:
25

3 - Field Service
26
Agencies in the southern 24-county area served by the
Crime Laboratory - Madison - (608) 266-2031 (24-hours a day)
Agencies in the southeastern 8 county area served by the
Crime Laboratory - Milwaukee - should contact the Crime
Laboratory - Madison - (608) 266-2031 (24-hours a day)
Agencies in the northern 40-county area served by the
Crime Laboratory - Wausau - (715) 845-8626 (24-hours a day)
If unable to reach any of the Laboratories at any time call the
Time Control Center at (608) 266-7633.
Fig. 3-1
Laboratory service areas.
The Madison Laboratory field service area includes the Milwaukee Laboratory area.
Agencies in the Milwaukee Laboratory areas should contact the Madison Laboratory for
field service. For all other matters, agencies in the Milwaukee service area should contact
the Milwaukee Laboratory.

4
Photography
_________________________________________________________
The Forensic Imaging Unit provides analysis of photographic
materials and physical evidence, using photographic and electronic
imaging techniques. Limited analysis of videotapes, electronic images
and computer enhancement of images is available.
Photographic services provided include conventional and
electronic imaging of physical evidence, either at the laboratory or on
location. Preparation of demonstrative exhibits for court and
processing/printing of color and black and white film are additional
services accessible on a limited basis. Training for law enforcement
agencies and consulting in forensic photography can be provided
depending on availability of personnel.
Requests for photographic analysis and services should be directed
to the Forensic Imaging Unit of the Laboratory servicing your area. The
unit leader will evaluate your request and advise your agency as to the
quantity of evidence/material required, amount of time required to
complete your request, type of accessory equipment or material required
and submission procedures.
Photographic Procedures and Techniques
Evidence photography is indispensable to the evaluation, interpretation,
and presentation of physical evidence. It is important that
evidence photographs be of consistently high quality as well as a fair and
accurate representation. The following recommendations have been
compiled to produce photographs that meet these recommendations.
27

4 - Photography
I. Criminal Investigations
A. General Guidelines
28
1. Upon arriving at the scene, the photographer should obtain all
available information from either the first officer on the scene or
the officer-in-charge. Using this information, the photographer
should mentally decide what photographs are needed and in
which order they are to be produced. Do not move or disturb any
evidence, bodies or items within the boundaries of the scene
before they have been photographed, measured, sketched and
released for collection by the officer in charge.
2. Do not take a suspect or any item of physical evidence that has
been moved or disturbed back to the scene for photographic or
other purposes.
3. Do not include yourself, other persons, or any other object not
part of the scene in the photographs. If positions need to be
denoted in photographs, take a photograph without any
alterations and then retake the photograph with inanimate
markers in place. Be extremely careful not to disturb any items
of evidence.
4. Film or electronic medium are the cheapest part of processing a
scene. A good axiom to follow is: If in doubt, photograph it!
B. Procedures
1. Determine a photographic starting point and progressively take
photographs working your way into the scene. Photographs
should maintain continuity between each other to present a
“picture story” of the scene.
2. Photograph rooms from each corner, with a minimum of four
views. Additional photographs may be required of ceilings,
floors, doorways or hallways if not covered in the four minimum
views.
3. Photograph bodies from all angles (be careful of distortion when
photographing from head and feet) and overhead, if possible. Do
not disturb body or clothing on body to take photographs. Body
will be photographed and examined at autopsy.

Photography - 4
4. Scenes should be photographed keeping four basic views in
mind:
a. OVERALL VIEWS - these show general locations,
conditions and surroundings.
1) Should be done at photographer’s eye level unless
duplicating a witness’s point of view. Then the camera
should be placed at height of the witness’s eyes and
looking in their direction when event was witnessed.
2) A large outdoor scene, a scene involving several
buildings or a route used may require aerial photographs.
3) All scenes should have 360 degree overall views looking
toward the scene and looking away from the scene. If
possible, include identifiers like street numbers, fire
numbers, permanent reference points, etc. Structures
should have all sides, surrounding areas and adjacent
buildings photographed.
4) Interior overall views, using the minimum four corner
technique, should be produced of all rooms connected
with the scene.
b. MEDIUM VIEWS - these show a significant segment of the
scene that has been previously recorded in the overall views.
An example would be a body lying in the middle of the room.
An overall view would show where the body was in relation
to everything else in the room. A medium view would focus
our attention to the particulars of that body to give details
like type of clothing, position of extremities, items close to
the body, etc.
c. CLOSE-UP VIEWS - are used to specifically show position
and detail. This would include items such as: a gun in
relation to the hand, ejected cartridge cases, a bullet lodged
in wall, ligatures, gags, bindings, entry damage to door jam,
etc. Close-ups of all evidence should be accomplished before
collection, measuring and sketching take place.
d. SPECIFIC EVIDENCE VIEWS - these photographs
selectively record an item of evidence or something peculiar
29

4 - Photography
30
to that item. These views may be taken during the initial
photography or after processing of the scene. Additional
photographs may be necessary as evidence is discovered or
processed. Some examples include: footwear/tire
impressions, fingerprints, footprints, processed fingerprints
before lifting, tool and pry marks, fabric impression, bite
marks, serial numbers, etc.
1) Can be very similar to a close-up view or may have been
taken previously as a close-up view.
2) Depending on type of evidence, photographs may be
taken back at the agency after item has been collected
from scene/autopsy.
5. When the photographic recording of the scene has been
completed, the photographer should confer with the officer-incharge
and describe all the photographs that have been made.
Take any additional photographs as directed by the Investigator
or officer-in-charge.
C. Photographic Notes
1. Generally, departmental policies will dictate what type of
information the photographer needs to record. It is suggested that
some type of “running” log be maintained.
2. Log information that might be considered: frame number,
photographer, date, case number, time started/ended, camera
direction (use compass directions) and general description of
item being photographed.
3. Do not mix cases on a roll of film and do not discard your bad
negatives, keep them as part of your log.
4. Data backs may be used. Be aware of where the data is being
imprinted on the negative. Sometimes this data can obscure
important elements of the picture!
5. Statutorily you are not required to record data, but you may be
asked this information during court testimony.

II. Autopsy Photographic Procedure
Photography - 4
Most photographers will probably not have occasion to photograph
an autopsy. In the event that such a situation should arise, however, the
following guidelines are suggested.
A. Seals and identification tags: these may be located on bags used for
transporting bodies, on refrigeration storage units and/or the body
itself. All should be photographed showing how seal is affixed and
any identifiers which may have been placed on the seal or tag.
B. Identification photographs: particularly important if person is
unidentified.
1. Overall view of body, both sides.
2. Frontal view of face similar to a “booking” type photograph.
3. Profile of face, both sides, again similar to a “booking” type
photograph.
4. Scars, tattoos and identifying marks; scaled & unscaled.
C. Overalls showing general condition of body.
1. Body clothed (if found with clothing on), both sides and back.
2. Body unclothed, both sides and back.
3. Views of affected areas, unwashed, and if wounds, both scaled
and unscaled.
4. Views of affected areas, washed, and if wounds, both scaled and
unscaled.
D. Lividity patterns, especially if conflicting.
E. Areas of special interest, scaled and unscaled.
1. Wounds.
2. Bruises, scratches, lacerations and fractures.
3. Pattern impressions; bite marks, fabric, tool marks, etc.
31

4 - Photography
32
4. Ligatures, bindings, knots, asphyxial devices, protruding items,
etc.
F. Any additional photographs as directed by attending pathologist.
G. Copies of x-rays if desired.
III. Scaling Photographs
In criminal investigations, properly taken scaled photographs are
indispensable in the evaluation and interpretation of physical evidence.
The location, relative position, appearance, physical size, depth and
shape of any object that possesses potential evidentiary value should be
photographed, both scaled and unscaled, using the following recommendations.
A. Required Equipment
1. Camera with precise viewing/focusing system and manual
exposure controls.
2. Tripod is essential. Should be sturdy enough for camera system
you are using, having a three-way head and preferably equipped
with an accessory “L” extension arm.
3. Cable release for camera.
4. Electronic flash or portable lighting unit.
5. Flash extension cord to permit use of off-camera flash.
6. Precise ruled scale.
a. Machinist type with “chrome-clad or satin-clad” type
surface, either English or Metric ruled.
b. Scale should be as thin as possible without excessive
flexibility. Scales similar to retractable or folding rulers,
school type rulers, paper rulers or stainless steel rulers
should not be used. They generally are not precise, too thick,
too flexible, will photograph as black or will produce
specular highlights when photographed.

Typical 35mm image recieved at Laboratory for fingerprint
identification.
Fig. 4-1
Correctly framed image, with fingerprint filling up the full 35mm
frame. If the fingerprint is for an AFIS search, the finished photo
must be 1:1 (life size).
Photography - 4
33

4 - Photography
34
Fig. 4-2
Proper scaling of a footwear impression.

Photography - 4
c. Paper stick-on type scales are acceptable for fingerprint
photography, if accurate. It is advisable to submit the actual
scale used when submitting the photographs for more
accurate sizing of the fingerprints.
d. An ABFO #2 (American Board of Forensic Odontologist)
“L” shaped scale is suggested for bite mark photography.
B. General Scaling Recommendations
1. Camera must be placed on tripod.
2. Compose subject in viewfinder and make subject as large as
possible in the viewfinder (See Figure 4-1), unless photographing
to a specific magnification ratio, such as a 1:1 (100% of life size)
for AFIS. Critically focus on subject.
3. Film plane should be placed parallel to object plane with lens
directly over center of object and perpendicular to object. (See
Figure 4-2)
4. A scale should be placed on same plane as area of primary
interest in subject. If done properly, scale will also be parallel to
camera’s film plane.
5. Scale placement should not obscure any detail or characteristics
of the subject.
6. The scale should be of sufficient length to provide accuracy for
printing and size determination.
7. Care should be taken to avoid a direct reflection off the scale into
the camera lens when lighting subject.
IV. Pattern Impression Photography
A. General Lighting Recommendations
1. Depending on the depth of the impression and the surface of
material it is in/on, the light should be placed at a low angle to
the impression, from 10 o to 45 o . On-camera flash is seldom used
for pattern impressions.
35

4 - Photography
36
Fig. 4-3
Lighting effects on pattern impressions.
2. Light should be at a distance from the impression to evenly
illuminate the entire length/width of the impression. It is
important to avoid brighter areas at one end of the impression
than the other end. A reflector card may be used to “fill-in” the
end farthest from the light, provided the shadows or detail are not
eliminated.

Fig. 4-4
Proper scaling of impressions.
Photography - 4
3. When the light is placed at a low angle, shadows are created that
highlight individual characteristics. Oblique lighting allows for
good delineation but a low light angle also causes a problem, as
depicted in Figure 4-3. The shadows can hide possible important
detail. To alleviate this problem, at least two (2) photographs
should be taken:
37

4 - Photography
a. One photograph with the light placed at one end of the
impression. Advance the film while making sure not to move
the camera. Then take another photograph with the light
placed at the other end of the impression.
b. Additional photographs may be taken with the light from
other positions relative to the impression. (See Figure 4-3.)
B. Footwear Impressions
38
1. Camera must be on tripod!
2. Scale must be used! See Section III, Scaling.
3. Consider the depth of the impression and scrape away material,
along side of impression, to provide space for the scale. Do not
disturb the impression. Also, be careful to not “cave” in the
sides of the impression if in soft ground, sand or snow.
4. Set the scale at the level of the deepest plane of the impression
and laying on the same plane as the impression. (See Figure 4-4.)
5. If an impression consists of two different levels (see Figure 4-4),
such as the sole level and a deeper heel impression, then three (3)
photographs are called for:
a. on level and plane of sole impression
b. on level and plane of heel impression
c. an overall view, scaled on plane of sole level impression, for
recording length
6. Each photograph submitted should be labeled indicating the level
at which the scale is placed.
7. Film plane in camera must be parallel to impression, scale and
with the lens directly centered over both and the entire image
filling up the viewfinder.
8. For lighting, refer to Section IV., A., General Lighting
Recommendations.

C. Tire Impression Photography
1. Camera must be on a tripod!
Photography - 4
2. Scale must be used! See Section III, Scaling, for further
reference.
3. If the tire impression is long, markers of some sort with numbers
or letters are suggested. Visually divide the long impression into
smaller sections by using the numbered markers (do not actually
alter impression) and place markers along side of the
impression.
4. Once the markers have been placed, make an overall photograph
of the impression from a high angle. Place camera perpendicular
to the length of the tire impression and in a centered position,
showing overall length of the impression and placement of
markers (see Figure 4-5).
5. After the overall photograph is completed, proceed to
photograph each individual and marked section of the tire
impression as you would for a footwear impression (Section IV.,
B.). Be sure to indicate which section is being photographed, so
that reference can be made back to the overall photograph.
Fig. 4-5
Overall record photograph showing tire impression segments.
39

4 - Photography
40
6. Section sizes of the overlapping photographs of the tire
impression should be approximately 12 to 18 inches long and
should fill up the viewfinder as much as possible.
7. Film plane in camera must be parallel with the impression and
scale, and the lens directly centered over both.
8. For lighting, refer to Section IV., A., General Lighting
Recommendations.
D. Bite Mark Impressions
1. Camera must be on a tripod!
2. A scale must be used! An ABFO #2 scale and a thin precise
ruled scale are recommended.
3. When photographing the scaled impression, the camera film
plane must be parallel to the impression and scale, with the lens
directly centered over both.
4. Take an overall view of the person, showing the part of the body
where the bite mark impression is located.
5. Take a medium view showing the bite mark and the area around
the bite mark impression.
6. Consider the depth of the impression and the contour of the area
of the bite mark impression. An impression on a severely curved
portion of the victim’s body may call for more than one
photograph of a specific bite mark. See Figure 4-6.
7. A scale should be placed, as much as possible, on the same
plane as area of primary interest and parallel with the
impression and film plane. Remember, camera is on tripod, film
plane parallel to impression and lens centered directly over
impression. The scale should not obscure any detail or characteristics.
8. After overall and medium photographs are taken, take a closeup
unscaled photograph of the bite mark, making sure the
entire image fills up the viewfinder, using lighting techniques
described in Section IV., A.

Photography - 4
9. Place a scale next to the bite mark impression, as outlined in 6 -
7 above, and take a scaled photograph without changing any of
the equipment positions.
10. Close-up, scaled and unscaled, photographs with black and white
film, using appropriate contrast filters to enhance bite area, are
also suggested (see color plate following p. 28).
11. Additional photographs may be taken with the light from other
positions relative to the impression or using a ring light so as not
to create shadows, if appropriate.
12. Depending on appearance of bite mark, photographs may have to
be made over an extended period. This may be a time frame of
several days or more, depending on whether the victim is living
or deceased, the condition of body, storage facilities, etc.
Fig. 4-6
41

4 - Photography
E. Swabbing bite mark impressions - After finishing the photography of
the bite mark impression, the impression should be swabbed for
saliva, that may be used in an attempt to obtain the DNA profile of
the individual who made the impression.
42
1. Swab the bite mark impression with a cotton swab that has been
moistened with distilled water. Thoroughly air dry the swab and
place in a clean paper envelope. Properly label and seal the
envelope.
2. If swabbing results in uncovering more detail in the bite mark,
the impression should be rephotographed.
F. Photographs of victim’s or suspect’s teeth - Photographs of the teeth
require specific photographic equipment and procedures as directed
by a forensic odontologist, who will require a professional fee for
services. For information concerning this service, contact the
Laboratory Forensic Imaging Unit.
V. Video Taping
A. Video taping is not recommended for the exclusive recording of the
crime scene or autopsy. The Laboratory recommends use of video
taping to provide:
1. A realistic view of the overall scene based on a continuous
recording of what a viewer sees, rather than an overall pictorial.
2. A depiction a particular event in motion that would not be
suitably depicted through still photography.
3. Evidence at trials by videotape, as provided by State Statute (Wis.
Stat. §885).
4. A real-time product for investigators to use for briefings, strategy
sessions and interrogations.
5. A record of a new or unusual technique developed in the field to
process the scene or collect evidence.
6. A training vehicle for use to instruct personnel.
7. A review of the scene or autopsy for briefing of incoming

Photography - 4
personnel or to verify that all the items have been recovered and
equipment has been removed from the scene.
B. Authentication, Identifying and Labeling Videotapes
1. It is suggested that the following information be recorded on each
videotape, on the audio track:
a. Camera operator’s name, agency and address
b. Personnel present from agency processing scene
c. Date, time and exact location of taping
d. Agency case number and officer-in-charge
2. Each videotape produced should be labeled as to the case name,
agency number, date produced and name of videographer.
3. Tape label should also be signed and dated by videographer
authenticating that videotape is a “True and Accurate
Reproduction” and is an unedited original.
4. Record tab should be removed from cassette.
C. Taping Procedures
1. Prior to taping of event, authentication should be placed on the
beginning of videotape, as described in Section V., B. Do not
record more than one case per tape.
2. If video taping an event where testimony or sound is not relevant,
the camera’s sound recording mode or microphone should be
turned off. If a switch is not available, insert a “dummy”
microphone plug into the auxiliary microphone jack. This will
disable the camera’s microphone. If camera microphone cannot
be disabled, care should be taken as to any sounds that may be
picked-up by microphone during recording. Depending on
design, microphones on cameras can pick-up sounds behind the
camera as well as in front of the camera.
3. Using a very slow panning speed, pan the scene to provide an
overall view of the entire scene. A walk-through type of view,
with the camera on the shoulder is usually adequate. Try to avoid
“jerky” camera movements, either right to left or up and down.
43

4 - Photography
44
Movement should be as smooth as possible. An alternative to the
“walk-through” technique would be to record the scene as if
photographing it using the four basic views from a stationary
position.
4. Avoid excessive “zooms”. Zoom-in on items only when needed
to show detail and keep your zooms slow. Remember, still
photographs are going to be taken to record individual items and
details.
5. Do not include equipment, personnel or unnecessary elements
into your videotape. Be careful of reflective surfaces, such as
mirrors, that may show your reflection or other items on the
videotape.
6. If light levels are too low where camera will not record or camera
gain must be used, consider using an on-camera video light or
additional light sources.
7. Complete pans should be made of exteriors of buildings and
areas involved, looking toward structures and a 360 o view
looking away from structure and surrounding area.
8. Most consumer type video cameras have lenses that are biased
toward the longer focal lengths. Generally speaking, it is
advisable to set your zoom lens to its widest angle of view
(shorter focal length) for your overall pans.
9. A continuously running camera is preferable to excessive fadein/outs
when doing the overall pans and changing viewpoint.
D. Duplicating Video Tapes
1. Duplicate video tapes should be authenticated/labeled using the
same procedure as camera originals.
2. Duplicates should be labeled as duplicates and labeled as either
“Unedited Duplicates” (no changes from original, an
uninterrupted dupe from start to finish), or “Edited Duplicate”
(additions, deletions or change of sequence of events).
3. Edited duplicates should have a log on file describing what edits
were applied and who did the editing.
4. Record tabs should be removed from duplicate cassettes when
duplicating is completed.

Recommended Equipment for
Forensic Photography
I. Photographer’s Kit
Photography - 4
New equipment should be coordinated with existing equipment for
system compatibility. The following recommendations are designed for
35mm camera equipment.
A. Camera
1. Have full manual capability.
a. Full range of adjustable apertures (f-stops)
b. Full range of adjustable shutter speeds including bulb (B) or
time (T)
2. If automatic mode is offered, suggest that choice be made toward
aperture priority or program capability (camera can always be
placed on tripod if it selects slow shutter speed).
3. Camera should have a flash synch of at least a 1/60th of a second,
with 1/125th or higher preferred.
4. Must have a precise focusing system (combination of microprism
and split image is best), accurate viewfinder and be a single lens
reflex (SLR) not a rangefinder type.
5. Have built-in light meter.
6. Have interchangeable lens capability.
7. External P.C. fitting very desirable and must have at least a “hot
shoe” for flash.
8. Have receptacle for a cable release.
9. Must have tripod fitting for 1/4 x 20 screw thread.
10. Mirror lock-up is desirable for close-up photography.
45

4 - Photography
B. Lenses for the Camera
46
1. Lenses in the 50 to 60mm range that are macro (prime) lenses are
suggested for use as a general purpose lens. A matched extender
should be purchased with the lens if it is not capable of a 1:1
(100% or life-size) reproduction ratio.
2. Lenses in the 24 to 35mm range are also suggested. These are the
“medium” wide-angle lenses and are good for overall views in
some crime scene situations.
3. If surveillance photography is to be accomplished, lenses in the
300 to 1000mm range should be considered. The lower the
maximum aperture, the better and the higher the cost. General
rule of thumb states that 1mm per foot of distance should be used
for chest to head image size on film. 2mm per foot for full face
detail on film. For example, if using the 2mm rule: if the subject
is 300 feet away, then a 600mm lens is needed.
4. If cost is a factor and versatility is to be achieved, a zoom lens
may be purchased while considering the following features:
a. For general purpose forensic photography the zoom ratio
should be no shorter than 24mm and no longer than 135mm.
b. The zoom has macro (close up) capability (not just close
focusing), with a reproduction ratio of at least 1:3 (1/3rd life
size) without use of an extender. A 1:2 ratio, or larger, is
preferred if a choice is to be made. Also, it is better if the
macro feature is used in the longer focal length portion of the
zoom, around 100mm or longer. This will allow you to be
further away from your subject and present more room for
your lights, scale, etc.
c. Has one-touch focusing/zooming, is an automatic lens and, if
offered, has a “zoom lock” or preventive system to keep
zoom from drifting when used in a vertical position.
5. For advanced applications, more sophisticated devices are
available, such as a night vision device or electronic
amplification.

C. Electronic Flash
Photography - 4
1. Must have a guide number, when in manual, of at least 100 when
using I.S.O. 100 speed film. For forensic work, a guide number
of 120, 160 or higher is better. Do not purchase a flash unit with
a guide number of less than 100. You are wasting money.
2. Has automatic and manual modes.
3. Gives you a choice of at least three apertures (f-stops) in the
automatic mode.
4. Has an “open flash” button. This will let you flash your unit
without it being connected to the camera (used for painting with
light and multiple “pops”).
5. Has a ready light.
6. Has an external synch cord to camera capability.
7. Power ratio selector is desirable, but not a must. In manual, this
would allow you to select either full power, 1/2, 1/4 power, etc.
Very useful feature for using fill flash and when doing close-ups.
8. Tilting, rotating and focusable head is desirable, but not a must.
Tilting capability is very useful with bounce flash in the
automatic mode.
D. Tripod
1. Generally speaking, a good heavy duty tripod will start at
$100.00 and range upwards to $200.00+. Do not buy an
inexpensive light weight tripod. If they flex when you put your
leaning weight on it, don’t buy it.
2. Features considered important:
a. Quick release legs
b. Three way pan head
c. Can provide you eye level camera height without extending
center column
d. Has a center column which can be extended and can also be
removed and reversed into tripod to get camera close to
ground
47

4 - Photography
48
e. Legs can collapse to accommodate different levels or will
allow tripod to lay flat on the ground
f. “L” arm accessory is desirable, but not a must.
E. Accessories
1. Hard or soft shell case/bag to hold equipment.
2. Lens accessories.
a. Lens shade(s)
b. U. V. filter(s) for each lens (not “sky light”)
c. Lens cleaning tissue (not eye glass cleaning tissue) or
Microfiber cleaning cloth
d. Lens cleaning fluid
e. Camel’s hair brush or blowing device for blowing air onto
lens to remove particulate matter
3. Locking cable release that is at least six inches long.
4. Flash synch cords.
a. Have at least two spare cords
b. Extension synch cord for flash cord
1) suggest coiled type
2) at least six feet long
5. Precise scales.
a. Chrome or satin clad surface machinist scales, one 6" and
one 12" long
b. ABFO #2 scale (available from forensic suppliers)
c. Transparent photo evidence ruler (also available from
forensic suppliers)
6. Angle finder or inclinometer (Available from some hardware
stores, photo suppliers or forensic suppliers)
7. Directional compass.

Photography - 4
8. Black and white contrast filters:
a. Number 15 (yellow-orange)
b. Number 29 (red)
c. Number 47 (blue)
d. Number 58 (green)
e. Number 22 (orange) if using alternative light sources
9. Data sheets for notes, drawings, comments, etc.
10. Kodak 18% neutral grey card.
11. Hand held light/flash meter is suggested, especially if your
camera does not have a built-in meter.
II. Film
A. Color Negative
1. 400 to 800 I.S.O. for general purpose and overall views with
electronic flash.
2. 100 I.S.O., or slower, for close-ups requiring detail: wounds,
subtle bruising, etc. Use a tripod whenever possible.
3. 100 I.S.O. for outdoor scenes of extreme brightness. Examples
would include snow or sandy beaches in sunlight.
4. 1600 I.S.O. for dimly lit surveillance situations where color is
important.
5. Tungsten film, that has a range of I.S.O.’s, depending on
exposure time, for situations requiring very long exposures or
using lighting balanced for 3200 o K. Primarily used with tungsten
location lighting, studio tungsten lighting or where a
predominance of orange to red wavelengths of light may be
present (like sunrises and sunsets).
49

4 - Photography
B. Black and White Negative
50
1. 100 I.S.O., or slower, for close-ups requiring detail: fingerprints,
footwear/tire impressions, tool marks, pattern impressions, serial
numbers, items of evidence, etc. Remember to use your tripod
whenever your photographs are scaled and are going to be used
for metric or comparative analysis.
2. 400 I.S.O. where film speed is more important than maximum
resolution. Need may arise when magnification is large, a dense
filter is used and/or lighting is so minimal that extra film speed is
important to minimize vibration effects during long exposure
time.
3. 3200 I.S.O., pushable to 12,500. Very good film for low level
lighting situations in surveillance photography.
C. Specialty Films
1. Any high contrast panchromatic film with characteristics similar
to the following films.
a. Black and White negative: KODAK Tech Pan, variable
I.S.O. that depends on application and type of developer
used. Film is very useful in document, fingerprint and pattern
impression photography, especially when using filters. It can
have higher contrast than “normal” black and white film,
depending on developer choice.
2. KODAK Kodalith Ortho Type 3 that is a high contrast black and
white film, that is only blue & green sensitive. Multiple uses for
documents, faint writing, fingerprints, overlays, etc. Not too
many applications with contrast filters.
3. Infrared, black and white: Sensitive in the far red wavelengths
and Infrared wavelengths, effectively to about 890 nm. I.S.O.
varies based upon application/developer used. Good uses in
documents, gunshot cases and surveillance applications.
4. ILFORD Chromogenic XP2, Kodak CN or Select (black and
white) or Konica Monochrome: normal ISO of 400, but can be
exposed at ISO range of 50 to 1600 when processed in color
(C41 type) chemicals.

III. Basic Studio Type Equipment
A. 4"x 5" film view camera with swings, tilts and shifts.
Photography - 4
1. An array of lenses; 90mm wide angle, 150mm normal and a
300mm. If a lot of macro work is to be done within your studio,
then a macro lens should be considered, that has a focal length in
the 100 to 130mm range.
2. Use a camera that allows focusing by moving camera rail instead
of front and rear standards.
3. An extra long bellows is important, especially if doing macro
type photography.
B. Polaroid ® Model 545 film holder (takes 4"x 5" Polaroid ® materials).
1. Normal contrast Polaroid ® film - types 52, 54 and 58.
2. High contrast Polaroid ® film - type 51.
3. Color Polaroid ® film - type 58 or 59.
C. 4"x 5" film holders for sheet (cut) film.
D. Lighting equipment.
1. Tungsten lights for forensic photography.
a. Two 12" reflector floods
b. One 5" reflector flood
c. One mini spot with snoots
2. A boom arm on a castered stand is recommended.
3. Various light stands.
E. Background paper and a background roll paper stand/system.
F. Studio camera stand or studio tripod with “L” arm extension.
G. Hand-held light/flash meter.
H. Focusing cloth and magnifier/loupe.
I. Incidental accessories listed previously for Photographer’s Kit.
51

4 - Photography
Reference Books And Material
Note: * - Denotes material that is recommended in addition to Physical
Evidence Handbook (6th ed.) as a minimal reference library for forensic
photographers. Texts can be ordered through local book sellers or through
Kodak dealers for Kodak books.
Applied Infrared Photography, Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY
Buchanan, J.C., Bos, C.D. and Heller, F.I., How to Use Video in
Litigation: A Guide to Technology, Strategies and Techniques; 1986,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Chernoff, G. and Sarbin, H.B., Photography and the Law (5th ed.),
Amphoto, New York, NY
Davis, A. and Fennessy, P., Digital Imaging for Photographers (3rd
ed.), 1998, focal Press, Oxford England
Davis, Phil, Photography (7th ed.) 1995, Wm C. Brown
Communications, Inc., Dubuque, IA
Fire and Arson Photography, Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY
Handbook of Kodak Photographic Filters, Eastman Kodak, Rochester,
NY
Joseph, G.P., Modern Visual Evidence, 1984 Litigation Series, Law
Journal Seminars-Press, New York, NY
* London, B., A Short Course In Photography, An Introduction to
Black-and-White Photographic Technique (3rd ed.), Harper-Collins,
New York, NY
* McDonald, J.A., Close-up & Macro Photography for Evidence
Technicians (2nd ed.), Phototext Books, Arlington, Heights, IL
[available through Lightning Powder Company, 1-800-852-0300]
* Miller, Larry S., Police Photography (4th ed.), 1998, Anderson,
Cincinnati, OH
Photomacrography, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, NY
* Redsicker, D.R., Practical Methodology of Forensic Photography,
(2nd ed.) 2001, Elsevier, New York, NY
Using Photography to Preserve Evidence, Eastman Kodak,
Rochester, NY
52

5
Videotapes and Audiotapes
________________________________________________
Videotapes and audiotapes of activities are becoming more
prevalent as evidence in investigations of criminal activity. The Imaging
Units have resources for extracting frames from videotapes, providing
computer adjusted still photographs and “real time” duplicate tapes of the
recorded activity. Audiotapes and videotapes may also be processed to
clarify recordings and help minimize distracting background noise.
Voice identification, authentication, acoustical analysis and
photogammetry is not provided from recordings by the laboratories.
Recording
When planning to record an activity, use a new tape every time. Do
not record over previously recorded material. This will diminish
image/audio quality and may cause judicial concerns at trial.
Record an audio slate at the beginning - an audio slate should be
produced at the beginning of each tape, describing who the recorder of
record is, agency responsible for recording event, where the event is
being recorded, date and time of the event, what the tape is to portray and
where the tape will be stored.
Labeling
It is the responsibility of the recorder to further authenticate the
tape integrity by placing the following upon the tape shell, either directly
or by means of a label: recorder's initials, date and case number. It is also
recommended that the recorder place their initials on the tape leader.
53

5 - Videotapes and Audiotapes
Making the Tape Safe
Prior to viewing, duplicating, sealing and submitting of the video
or audiotape, disable the record mode by either removing the record tab
or moving a slider switch to the non record position. These are usually
located on the spine portion of the tape shell.
Viewing
Do not repeatedly view an original tape, whether newly recorded or
seized as evidence. Repeated viewing can cause information to be lost,
especially if it is an old tape that has been recorded over numerous times.
Pausing for extended periods can also cause damage. Duplicate the
original and view the duplicate as often as needed. Make sure that the
original tape is submitted to the Laboratory for any analysis.
Submissions of videotapes and audiotapes have special considerations
for sealing prior to final packaging for shipment. It is important to
demonstrate tape integrity along with package integrity as described
within the chapter on “Evidence Integrity”.
54
Fig 5-1
Position of record tabs in record and safe mode.

Sealing
Videotapes and Audiotapes - 5
Fig 5-2
Sealing tapes and placing initials.
The actual videotape and audiotape, that has the evidence upon it,
are housed within a shell that can be removed and access allowed to the
tape within. Place some type of seal over the ends of the shell to
demonstrate that tape access has been prevented. Seal both sides so it
does not interfere with normal tape operation. Do not place the seal over
55

5 - Videotapes and Audiotapes
the record tab area or this may disable that function. The ends of the
sealing tape and shell should be initialed and dated. There are companies
that provide labels specifically for this purpose or the standard tamperproof
tapes may also be used.
Once the shells have been sealed and record tabs removed, tapes
may be sealed in paper evidence bags or an evidence box as described in
the chapter on Evidence Integrity. Plastic bags should not be used when
the possibility of condensation may occur.
56

6
Body Fluid Stains
and Standards
________________________________________________
Laboratory examination of body fluids (i.e., blood, semen, saliva,
etc.) may produce significant information in certain investigations. This
chapter considers the recognition, collection, and preservation of some of
these commonly encountered forms of biological evidence.
I. Bloodstains and Blood Standards
In crimes of violence, blood is usually found in the form of dried
stains. Blood can frequently be identified and genetically compared to
blood standards from individuals if a sufficient quantity is properly collected
and submitted.
In addition to identification and comparison testing, the shape and
pattern of the bloodstaining may provide information concerning how the
blood was deposited.
A. Bloodspatter Pattern Analysis
The examination of bloodstain patterns has always been a part of
crime scene investigation, but it seems to have gained more emphasis in
recent years as a separate discipline. Careful observation, measurement,
and documentation of the size, shape and pattern of bloodstains can
reveal significant information in some cases, e.g., direction and angles of
bloodspatter, origination point(s), and the minimum number of blows in
a beating or stabbing incident.
When there may be special relevance to the bloodspatter found at a
scene, it is essential to preserve those patterns until someone trained in
the examination of bloodspatter patterns can examine them. Although
photography is useful in the recording of some of the aspects of
bloodspatter at a crime scene, it does not substitute for a detailed
examination.
57

6 - Body Fluid Stains and Standards
B. Procedure When Blood is Found at the Scene
58
1. Record the following:
a. Physical state (fluid, moist, dry)
b. Amount present (few drops, small pool, etc.)
c. Shape (smear, round drops)
d. Exact location in relation to fixed objects
e. Pattern of stains (all in one spot, trail)
f. Atmosphere conditions (temperature, humidity)
g. Date and time of observation
2. Take scaled and unscaled photographs of stains.
3. Liquid blood:
If a pool of fluid blood is present, collect in the following
manner:
a. Wear gloves, mask and eye protection while soaking up
samples. Using cotton swabs, soak the suspected blood onto
the swabs. Continue collecting the stain until it is either
completely collected or until five swabs have been saturated.
Do not touch the swabs with your fingers.
Make sure to avoid contaminating your supply of swabs.
Change your gloves frequently but change them
immediately if you suspect any contamination of your
gloves.
b. Allow the swabs to dry in place or place them on a nonporous
surface like a glass microscope slide and allow to
thoroughly air dry.
c. Package the dried swabs in a paper container (i.e., white slide
box, envelope, paper bag, etc.). Use separate containers for
each area recovered. Label the paper container with a
“biohazard” sign.
d. Properly label and seal each container.
e. Select an unstained area adjacent to the suspected bloodstain
and collect a sample from this area as described in 4.a.
through 4.d. This sample will serve as a control. Package,
label, and seal this control separately from the stained
material.

4. Dried or moist bloodstain recovery:
Body Fluid Stains and Standards - 6
If the stained object is transportable, submit the item intact. If the
suspected blood is still moist, allow it to thoroughly air dry in a
well ventilated but draft-free area prior to packaging. Label the
area with “biohazard” signs. Package item in a clean paper
container, seal and label. (See Chapter 18, Clothing and Fabrics.)
If it is impractical to submit the bloodstained item to the Laboratory
or it is not possible to cut or remove a portion of the stained
and unstained area of the item, then collect in the following
manner:
a. Wear gloves, mask and eye protection while collecting
samples. Moisten a sufficient number of cotton swabs to
collect the stain. It is better to underestimate the amount of
swabs required as additional swabs can always be used. Wet
the swabs using distilled water, or clean tap water if distilled
water is not available. Do not touch the cotton with your
fingers and do not dilute the stain by using too many swabs
or too much water.
b. Gently swab the stain with the moistened swabs until the
swabs thoroughly absorb the blood and are a dark reddish
brown coloration. Continue collecting the stain until it is
either completely collected or five swabs have been saturated.
c. Allow the stained swabs to thoroughly air dry either directly
on the stained object or on a clean glass microscope slide. To
avoid contamination, swabs can also be dried by making a
small perforation in a pillbox and placing the swab into the
perforation. This will allow the swab to dry without
contacting any other surfaces.
d. Package, label, and seal the air-dried swabs in a paper
container (i.e., white slide box, envelope, etc.). Label with a
“biohazard” sign.
e. Select an unstained area adjacent to the suspected bloodstain
and collect a sample from this area as described in 4.a.
through 4.d. This sample will serve as a control. Package,
label, and seal this control separately from the stained
material.
59

6 - Body Fluid Stains and Standards
C. Procedure for Collecting Standard Blood Samples from Victims and
Suspects
60
1. Collect at least 5 mL of blood into an EDTA (lavender-top) tube.
2. If alcohol and/or drug analysis is required. Blood samples must
be drawn by a licensed physician, nurse, or medical technician
using an antiseptic skin towelette (e.g., Zephiran ® or
benzalkonium chloride) to clean the site where the blood sample
will be drawn. Draw 20 mL (2 tubes) of blood into grey-top
tubes. These tubes contain sodium fluoride and potassium
oxalate as a preservative and anticoagulant. These tubes are
commercially available and are also found in the OWI Kits.
Lavender top tubes may be used if grey-top tubes are
unavailable. In some cases, blood is in short supply and
toxicology and DNA testing may be required. Toxicology can
use DNA specimens but DNA can have difficulty with
toxicology blood preservatives. For cases where limited blood is
available and DNA and toxicology are to use the same blood
sample, lavender-top tubes should be used.
II. Saliva
Label all tubes and seal them in an appropriate styrofoam container.
Store in refrigerator.
Label with a “biohazard” sign on the outside of the box.
Saliva stains are not usually evident from a visual examination.
However, certain types of evidence frequently contain traces of saliva
(e.g., cigarette butts, gummed surfaces of envelopes, stamps, bite marks,
areas where oral contact may have occurred, etc.) and sometimes the
amount of saliva present is sufficient to determine the DNA type of the
individual who is the source of the saliva.
A. Procedure for the Collection of Evidential Forms of Saliva
1. Transportable objects
Easily transportable objects such as individual cigarette butts and
envelopes should be placed in a paper container (i.e., paper bag
or envelopes) and the container should be properly labeled and
sealed.

2. Non-transportable objects
Body Fluid Stains and Standards - 6
If transporting the object is not practical, such as in the case of
bite marks on the body of sexual assault victims, then the saliva
can be collected as follows:
a. Moisten a cotton swab with distilled water.
b. Shake the swab to eliminate excess water.
c. Gently swab the suspected saliva stain. Using a dry swab go
over the stained area to absorb any remaining moisture.
d. Allow the swabs to thoroughly AIR DRY prior to packaging,
labeling, and sealing in a paper envelope. Air drying can be
accomplished by making a perforation in the center of a
pillbox, inserting the swab into the perforation and allowing
the swab to air dry.
e. Select an unstained area and collect as in 4.a. through 4.d.
Package, label, and seal separately from the stained material.
This swab will serve as a control.
B. Standards Required to Complete Saliva Comparisons
A standard saliva sample is not required to perform saliva
comparisons. Standard blood samples are normally used for this
purpose. Collect standard blood as described under IC1.
III. Seminal Stains
Where a sexual offense has occurred, stains may be found on
clothing, bedding, rags, upholstery or other objects. Seminal stains can
be helpful in establishing whether or not an alleged sexual act occurred
and can also provide information concerning the person who contributed
the semen.
A. Procedure for the Collection of Seminal Stains
1. Carefully recover all suspected stained material including the
clothing worn by the victim and the suspect at the time of the
offense. Each item of evidence should be packaged separately,
labeled and sealed.
61

6 - Body Fluid Stains and Standards
62
2. Air dry all damp stains in a well-ventilated but draft-free area. Clean
paper should be spread under the item to catch any debris, which may
be dislodged during the drying process.
3. Package, label, and seal each item along with the paper upon which the
item dried. Use only paper containers for packaging (i.e., paper bags).
4. If the suspected seminal stain is on an object, which cannot be
transported, collect as in II.A.2.
B. Standards Required to Complete Semen Comparisons
A standard semen sample is not required to perform semen compar-isons.
Standard blood samples are normally used for this purpose. Collect standard
blood as described above in IC1.
IV. Other Body Fluids
Vaginal secretions in the form of a foreign DNA (DNA that did not
originate from the individual swabbed) can sometimes be attributed to another
individual when the penis of a suspected sexual perpetrator is swabbed at the
time he is apprehended. The sample is collected by wetting a cotton swab with
distilled water and swabbing the external area of the penis. This type of analysis
is most successful when the perpetrator is apprehended shortly after the alleged
occurrence of sexual activity, generally within twenty-four hours and prior to
bathing. The outer area of condoms can also yield this type of DNA.
V. Preservation of Dried Biological Evidence
The ideal way to preserve biological evidence is to freeze it. This can
become impractical with large amounts of evidence. Evidence with dried
biological stains can be stored in a temperature-controlled room, which is
maintained at normal room temperature or colder. Large fluctuations in
temperature should be avoided.
When biological evidence is returned after processing by the DNA unit of
the crime laboratory, it frequently will contain a manila envelope, which is
labeled “DNA packet”. this packet contains cuttings of stains and extracts of
those stains. This packet needs to be frozen. If this packet is included with your
evidence, it will be noted on the return release form and the evidenxe will be
labeled “Biological Evidence Enclosed, Please Remove and Freeze”.

7
Firearms and Ammunition
_________________________________________________________
The following information is intended to assist the investigator in the
recognition, evaluation, marking, packaging, and transmittal of firearms
exhibits and related items to the Laboratory.
When requested, the Laboratory will process firearms exhibits and
related items for fingerprints and trace evidence as well as the possible
determinations listed in Table 7-1.
All exhibits should be properly inventoried. Record the description of
the item, source, case number, item number, initials of person collecting,
and the date and time collected. Sketch the area of recovery, indicating
relative positions in feet and inches between exhibits and fixed objects,
and supplement with photographs.
It is often possible to restore manufacturer's serial numbers, property
marks, or other die-stamped markings which have been removed, altered,
or obliterated on firearms (as well as on typewriters, binoculars, bicycles,
or other metal objects).
Firearms and fired ammunition may be delivered to the Laboratory in
person or via parcel post, certified mail, or United Parcel Service (UPS).
Loaded ammunition must be delivered in person. United States postal
regulations prohibit shipment through the mail.
All firearms shipped to the Laboratory must be unloaded and marked
on the outside package, with a transmittal form in an envelope attached
to the outside of the package. Indicate what kinds of examinations are
requested - e.g., DNA, Trace Evidence, Identification, etc.
Firearms or other metal objects recovered from water (liquid), should
immediately be placed in a container of the same liquid, completely submerged.
When in a liquid, the oxidation process is considerably retarded,
and during the period necessary to transport the firearm to the
Laboratory, only a small amount of change will take place.
63

7 - Firearms and Ammunition
64
Table 7-1
Possible Laboratory Determinations
Resulting from Firearms Section Examinations
EVIDENCE REQUIRED BY
LABORATORY
FIRED BULLET
FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE
TWO OR MORE FIRED
BULLETS
TWO OR MORE FIRED
CARTRIDGE CASES OR
SHOT SHELLS
FIRED BULLET AND
SUSPECTED FIREARM
FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE AND
SUSPECTED FIREARM
SUSPECTED FIREARM,
AMMUNITION, SCALED
PHOTOGRAPH OR POWDER
OR SHOT PATTERN AND
VICTIM’S CLOTHING
SHOT PELLETS AND WADS
POSSIBLE LABORATORY
DETERMINATION
Make, caliber, type of firearms from
which each could have been discharged;
type of propellant used in firing; name of
maker and maker’s designation as to
type, caliber, etc.
Make, caliber, type of firearm in which
each cold have been fired; type of
propellant used in firing; name of maker
and maker’s designation as to type,
caliber, etc.
In addition to determination possible with
a single fired bullet, whether two or all
were fired from the same firearm.
In addition to determination possible with
a single cartridge case, whether two or
all were fired in the same firearm.
In addition to determination possible with
a single fired bullet, whether bullet,
whether bullet was fired from suspected
firearm.
In addition to determination possible with
a single cartridge case, whether cartridge
case was fired in suspected firearm.
Approximate distance at which shot was
discharged.
Size of shot, and gauge designation
of wads.

I. Marking of Firearms
Firearms and Ammunition - 7
Use extreme care in marking recovered firearms for purposes of identification.
Attach a reinforced identification tag to the trigger guard.
Mark the tag with appropriate identifying data, including the serial
number and description of the firearm, source, case number, item number,
initials of person collecting, and the date and time collected
II. Marking of Bullets, Fragments, Cartridge Cases,
Shotgun, Shells, Pellets, and Unfired Ammunition
All firearms and firearm related items should be handled with the belief
they will be fingerprinted. Therefore, only the packaging should be marked.
In this manner the possibility of damage, loss or contamination of trace
evidence, and destruction of possible fingerprints is greatly diminished. These
items should never be packaged in cotton or sealed in plastic.
All packages should be properly sealed, with initials of collector over the
seal, and marked with accompanying information such as the description of
the item, source, case number, item number, initials of person collecting, and
the date and time collected, as described in Table 7-2.
In situations where through-and-through penetration of the victim's body
has occurred and the bullet is found on the floor, in walls, etc., bullets or bullet
fragments should not be touched with bare fingers. A small piece of clean
white paper should be slipped under the bullet, then fold-ed and placed in a
rigid container, and finally sealed and identified. This procedure will
minimize the possibility that the recovering officer will contaminate traces of
blood which may be present on the bullet.
The above recommendations should also apply to shotgun pellets and
wads.
65

7 - Firearms and Ammunition
Table 7-2
Instructions For Handling, Marking, and Shipping Firearms Exhibits
66
EXHIBIT
FIREARMS
FIRED
BULLETS
FIRED
METALLIC
CARTRIDGE
CASES
FIRED
SHOT
SHELLS
SHOT
PELLETS
SHOT WADS
LOADED
SHELLS OR
CARTRIDGES
SHOT OR
POWDER
PATTERNS
GENERAL
INSTRUCTIONS
Check for fingerprints. Remove
magazine from autoloading
firearms. Don not clean or fire. Do
not operate mechanism except to
unload. If loaded revolver, mark
hammer position and sketch
positions. See column on marking
for identification.
Every precaution should be taken
to prevent loss of trace evidence
or abrading or mutilating riffling
surface in any way. Do not wash
or clean.
Do not mar, mutilate, scratch, or
nick head of case. See column on
marking for identification.
Do not mar, mutilate, scratch, or
nick head of shell.
Recover as many as possible. do
not mutilate in removal.
Recover as many as possible. do
not mutilate in removal.
If loaded ammunition or fired
cartridge cases are recovered in
investigation, forward to
Laboratory. If ammunition maker’s
boxes are recovered, forward to
Laboratory for latents.
If on clothing send only clothing to
Laboratory that contains powder,
powder residues, or bullet or shot
penetrations. If on skin. doors,
walls, etc., consult Laboratory
concerning scaled photographs.
DESCRIPTIVE RECORD
TO BE KEPT BY
PERSON RECOVERING
A record of make, model, type,
caliber or gauge designation, serial
and lot numbers. If a loaded
revolver, draw a sketch indicating
position of hammer and cartridges.
Assumed caliber. Sketch showing
relative position of fired bullets, if
recovered on floor, street, etc.
Transmit a copy of this information
to the Laboratory.
Sketch showing relative position of
cases if recovered on floor, street,
etc., or position of hammer and
cartridges in revolver. Transmit a
copy of this information to
Laboratory.
sketch showing relative position of
shells, if recovered on floor, street,
etc. Transmit a copy of this
information to Laboratory.
sketch showing relative position of
shells, if recovered on floor, street,
etc. Transmit a copy of this
information to Laboratory.
sketch showing relative position of
shells, if recovered on floor, street,
etc. Transmit a copy of this
information to Laboratory.
sketch showing relative position of
shells, if recovered on floor, street,
etc. Transmit a copy of this
information to Laboratory.
Description and source of garment
containing shot or powder
patterns. Location and size of shot
or powder patterns on walls,
doors, or other immovable objects.

Firearms and Ammunition - 7
Table 7-2 (continued)
Instructions For Handling, Marking, and Shipping Firearms Exhibits
RECOMMENDED METHOD OF
PACKAGING, MARKING FOR IDENTIFICATION,
AND SHIPPING TO THE LABORATORY
Attach and ID tag and mark tag with initials, case #, date, and item #.
Secure firearms and magazineds to cardboard box or rigid container
with fasteners. Package each cartidge deparately in cardboard box or
rigid container and mark containers according to your sketch. Seal the
package, initial the seal, and lavel each container with case #, date,
item # and source. Forward to Laboratory along with the descriptive
record.
Package each separately in cardboard slide box or rigid container. Do
not put in evnelope. Mark on the container the source of each bullet.
Seal the package, initial the seal, and label each container with case
#, date, item #, and source. Forward to Laboratory along with the
descriptive record.
Package each separately in cardoard slide box or rigid container. Seal
the package, initial the seal, and label each container with case #,
date, item #, and source. Forward to Laboratory along with the
secriptive record.
Same as above.
Same as above ( all of the available fine shot can go in a single box).
Same as above.
Same as above.
Place each individual air-dried item of clothing in a separate clean
paper bag. Seal each bag, initial each seal, and label each bag with
case #, date, itesm #, and source. Forward to Laboratory along with
the descriptive record.
EXHIBIT
FIREARMS
FIRED
BULLETS
FIRED
METALLIC
CARTRIDGE
CASES
FIRED
SHOT
SHELLS
SHOT
PELLETS
SHOT WADS
LOADED
SHELLS OR
CARTRIDGES
SHOT OR
POWDER
PATTERNS
67

7 - Firearms and Ammunition
III. BULLET PATH RECONSTRUCTION
Defining a bullet path at a shooting scene is a useful element of
crime scene reconstruction. A shooter's position and final bullet location
can both be defined by determining the path of a bullet or bullets through
a sequence of materials. Such reconstructions are most accurate when a
bullet has created both a bullet hole and a subsequent impact site or two
or more bullet holes in successive planes of material, e.g. sheet rock on
both sides of an interior wall. Inserting rods through the bullet holes (or
from bullet hole to impact site) will define a bullet path that can direct the
investigator to the shooter's position or to the bullet's likely location (see
figure 7-1). Rods should not be inserted in any bullet hole until
documentation and examination of the bullet hole has been completed.
Over short distances, string can be attached to the rods to project the
bullet path. This technique is especially useful in reconstructing shootings
involving vehicles due to their double-panel construction. However, as
the projected bullet path increases in distance from the bullet hole, greater
imprecision will be introduced into the reconstruction. For bullet path
reconstructions over long distances, a combination of spacer cones, rods
and lasers will offer much better precision, especially if meaningful
diagramming of the reconstruction is desired.
Unless a bullet passes through a significant thickness of material,
a single bullet hole will usually not allow useful reconstruction of the
bullet path. However, bullet direction can be determined from throughand-through
bullet holes in many materials. For example, the passage of
a bullet through metal will create an indentation on the metal surface
facing the bullet origin and metal stretch on the surface in the direction
away from bullet origin, clearly defining the direction of the bullet
through the metal. Bullets that pass through auto glass, skull and some
plastics will create a crater on the side of the material away from the bullet
origin. In other words the crater opens up in the direction of bullet travel
(see figure 7-2). Even a portion of a bullet hole in a destructively fractured
skull can define the direction of the bullet and subsequently establish exit
and entrance. The combination of glass cratering and radial glass fracture
in a window can even define the sequence of shots through the window,
particularly when working with vehicle shootings.
68

Firearms and Ammunition - 7
Fig. 7-1
Buttlet paths A&B define two shooter locations outside the vehicle. Such
diagrams can be included in crime scene diagrams to aid in shooting reconstructions.
Fig. 7-2
Note the angled or beveled edges of the skull at the entrance bullet hole. The
bone surface through which the bullet passed last will present a cratered
appearance.
69

70
Notes

8
Casts
________________________________________________
Footwear and Tire Impressions
The identification of an impression as having been made by one
particular tire or shoe is based upon the correspondence of individual
characteristics caused by wear. Nail marks, cuts, or other accidental or
deliberate markings on the tread surfaces - sufficient in number and/or
uniqueness to rule out coincidence - must be found before an identification
can be made. If sufficient individual characteristics are lacking, it is
not possible to make a positive identification.
The presence of corresponding class characteristics - basic tread
design and overall physical dimensions - may permit the conclusion that
an impression could have been made by a particular tire or shoe.
However, in this case, the stipulation must be made that the impression
could also have been made by any other tire or shoe having the same class
characteristics.
Therefore, the investigator should be aware that, while a tire or
footwear impression may in some cases be conclusive evidence, under
other circumstances it may serve only as an investigative lead.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
I. Procedure-General
A. Record the following information:
1. Location of impressions in relation to the other objects at scene.
2. Accurate measurements and dimensions of impression(s).
3. Draw pattern or design appearing in impression.
4. Date and time of day impressions located.
5. Attempt to establish time at which impressions were made, e.g.,

8 - Casts
after recent snowfall or heavy rain, or after recent plowing of
field.
B. Photograph impression to scale. If there is more than one impression,
an over-all photograph should be taken. (See Chapter 4,
Photography.)
C. Preserve impressions as follows:
1. Carefully remove all loose material such as leaves, twigs, or
debris not embedded in the impression.
2. Impressions in dry powdery soil or sand should be carefully
sprayed with shellac or acrylic lacquer to preserve any fine detail
which may be present. Caution must be used to prevent the direct
force of the spray from disturbing the surface detail. Spray over
the impression into the air and let the mist settle down onto the
impression. Several light layers of shellac or lacquer should be
applied, and each layer should be allowed to dry thoroughly
before a subsequent coat is applied.
3. If the soil is frozen or extremely hard, the impression may be
sprinkled with a thin layer of talcum powder or a fine spray of
light machine or mineral oil to permit subsequent removal of the
casting medium.
4. It is necessary to use a retaining frame to keep the casting
medium from flowing over a large area of surrounding ground.
The frame is built around the impression, leaving at least a oneinch
margin on all sides of the impression. A commercial
retaining frame may be used or strips of wood or sheet metal
approximately two inches wide, which are gently pushed into the
ground.
5. All casts of tire impressions must be identified as to the inside
and outside of the tire, and if possible, identify which tire(s) has
been cast (e.g., driver’s side front, passenger’s side rear, etc.).
II. Impressions in Soil and Sand (Dental Stone Casting)
A. Follow procedures listed under I., Procedures - General, above.

B. Materials needed:
Method 1
Casts - 8
1. Class I dental stone. (Make sure it is dental stone and not dental
plaster).
2. Mixing bowl.
3. Spoon or stirring stick.
4. Water. Approximately 4-5 ounces of water are needed to each
pound of stone.
5. A pre-made form, or material with which a form can be made
around the impression to contain the dental stone and give the
cast thickness.
C. Mixing procedure:
Place the form around the impression. Be careful not to place the
form so close to the impression that it risks distorting it. Two to three
pounds of dental stone are sufficient for a footwear impression cast,
depending on whether it is a small or large footwear impression.
For each pound used, place four to five ounces of water in the mixing
container. Pour the dental stone powder into the water in the mixing
bowl. It should “cone-up” a couple of inches out of the water. If it
doesn’t, add additional dental stone until it cones-up out of the water.
Allow the mixture to soak for approximately one minute. Then stir
thoroughly until the dental stone has dissolved. The mixture should be a
watery consistency. Stir well every 60 seconds. After approximately 10
to 12 minutes, the viscosity of the mixture will become similar to
pancake batter. At this time it should be poured. (If the mixture is poured
too soon, when it is still watery, it may erode much of the detail in the
impression. If it is poured after it gets too thick, it will not flow evenly
and also will not pick up the detail well.)
D. Pouring procedures:
Pour the mixture onto the spoon or stirring stick while holding the
spoon or stick to the side of the impression. In this way, you can direct
the flow of the mixture against the side of the form and let it flow
indirectly back into the footwear impression. (Do not pour the mixture
directly into the impression.)
Before the cast hardens, scratch the necessary identifying data into
the back of the cast. Let the cast set undisturbed for 20 to 30 minutes,

8 - Casts
after which time the cast can be carefully lifted. Some soil or sand may
adhere to the impression, however, do not attempt to clean off the cast.
Allow the cast to air dry for at least 48 hours. The Forensic Scientist who
will be conducting the examination of the cast impression will clean any
sand or soil off the cast at the time it is received. (This sand or soil may
be used as a known soil sample by the Forensic Scientist if needed.) If
the cast is to be sent to the Laboratory, do not package it in plastic. Use
a porous packing material.
Note: Dental stone is much harder than plaster of Paris and, therefore,
does not require reinforcement material to strengthen the cast.
Although many books dealing with crime scene investigations
contain information on casting, the only way to become skilled in the art
of casting is to make numerous practice casts under varied circumstances
to determine for one’s self what is meant by “pancake-batter” consistency
and how much dental stone is needed for an impression of a particular
size.
Fig. 8-1
Casting an impression. When pouring dental stone on an
impression, a deflector is used to prevent alteration of the
detail.

D. Materials needed:
Method 2
Casts - 8
1. Class I dental stone, 2 pounds of dental stone pre-measured into
a thick ZipLoc ® type plastic bag
2. 10-12 ounces of water
3. Pouring stick
4. Pre-made form
E. Mixing procedure:
1. Pour the water into the ZipLoc ® type bag containing the dental
stone.
2. Knead the stone and water until it has the consistency of pancake
batter, making sure there are no lumps.
F. Pouring procedures:
Pouring procedures are the same for each mixture whether mixed in
the bowl or the ZipLoc ® type bag.
III. Impressions in Snow (Sulfur casts)
The casting of impressions in snow creates many problems not
encountered in the casting of impressions in soil. The use of dental stone
alone, for example, is not recommended, for it gives off heat while
hardening, and may destroy the impression. (Dental stone may be used
with SnowPrint-wax, as described in IV, below).
The Laboratory therefore recommends the use of sulfur as a
satisfactory casting medium for snow impressions.
A. Follow procedures listed under I., Procedure - General, A and B.
B. Materials needed:
1. Sublimed sulfur (powder).
2. Stove.
3. Gallon paint can or comparable sized pan.
4. “Zetex” asbestos-free protection gloves.

8 - Casts
Fig 8-2
A sulfur cast of a footwear impression made in snow. The air temperature at the
time the cast was made was -20 degrees F. Careful examination of the
photograph and the photograph of the sole of the suspect footwear (next page)
reveal the presence of a number of corresponding individual charactaristics
which permit the identification of the impression as having been made by the
shoe pictured.
5. Stirring rod.
6. Deflector (piece of metal, wood, cardboard, etc.).
7. Build a dam of wood, metal, or snow around the impression.

C. Procedure:
Fig 8-3
Suspect footwear compared to the sulfur cast (preceding figure).
Casts - 8
1. Place sulfur in pan and heat until thoroughly melted. (One-half
filled gallon can will cast the average footwear impression.)
2. Periodically stir sulfur until completely melted (approximately 15
or 20 minutes).

8 - Casts
3. Remove from heat source and allow to cool (periodically stirring)
until sulfur begins to crystallize on the surface.
4. Pour sulfur into impression (a deflector should be used).
5. The sulfur will begin to harden immediately but allow cast to
cool completely (at least 20 minutes) before removing cast.
6. Back up sulfur cast with dental stone cast. That is, add a layer of
dental stone to the top of the sulfur cast to give increased
strength.
D. Cautions:
1. Melt sulfur outdoors or in exhaust hood. Avoid inhaling fumes.
2. Sulfur casts are extremely fragile - handle with care.
3. When pouring deep impressions, casts may appear to be set-up,
however, molten sulfur may still be in the center of casts.
4. Sulfur may flame-up if overheated.
5. Liquid sulfur will become a thick syrup-type substance if
overheated.
IV. Impressions in Snow
(Dental Stone and “SnowPrint-wax”)
Dental stone may be used to cast footwear and tire impressions in
snow and ice, however, SnowPrint-wax must be sprayed into the
impression prior to casting the impression with dental stone. Several
layers are advised and the procedure for spraying shellac or lacquer
should be followed. SnowPrint-wax may be purchased commercially
through law enforcement supply catalogs.

9
Latent and Inked Prints
________________________________________________
Finger, Palm, and Foot
Fingerprints, palm prints and footprints are among the most
definitive types of physical evidence; few other forms of evidence can
exclude all other persons except the maker and thereby establish presence
at a place or possession of a thing. Because the potential value of friction
ridge impressions is so great, all objects at a crime scene should be
considered as possible sources of prints.
The acquisition of an Automated Fingerprint Identification System
(AFIS) by the Department of Justice makes it possible to search crime
scene fingerprints against the state repository criminal fingerprint cards
even when no suspect is named. The Crime Laboratoryalso has limited
access to search a nationwide database of criminal fingerprint cards. At
this time, it is not possible to search latent palmprints, although the
technology is imminent. These capabilities further underline the
importance of a thorough search for fingerprints at crime scenes.
The Laboratory encourages user agencies to submit victim
elimination fingerprints for comparison prior to any searching of the
AFIS or IAFIS databases. Elimination fingerprint forms and other
supplies are commercially available through law enforcement supply
catalogs.
Agencies with their own evidence processing personnel shall
develop and preserve latent prints and submit the lift cards or
photographs for comparison with fingerprint and/or palmprint
exemplars, or searching through the AFIS and IAFIS databases.
There is an exception to this general policy: the use of powders and
chemicals may interfere with physical and chemical analysis, particularly
in the case of blood, hairs, fibers and documents. Therefore, in cases
79

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
involving items with material adhering to their surfaces and/or which will
require other types of analysis, fingerprint processing should not be done
by the investigator. Rather, the unprocessed items should, when possible,
be submitted to the Laboratory which will process for fingerprints when
other examinations are completed.
All police agencies should properly train and equip several members
of their department in the procedure of obtaining good, clear and legible
finger and/or palm prints at crime scenes. Prints can then be lifted and
preserved by one of several recommended methods and transmitted to the
Laboratory for comparison purposes.
Because procedures for submission or preferences for processing
procedures may vary from Laboratory to Laboratory, submitters are
encouraged to contact the Laboratory in their service area if questions
arise.
I. General Procedures
A systematic search should be conducted. Start at one point and work
around the entire area. Do not skip from one location to another. Attempt
to reconstruct the suspect’s path through the scene to determine where
fingerprints are likely to be found. Door knobs, broken glass, weapons
and items that were disturbed are obvious places to begin.
Persons processing a crime scene should keep in mind two seemingly
paradoxical truths. Latent prints can be found on almost any type of
surface; however, latent prints will not be developed on every attempt.
Past studies have shown that many departments locate usable latent prints
at 30-50% of the scenes visited—and in some of those cases, the prints
belong to persons with legitimate access. Investigators should not be
discouraged by recovery rates of 1 in 3 scenes. The likelihood of the
recovery of usable latent prints is increased by the resourcefulness and
diligence of the person conducting the search.
Another important consideration is to initiate a search for latent prints
as soon as possible after the discovery of the crime and to protect areas
to be processed for prints from adverse weather conditions. Ordinarily,
fingerprints are primarily composed of water and body fats and oils. They
can evaporate if not processed in a timely manner or if they are exposed
to sun, heat or wind; or they may be washed away by rain or dew if not
protected.
80

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
It is important to clear the scene of non-essential personnel including
the victims to minimize the chance that latent print evidence will be
destroyed by careless handling and to minimize the likelihood that
additional friction ridge prints will be deposited. The investigator should
also be careful to not leave prints while processing evidence. A good rule
would be for everyone entering the crime scene to wear gloves at all
times.
Friction ridge impressions found at the scenes of crimes can fall into
one of three types: latent, visible or plastic impressions. Plastic
impressions are those impressed in clay, putty or other moldable material.
Investigators should be alert to their presence when putty or other pliable
material has been disturbed, such as when putty is removed from a
window.
Visible prints are those made by some substance which contrasts with
the background. These prints can be likened to the inked fingerprints
recorded on a standard arrest card. Examples include prints made in
blood, ink, dirt or paint. If the suspect (or victim) was bleeding during the
commission of the crime or if he/she disturbed materials that could have
coated the hands or feet with the types of materials listed above,
investigators should be especially alert for this type of evidence.
While any chance friction ridge impression is commonly referred to
as a “latent print,” most technically latent prints are those which are not
immediately visible by casual inspection. These prints require some form
of chemical or physical development to make them visible. Surfaces to
be examined can ordinarily be divided into two categories: porous and
non-porous. In most cases, different techniques are used to examine
porous surfaces as opposed to non-porous surfaces.
When examining smooth, reflective surfaces to determine if latent
prints are present, one of the simplest methods to locate prints is to
examine the object using reflected light. This is done by moving either
the light or the object being examined so that the reflected light strikes
the viewer in the eyes. Latent prints will often defuse the reflection,
making the print appear dark against a light (reflected light) background.
Remember, not all fingerprints are readily visible; therefore, an object
suspected of bearing fingerprints should be processed using one or more
appropriate methods. Another easy method used in conjunction with the
light is called “huffing”. Exhale a “huff” of warm, moist air over the
surface of the item. Ridge detail will appear during the mist cover. When
the mist disappears, the ridge detail will, too.
81

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
II. When Fingerprints Are Discovered
A. Inspect all items visually before processing. If prints are visible, take
scaled photographs before processing. (This is important. Latent
prints can sometimes be destroyed by the processing techniques.)
B. Choose an appropriate processing technique depending upon the type
of surface. The sequence of methods used is important. The methods
listed in table 9-1 should be used in the order they are listed. Powder
should NOT be used first, if an Alternate Light Source or laser is not
available to the user agency, and the items will be submitted to the
Laboratory for this process.
82
Table 9-1
Commonly Used Latent Print Development Techniques
Non-Porous
(Glass, metal, etc)
Reflected light
Cyanoacrylate vapors
(Superglue ® )
Fluorescent dye stains
(ALS/laser)
Powders
Small Particle Reagent
(SPR)
Semi-Porous
(Glass, metal, etc)
Reflected light
Cyanoacrylate vapors
(Superglue ® )
Fluorescent dye stains
(ALS/laser)
Magnetic Powders 1
Small Particle Reagent
(SPR)
Porous 2
(Paper, cardboard, etc)
Ninhydrin
Physical Developer
1 On plastic surfaces, the use of magnetic powder is recommended. Regular powder tends to
“paint” the entire surface of the item rather than adhere only to the friction ridges.
2 Superglue ® is not normally used on paper unless it has a smooth, shiny or glossy surface. If it
does, Superglue ® should be used before any chemical processes.
When using fingerprint powder, choose one that contrasts with the
background. If black powder (which has the finest milling) does not
provide sufficient contrast with the darker background, powders
called “Bi-Chromatic” or “Dual-Use” are commercially available
that show up as a light gray on the darker backgrounds and a dark
gray on the lighter backgrounds. When lifted and placed on a white
lift card, the powder is always dark gray.

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
The use of white, silver, or fluorescent powders takes considerably
more skill and practice to get good, usable latent prints and does not
develop as consistent results as the black or bi-chromatic powders.
These latent lifts must also be placed on black lift cards, rather than
white.
C. Once a print has been developed, take scaled photographs.
D. There are several methods of lifting latent prints developed with
powder. One method is to pull a length of tape away from the roll, but
leaving the lifting tape, (clear, frosted, stretch - for irregular or curved
surfaces), attached to the roll. Fold a small portion of the free end
over to provide a gripping end and place the end of the tape about 1"
beyond the latent print you want to lift (Fig. 9-1), and begin
smoothing the tape toward and over the latent print, eliminating air
bubbles as you go (Fig. 9-2). This can be accomplished by using the
fingers as in Figure 9-2, or by using the flat surface of the fingernail,
(NOT the sharp edge), or a pencil eraser. The same method can be
used on a piece of tape removed from the roll.
Fig. 9-1
Tape piece still attached to the roll and anchored at one end beyond
the suitable latent prints to be lifted.
83

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
84
Fig. 9-2
Smooth the tape over the suitable latent prints, from one end to the
other, eliminating air bubbles.
Another method of lifting is to remove a length of tape from the roll
and “bow” the piece in the middle (Fig. 9-3), settle the bowed area
directly over the latent print you want to lift and smooth out the air
bubbles from the middle of the print outward (Fig. 9-4).
Fig. 9-3
Bow the piece of tape in the middle.

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
Fig. 9-4
Place the bowed area directly over the suitable latent print and
smooth the air bubbles outward from the middle of the print
Depending on the surface, many latent prints can be developed and
lifted more than once. The initial lift may clear away debris around
and between the ridges and the second lift may reveal a much better
quality print. The lifting method used depends on the comfort level
of the lifter and the amount of practice. Any method will take practice
to use well.
Do not mark the lifting surface of the tape with circles or arrows or
other marks to indicate where latent prints may be. You might mark
through a very faint latent print that is right next to the one you can
see easily.
On lifts from larger objects (cars, walls, etc.), you should mark an
arrow on the lift card, but NOT on the tape, to indicate which
direction is “up” in relation to the latent print.
All lifts should be properly documented for later identification.
Information recorded should include the case number, date,
officers name or initials and the location where the print was
developed. An attempt should then be made to redevelop the print on
the object and if successful, it should be covered with transparent
tape to protect it from destruction and to document its location.
Remember at all times: Crime scene fingerprints are perishable.
85

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
E. In those cases when the item is to be examined for other types of
evidence in addition to prints (such as blood, hairs, fibers,
documents, etc.), the item is to be submitted to the Laboratory with
the print intact and not covered with tape. Proper packaging
techniques are illustrated on the following pages.
86
Too Much Powder Not Enough Powder Brush Damage
Three major errors in dusting
To avoid brush damage, attempt to follow the flow of the ridge lines with the brush
strokes. This cleans between the ridges. Experiment with powder and dusting technique
on a similar surface before attempting to powder a print.
Fig. 9-5
A properly dusted print

III. Packaging
Latent and Inked Prints - 9
An object bearing friction ridge prints must be properly handled and
packaged to avoid destroying the prints while in transit. (See examples of
proper techniques below.)
DO NOT place items in plastic bags, or allow surfaces which
contain latent prints to come in contact with or rub against the
sides of the packaging materials.
Mark containers with the word FINGERPRINTS.
Fig. 9-6
Firearms must be unloaded prior to acceptance by the Crime Laboratory. The
agency should unload all weapons prior to packaging.
87

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
88
Fig. 9-7
Automotive rearview mirror. Rearview mirrors may bear fingerprints on both
front and back surfaces. Attach mirror to cardboard as shown above and
package as for a knife (below).
Fig. 9-8
Knife bearing prints. Secure knife to a piece of cardboard by use of string or
wire. The cardboard can then be attached to the inside bottom of a box. Do not
use any wrapping material around the knife.

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
Fig. 9-9
Exhibit packaged for shipment to the Laboratory:
A. Exhibit secured in rigid container
B. Container sealed and labeled
C. Container with outer wrapping, with Laboratory
form “Transmittal of Evidence” attached.
89

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
90
Fig. 9-10
Cash box bearing prints. Attach cash box or register drawer bearing fingerprint
to a board as shown above. Note: Place wooden slats between item and board to
act as spacers, thus protecting the undersurface of the item from rubbing.
Fig. 9-11
Bottle bearing prints. A bottle may be secured as shown above.

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
Fig. 9-12
Light bulb bearing prints. Screw the light bulb into a socket which has been
previously attached to a board. Attach the board to the inside bottom of a box.
Note: Do not overlook light bulbs because burglars will occasionally unscrew
the bulb, using the concealment of darkness while working with a flashlight.
Flashlight batteries should also be examined for fingerprints and, if submitted
to the Laboratory for processing, the batteries should not be removed from the
flashlight.
Fig. 9-13
Glass bearing prints. Glass should be packaged as shown above. The surface
bearing prints should be placed away from the open end of the box.
91

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
IV. Automated Fingerprint Identification System
The Laboratory can search unidentified fingerprints against the state
repository of known (inked) criminal fingerprint cards using the
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS). The Crime
Laboratory also has limited access to search a nationwide database of
criminal fingerprint cards. These capabilities allow fingerprints from
crime scenes (or from unidentified deceased) to be checked in an effort
to make identification when no suspect or victim is known. Consult the
Laboratory serving your area for information on training programs and
submission requirements for AFIS cases. Note that AFIS requires high
quality inked fingerprints in the database for the best chance of success.
Thus, read and follow the following section, V., carefully.
V. Preparing Fingerprint Cards
Law enforcement personnel should strive to develop the skills
necessary to take legible record (“inked”) finger and palm prints.
Absolute clarity of detail is paramount. Unless ridge detail is perfectly
clear, it may be impossible to conduct comparisons against the latent
prints. This can result in identifications not being made that would have
been possible if the inked impression had been clearly recorded.
Carefully study the “Properly Inked and Rolled” impression recorded in
Figure 9-14. Unless the impressions you take are this clear, continue to
re-print the hand or digit until clarity is achieved.
Submit to the Laboratory record finger and palm prints of all persons
known to have had or suspected of having had access to the item or
scene. (It is especially important to secure finger and palm prints of the
victim if he/she has died, since it will be nearly impossible to secure
prints once the body has been interred. See B., Autopsy fingerprinting,
below.)
A. Taking record fingerprints from the living.
92
1. Preparing inked fingerprint cards
a. Prepare the inking slab by placing several small dabs of ink
on the surface and rolling it uniformly over the surface. Be
careful not to use too much ink (see Figure 9-14). The rolled
out ink should be only thick enough so that when a digit is

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
rolled across the surface, the areas where the ridges picked
up the ink will appear clean. The print recorded should have
good contrast with the card. Practice will allow for proper
inking on a consistent basis.
b. Make a test ink impression on a scrap of paper to check for
proper ink density.
c. If possible, adjust the fingerprint card holder so that it is at
the height of the person’s elbow.
d. Have the person wash his/her hands if excessive grease, dirt
or perspiration is present. Note: Do not take inked
impression of digits having open cuts.
e. Instruct the person being fingerprinted not to assist you, but
to cooperate by relaxing his/her arm so it pivots easily.
f. With the person positioned at your right side and slightly to
the rear, grasp the right hand with your right hand. Hold the
four fingers back and clear of the inking slab; ink the thumb
by rolling it toward the body. Then roll the inked thumb in
the designated space on the card. Repeat the process for the
fingers, rolling away from the person’s body. This prevents
possible drag and secures a more uniform impression.
When the right hand is completed, have the person turn so
he/she is standing at right angles to the card stand, with
his/her back to you. Grasp the left hand and repeat the
process. Do not push down on the fingers while recording
them; use only enough pressure to guide and to ensure the
digit does not slip. Excessive pressure will blur the
impression.
g. To take simultaneous impressions, re-roll ink on the slab
(add more ink if necessary) and have the person wipe excess
ink from his/her fingers with lint-free toweling.
Simultaneous prints are not rolled; the four fingers are
extended and joined. Ink and print by pressing them straight
down in the appropriate block. Use only a very slight amount
of pressure on the back of the person’s fingers when pressing
them onto the card. Repeat with the thumbs.
93

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
94
h. Compare the inked impressions with the Figure 9-14. If they
are not properly inked or recorded, retake them.
i. Have the person sign the fingerprint card in the appropriate
place in your presence.
j. The officer taking the prints should date and sign the card in
the appropriate place.
k. If palm prints are found at the crime scene, take palm prints
from suspect(s) and victim(s). Remove excess ink from the
person’s hands and then re-ink the entire palm and fingers.
Palm prints are more clearly recorded by the following
method: secure an 8" x 8" plain card to a 3" x 4" diameter
cylinder with rubber bands. Possible cylinders include a
short section of plastic drain pipe or a section of the
cardboard tubing on which carpet is shipped.
Place the tube (with card attached) on a counter top so it can
roll toward the front edge, placing it so it can make one
complete revolution. After inking the palm, instruct the
person to hold his/her hand perfectly flat, palm down and
parallel to the counter top. Grasp the person’s arm and guide
the hand so the wrist is placed on the card at the bottom,
ending with the tips of the fingers at the top edge of the card.
As the palm draws across the card, apply very slight pressure
to the back of the person’s hand with the heel of your hand
(this will ensure the hollow of the palm will be recorded).
The impression will be more clear if only slight pressure is
applied during the procedure (only enough pressure to
ensure the hand does not slip across the surface of the card).
l. All finger and palm print cards must be signed and dated by
both the person and the officer. The fingerprinted person
should fill out all information required on the card. This
information should appear in the person’s handwriting or
printing.
m. Make duplicate fingerprint cards as required for adequate
distribution if the person has been arrested (the Laboratory,

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
Wisconsin Crime Information Bureau, FBI, local agency,
etc).
2. Preparing “Live Scan,” electronically recorded fingerprint cards
a. While electronic “live scan” readers have the potential to
produce clear, nail-to-nail ridge detail, operators should not
assume that this will automatically occur. Inspect the
finished card to ensure that the reader and printer are
functioning properly and that the finger has been properly
rolled/positioned. The fingerprint image in Fig. 9-14 marked
“Properly Inked and Rolled” is what a properly taken livescan
image should look like as well. The last two images in
Fig. 9-14 illustrate live-scan images that were either
corrupted by a malfunctioning printer, or the results of
incorrect rolling of the fingers.
B. Autopsy fingerprinting.
The importance of securing a clear set of finger and palm prints from
deceased persons cannot be overstated. If the name of the person is not
known or the body is disfigured beyond recognition, existing fingerprint
records can be used to establish identity. Autopsy fingerprint cards must
be taken as carefully as those taken at the time of an arrest. If even one
of the ten fingers is smeared or inadequately recorded, a search of nonautomated
fingerprint files might be precluded.
Post-mortem prints may also be used to account for (eliminate) the
maker of crime scene fingerprints. Only clearly recorded prints which
record all areas of ridge detail will be adequate for making comparisons.
It is important for investigators to remember the suitability of the autopsy
prints may not be evaluated by fingerprint technicians or Laboratory staff
until after the body has been interred. For that reason, clear, complete
records must be made.
A number of methods have been devised to record postmortem prints.
The following pages describe three. Selection of any one method
depends on personal preferences and case circumstances.
Method 1 - Ink is applied to the fingers in a number of ways. Either
the ink roller is rolled around the finger pattern areas, inking foils may be
used, Porelon ® pads, etc. Never use regular stamp pads. The weave
pattern or texture of the surface will interfere with the minute detail of the
95

9 - Latent and Inked Prints
fingerprint ridges. A fingerprint card is cut into strips, one strip with each
of the five fingers of one hand. The strip may either be cupped in the
fingers of the person taking the deceased’s fingerprints, or slipped into a
post mortem “spoon” specifically designed for this task. Then the strip is
rotated once around the pattern area of the finger. It may be necessary to
make several attempts at each finger in order to record a clear and
complete impression. Remember, you will probably only get one chance
to fingerprint the deceased. The strips are then attached in proper order
to a full-sized fingerprint card.
Method 2 - Fingerprint powder and stretchable fingerprint lifting
tape may also be used to record post-mortem fingerprints. The fingers are
lightly dusted with fingerprint powder (dedicate one fingerprint brush
only for post-mortem fingerprinting), and individual pieces of stretch
tape are smoothed over the pattern area of the finger. If the tape is applied
directly to a fingerprint card, remember that the fingerprint impressions
will be reversed, and must be marked immediately as to which finger is
which and placed in their correct positions on the card. The tape may also
be applied to clear acetate pieces, which can then be turned over and
taped to the fingerprint card in their correct orientations for comparison.
Method 3 - Another method of taking post-mortem prints which is
especially good for taking palmprints is the Handiprint ® method, which
is available from Kinderprint Co, Inc. Handiprint ® is a smooth, white,
slightly stretchable sheet of adhesive paper. Lightly dust the entire palm
and fingers with fingerprint powder and smooth the Handprint ® sheet
over the palm, making sure to get all the “nooks and crannies”, without
excessive pressure. The sheet is then lifted off the palm and covered with
a sheet of clear acetate. Any parts of the thumb and fingers missed may
be rolled at the edges prior to covering with the acetate sheet.
96

Latent and Inked Prints - 9
Too Much Ink Not Enough Ink Dirt and Grease
Incompletely Rolled Properly Inked and Rolled
Examples of poor results using "live scan" electronic print recording.
Fig. 9-14
Examples of common problems with inked and “live scan” fingerprint cards, and an
example of a properly inked and rolled print.
97

98
Notes

10
Footwear and
Tire Impressions
________________________________________________
Footwear Impressions
This section deals only with surface impressions found on flat, rigid
surfaces such as wood, tile, linoleum, or paper. Impressions in mud,
snow, and other pliable or semi-plastic materials are discussed in the
chapter on Casts.
Footwear impressions may yield information as to the type, make
and approximate size of the shoe or boot. In some cases, conclusive identification
can be made, linking a particular shoe to the crime scene
impression. The likelihood of conclusive identification is a function of
several factors, but it is primarily governed by the amount of wear
sustained by the outsole, the ability of the receiving surface to resolve the
fine detail of the impression, and the fineness of the material by which the
impression is deposited.
A footwear impression may be either positive or negative: the
impression may be the result of dust or other material being deposited on
a clean surface, or it may be the result of the outsole removing dust or
other material from the surface. Either type of impression has the
potential of being suitable for comparison and identification.
Impressions made in dust, particularly those made on hard, smooth
surfaces, are the most likely to yield a conclusive identification.
Investigators should be alert to the possibility of such impressions when
broken glass is found in an area where the perpetrator could have stepped.
Another potential source of such impressions is plastic windows in outof-the-way
areas that are rarely cleaned (such as in gas stations or
warehouses). In some cases the window will be forced out with the foot,
or once forced will be stepped on, removing dust from the surface and
creating a negative record of the outsole.
99

10 - Footwear and Tire Impressions
Whenever possible, submit the original item on which the
impression appears. Lifts made in the field and improperly taken
photographs rarely show the fine detail necessary to make a conclusive
identification.
I. Procedure: Surface or Dust Impressions
A. Photograph entire area to show walking pattern or relation of
impressions to surrounding objects.
B. Take scaled photograph of each footwear impression. (See the
Photography chapter for procedures.)
C. Prepare scaled diagram showing the position of the impression(s) in
relation to fixed objects at the scene.
II. Recovery of Objects and/or Impressions
A. Recover and preserve the object bearing the impression.
B. If this is impossible, the impressions should be lifted by using an
“electrostatic lifter,” a transparent footwear residue lifter or a rubber
footwear lifter.1
C. Submit the object bearing the impression or the lift, copies of
diagrams, photographs, etc., to the Laboratory.
Tire Impressions
Tire impressions sometimes permit identification of type and make
of the tire. In some cases, a tire may be conclusively identified as the
maker of an impression. Contact the Laboratory serving your area for
further information on requirements and submission procedures for cases
involving tire impressions.
1 Available from law enforcement equipment supply houses.
100

I. Procedure: Surface or Dust Impressions
Footwear and Tire Impressions - 10
A. Photograph entire area to show tire pattern or relation of impressions
to surrounding objects.
B. Take scaled photograph of tire impressions(s). (See the Photography
chapter for procedures.)
C. Prepare scaled diagram showing the position of impression(s) in
relation to fixed objects at the scene.
II. Recovery of Objects and/or Impressions
A. Recover and preserve objects bearing impressions.
B. If this is impossible, the impressions should be lifted by using one of
the methods described in Footwear Impressions, II, B, above.
C. Submit the object bearing the impression or the lift, copies of
diagrams, photographs, etc., to the Laboratory.
101

102
Notes

11
Burglary
________________________________________________
Evidentiary Considerations
Burglary is one of the offenses most commonly encountered by law
enforcement officers. The initial investigation of a burglary scene is
extremely important, for the objective is not only to determine what may
be missing, but also to locate and recover physical evidence which
associates the burglar with the crime scene. The following outline may be
used by the investigating officer as a procedural guide when processing
a burglary scene.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
I. Security and Protection at the Scene
A. Allow authorized personnel only.
B. Rope off or barricade area under investigation.
C. Protect outside areas from elements with a new tarpaulin or plastic
sheet.
D. Maintain security until the scene is completely processed.
II. What to Look for
A. In surrounding area:
1. Footwear impressions (determine origin)
2. Tire marks (determine origin)
3. Drag marks
4. Abandoned loot, tools, clothing, etc.
B. At scene:
1. Point and method of entry
2. Object of burglary
3. Point and method of exit
103

11 - Burglary
4. Obvious objects of value “passed up”
5. Fingerprints, glove imprints
C. At point of entry:
1. Hairs, fibers, other materials
2. Chips of paint, wood, glass, and tools
3. Blood
4. Tool marks (photo)
5. Tools
6. Other items of evidence
D. Inside burglarized premises:
1. Finger, foot, footwear, and palm prints
2. Burglarized objects
3. Tools and source of tools (property of victim or perpetrator)
4. Tool marks (photograph)
5. Broken or fractured pieces of tools (may be recovered in floor
sweepings)
E. Suspect:
1. Trace materials may be present on the clothing of a suspect.
Therefore, all clothing should be submitted to the Trace
Evidence section according to procedures outlined in Chapter
18, Clothing and Fabrics.
2. The vehicle involved should be thoroughly searched for the
presence of physical evidence. Vacuum seats, floors, dash
separately.
III. Procedure at Scene
A. Photograph and diagram the crime scene.
B. Recover, mark, and preserve physical evidence found, according to
directions set forth in section pertaining to evidence of that type.
IV. Materials Required by Laboratory
A. Photographs and diagrams or sketches of crime scene.
B. Physical evidence that has been photographed, recovered, marked,
and preserved in the proper manner.
104

Safe Burglary
Burglary - 11
In some rare cases, a safe may be drilled with a core drill to gain
entrance. In these sophisticated types of burglary, the Laboratory should
be contacted for assistance.
A diagram describing the accepted nomenclature of parts usually
encountered in a safe burglary investigation has been included in an
effort to show the correct names of safe parts. Knowledge and use of this
terminology will aid the investigator and the Forensic Scientist in
communicating effectively regarding safe burglaries.
Although explosives are not employed very often in safe burglaries,
the possibility of their use should not be overlooked. If there is reason to
suspect explosives were used, it is recommended the scene be evacuated
and secured. Then, for guidance in handling the situation contact one of
the following:
- A local bomb squad
- The Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) -
in Wisconsin, 414 - 297 - 3100
- The nearest Explosive Ordnance Disposal Unit -
in Wisconsin, at Fort McCoy, 608 - 388 - 3315
Fig. 11-1
Combination lock nomenclature
A Dial Knob D Tube Nut G Lock Case
B Dial E Dial Ring H Wheel
C Spindle F Spindle Tube I Cover
105

11 - Burglary
If explosives are expected:
106
Do not attempt to neutralize or destroy remaining explosives.
Do not turn on any electrical switches.
Do not walk or step in a liquid or suspected explosive material.
Do not move any object.
Do not smoke or use matches in area.
Do not pick up any detonators or explosives.
Do not breathe any vapors which may be present. Nitroglycerine may
cause a very severe headache.
Fig 11-2
Safe Nomenclature
A Locking Bolt F Dial Ring
B Carrying Bar G Dial
C Cladding (outer metal shell) H Hinge Acorn
D Firewall Material I Hinge
E Door Handle J Front Plate

Fig. 11-3
Fracture Matches-broken tools.
Burglary - 11
After the scene has been processed for finger-, foot-, and palm prints, it should
be carefully swept to recover all debris. The debris pile should be thoroughly
searched for the presence of broken tool parts and other physical evidence.
Broken tool parts may be fracture matched with a suspect tool. This is a
conclusive type of identification and is not uncommon in burglary investigations.
The recovery and search for debris is frequently overlooked, however,
resulting in the loss of valuable evidence.
107

108
Notes

12
Building Materials
________________________________________________
In investigations which involve breaking and entering, building
materials such as paint, glass, wood, plaster, metal, etc., may adhere to
the perpetrator’s clothing or tools. These fragments may later be
identified as originating from the scene. Building materials from different
sources -which appear by visual examination to be similar - may be differentiated
by their physical and chemical properties.
Procedure
A. Crime scene:
1. At the point of entry, or at any point of damage, collect samples
of each type of building material involved (Fig. 12-1). Do not cut
through tool marks. If one type of material has been damaged in
several places, obtain known samples from each site, since the
composition may vary.
2. Any tool or instrument impressions found on building materials
should be properly preserved and submitted to the Laboratory.
Recover known sample of building materials from point of entry
(see Fig. 12-1). Foreign paint in the impression may be linked to
paint on a suspect tool. Use caution to preserve foreign matter.
3. When glass has been broken, collect all glass found at the scene.
If more than one window has been broken, glass from each pane
should be packaged and submitted separately. This also applies
to thermo- or double pane windows and laminated windows. If
the direction of force used to break a window is in question,
collect all glass from the window frame and from the ground
inside and out. If the glass is removed from the frame, be sure to
mark one surface to indicate whether it was “inside” or “outside”
when in the frame. Package each sample separately or submit the
window frame with the glass in place (see Chapter 13, Glass).
109

12 - Building Materials
110
4. Care should be taken in choosing a container, to avoid loss or
contamination of the evidence. Do not use plastic petri dishes
or mailing envelopes.
5. Container should be marked with the following information,
sealed, then submitted to the Laboratory:
a. Description of contents
b. Exact source of contents
c. Date and time recovered
d. Case and item number
e. Name of officer recovering the material
6. Recover all tools remaining at the scene for possible fingerprints.
B. Suspects:
1. Collect all clothing worn by the suspect at the time of crime,
including shoes (see Chapter 18, Clothing and Fabrics).
2. Examine head and all bare skin areas (hands, arms, legs, feet) for
fresh cuts that might contain building materials, especially glass.
Building materials trapped in hair can be recovered by combing
over a clean piece of paper or cloth sheet. Collect all trace
evidence and combings.
3. Collect all suspect tools.
4. Examine interior and trunk of suspect’s car for debris and traces
of building materials.
5. If the suspect claims a source for materials found, obtain a known
sample from the claimed source.
6. Package all of these samples separately as described above.
Avoid cross-contaminating samples taken from the suspect with
those taken from the scene.

Fig. 12-1
Building Materials - 12
This cross section of a burglary scene shows the various materials that should be
recovered. In this case, an unsuccessful attempt was made to gain entry by forcing the
door frame and adjoining wall. Entry was finally gained through the window. Known
samples should be taken of all damaged materials:
A Known glass remaining C Building insulation
in the window frame D Building block and mortar
B Wallboard, plaster, wallpaper, E Brick and mortar
paint, etc. F Wood from door
Note: Recover and package separately building materials from ground outside point of
entry (i.e., at the door) as well as glass fragments found inside and outside the building.
111

12 - Building Materials
112
Fig. 12-2
Trace transfer of materials may be found adhering to pry bars.
Fig. 12-3
Glass chips recovered from the suspect's clothes which are consistent
with glass broken at the scene.

13
Glass
__________________________________________________________
One of the more important types of physical evidence which is
frequently overlooked by the investigator is glass. Its evidentiary value
lies in the fact that there are thousands of different formulae used in the
manufacturing of glass.
Recovered glass samples may be separated into several groups: two
of the main groups are window/windshield glass and headlight glass.
EXAMPLE 1: The glass recovered from a broken window at a
burglary scene and glass recovered from the clothing and shoes
removed from a person suspected of committing the burglary.
EXAMPLE 2: The glass remaining in a broken vehicle headlight
assembly and the glass recovered at the scene of a hit-and-run
investigation.
Considering these examples, it should be noted that the glass which
is recovered from a known source, such as a broken window or a broken
headlight, is considered known glass. The glass recovered from the
clothing and shoes or the hit-and-run scene is considered questioned
glass.
Comparison of irregularly shaped fractured edges of pieces of glass
may reveal a puzzle-like match which indicates that two sources of glass
were at one time a part of the same object.
If a fracture match is not possible, comparison of known glass with
questioned glass may reveal similarities in their physical, optical, or
chemical properties. This type of examination may result in a class identification.
That is, there is more than one headlight or window that will
have the same properties as the known headlight or window. Therefore,
specific identification can not result from measurements of physical,
optical, or chemical properties.
113

13 - Glass
It is also possible to determine the direction of force used to break
glass by examining stress marks present on the broken edges. In order to
do this, it is necessary to reconstruct as much of the original pane as
possible. Therefore, all glass from the scene must be recovered to
reconstruct the item so the point of impact can be determined and
detailed examination of the individual fragments can be conducted.
114
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
Procedure
A. Fracture matches
1. Fracture matching is the most positive form of identification and
therefore it is of utmost importance that all glass fragments be
recovered, since it is impossible to know in advance which
recovered pieces will mate with one another.
2. Collect all glass fragments from all sources (i.e., scene, vehicles,
clothing, etc.) and package glass from each source separately in
order to associate the glass from any one source with the scene.
B. Chemical analysis
1. Collected for comparison with glass samples recovered from
remote locations or from the clothing to show commonality of
chemical make-up. (Does not individualize a sample to a single
source.)
2. Recover a sample of glass still in the frame. Glass from the
window frame is the only source that can be used as a known for
chemical analysis.
C. Determination of the direction of force
1. It is preferable to remove the window frame with the remaining
glass still in place and to submit it to the Laboratory. If this is
impossible and the glass must be removed from the frame, be
sure to mark each piece to indicate the “inside” surface or the
“outside” surface before removed from the frame. Collect all
glass from the window frame.
2. Glass found in different areas should be recovered and packaged
separately. Example: Glass found on the floor inside should be

D. Packaging
Glass - 13
packaged separately from glass found outside. It cannot be
overemphasized that glass recovered from different areas should
be packaged separately.
1. Package glass pieces in rigid containers. Protect the broken or
fractured edges of the pieces of glass from any additional
damage or breakage.
2. The value of the procedure for packaging glass from different
sources separately will be nullified if the packaging material
tears or breaks, allowing transfer of small pieces or fragments of
glass between packages. Do not package glass in paper, mailing
envelopes, cellophane, or plastic bags.
115

116
Notes

14
Woods and Sawdust
________________________________________________
Wood slivers and chips from doors, siding, or broken window frames,
frequently adhere to suspect’s clothing and may be related to their source.
Large items of wood such as boards, logs, trees, or blocking may also be
identified by appropriate Laboratory examination and comparison.
The investigator should consider the possibility of sawdust on shoes,
in trouser cuffs, and in pockets of suspects who have recently left a crime
scene such as a butcher shop, lumber yard, construction site, or similar
location. Since sawdust is generally composed of many types of species,
Laboratory findings of correspondence between samples from both the
suspect and the scene may provide valuable information.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
Procedure
Damaged wood found at burglary sites should be submitted for
comparison with recovered wood fragments from suspect’s clothing
and/or tools used to commit the crime. All clothing (including shoes)
worn by the suspect at the time of the crime should be submitted to the
Laboratory. See Chapter 18, Clothing and Fabrics for packaging
procedure. If there are wood chips or sawdust at the scene, take several
samples from different areas, package separately, mark, and seal.
Samples can be placed in small glass bottles or vials. Avoid use of
envelopes, since wood fragments may be damaged in transmittal if not
protected by rigid container. Package, seal, and label the container. See
Chapter 13, Glass.
117

14 - Woods and Sawdust
118
Fig. 14-1
Wood sliver fracture match.
The 1/2 " wood sliver illustrated above was found in the trousers of a burglary
suspect and was subsequently fracture matched to wood form the scene.

15
Tool Marks
________________________________________________
I. General
For the purposes of this chapter, a tool is any instrument or object
capable of making a mark on another object.
Tool mark identification techniques may be applied to many types of
investigations (knife marks on bone; fractured knife blades; homemade
explosive devices; crimp marks on detonators; cut marks on wire;
fractured radio antennas), as well as burglary.
A close examination of a tool mark may reveal the type of tool,
contour of the cutting edge, blade width and color of the tool, or the
presence of trace material.
II. Types of Tool Marks
Generally, tool marks encountered at a crime scene may be in the
form of embossed “impressions,” striated “drag” or “shear” marks, or a
combination of both. (See Figs 15-1 and 15-2.) For example, a drive
punch will generally leave an embossed impression, whereas a
screwdriver or pry bar will frequently leave a striated mark, as well as an
embossed impression of the tip of the tool.
III. Location of Tool Marks
Tool marks may be found at points of entry and exit at victimized
premises and upon objects which have been attacked.
119

15 - Tool Marks
IV. Recovery of Tool Marks
A. Always submit object containing tool mark to Laboratory.
B. If not practical to submit the object, remove section of material
containing tool mark and submit to Laboratory.
C. Only as a last resort, make a cast of the tool mark.
D. Mark, protect and individually package item(s) containing tool
mark(s) and forward to Laboratory.
V. Casting of Tool Marks
Silicone plastic-type materials have been found satisfactory for
casting tool marks. They are available through scientific and law
enforcement supply houses. Directions for their use are contained in each
kit.
Do not use plasticine, plaster of Paris, patch plaster, and similar
materials which have a tendency to shrink.
VI. Tools
120
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
Recover all suspect tools and inventory, observing the following
precautions, and submit them to the Laboratory for examination and
comparison with tool marks.
A. Never place a suspect tool in contact with a questioned tool mark or
cast.
B. Inscribe identification marks on tools for later identification.
Exercise extreme care in handling and marking tool(s) if it is to be
checked for fingerprints and/or trace material.
C. Package each tool individually to protect the tool for possible
fingerprint, and/or trace material examination.

Tool Marks - 15
Fig 15-1
Embossed Tool Mark
A-AA portion of the tool mark reveals the class characteristics (size and shape) of
the tool.
B-BB reveals individual characteristics of this particular tool. B are grinding or
manufacturer's marks; BB is a nick in the edge of the tool.
121

15 - Tool Marks
122
Fig 15-2
Striated tool mark
Area A shows the entire blade width, or both class limits of the tool making mark. The
intervening line, or striations, are the tool's individual characteristics.
Area B, a partial tool mark, shows one blade edge, or class limit, of the screwdriver and
individual characteristics.
Area C, a partial tool mark, does not show either class limit but does show individual
characteristics.
Inset circle shows an enlarged view of the edge of the tool blade, showing individual characteristics
acquired during manufacture, use, misuse, regrinding, or intentional alteration.

Tool Marks - 15
Fig. 15-3
Double-blade tools such as bolt cutters are often used to cut padlock shackles. When
recovered in the possession of a suspect, they may connect the offender with the crime.
Fig. 15-4 Fig. 15-5
Fig. 15-4. Damage to the cutting edge of the blades causes individual characteristics to
be reproduced on cut surfaces.
Fig. 15-5. Individual characteristics are caused by these defects as shown in this
comparison microphotograph.
123

124
Notes

16
Paints
________________________________________________
Paint chips and fragments of other protective coatings such as
varnishes, sealers, lacquers, enamels, and plastics are frequently
recovered at scenes of burglaries, hit and run vehicles and scenes, forced
entries, etc. A determination of common origin is possible in cases where
irregularly shaped adjoining edges of paint chips can be physically joined
to form a fracture match (see Figure16-1). However, the value of a
single-layered paint chip or paint smear should not be overlooked.
Fig. 16-1
Fracture match of paint chips. Two fragments of paint showing a common fracture match.
One fragment was found at the scene of a crime. The other was recovered from the
suspect vehicle.
Fig 16-2
Cross section of multi-layer paint chip. Each layer represents a different color, type, and
a separate painting operation. (Magnification approximately X350).
125

16 - Paints
Procedure
The following procedures are recommended for recovery of paint
samples.
126
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
A. Recover, package, and seal all paint samples separately.
B. Recover known paint samples from areas immediately adjacent to the
damaged area. The hoods, trunks, and fenders of vehicles may not be
painted at the same location or with the same paint used on the body.
Therefore, it is of utmost importance that a known paint sample be
taken from the exact part of the vehicle upon which the damage
occurred. In hit-and-run investigations, the known paint samples
should be taken near the point of impact, but should not be taken
from areas of corrosion, such as the rocker panels.
C. When tool marks exist on a damaged object, recover paint samples
from areas immediately adjacent to tool marks without mutilating the
tool mark.
Fig 16-3
Recovery of Paint Sample
Tape a clean sheet of paper (do not use envelopes) to the object in the manner shown,
forming a pocket. Mark the paper for identification. Scrape the questioned paint into the
pocket formed by the paper. It is important to use a new, disposable scalpel blade or razor
blade for each sample to avoid contamination. Some razor blades are coated with oil to
prevent rusting. Therefore, all razor blades should be thoroughly cleaned with a clean
cloth or tissue just before they are used.

Paints - 16
Fig 16-4
Packaging Paint Sample
Carefully remove the paper from the object and fold each edge toward the center so that
the packet is completely closed.
Fig. 16-5
Properly sealed Paint Sample
Insert each packet into a separate new, clean bottle, together with the scalpel blade or
razor blade used in recovering the sample. Seal and label according to instructions
previously recommended.
D. When areas of paint are missing from sheet metal parts of vehicles or
doors and windows of residences and businesses, consideration
should be given to bringing the entire part to the Laboratory for
possible fracture match analysis.
E. Avoid use of any container which would permit loss or contamination
of contents, especially envelopes and plastic petri dishes, since the
manufacturer’s seal is not leak proof.
F. Use a new, clean scalpel blade or razor blade for each sample
recovered; enclose in bottle with sample.
G. Do not use gummed tape to recover paint samples because it
interferes with the chemical analysis.
127

128

17
Metals
_________________________________________________________
It is possible to compare metals on the basis of their elemental
composition and surface morphology. Even minute particles can be
examined. Questioned metal fragments which have been broken from
their original source may often be fracture matched to that source.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
Procedure
Recover all metal fragments found at the scene. These should be
sealed in vials, bottles, paper bags or other suitable containers. Package
and label (see Chapter 14, Woods and Sawdust).
Recover and submit all metal objects involved or encountered in an
investigation. Although metal fragments may not be found at the scene,
they may be detected later when the clothing is examined, since they may
adhere to the surface or lodge in pockets and cuffs or to shoes. Therefore,
it is important to have for comparison the object from which the
fragments may have originated.
Fig. 17-1
Trace metal and glass fragments can often be recovered from the soles of shoes
if the suspect walks through such evidence during commission of the offense.
129

130
Notes

18
Clothing and Fabrics
__________________________________________________________
Clothing fibers or small pieces of fabric found at burglary scenes, on
suspect hit-and-run vehicles, weapons, or other objects can often be
compared or even matched with a suspect’s or victim’s clothing. Small
particles of paint, plastic, metal, wood, glass, soil, or other materials
frequently adhere to clothing (pockets, trousers, cuffs, etc.) and may be
related to the scene.
The Laboratory has special equipment to recover trace evidence from
clothing. Clothing recovered for examination should be handled with
care to avoid damage to critical areas. It is important to collect clothing
before it is cleaned or otherwise altered. Trace materials are usually
removed or lost in the cleaning process.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
I. General Procedure
A. Recover clothing to be examined. Clothing should be carefully
removed from the person or body. Care should be taken to minimize
damage to garments. Do not cut through stains, bullet holes, or knife
penetrations. Collect and package each item separately. It is
extremely important to keep items separated to avoid contamination
during recovery, storage, and transmittal to the Laboratory.
B. A tag marked with all pertinent information should be attached to
each item. Lead wire seals or locking plastic cable ties may be used
to attach the tag to the clothing. If a lead seal is used, it can be
crimped and inscribed with the officer’s initials. Plastic cable ties can
be marked with an indelible marker.
131

18 - Clothing and Fabrics
C. Clothing or other items that are damp or wet with blood, urine, water,
etc., should be air dried in a draft-free place prior to packaging. Do
not package damp clothing or other damp items in plastic bags.
A piece of clean paper should be spread under drying items to catch
any debris which might be dislodged. The paper and any debris
thereon should be packaged with the item. Label, seal and submit to
the Laboratory.
D. Package each dry item in a clean paper bag, label and seal.
E. Plastic bags are not suitable at any time for packaging shoes and
other leather objects. A new, clean paper bag should be used for each
leather object.
II. Packaging Items
A. Mark the paper bag with identifying data (description, source, date,
time of recovery, case number, initials of persons involved in
recovery, and other pertinent information).
B. Seal the bag using one of the methods discussed in Chapter 2,
Evidence Integrity.
132

19
Fracture and Tear Matches
__________________________________________________________
If the irregularly shaped fractured or torn edges of two pieces of any
material can be joined together to form a continuous section, then it can
be concluded that the two pieces at one time shared a common origin.
This comparison is the most positive conclusion that can be drawn in the
area of trace evidence. The Forensic Scientist has eliminated all other
similar materials as the source of these two pieces.
Investigators often carefully check a scene for fingerprints, knowing
their value to conclusively link a person to the scene - while overlooking
a torn piece of paper, a broken piece of metal or glass, or other broken
item. Any of those items can, if another piece is found in the possession
of a suspect, form just as conclusive a link with the scene.
A puzzle or fracture match results when two pieces of rigid material
(plastic, wood, glass, metal, etc.) from separate locations are
reconstructed to form a continuous section of that material. A cut or tear
match results when two pieces of pliable material (such as, plastic bags,
paper, foil, fabric, etc.) from separate locations are reconstructed to form
a continuous section of that material. Perforated paper products (checks,
notebook paper, LSD blotter paper, etc.) can often be linked back to their
source via tear matches.
Importance of Thorough Collection
and Proper Preservation
It is of the utmost importance that all pieces of the broken item(s) at
the scene be collected and preserved for later comparison with similar
evidence collected from the suspect, victim, vehicle, home or other
scenes; it is impossible to know in advance which pieces will be matched
to each other. This requires a careful and thorough search of the scene.
Package items from each location separately. In order to confidently
establish a link between an item left at the scene and another item
recovered elsewhere, each item’s origin must be documented. If items
are, or could be co-mingled during collection, storage, or transport, their
133

19 - Fracture and Tear Matches
evidentiary value is lost. See Chapter 2, Evidence Integrity, for further
information on packaging and sealing.
For information on specific types of fracture matches and procedures
associated with their collection, see the following chapters: Chapter 11,
Burglary; Chapter 12, Building Materials; Chapter 13, Glass; Chapter 14,
Woods and Sawdust; Chapter 15, Tool Marks; Chapter 16, Paints;
Chapter 17, Metals; Chapter 32, Automobiles and Other Vehicles; and
Chapter 33, Documents.
134
Table 19-1
Examples of Potential Sources for Fracture Matches
Motor Vehicles Bicycles Burglary Miscellaneous
_________________________________________________________
paint chips tubular metal paint† knives
headlights reflectors wood† feathers
grill lights tool parts stone
ext’r mirrors tires glass bones:
antenna inner tubes safe wall animal
windshields spokes metal: human
wipers fenders doors
parking lights baskets trim
tail lights machinery
trim pieces
† - fractured material may be found adhering to a tool
Table 19-2
Examples of Potential Sources for Tear/Perforation Matches
____________________________________________________
matches cardboard
documents money
paper bags LSD blotter paper
checks drug folds
stamps cloth/fabric
sheet plastic plastic bags

20
Autopsy
Autopsy - 20
__________________________________________________________
An autopsy is required in all violent or unattended deaths to
determine the approximate time and precise cause of death. An
unattended death is one for which there was no preexisting illness,
medical condition, or reasonable explanation.
Where there is reason to believe foul play is involved in a human
death, and when a request is made by an authorized agency, Laboratory
personnel may assist a forensic pathologist during the autopsy.
I. Procedure for the Officer
A. Obtain authorization for the autopsy from the coroner or medical
examiner. This authorization must be in writing and delivered to the
pathologist prior to performance of the autopsy.
B. A complete set of x-rays should be taken of the entire body. If metal
fragments are detected, a side view should be taken to help locate the
exact position of the fragments.
C. Record the following and any other information considered pertinent:
1. Name and date of birth of deceased (if known).
2. Any emergency medical treatment performed on victim.
3. Time, date, and location of autopsy.
4. Names and titles of persons in attendance.
D. Inform the pathologist of all pertinent information relative to the
case.
135

20 - Autopsy
E. If the pathologist is unaware of the specimens required by the
Laboratory for their analyses or the methods preferred by the
Laboratory to recover and preserve specimens, provide him/her with
Section II of this chapter.
F. Photograph the body as outlined in Chapter 4, Photography -
Autopsy Photographic Procedure.
G. Recover the (new) sheet used to convey the victim from the scene to
the hospital or morgue. Air dry if wet or bloodstained and place in a
separate clean paper bag. Avoid unnecessary handling of the sheet to
prevent loss of trace evidence. Properly mark for identification.
H. Bindings used to restrain victim, if any, should be recovered by
cutting an area where no knots, cuts, tears, or stains are present. Do
not cut through knots or stains. Mark the cut ends to distinguish from
existing ends of bindings or twine.
I. Bite marks. The first step in the processing of bite marks is to photographically
document the impression. The photography is critical and
the specific method is described in Chapter 4 - Photography. Because
of the specific requirements required to produce workable evidence it
is recommended to request technical assistance from the Laboratory.
136
IT IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT TO SWAB THE BITE
MARK AREA FOR DNA EVIDENCE COLLECTION. This can
be accomplished by using the Wisconsin State Crime Laboratory
BIOLOGICAL SPECIMENS collection kit, or by following the
procedure described below.
After the bite mark is thoroughly documented photographically, the
impression should be swabbed with a moist cotton applicator to
collect any potential traces of the assailant’s saliva. Thoroughly air
dry the swab and place in a clean paper envelope. Properly label and
seal the envelope.
When three dimensional characteristics are apparent, the evidence
can be further documented with an impression material. This can be
difficult to obtain the detail necessary. Technical assistance is
available by calling the Laboratory for a referral of a Board Certified
expert. There is a nominal fee for this forensic specialty.
J. Recover clothing of victim after it has been examined by the
pathologist. Note any cutting or tearing of clothing by anyone who

Autopsy - 20
may have rendered first aid, by attending physicians, or by the
pathologist. Place each item of clothing in a separate clean paper bag.
Air dry if wet or bloodstained. Avoid unnecessary handling of
clothing to prevent loss of trace evidence. Properly mark for identification.
K. After examination by the pathologist, all bruises and wounds should
be photographed. Scaled and unscaled views should be taken prior to
and after washing of affected areas. Scaling should be accomplished
following procedures outlined in Chapter 4, Photography - III.,
Scaling Photographs and IV., Pattern Impression Photography.
L. In cases where the victim may have, or is suspected of having had
physical contact with the assailant, recover standard specimens of
body and head hairs and package them separately, by source, in clean
containers. See Chapter 25, Hairs and Fibers.
M. Fingerprint and palm print victim. Also consider footprints.
Investigation at crime scene may reveal palm prints or footprints.
Personal identifications may be confirmed by footprint. If victim is
too young to have been fingerprinted, hospital records may contain
newborn footprints.
N. Package, seal, and label all items recovered, making sure the
pathologist describes the contents and places his mark of identification
on each item or container. It is important that the officer in
attendance be equipped with adequate containers and sealing
apparatus to package clothing, body fluids, organs, hair samples,
fingernail scrapings, etc.
O. Request that the pathologist forward a copy of the autopsy report to
the coroner/medical examiner and to the Laboratory.
II. Procedure for the Pathologist
A. A complete series of full body x-rays should be taken of the victim.
B. Collect the clothing of the victim by carefully removing in a normal
manner. Should this not be possible, it can be removed by cutting, so
long as great care is taken not to cut through or near any cuts, tears,
holes, or trace evidence or areas that might have evidential
significance.
137

20 - Autopsy
C. Recover wound areas:
138
1. Photograph wounds as outlined in Chapter 4, Photography — II.,
Autopsy Photographic Procedure, III., Scaling Photographs, and
IV., Pattern Impression Photography.
2. The body may be sketched and wound areas diagrammed on
anatomical outlines similar to those shown in Fig. 20-1. All
drawings should be initialed and dated.
Fig. 20-1
Anatomical outlines.

Autopsy - 20
3. It is recommended that tissue sections surrounding gunshot
wounds be recovered as shown in Fig. 20-2.
a. The tissue section should contain most or all of the powder
staining and/or residues. For proper orientation, it should be
removed in the form of a tear drop. The “point” of the section
of tissue should be towards the top of the head. If the bullet
penetrated bone, obtain a section of the bone penetrated and
underlying bullet track surrounding the bullet hole. The
recovered sections of tissue and/or bone should be placed in
a wide mouth screw cap jar with a ten percent solution of
formaldehyde, sealed, and labeled.
b. Do not submit these sections to the Laboratory. The
Laboratory does not analyze tissue specimens for the
presence of gun shot residue. They should be examined by a
Forensic Pathologist or retained for future use.
Fig 20-2
Recovery of wound area.
139

20 - Autopsy
D. Collect all evidence, including fragments of bullets or other objects
which have pierced or adhered to the skin. The pathologist should
place a mark of identification on the sealed container in which the
recovered evidence is placed. An alternative method is to mark the
individual item and the sealed container. See Chapter 7, Firearms and
Ammunition, for marking and packaging procedure. In cases
involving gunshot deaths, or gunshot injuries suspected to have been
self-inflicted, it is important to obtain measurements of arm length
(fingertip to shoulder, arm extended). It is also important to
photograph all bloodstains on all exposed areas of flesh, such as
hands, wrists and arms.
E. Additional specimens should routinely be collected at autopsy (if
applicable) and submitted to the Laboratory:
140
See Chapter 24: Sexual Offenses - collect the appropriate specimens
for the situation.
See Chapter 25: Hairs and Fibers - collect the appropriate specimens
for the situation.
See Chapter 26: Toxicology - collect the appropriate specimens for
the situation.

Autopsy - 20
Fig. 20-3
Many of the samples required for toxicological analysis can be collected using an
Autopsy Kit available from the State Crime Laboratory in Madison (address on
p. iii). Specimens for sexual assault analysis should also be collected, especially
in any homicide involving a female victim-even if sexual assault is not
immediately suspected. A Sexual Assault Evidence Collection Kit is available for
this purpose, also available through the State Crime Laboratory in Madison.
There is a nominal charge for both kits. Additional information on sexual
offenses can be found in Chapter 24.
141

142
Notes

Identification of Unknown Deceased - 21
21
Identification of
Unknown Deceased
__________________________________________________________
Identification of an unknown deceased victim is of the utmost
importance and must be vigorously pursued until every investigative lead
has been exhausted. Much information can be obtained by a detailed
examination of a body, clothing on the body, and personal effects found
in clothing pockets or at the scene. Caution should be used, however, in
attempting positive identifications from clothing and personal effects
alone, since it is possible an unknown body may be clothed in the
garments and personal effects of another.
The condition of a body when recovered is a limiting factor in identification;
however, a thorough examination may reveal information
which initially would appear to be impossible to obtain.
The positive identification of a deceased victim should not be
construed to be the duty of the Forensic Scientist or of the investigating
officer, but rather a joint effort of all persons concerned. Few of the
following listed “investigative leads” are, in themselves, a basis for
positive identification. But several together, supported by a thorough
investigation, may be sufficient basis upon which to establish a possible
or probable identification.
The following checklist will provide investigative leads which, if
properly pursued, may lead to a positive identification.
A. Visual external examination of body:
1. Fingerprints, palm prints, and footprints
2. Complete physical description to include:
a. Sex
b. Age
143

21 - Identification of Unknown Deceased
144
c. Weight
d. Height
e. Build
f. Color of eyes
(1) Glass eye
g. Race
h. Skin:
(1) Complexion
(2) Tattoos
(3) Warts, moles, birthmarks
(4) Skin disease
(5) Scars—injury or surgical
(6) Needle punctures (narcotic addicts or diabetics)
(7) Ring mark on finger (ring missing)
i. Hair:
(1) Color
(2) Length and how combed
(3) Straight, wavy, and amount
(4) Natural, wig or toupee
(5) Beard, mustache, type
j. Teeth:
(1) Natural or false
(2) Appearance (shape, stains)
(3) Dental work (fillings, missing teeth, bridgework)
k. Fingernails:
(1) Long, short, chewed or broken
(2) Manicured, fingernail polish
(3) Discolored due to occupation
(4) Artificial nails
l. Amputations and deformities

B. Examination of clothing:
1. Description and size of all garments
2. Manufacturer, store, tailor labels
Identification of Unknown Deceased - 21
3. Laundry markings (some can be seen by use of ultra-violet light)
4. Laundry tags left on clothing
5. Monograms
6. Repair of tears and holes
7. Belt buckles
8. Buttons (missing, broken, special type)
9. Trace material which may indicate occupation
C. Identification photographs to include frontal and side views of the
victim’s head, and any scars, tattoos, jewelry, or other visible
identifying characteristics or objects.
D. Review of missing person reports and viewing of body by family or
acquaintances of missing persons.
E. Internal examination of the body:
1. X-ray examination. A body which is unidentifiable by external
means should be subjected to a complete x-ray examination in
order to determine the presence of:
a. Foreign bodies:
(1) Pieces of shrapnel
(2) Fired bullets
(3) Prosthetic devices (metal skull plate, metal pins in bone,
etc.)
b. Mended bone fractures
c. Other abnormalities which may aid in identification
2. Body organs missing as a result of surgery
3. Improper location of body organs
145

21 - Identification of Unknown Deceased
146
4. Evidence of a present or prior illness:
a. Heart disease
b. Ulcers
c. Arteriosclerosis
d. Pathological changes due to age, occupation, or geographical
residence
e. Stomach contents
F. Personal effects:
1. Driver’s license
2. Credit cards
3. Social Security card
4. Identification card
5. Identification tag
6. Photographs:
a. Self
b. Family
c. Acquaintances
d. Locations
e. Names and other writing on photographs
7. Letter or other notes
8. Company checks or check stubs
9. Paid and due invoices
10. Rings:
a. Wedding rings
b. Class rings
c. Organization rings
d. Initials
11. Cigarette case and lighter

12. Car and house keys
Identification of Unknown Deceased - 21
13. Key rings: initials or other personalization, registration number
for lost key return service
14. Monogrammed wallet
15. Watch:
a. Engravings
b. Jeweler repair marks
16. Corrective lenses:
a. Contact lenses
b. Prescription
17. Hearing aids
G. Additional Techniques:
1. X-ray examination of teeth
2. X-ray of skull superimposed over negative or print of photograph
of victim’s head
3. DNA profiles from the body may be matched to DNA collected
from personal effects of missing persons, or searched against
national data bases.
4. Blood type and factor: the type may be rare, and the victim a
donor whose name may be on file at hospital or blood bank.
Blood typing such as is in the ABO or Rh system is not longer
performed at the crime laboratory. If ABO or Rh typing is
required, a private or clinical laboratory should be contacted.
5. Facial reconstruction
147

148
Notes

22
Dental Identification of
Human Remains
________________________________________________
If you are unable to establish the identification of an individual by
visual means, fingerprints or other identifying data, then a dental
examination should be done. Due to the medicolegal ramifications, this
should be carried out by a qualified Forensic Odontologist. Human
remains will usually be burned, mutilated, decomposed or skeletonized.
There have been numerous times when dental examinations have been
done on victims who are visually identifiable.
If a body is recovered and cannot be identified, the dental records
should be submitted to NCIC, after a very thorough post-mortem dental
examination. It is also appropriate to place the dental records of missing
persons in the NCIC. If a person is missing for a period of time (30-90
days), the dental records can be obtained and entered into the NCIC
computer. If this information is not filled out correctly, it can prevent an
identification from taking place. There is a large amount of information
for the family dentist to read, and it may be difficult to understand the
NCIC form if he/she only sees one of these forms in his/her career. If you
would like an NCIC form completed for a missing person, the Laboratory
can direct you to one of their consultants who will complete it at no
charge.
Steps to Follow in a Post-mortem
Forensic Dental Examination
I. Examination of the Oral Tissues
A In certain circumstances the examination can begin at the site where
the body was found or a return trip may be warranted.
149

22 - Dental Identification of Human Remains
150
1. A Forensic Odontologist may be able to help locate and identify
dental remains that are decomposed, charred or traumatically
mutilated. Some of the fragments may appear to be burned pieces
of wood or other debris.
B. A single tooth, jaw fragment or even a portion of a tooth may be vital
to the identification.
C. As easily as teeth break down throughout life, they will outlast all
other body tissues after death.
D. Post-mortem head and neck x-rays (or full body x-rays) may locate
dislodged teeth or fragments. X-ray examination of dirt or charred
debris may also reveal fragmentary evidence.
E. Conditions of the bodies that may be examined.
1. Normal condition or visually identifiable.
a. A dental examination should be conducted if there are:
(1) No reports of a missing person or clues to the identity
(2) No personal effects are found
(3) No fingerprints are on file
b. Dental examination should proceed with no disfigurement to
the face (no resection or removal of the jaws). Body may be
viewed by relatives
c. Dental examination would consist of photographs of the
teeth, a dental chart, a full mouth series of standard dental xrays
with a portable dental x-ray machine and impressions of
the teeth.
2. Completely decomposed or skeletonized.
a. Easiest to work on.
b. Some of the teeth will dislodge from the jaw since the
periodontal ligaments (tissue that attached the teeth to the
bone) have been destroyed in the decomposition process. All
loose teeth should be recovered and replaced in their sockets.
3. Partially decomposed.
a. Difficult to examine due to the odor and presence of insects
(e.g., maggots, flies, beetles, etc.).
b. Jaws need to be resected.

Dental Identification of Human Remains - 22
4. Burned.
a. Access to the teeth is very difficult, as the tissues are very
rigid.
b. Jaws need to be resected.
c. Caution is advised in resecting heavily burned or calcined
jaws since they are extremely fragile. Fixation with clear
acrylic spray is recommended.
5. Mutilated.
a. Teeth and jaws may be fragmented and distorted.
b. Recovery of all the teeth may be a problem.
c. Dental evidence may be imbedded in other areas of the body
or strewn about the area.
F. Resection of the maxilla (upper jaw) and the mandible (lower jaw).
1. Usually in cases of advanced decomposition, severe mutilation,
and bodies that are charred or burned beyond recognition, the
jaws will need to be resected or removed.
2. Resection of the jaws should be accomplished if there is no open
casket or viewing of the body.
3. The Forensic Odontologist can accomplish a more complete and
comprehensive examination, and obtain better quality x-rays and
photographs by resection of the jaws.
4. If the jaws need to be retained for a period of time, they may be
preserved in 10% formalin.
II. Preparation of Post-mortem Records
A. Photographs.
1. Full face.
2. Close-up of the anterior or front teeth.
3. Right and left lateral views of the teeth in occlusion or their
proper bite.
4. Views of the occlusal or chewing surfaces of the teeth in the
upper jaw and in the lower jaw.
151

22 - Dental Identification of Human Remains
152
5. Close-up photography of any additional features which may be
important.
B. Radiographs or x-rays.
1. Essential to any forensic dental examination.
3. Exposure time is reduced by 1/3 for resected jaws and 1/2 for
skeletonized jaws.
4. X-ray examination is mandatory for estimation of age of the
victim.
C. Notes and charts.
1. A dental chart should be prepared indicating all pertinent
information.
2. This information should include, but is not limited to:
a. Which teeth are present and which are missing
b. Which teeth are restored or filled, what the restoration or
filling material is, and which surfaces of the teeth are
involved
c. Indicate if root canals have been performed
d. Describe any prosthetic and/or orthodontic appliances
e. Describe the location and size of the decayed surfaces
(cavities) of the teeth, or if there are any chipped or fractured
teeth
f. Describe any malpositions or rotations of teeth
g. Describe unusual anatomy or shapes of teeth
h. Describe the occlusion (the manner in which the teeth bite
together)
i. Describe any oral pathology or other anatomic features
which may be of potential importance
D. Study models or casts of the teeth.
1. Impressions can be taken of the victim’s teeth and then casts are
made by using dental stone.
2. It is usually not necessary or practical to take impressions of the

Dental Identification of Human Remains - 22
victim’s teeth. However, there have been many occasions where
casts have proven to be very valuable.
3. The consulting Forensic Odontologist will decide if this
procedure is warranted.
III. Securing of Ante Mortem Records
A. Types of ante mortem records.
1. X-rays.
a. X-rays are the most important ante mortem records.
b. Recover and submit all x-rays, including those x-rays taken
10-20 years ago. These x-rays may reveal additional
information and may compare more favorably with the postmortem
x-rays of the remains.
c. Obtain the original x-rays if at all possible. The dentist should
duplicate the x-rays and retain the duplicates for his/her
records. The original film should be a better quality x-ray
than the duplicate.
Fig. 22-1
Example of charred dental remains. The mandible (lower jaw) has the crowns of
the teeth fractured off.
153

22 - Dental Identification of Human Remains
154
Fig. 22-2
Examples of charred fragmentary dental remains (teeth and bone fragments).
Fig 22-3
Examples of charred, fragmentary dental remains. Many of the fragments may
look like charred pieces of wood or debris. The fragment that is second from the
left in the top row is a charred piece of wood.

Dental Identification of Human Remains - 22
d. Obtain the most recent ante mortem records. Most
individuals have probably been treated by more than one
dentist throughout their lifetime.
e. If conventional dental x-rays are unavailable, recover
medical or chiropractic x-rays that may show the teeth.
f. Electronic transmission of scanned images of dental x-rays,
saved as bit map files, can be accomplished when
expediency is required. An initial rule-in or rule-out
comparison can be made of the electronic image on screen.
The original films can be sent later, if necessary.
2. Dental charts.
a. Obtain the original dental chart if possible. If the dentist
sends a copy, make sure the copy is legible.
b. Dental charts can be very valuable, but the Forensic
Odontologist must be aware that there may be errors
incorporated into the chart by the dentist, the dental assistant
or the hygienist making the entry. For this reason, x-rays are
a much better means of making a comparison.
3. Study models or casts of the teeth.
a. If the dentist has retained models, they can be very valuable.
If the individual has seen an orthodontist, there may be a very
good possibility of obtaining study models.
4. Photographs.
a. Many dentists are obtaining photographs of their patient’s
teeth as a means of documenting their dental condition.
b. Family snapshots, graduation, wedding or military pictures
may reveal a “smiling photograph.” Teeth may be visible and
disclose a missing, discolored, broken or chipped tooth.
5. If partial dentures or full dentures are involved, request that all
additional sets of dentures be recovered. A bite splint, mouth
guard or orthodontic retainer should also be recovered.
B. Recover all ante mortem records available, (including charts, x-rays,
photographs and study models). X-rays that may be requested are
bite-wing x-rays, periapical x-rays, a full mouth series of x-rays
(consists of periapical and bite-wing x-rays), a Panoramic x-ray or a
lateral skull x-ray.
155

22 - Dental Identification of Human Remains
C. How to locate the treating dentist, to obtain the ante mortem dental
records.
156
1. Inquire of family, friends and co-workers what dental clinic or
dentist treated the individual.
2. Inquire if the individual was treated or consulted by a dental
specialist (oral surgeon, orthodontist, etc.).
3. Inquire if the individual had a dental insurance plan, a union
dental plan, medical assistance or welfare benefits. This could
lead to a dentist’s name.
4. Examine military and prison records.
5. Examine medical records to see if the physician has a record of
the name of the dentist.
6. In a small community, it may be necessary to contact all the
dentists and inquire if they have treated this individual.
IV. Comparison of the Ante Mortem and Post-mortem
Records and X-rays
A. The more areas of alterations or problems with the teeth, the greater
the potential for a positive identification. With a perfect set of teeth
(no decay, no fillings or restorations and a good occlusion or bite), or
if there are minimal post mortem or ante mortem remains for
examination, an identification may be more difficult. It may still be
accomplished, however, meticulous attention needs to be paid to all
minute detail. Excellent ante mortem and post-mortem x-rays are
always preferable.
B. A positive identification must bear no unexplainable inconsistencies.
Any differences in the ante mortem and post-mortem records must be
thoroughly and adequately explained.
C. There is no specific number of characteristics needed for a positive
identification. Occasionally, a single tooth or jaw fragment may
possess the degree of specificity necessary to establish a positive
identification. The final decision as to the degree of credibility of the
dental identification rests with the judgement and experience of the
Forensic Odontologist.

Dental Identification of Human Remains - 22
D. Occasionally, the post-mortem records are only consistent with the
ante mortem records, and a positive identification cannot be effected
based on the dental information alone. However, a dental finding of
“consistent” may be a significant contribution. It may be used in
combination with other modes of identification (fingerprints,
personal effects, anthropological or other medical findings, serology,
etc.), and serve as corroborating evidence and increase the credibility
of the final identification.
157

158
Notes

23
Bite Marks
________________________________________________
Human bite marks have played a significant role in criminal
investigation in the past. A distinctly registered bite has the potential of
linking the assailant when properly documented and analyzed by a
qualified forensic Odontologist.
This form of blunt force trauma, commonly seen on the skin of
victims of assault, has also been found on inanimate objects, e.g., food,
leather, metal and soap. Occasionally the victim, as a defense, bites the
assailant. Another rare occurrence to consider is that the bite is self
inflicted. If this is a possibility because of the anatomic location,
consideration should be given to documenting the dentition of the victim.
Bite marks may be present as bruises, abrasions, indentations or
lacerations. Most have an overall ovoid appearance. This ovoid area is
generally made up of two or more arcs of rectangular patterns made by
the incisal edges of individual teeth. Occasionally, only one arch registers
and it is not uncommon to find multiple, superimposed bites. It is the
registration of the size, shape, individual position and other specific
features which make this patterned evidence unique and capable, in many
instances of linking the perpetrator to the crime (e.g., State vs. Stinson,
[134 Wis 2d 224, 397 NW 2d 136]).
Since the media in whom the bite marks are registered is often subject
to dehydration and subsequent distortion, prompt preservation of this
type of evidence is necessary and is best handled, because of the
complexity of the procedure, by a qualified expert.
The most common means of documenting the bite patterns is by
scaled photography (see Chapter 4 - Photography). Because of the
specific requirements to produce workable evidence and because of the
infrequency with which agencies encounter this type of evidence, it is
recommended that technical assistance be requested from the Imaging
Unit of the Laboratory.
159

23 - Bite marks
Swab the area surrounding the bite mark to collect potential traces
of the assailant’s saliva. This must be done prior to washing, casting, or
other procedures which might remove the saliva or deposit another
material which interferes with testing. See the chapter on Autopsy for
further information on collection procedures.
160
Fig. 23-1
Bite mark on homicide victim.
Fig. 23-2
Bite mark on homicide victim.

Bite marks - 23
Those specimens exhibiting indentations (three dimensional characteristics)
can be further documented by casting the area with an
impression material. This too, can be a difficult procedure for someone
not trained in taking fine, detailed impressions. Technical assistance for
this procedure is available and referral of a qualified expert can be
obtained from the Laboratory. Since the State of Wisconsin does not
employ forensic experts in this field, agencies should be aware that there
is a nominal fee for this service.
A further step in the preservation of this evidence, if possible, is to
have the pathologist conducting the autopsy remove the area of the bite
by en bloc dissection and preserve it in formalin. Normal anatomic
contour of the tissue is maintained by attaching a custom-made acrylic
ring and suturing and fixing the tissue to the ring with cyanoacrylate
before it is removed. Technical advice is also available on this technique.
The second phase in the collection of this type of evidence comes
into play when the investigation has developed a suspect. It then becomes
necessary for a licensed forensic dentist to conduct a complete
odontologic work-up including an examination of the jaws, mouth and
teeth. This examination is documented by photography, impressions,
saliva sample and exemplars in wax of the biting edges of the teeth. To
be admissible as evidence, a trained forensic Odontologist should do this
procedure acting under a signed and witnessed informed consent from
the suspect, or a court order, or a search warrant.
The success in gathering, analysis and courtroom presentation of this
type of evidence will be dependent upon the training, skills and
experience of the examiner.
161

162
Notes

24
Sexual Offenses
__________________________________________________________
In all cases it is essential to have the victim(s) examined by a
medical professional as soon as possible after the assault and before the
affected areas (pubic area, vagina, rectum, etc.) or clothing are washed or
cleaned.
The Laboratory has made available a Sexual Assault Evidence
Collection Kit that can assist the attending medical professional in
properly collecting the specimens required by the Laboratory. This kit can
be used to collect appropriate samples from both male and female sexual
assault victims and suspects. In the event that a kit is not used, the
procedure described below should be followed during the course of the
medical examination. The steps should be performed in the order in
which they are given.
I. Procedure for the Collection of Physical Evidence
by the Attending Medical Professional
Standard
1. Obtain necessary information from the patient.
2. Clothing. Have the patient undress while standing on a clean piece
of examination table paper. As each article of clothing is removed,
it should be placed in a new, clean paper bag. A separate paper bag
should be used for each article of clothing. See Section II for
additional instructions concerning the disposition of clothing
articles. Carefully fold the examination table paper and place it in
a separate paper bag as well. Seal, date and initial each paper bag
collected.
3. Pubic hair combings. Place a piece of paper under the pubic
region of the patient and comb through the entire pubic area to
dislodge any foreign hairs or other material that may be present.
Place the used comb onto the paper and fold the paper around the
comb being careful not to lose any of the dislodged evidence. Place
the wrapped comb in a clean envelope. Seal and label with the
proper information.

24 - Sexual Offenses
4. Vaginal swabs (four) and smear (one). Using four swabs simultaneously,
thoroughly swab the vaginal vault making sure to coat
all four (4) swabs completely. Immediately prepare one smear
using all four swabs simultaneously. Allow swabs (4) and smear
(1) to thoroughly Air Dry. Package the dried swabs in a clean
properly labeled paper envelope, and seal. Package the dried
smear in a clean slide mailer and seal the mailer to prevent opening
during transit. Package the mailer in a clean properly labeled
paper envelope, and seal.
5. Cervical swabs (two) and smear (one). Using two (2) swabs
simultaneously, thoroughly swab the cervix. Immediately prepare
one smear using both swabs simultaneously. Allow swabs (2) and
smear (1) to thoroughly Air Dry. Package the dried swabs in a
clean properly labeled paper envelope, and seal. Package the dried
smear in a clean slide mailer and seal the mailer to prevent opening
during transit. Package the mailer in a clean properly labeled paper
envelope, and seal.
6. Rectal swabs (two) and smear (one). (Collect only if rectal assault
occurred) Using two (2) swabs simultaneously, thoroughly swab the
rectal canal. Immediately prepare a smear using both swabs simultaneously.
Allow swabs (2) and smear (1) to thoroughly Air Dry.
Package the dried swabs in a clean properly labeled paper
envelope and seal. Package the dried smear in a clean slide mailer
and seal the mailer to prevent opening during transit. Package the
mailer in a clean properly labeled paper envelope, and seal.
7. Oral swabs (two) and smear (one). (Collect only if oral-genital contact
occurred) Using two (2) swabs simultaneously, thoroughly swab the
oral cavity, especially the area between the patient's cheek and
gums. Immediately prepare a smear using both swabs simultaneously.
Allow swabs and smear to thoroughly Air Dry. Package the
dried swabs in a clean properly labeled paper envelope, and seal.
Package the dried smear in a clean slide mailer and seal the mailer
to prevent opening during transit. Package the mailer in a clean
properly labeled paper envelope, and seal. Unwaxed dental floss
can be used for the areas between the teeth. Have the patient floss
his/her own teeth using a minimum amount of floss. Have patient
place floss in envelope with swabs.
8. Pubic hair standards. Obtain at least twenty hairs by cutting
them at the skin surface. The hairs should be collected from
various areas within the pubic region. Place the hairs in a clean
properly labeled paper envelope, and seal. The victim and suspect
164

Sexual Offenses - 24
may collect their own pubic hair standard as long as they follow
the procedure described above and are supervised by medical
personnel.
9. Penile swab (one). Collect from suspect(s) and/or male victim(s)
if he/they has/have not bathed since the alleged assault. Using a
single sterile swab from your hospital stock, moisten with sterile
water and thoroughly swab the external area of the entire penis.
Allow the swab to Air Dry. Package the swab in a clean properly
labeled paper envelope, and seal.
10. Buccal Cell Standard. Have the person providing the same rinse
his or her mouth with water before collecting the sample. Using
one swab, place the swab in solid contact with the inner cheek and
gum surface during sampling. Gently move the cotton tip in and
out five or six times, rotating the swab while rubbing. Repeat this
process with a second swab on the other inner cheek and gum
surface. Allow swabs to thoroughly Air Dry. Package the swabs in
a clean properly labeled paper envelope, and seal. DO NOT
COLLECT FROM THE TEETH OR ALONG THE EDGES OF
THE TEETH.
Miscellaneous
11. Fingernail scraping (if indicated). If there is reason to believe
some evidence may exist under the patient's fingernails such as
blood, skin, hair, fibers, etc., then the fingernail should be gently
scraped with a wood applicator stick or toothpick into a clean
white paper envelope. Alternatively, the fingernail can be clipped
and the clippings placed into a clean white paper envelope.
Properly label and seal each envelope. Each hand should be done
separately.
Swabbings - Fingernail swabbings can be used if the fingernails
are short. Use one swab for each set of nails, moisten the swab
with sterile water and thoroughly swab the fingernails. Allow the
swab to thoroughly Air Dry. Package the swabs in a clean properly
labeled paper envelope, and seal.
12. Finger(s) swab (one). For suspects only. If the victim was
digitally assaulted, the suspect's finger(s) should be swabbed with
a sterile swab that has been moistened with sterile water. Allow
swab(s) to thoroughly Air Dry. Package the dried swab(s) in a
clean properly labeled paper envelope, and seal.
165

24 - Sexual Offenses
13. Bite marks. The first step in the processing of bite marks is to photographically
document the impression. The photography is
critical and the specific method is described in Chapter 4 -
Photography.
166
After the bite mark is thoroughly documented photographically,
the impression should be swabbed with a sterile swab moistened
with sterile water to collect any potential traces of the assailant's
saliva. Reswab the impression using a second sterile dry swab.
Allow the swabs to thoroughly Air Dry. Package in a clean
properly labeled paper envelope, and seal.
14. Toxicology specimens (with the permission of the patient). Blood
alcohol samples must be drawn by a licensed physician, nurse, or
medical technician using an antiseptic skin towelette (e.g.,
Zephiran ® or benzalkonium chloride) to clean the site where the
blood sample will be drawn. If a blood alcohol or drug screen is
required, collect 10 mL in a gray-stoppered (sodium fluoride and
potassium oxalate) blood collection tube, either from hospital
stock or an OWI kit. Drugs are detectible in urine for a longer
period of time than in blood, therefore it is strongly suggested to
collect urine if a sexual assault is suspected. See Chapter 26 -
Toxicology.
All liquid blood and urine samples must be refrigerated.
II. Other Relevant Physical Evidence
The clothing of the victim and suspect(s) is the next most
important type of evidence. Articles of clothing worn by the victim (and
suspect, if possible) should be submitted to the Laboratory for
examination, as there may be seminal stains, blood stains, foreign hairs
and fibers or other trace evidence adhering to the clothing. In addition,
items at the crime scene may provide important evidence that associates
either the victim, the suspect or both to the scene.
A. Procedure for clothing:
1. Clothing of the victim must be kept separate from that of
the suspect at all times.
2. Clothing worn at the time of or immediately after the
offense must be recovered and preserved. This includes
undergarments, handkerchiefs, sanitary napkins and/or

Sexual Offenses - 24
tampons (only if used during or after the offense).
3. Garments should be handled as little as possible to avoid
the loss of trace evidence. Package as described in
Chapter 18 - Clothing and Fabrics.
B. Processing the scene:
1. Check for fingerprints. See Chapter 9 - Latent and Inked
Prints.
2. Recover articles such as handkerchiefs, rags, tissues,
etc., which may have been used as a wipe after
ejaculation. Label, package, and seal. See Chapter 18 -
Clothing and Fabrics.
3. Recover and submit any articles that may have become
stained during the offense or might have foreign hairs
present (bedding, rugs, sofa cushions, etc.). Label,
package, and seal. See Chapter 18 - Clothing and
Fabrics.
III. Unusual Sexual Offenses
When unusual situations are encountered, contact the Laboratory
for specific instructions for evidence collection.
IV. Condoms
When condoms are recovered in suspected sexual assault cases,
they should be placed in a glass specimen jar and frozen until submitted
to the Crime Laboratory.
167

24 - Sexual Offenses
168
Fig. 24-1
A pre-packaged kit is useful for recovering samples from sexual offense victims.
Its routine use should be considered in any homicide involving a female victim,
even if a sexual assault is not immediately suspected. A Sexual Assault Evidence
Collection Kit is available from the State Crime Laboratories in Madison and
Wausau (address on p. iii, Introduction). There is a nominal charge for the kit.

25
Hairs and Fibers
__________________________________________________________
In crimes where personal contact has occurred, especially if there was
physical force, hair and fibers are frequently found as evidence. A cross
transfer of hair and/or fibers between a victim and an assailant can
provide supportive evidence of an association. In addition, hair recovered
from the scene may serve to associate an individual with the scene. Fibers
recovered from the clothing of the victim, suspect and crime scene can be
compared to known textile materials to determine possible sources of
origin.
If a hair is determined to be of human origin and is deemed probative
to a case, DNA analyses may be performed on the root (if present) of the
hair. If DNA is obtained from a questioned hair root, this DNA can be
compared to DNA from a standard blood sample from an individual.
Identification may be the result.
Note: Another form of DNA analysis may be performed on the hair
shaft (if the root is absent). Please contact the Crime Laboratory for
information regarding this analysis.
I. Collection of Hair and Fiber Standards
It is necessary to obtain standard hair and fiber samples from all
possible sources (suspect, victim and scene) for comparison with
questioned hairs and fibers.
DNA analysis on hair roots has replaced microscopic hair
comparisons. Pubic and head hair standards are still necessary for
determining which foreign, questioned hairs may be subjected to DNA
analysis. Due to the ease of head hair transfer and potential limited
probative value, DNA analysis on hairs will be limited.
169

25 - Hairs and Fibers
A. Head hair standards. Obtain at least fifty (50) head hairs by cutting
them at the skin surface. These hairs should be collected from various
areas of the head such as the crown, sides, front and back to assure
that all shades of color and texture have been adequately sampled.
The quantity of hairs obtained from a deceased individual should be
doubled and the hairs should be pulled. Place the hairs in a clean
properly labeled envelope, and seal.
B. Pubic hair standards. Obtain at least twenty (20) pubic hairs by
cutting them at the skin surface. The hairs should be collected from
various areas within the pubic region. If this is a deceased individual,
double the number of hairs to be collected and pull them. Place the
hairs in a clean properly labeled envelope, and seal.
C. Known fibers should be obtained from all possible sources (clothing,
drapes, rugs, etc.).
170
1. Submit the suspected source in total if possible. Place the source
in a clean properly labeled paper bag, and seal. (See Chapter 18,
Clothing and Fabrics.)
2. If it is not feasible to submit the source in total, a sufficient
quantity should be taken to ensure that each color and kind of
fiber involved has been sampled. Place the fibers in a clean
properly labeled envelope or glass jar, and seal. (See Chapter 18,
Clothing and Fabrics.)
II. Collection of Questioned Hair and Fibers
A. Pubic hair combings. (usually collected in sexual assault cases and
from homicide victims).
Place a piece of paper under the pubic region of the individual and
comb through the entire pubic area to dislodge any foreign hairs or
other material that may be present. Place the used comb onto the
paper and fold the paper around the comb being careful not to lose
any of the dislodged evidence. Place the wrapped comb in a clean
properly labeled envelope, and seal.
B. Other Recovered Questioned Hairs and Fibers. Separately package
the hairs and fibers collected from different persons and different
locations.

Hairs and Fibers - 25
1. When the amount of evidence is very small, extreme care should
be exercised so that the material is not contaminated or
inadvertently lost.
2. The hair or fiber should be placed on a piece of clean white paper
and the paper should be tightly folded around the hair or fiber.
Place the paper packet in a clean properly labeled envelope or
glass jar, and seal.
171

172
Notes

26
Toxicology
________________________________________________
During investigations where there is cause to believe that the
subject may have been under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs,
efforts should be made to obtain blood and/or urine samples for
toxicological analysis. These results can be helpful in determining
whether or not an individual was under the influence of drugs and/or
alcohol. Toxicology results on autopsy cases are oftentimes crucial in
determining the cause and mode of death (see Chapter 20 - Autopsy).
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
I. Collection of Specimens
Blood and/or urine is analyzed to determine the presence or absence
of alcohol and/or drugs in an individual. In cases where it is necessary to
determine the effect of alcohol and/or drugs on the individual, blood is
the specimen of choice. Drugs are detectible in urine for a longer period
of time than in blood, therefore it is strongly suggested to collect urine if
a sexual assault is suspected.
Many therapeutic drugs prescribed by physicians taken in
combination with small, non-intoxicating amounts of alcohol may
produce the perceptual and behavioral disturbances associated with
alcohol intoxication. Subjects who exhibit intoxication by alcohol and
have undergone breath alcohol tests with a low alcohol result should be
suspected of drug use. Caution: Some medical conditions may have
similar signs as inebriation. In these cases it is important to obtain both
blood and urine (subject to legal restrictions) for alcohol and drug
analyses following the procedures described below. Observations
regarding the subject's behavior and apparent condition should be
recorded by the law enforcement officer or physician to document the
individual's behavior.
173

26 - Toxicology
Urine samples have a number of advantages over blood samples.
Besides the fact that drugs can be detected for a longer period of time in
urine, for some drugs (e.g., LSD), urine may be the only specimen where
the drug is in high enough concentration to be positively identified by
current methods. Secondly, urine collection does not require trained
personnel to collect. And finally, urine is not considered biohazardous
unless it has blood in it. The main disadvantage to urine is that drug
levels in urine cannot be used to judge impairment in the individual
except in the controlled collection procedure used for urine alcohol
determinations.
Twenty milliliters (2 tubes) of blood should be collected in tubes
containing sodium fluoride and potassium oxalate as preservative and
anticoagulant. This is most easily accomplished by using commercially
available grey-top blood tubes. Gently mix the tubes by inversion, seal
and label the blood collection tubes with the date and time the sample
was drawn, the person who drew the sample and the subject's name. The
tubes should be sealed by placing sealing tape over the top of the rubber
cap and wrapping the tube label around the ends of the sealing tape.
Blood alcohol samples must be drawn by a licensed physician,
nurse, or medical technician using an antiseptic skin towelette (e.g.,
Zephiran ® or benzalkonium chloride) to clean the site where the blood
sample will be drawn.
Urine samples should be collected in a plastic or glass screw-top jar
of the type used by hospitals for urine collection. Be sure the lid is tightly
secured and then seal and label the urine container with the date and time
the sample was collected, the subject's name and the name of the
authority witnessing the sample collection. Place the urine sample in a
ZipLoc ® -type bag sealed to retain any possible leaks. Collection of a
urine sample must be witnessed by an authority since the subject could
dilute the urine sample with water from the tap or toilet. This
inconvenience can be avoided if colored toilet water is used and all other
water sources are unavailable in the collection room.
174
Both blood and urine samples should be refrigerated until analysis.
If victim or suspect is deceased, a complete autopsy should be
performed (see Chapter 20 - Autopsy), at which time tissue and other
specimens should be removed and packaged. These specimens should
include:

Toxicology - 26
1. Blood. Collect at least 20 mL (two grey-top tubes). If prescription
drugs are suspected, blood from a peripheral site should be
collected, usually from the femoral vein. One grey-top blood
tube is sufficient for this purpose if cardiac blood has already
been collected.
2. Urine. Collect entire contents of the bladder in a glass jar. If urine
volume is less than 15 mL or is unavailable, collect a kidney
sample (100 grams in a glass jar).
3. Stomach contents. Collect the entire contents, or measured
portion of the stomach contents in a glass jar. If only a portion of
the stomach contents is submitted, mark what percentage is
submitted, e. g. “1/2 of total contents submitted,” on the label.
4. Liver. At least 100 grams in glass jar (approximately 3-4 oz.).
5. Hair. Collect a large sample (See Chapter 25, Hairs and Fibers).
6. Eye fluid (vitreous humor). 1 mL in a grey-top blood tube.
7. Bile. Collect 5 mL in a grey-top blood tube.
If possible, collect all ante mortem blood and urine samples drawn
by emergency personnel before death.
In general, keep any toxicology specimens refrigerated until
analysis and, if the specimens are to be sent through the mail, follow the
U. S. Postal Service laws relating to shipment of biohazardous evidence.
Of special importance is that blood samples sent through the mail should
carry a “biohazard” sticker on the outside of the box to alert the couriers
of the potential hazard inside, should be double packaged, should be
wrapped in enough absorbent material to absorb three times the amount
of fluid sent, and must be sent by First-Class, Priority, or Express Mail.
For more information see U. S. Postal Service, Domestic Mail Manual,
Exhibits 124. 383 and 124. 385a.
175

26 - Toxicology
II. Toxicology Testing: Routine and Special Requests
Toxicology testing can be as routine as a single blood alcohol test
or as complex as determining levels of a half dozen drugs and their
metabolites in a single sample. The level of testing depends on the case.
A couple of different groups of tests are usually sufficient. Toxicology
tests available are:
Blood alcohol only
Felony operating while intoxicated cases (OWI), crimes of violence such
as domestic abuse, reckless use and endangering safety. Additionally
probation and parole violations where the initial charge is a felony will
be accepted. Please note for the above listed cases, if the alcohol level is
over 0.100 grams per 100 milliliters, no further analysis will be
conducted.
Blood alcohol and drug screen
Includes alcohol analysis and testing for the following drugs/drug
classes:
Controlled Substances Group:
Cocaine/cocaine metabolite
Opiates (codeine, morphine, heroin, etc.)
Amphetamine/methamphetamine
Marijuana/marijuana metabolites
Benzodiazepines (Valium ® group)
Barbiturates
Phencyclidine (PCP)
LSD
GHB
Basic drug screen (methadone, antihistamines, antidepressants, etc.)
Acid/neutral drug screen (phenytoin, meprobamate, etc.)
Special Requests
Includes but is not limited to:
Carbon monoxide
Cyanide
Heavy metals (arsenic, bismuth, antimony, and mercury)
Salicylates (aspirin)
Acetaminophen (Tylenol ® )
Please specify the type of testing requested on the transmittal sheet.
176

Toxicology - 26
III. Laboratory Choices:
Hygiene Laboratory verses Crime Laboratory
The State of Wisconsin has two independent FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY laboratory systems. One is the Wisconsin State Crime
Laboratory, part of the Wisconsin Department of Justice. The other is the
State Laboratory of Hygiene (SLH), part of the University of Wisconsin
- Madison. The following table will help you determine which state
toxicology laboratory to use.
By statute, the Crime Laboratories may only accept cases where
there is a felony or potential felony charge associated with the evidence.
The submitter should select the correct Laboratory prior to
mailing. Valuable time is lost and chain of custody is extended when
specimens are sent to the wrong Laboratory.
Offense
Driving Under the
Influence (DUI)
Impaired by alcohol
and/or by other drugs
including controlled
substances
Death
Investigations
Probation and
Parole Violations
Crimes of Violence
Domestic Abuse
Reckless Use
Endangering Safety
State Laboratory
of Hygiene
ALL OFFENCES
including
snowmobile,
motorboat, ATV,
great bodily harm,
vehicular homicide
Suicides, routine
death investigations
submitted by coroner
or medical examiner
only
Initial charge must be
a MISDEMEANOR
*FEE
NOT ACCEPTED
State Crime
Laboratory
ONLY IF FELONY
Vehicular homicide
and great bodily
harm are
ACCEPTED.
Death is suspicious.
Possible FELONY
charges
Initial charge must be
a FELONY
ACCEPTED
177

26 - Toxicology
The Crime Laboratory facilities for toxicology are located in
Madison and Milwaukee. The addresses are listed in the Introduction on
page iii.
The Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene (WSLH) is located at
2601 Agriculture Drive, P.O. Box 7996, Madison, WI 53707-7996,
(608) 224-6241
In addition to the state laboratories there are also independent
laboratories which are approved to analyze blood and urine specimens
for alcohol under Wisconsin Statute 343.305(6)(a). A list of all approved
laboratories can be obtained by calling the Department of Health and
Family Services, Division of Supportive Living, Clinical Laboratory
Unit at (608) 267-9862.
Please note for DUI cases, if the alcohol level is over 0.100 grams
per 100 milliliters, no further analyses will be conducted.
The State Crime Laboratory provides autopsy and sexual assault
kits for a fee. Consult the Crime Laboratoryto obtain these kits. The
WSLH provides blood and urine collection kits intended for use in
driving under the influence (DUI) related offenses free of charge. The
WSLH also provides blood and urine collection kits to coroners and
medical examiners for death investigations.
If the specimen is for the WSLH and you are using a WSLH kit,
simply tape the styrofoam box securely and attach the WSLH address
label provided. If the specimen is for the Crime Laboratory and you are
using a WSLH kit, please wrap the styrofoam box in brown paper or
place it in a mailing envelope and address it to the Madison or
Milwaukee Crime Laboratories. The Madison Crime Laboratory
Toxicology Unit also services the Wausau Crime Laboratory agencies.
If you have questions concerning the submission of evidence, call
the Crime Laboratories between the hours of 7:45 a.m. and 4:30 p.m.
Monday through Friday. The Madison Crime Laboratory can also be
reached during the evening and weekend hours by calling the TIME
CONTROL CENTER (608) 266-7633 and asking to speak with the
Crime Laboratory Field Response Team Leader. We seek to provide you
with the most effective and timely service possible. Please be assured of
our continued cooperation. Addresses and phone numbers of each lab are
listed before the table and on page iii.
178

27
Poisoning
________________________________________________
Some poisonings are readily recognized and present no problem in
detection. At times, however, poisoning symptoms resemble those of
natural illnesses, and the occurrence of the poisoning may be difficult to
detect. The investigator should always be alert for clues which may
suggest poisoning, whether it be intentional or accidental.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
Poisoning - Human
I. Procedure Relating to the Scene
Thoroughly search the immediate area for containers (medicine
bottle, drinking glass, spoon, hypodermic syringe, needles, aerosol
containers, etc.), taking care to preserve any fingerprints which may be on
the evidence. The last food items consumed should be considered
evidence in some poisonings.
II. Procedure Relating to Victim
A. Note any symptoms (vomiting, shivering, unconsciousness, unusual
color, or rigor mortis).
B. If victim is living, have a physician recover blood and urine
specimens. (See Chapter 6, Section I., C., Procedure for Collecting
Standard Blood Samples from Victims and Suspects.)
C. If victim is dead, a complete autopsy should be performed, at which
time tissue and other specimens should be removed and packaged.
These specimens should include:
179

27 - Poisoning
180
1. Blood. Collect at least 20 mL (two grey-top tubes). If prescription
drugs are suspected, blood from a peripheral site should be
collected, usually from the femoral vein. One grey-top blood
tube is sufficient for this purpose if cardiac blood has already
been collected.
2. Urine. Collect entire contents of the bladder in a glass jar. If urine
volume is less than 15 mL or is unavailable, collect a kidney
sample (100 grams in a glass jar).
3. Stomach contents. Collect the entire contents, or measured
portion of the stomach contents in a glass jar. If only a portion of
the stomach contents is submitted, mark what percentage is
submitted (e.g., 1/2 of total contents submitted) on the label.
4. Liver. At least 100 grams in glass jar (approximately 3-4 oz.).
5. Hair. Collect a large sample (See Chapter 25, Hairs and Fibers).
6. Ante mortem blood and urine. Collect all samples drawn by
emergency personnel before death.
7. Eye fluid (vitreous humor). 1 mL in a grey-top blood tube.
8. Bile. Collect 5 mL in a grey-top blood tube.
III. Procedure Relating to Supplementary Information
A. Record information from victim’s family or other sources:
1. Name, age, sex, and weight of victim.
2. Date and approximate time victim was last seen.
3. Type and quantity of substance thought to have been cause of
death, including statements made by victim which would point to
a particular poison.
4. Other drugs or medicines which the victim might have taken in
the three days prior to the onset of symptoms. Check the
medicine cabinet for possible medications.
5. If death was sudden, obtain details of last known food or meal.

Poisoning - 27
6. If the exact time of death is unknown, list date and time deceased
was found.
B. Record medical information as follows:
1. Victim’s medical history, including a complete list of all
medications used.
2. Attending physician’s observations and treatment of symptoms
exhibited by victim prior to death.
3. Copy of the autopsy report including the pathologist’s
observations and conclusions.
4. List all drugs administered in resuscitation attempts made by
emergency personnel.
Poisoning - Animal
Cases of animal poisoning may be submitted to the Laboratory if a
criminal offense is suspected and the results of the toxicological findings
could contribute to the completion of the investigation. Cases of
accidental animal poisoning should not be submitted to the Laboratory.
The Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Veterinary
Laboratories, Toxicology Laboratory in Madison can handle non-felony
poisonings of animals. Their telephone number is (608) 266-2465, fax:
(608) 267-0636.
It is essential that the investigating officer obtain as much data as
possible relative to the suspected offense. Suspected animal poisonings
frequently occur in cycles, and often a number of animals in the same
vicinity are stricken. Detailed information concerning the circumstances
preceding the death and accurate descriptions of the animal’s symptoms
may suggest the type of poison involved.
I. Procedure Relating to Animal Suspected of Being
Poisoned
A. If animal is living, recover the following specimens:
1. Vomitus.
181

27 - Poisoning
182
2. Blood. (with preservative) 50 mL
3. Urine. All possible
4. Suspected source of poison. (meat, bread, etc.)
B. If animal is dead, an autopsy should be performed and the following
specimens recovered:
1. Blood. (with preservative) 50 mL
2. Liver. 100 grams (approximately 3-4 oz.)
3. Kidney. 100 grams (approximately 3-4 oz.)
4. Stomach contents. Entire contents in a glass jar
5. Urine. Entire contents of bladder in a glass jar
II. Procedure Relating to Supplementary Information
A. Obtain a copy of the autopsy report, including the veterinarian’s
observations and conclusions.
B. Record the following information:
1. Name and address of the owner of the animal(s)
2. Number and kind of animals involved, and whether the animals
had been confined (tied, in a pen, etc.) or allowed to run at large
3. Reports of any similar complaints in the area
4. Description of symptoms exhibited by the animal prior to death
5. Reports of vermin eradication programs: if any, give date,
location, type of eradication used, and how applied

28
Drug Identification
________________________________________________
Forensic Scientists can detect and analyze controlled substances and
other dangerous drugs in plant materials, powders, syringes, packets,
capsules, tablets, cigarettes and many forms of paraphernalia. Common
sense should be used in transporting these items to the Laboratory for
analysis. For example, if the amount of evidence is very small, extreme
care should be exercised so that the material is not contaminated or
inadvertently lost. On the other hand, if the amount of evidence is very
large, the investigating officer should use some discretion and send in for
analysis only those items or amounts which are vital to the case. The
remaining items or material can be retained by the officer in case
additional testing is required at a later date. If small samples taken from
larger amounts of evidence are submitted for analysis, the following
minimum quantities are desirable for routine chemical testing: plant
material, about 5 grams; powders, at least 0. 5 gram; and tablets, capsules
or other dosage forms (such as LSD blotter acid), at least 5 dosage units
(preferably 10 to 20 dosage units for LSD).
To help discriminate between items which may or may not be of later
evidentiary value to the case, commercial field testing Pouch Kits have
been made available for purchase through a state contract. Although the
results of these tests, when performed by an officer in the field, are not
sufficient to serve at trial as definitive chemical analysis, they often will
suffice for probable cause at the preliminary hearing. In many instances,
they can be used to obtain search and arrest warrants. Since these tests
may have such significant value, extreme care should be taken to perform
these tests exactly as they are described in the instructions accompanying
each Pouch Kit.
With very small items it is also important not to use too much of the
sample in performing the test. In cases where quantities are severely
limited, never use more than 1/10 (10%) of the sample for the test. If
there is not enough material to run the test, omit it in favor of the
Laboratory’s more complete chemical analysis.
183

28 - Drug Identification
Also, do not send the plastic packets containing the results of field
tests to the Laboratory as evidence.
A note about syringes: do not attempt to perform a field test on the
contents of syringes. Because of the dangers of contracting bloodborne
diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis through accidental needle punctures,
syringes and syringe needles used for the administration of drugs should
not be handled unless absolutely necessary. Do not send these items to
the Laboratory unless they are vital to your case. If syringes, syringe
needles, razor blades or any other sharp items are to be submitted to the
Laboratory for analysis, be sure to handle them with extreme care and to
package them in puncture proof containers. Caution should also be
taken when packaging items which contain blood or body fluids. The
packaging of such items should follow the guidelines as recommended in
Chapter 26, Toxicology.
Drug tablets and capsules which are seized can frequently be
identified through the Product Identification Code stamped or printed on
their surfaces. The officer should consult reference books such as the
Physicians Desk Reference and the Ident-A-Drug Handbook to determine
if the evidence is likely to lead to controlled substances charges.
Alternate sources of information about marked tablets and capsules are
area pharmacists, local or regional poison control centers, or the
Laboratory. If the tablets are unidentifiable or a trial is scheduled, the
evidence should be submitted to the Laboratory for a chemical analysis.
Any labeled bottles containing drugs or prescriptions should also be
submitted, as they may save the chemist time by indicating the type of
drug involved.
184
Fig. 28-1
Examples of puncture-proof syringe containers. Make sure that syringes are
inserted in the correct direction, according to directions on the container.

Drugs in the Form of Plant Material
Drug Identification - 28
The most common plant material submitted to the Laboratory for
analysis is marijuana. Marijuana contains the controlled substance
tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly known as THC. Upon seizing the
evidence, the officer should perform a Duquenois-Levine field test on the
suspect plant material. A positive field test should be sufficient for
probable cause at a preliminary hearing. Once a trial is scheduled, the
dried plant material should be submitted to the Laboratory for a chemical
analysis. Associated paraphernalia such as pipes, cigarette papers, and
roaches often found with suspected plant material should only be
submitted to the Laboratory if they are essential to the case.
Other plant materials containing controlled substances may also be
encountered. Examples are psilocybe mushrooms, peyote (mescaline) or
opium poppies. Plant material of this nature may be submitted to the
Laboratory for analysis anytime after the plant material has been
thoroughly dried.
Fresh plant material, which is packaged in airtight containers such as
plastic bags, rots fairly rapidly like wet silage, forming a soft, watery
mass with a foul pungent odor. In addition, the material usually becomes
moldy. This moldy plant material is a potential health risk, demanding
special precautions.
The time to dry plant material is immediately upon confiscation.
The larger the amount, the more important this is and the longer this may
take. There are no significant health risks involved with handling fresh or
freshly dried plant material, but problems compound rapidly the longer
the material sits in a wet state. If your agency confiscates fresh plant
material, the following should be done:
1. Air dry the material in a well-ventilated, secure area until
thoroughly dry.
2. After obtaining the weight of the evidence, take representative
samples of the dried plant material from each batch (container,
package, etc.) and seal them for transmittal to the Laboratory. A
few grams of material from each item is sufficient for analysis.
3. Package the dried plant material in a sealed paper bag, if possible,
to further reduce the possibility of spoilage. Under such
conditions, plant material can be stored safely for many months.
185

28 - Drug Identification
Latent Prints on Packaging Materials
It is possible to conduct latent print examinations on drug packaging
materials. Latent prints which have been deposited on paper or other
porous materials are relatively stable over time and impervious to
destruction by being “wiped away.” However, prints which are deposited
on non-porous surfaces such as plastic bags, glossy paper, etc., are quite
fragile. Prints on non-porous materials can deteriorate over a relatively
short period of time and be easily obliterated or smeared by handling
even by a gloved hand. Unfortunately, many drug items are packaged in
non-porous materials, thus making it difficult to obtain prints.
When it is anticipated that latent print examination will be
requested, drug items should be separated from the original
packaging materials when it is reasonable to do so. The drug item
and its packaging should be sealed separately and submitted for
analysis. All persons handling the materials should wear gloves to
prevent depositing their own prints. Please contact the Laboratory if
you have any questions regarding the repackaging of evidence.
If such materials are submitted for fingerprint identification and drug
analyses, notify the Laboratory of such a request at the time the evidence
is submitted to the Laboratory.
Clandestine Drug Laboratories
Domestic clandestine drug laboratories range from crude makeshift
operations to highly sophisticated and technologically advanced
facilities, some of which are mobile. They can be set up anywhere and
are often found in private residences, motel and hotel rooms, house
trailers, houseboats, campgrounds and commercial establishments. Often
these laboratories are hidden in nondescript houses or barns in remote
rural areas. Some of these facilities may contain sophisticated
surveillance equipment and may be booby-trapped. This may be done to
prevent intruders and law enforcement personnel from entering or to
destroy any evidence if the facility is discovered.
Extreme care and caution should be used whenever investigating
or processing a clandestine lab site. The substances used in the
production of controlled substances may be caustic, corrosive,
186

Drug Identification - 28
Fig. 28-2
Clandestine laboratories are usually set up in places designed to deflect
attention.
Fig. 28-3
Due to possible explosive chemical reactions involved in the clandestine
manufacture of controlled substances, only a DEA certified chemist,
knowledgeable in clandestine manufacturing, should interrupt any ongoing
chemical processes.
187

28 - Drug Identification
carcinogenic, poisonous, irritating, explosive, or flammable. Law
enforcement personnel engaged in clandestine drug laboratory investigations
and seizures should have specialized training in the investigation of
such laboratories, the appropriate health and safety procedures, and the
use of personal protective equipment. Clandestine drug laboratories may
also involve the removal and proper destruction of large quantities of
hazardous toxic chemicals. The disposal of these chemicals is strictly
regulated by state and federal environmental protection agencies. The
liability for the removal and disposal of these chemical hazards is often
the single largest cost-producing portion of any clandestine lab
investigation, a cost that most law enforcement agencies may not be able
to afford.
Therefore, any law enforcement agency that believes there is a
possible clandestine drug laboratory in their vicinity should first contact
their regional Division of Narcotics Enforcement (DNE) office for
assistance in the investigation.
Fig. 28-4
Short and long term toxic effects have been documented in individuals responding to
clandestine drug laboratories. Some solvents may be explosive. Once a site has been
secured, it should be vacated until qualified individuals respond to the scene.
188

Drug Identification - 28
Fig. 28-5
Cocaine is commonly sold in folded paper packets, often made of colorful
magazine paper. A razor blade is often used for “cutting a line” on a small mirror.
The powder is then inhaled (“snorted”) through the nostrils using glass, plastic,
metal, or paper tubes (rolled up currency is popular) or using tiny metal spoons.
Fig. 28-6
“Blotter Acid.” LSD is often encountered absorbed onto sheets of heavy blotter
paper, which may be perforated into small squares, and having a virtually infinite
number of fanciful designs printed on them.
189

28 - Drug Identification
190
Fig. 28-7
Crack, which is cocaine base, is commonly manufactured through a simple
chemical reaction utilizing sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). Chunks of crack,
called “rocks” are often sold in small “gem bags” or knotted plastic bag corners.
Crack is generally ingested by smoking.

Drug Identification - 28
Fig. 28-8
Marijuana and smoking devices. Whole marijuana leaves are pictured in the
lower right corner. At the bottom left is a sandwich bag filled with
approximately one ounce of dried marijuana. Below the whole leaves are several
hand-rolled “joints,” rolled using commercial cigarette papers. Behind are
several large metal and plastic “bongs” and an assortment of smaller metal,
plastic, and wood “pot pipes” and “hash pipes.”
191

28 - Drug Identification
192
Fig 28-9
Psilocybe mushrooms contain the hallucinogenic substance psilocybin .
Fig. 28-10
Methamphetamine can vary from white crystals called “ice” to tan or
brown chunky powder material referred to as “crystal” or “crank”.

29
Arson
________________________________________________
Many times it is difficult to ascertain whether a fire was accidental or
arson. This is especially true when simple ignition devices such as a
match and paper were used to start the fire. Frequently flammable liquids
such as gasoline, oil, fuel oil, charcoal lighter fluid, etc., are used as
accelerants. If used, and if the fire origin can be determined, it may be
possible to detect and classify accelerants. The Laboratory is equipped
with sensitive instruments capable of detecting and classifying trace
quantities of volatile hydrocarbons. Detection is not possible if the fire
completely consumes the accelerant or if the samples are not from the
fire’s origin. Because flammable liquids readily evaporate, great care
must be taken in the collection and packaging of fire debris suspected of
containing them. Containers of arson evidence need to be air tight to
prevent loss by evaporation, and possible contamination. Moisture is not
a problem. Do not air dry arson evidence.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
In considering whether or not a fire is a case of arson, review the
possible motives (financial gain, personal satisfaction, concealment of
another crime, revenge, or pyromania). Following is a brief general
procedural guide for use in investigation of suspected arson cases.
I. Procedure at Crime Scene
A. Note (and photograph to scale whenever applicable):
1. Condition of all locks, doors, windows. If entry has been forced,
see Chapter 12, Building Materials, and Chapter 11, Burglary.
2. Origin of fire (one or many sites?).
3. Identification of igniting material (foreign to the scene?).
193

29 - Arson
194
4. Presence of flammable liquids by:
a. Odor of petroleum products, paint solvents, alcohol, etc.
b. Stains on floor or other material
c. Evidence of explosions not due to heat (shattered glass)
d. Unusual burning patterns (splashed areas or trailers)
e. Rapid spread of fire not explainable by structure, weather, or
other conditions
f. Smoke not explainable by building materials
g. Characteristic heavy soot
h. Unusual flame coloration
5. Evidence of another crime which the fire might conceal (items
stolen, evidence of violence).
6. Recent similar fires in the vicinity (date, time, location, intended
victim).
B. Collect in separate, airtight containers (e.g., one-pint through fivegallon
new, unused, unlined metal paint cans):
1. All igniting devices (fuses, candles, wicks, trailers, rags, etc.).
2. Charred debris and related material from the origin where the
accelerant was placed (container should be one-half to threequarters
full).
3. Samples of plaster, upholstery, wood or other substances that may
have been penetrated by flammable liquids. Any fresh stains
should be collected.
4. Samples of soil (two to three quarts) which may have been
saturated by flammable fluids (container should be three-quarters
full).
5. Any trace evidence left by the arsonist such as hair, clothing,
fibers, blood stains, fingerprints, etc. (For proper collection
procedure see chapter pertaining to that specific type of
evidence.)
6. Any and all tools or pieces of metal at the scene (airtight
container not necessary).
7. Liquids should be collected in airtight clean glass bottles sealed
with Teflon ® -lined caps or absorbed onto a clean cloth and placed
in an airtight container.

Arson - 29
8. Samples of carpeting and/or padding collected from around the
point of origin in vehicles as well as buildings readily absorb
flammable liquids. A sample of uncontaminated carpeting
and/ or padding must be collected separately and
submitted for comparison purposes.
9. When fire debris consists of carpeting, cloth, plastics,
polymers, synthetic, or any material, uncontaminated known
samples must be collected. Vapors from these kinds of
substances can be detected in the Laboratory as easily as
vapors from flammable liquids. Control samples allow the
scientist to distinguish between natural or fire produced
artifacts and flammable liquids.
C. If a container is found that has a flammable label on it and is
suspected of being involved in the fire, a container of the same
labeling should be purchased from an area store and submitted to
the Laboratory. If unavailable, send in the description of the
flammable contents from the label.
D. In cases involving large volumes of flammable liquids or
suspected flammable liquids, contact the Laboratory for the proper
procedures in handling and packaging.
Fig. 29-1
New, clean paint cans make ideal containers for preserving evidence
suspected of containing accelerants. Cans are available from paint
stores or wholesalers.
195

29 - Arson
II. Suspects
Incidental to arrest, with consent, with a search warrant, or a with
combination of the above, obtain the following:
196
A. Fuels, flammable solvents, tools, or starting devices in the
suspect’s car and home. Submit fire starting devices only after
they have been deactivated and properly packaged.
B. Clothing worn at the time of the crime, including shoes
(packaged in an airtight container).
C. Any stains on car interior if it is possible the car may have been
involved in transporting the suspect or incendiary materials to or
from the crime scene.
D. Any trace evidence (paint, glass, soil, other building materials)
which might relate the suspect to the scene, found on suspect’s
clothing or in suspect’s car or home.
Fig. 29-2
Char pattern typical of the use of accelerants. The area where the accelerant is in contact
burns hotter and therefore leaves a char pattern that is different from surrounding areas.
Door propped open, holes chopped in floors, “trailer” used to direct the fire from one
area to another, etc., are all reasons to suspect that a fire is due to arson.

30
Explosives, Bombs,
Fireworks
________________________________________________
Explosives and Bombs
When the explosion is the result of a criminal act, a very careful and
methodical search of the scene will frequently reveal evidence indicating
the type of explosive involved; further, the search may reveal fragments
or parts of either the container, the fuse mechanism, or a time delay
device. The scene should be roped off, guarded, and all nonessential
personnel evacuated from the area. The Laboratory, upon request, will
assist the law enforcement agencies in properly processing the scene.
In those instances where suspected explosives or explosive devices
are encountered, it is suggested that no attempt be made to move or
neutralize the explosive or device. A local bomb squad, the federal
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) or the nearest Explosive
Ordinance Disposal (EOD) unit should be contacted by telephone and
assistance requested. In Wisconsin, ATF can be contacted at (414) 297-
3937; EOD is located at Fort McCoy, telephone (608) 388-3315. Both
numbers are answered 24 hours a day.
Because of the danger and complexity involved, no attempt is being
made in this handbook to outline safe or recommended procedures to be
followed in the handling or neutralizing of suspected explosive materials.
The ATF or EOD should be informed by telephone as to the nature, type,
size, location, etc., of the suspected explosive substance, as well as any
other pertinent information. This will then permit the ATF or EOD to
make preliminary recommendations regarding precautionary measures
which can and should be taken. If explosives are encountered:
Do not attempt to neutralize or destroy explosives.
Do not turn on any electrical switches.
197

30 - Explosives, Bombs, Fireworks
198
Do not walk or step in any liquid or suspected explosive material.
Do not smoke or use matches in area.
Do not move any objects.
If a suspected bomb or package foreign to scene is encountered:
Do not move, turn over, or disturb package or suspected bomb.
Do not immerse in any liquid.
Evacuate building and immediate area.
Do not pick up or handle any detonators or explosives.
Do not breath any vapors which may be present. Nitroglycerine may
cause a very severe headache.
DO NOT transport suspected explosive devices or bombs to the
Laboratory.
CAUTION: Electric blasting caps may be detonated by police radio
transmission.
Fig 30-1
Although the destruction caused by a bomb is great, the pieces of the device which survive
are surprising. Investigators should be alert to the investigative leads such debris can
provide.

Fireworks
Explosives, Bombs, Fireworks - 30
The current law regulating the manufacture, possession, sale and use
of fireworks is contained in Wisconsin Statutes §167.10. By definition,
fireworks means anything manufactured, processed or packaged for
exploding, emitting sparks or combustion, which does not have another
common use. Certain devices are specifically excluded from regulation
as fireworks, unless controlled locally by city, village or town ordinance.
A list of excluded (non-permit) devices is contained in Wisconsin
Statutes §167.10. All other devices require a permit for their possession
and use.
199

200
Notes

31
Soils and Sand
________________________________________________
Sand or soil is encountered in many types of investigations and
should not be overlooked by the investigating officer. The following
items frequently have soil related to the crime scene adhering to their
surfaces: footwear, clothing, tool containers, vehicle operating pedals,
under-carriages, or wheel wells. Soil found on the floor of a vehicle may
also become valuable evidence.
Most soil adhering to such objects is representative of the upper onefourth
inch of surface soil from which it originated and may be associated
with its source if proper knowns are recovered.
Caution: Observe laws relating to the collection of evidence.
I. Procedure
A. Photograph impressions (tire, footwear, etc.) that have patterns
containing discernible class and/or individual characteristics.
(See Chapter 4, Photography.)
B. Do not recover soil samples until proper photographs and casts
have been made. (See Chapter 8, Casts.)
C. Obtain samples consisting of three (3) tablespoonfuls of soil
from the top 1/4" of soil from within the impression. Collect a
soil sample from each impression that has a different color or
texture (dirt, clay, sand, etc.).
D. The tablespoon should be cleaned after each area has been
sampled to avoid cross-contamination of samples.
E. The soil samples should be recovered using a systematic method.
F. Prepare a diagram of the area showing the point from which each
201

31 - Soils and Sand
202
Fig 31-1
Example of a soil sample diagram
sample was recovered and submit copy of diagram. On the
diagram, show distance and direction of each sample recovered.
The diagram should be oriented with fixed objects in the area
such as buildings, utility pole, etc. (See Fig. 31-1.)
G. If soil samples can be immediately transported to the Laboratory,
put samples in individual clean glass containers and seal.

Soils and Sand - 31
H. If samples cannot be transported to the Laboratory immediately,
to prevent the growth of mold, spread the samples on separate
sheets of clean paper to air dry for at least 24 hours. When dry,
package and seal. (See Chapter 6, Body Fluid Stains and
Standards.) Do not mix or contaminate samples.
I. If suspect shoes have been recovered and soil is present on the
shoes, recover soil sample from the area of the footwear
impression that corresponds to the location of the soil on
recovered shoes. Example: clump of soil adhering to arch of
shoe.
J. When excavating grave sites, remember soil could be adhering to
the tools used by the suspects or their clothing. Therefore, a core
sample should be taken from as close to the grave as possible and
to a depth equal or greater than the grave itself. The core sample
should be kept intact and packaged so the layer structure is not
altered or damaged during drying, handling or shipping.
203

204
Notes

32
Vehicles
________________________________________________
The Laboratory accepts cases involving automobile accidents which
have resulted in injury or death and where criminal negligence is
suspected. Vehicles involved in accidents of this type should be
immediately impounded. Where skid damage on the vehicle’s tires may
indicate related important conditions prior to or at the time of impact, the
vehicle should be conveyed on a trailer to a storage facility. The
Laboratory also may accept vehicles involved with the commission of a
sexual assault or conveyance of a body. Contact your area Laboratory
before submitting the vehicle.
It is also very important that the submitting agency obtain proper
photographs of the scene, skid marks, damage to vehicles, impact
damage, etc. The Laboratory does not perform accident reconstruction or
determination of the condition of mechanical or electrical systems. These
types of analysis must be sought from another source.
Criminal Damage to Motor Vehicles and Engines
The perpetrators of criminal damage to motor vehicles may add a
foreign substance, such as emery dust or sand, to the vehicle engine or
transmission. Where internal damage of this type is suspected, a sample,
consisting of one pint of oil from the top and bottom of the oil pan of the
damaged engine, should be submitted. Any foreign residue found on top
of the engine in the carburetor, or near the oil spout should also be
submitted. It is important that as much sediment as possible be obtained
from the oil pan or gear box. In cases involving addition of sugar or other
materials to gasoline, it is important to submit at least one pint of gasoline
from the tank. Because sugar has a low solubility in gasoline, it is
imperative that the intact fuel filter as well as a sample of the sediment
or condensation (water) in the bottom of the gasoline tank be submitted.
Samples from fuel pump bowls should be avoided because they contain
sediments which interfere with tests. However, the sediment bowl may be
205

32 - Vehicles
removed so that a sample of gasoline may be pumped directly into the
sample container. Containers with rubber or waxed paper seals should
not be used, since they dissolve in petroleum products and give erroneous
test results. Pistons, bearings, gears, and scrapings from the combustion
chamber or rings may also be submitted. Samples of the radiator coolant
also may be examined for evidence of foreign substances when indicated.
206
Caution: It is unlawful to send flammable liquids via mail.
Stolen Vehicles
The Laboratory may be able to identify stolen vehicles which have
been repainted or stripped, or which have had the serial or manufacturing
numbers altered or replaced.
If a vehicle is suspected of having been repainted, it is possible to
analyze and photograph the paint layers as confirmatory evidence and to
establish the original factory color. See Chapter 16, Paints for the
recovery technique.
When an automobile has been stripped and the suspect parts are
found, the Laboratory may be able to physically match these to the
vehicle.
Stamped serial numbers may be removed by grinding or altered by
other methods. Frequently, they may be restored. When alteration of the
serial number is suspected, the object or part bearing the serial number
should be submitted.
For general technical information, contact the Laboratory or the
National Insurance Crime Bureau, Central Division, 10330 South
Roberts Road, Palos Hills, IL 60465, (847) 430-5100 (formerly, the
National Automobile Theft Bureau). In some cases, confidential, hidden
vehicle identification numbers may be present to assist in determining
authentic vehicle identification.
Hit-and-Run Investigations
In attempting accident reconstruction, the investigator should be
mindful that showing a relationship between materials or items recovered
from different locations is most important. Materials or items recovered
from different sources or at a later date that can be related to each other
constitutes very important evidence.

Vehicles - 32
Three primary sources should be considered: The accident scene,
vehicles, and victims.
I. Accident Scene
A. Initial Procedures:
1. Request ambulance personnel at scene to preserve blankets and
clothing which may contain trace evidence such as broken glass,
paint chips, metal parts, plastic, etc.
2. In vehicular accidents, an officer should be assigned to the
hospital to assist in the recovery of clothing and body fluids.
B. Protect scene from:
1. Additional accident damage
2. Bystanders
3. Theft from vehicles
C. Establish a written record:
1. Date
2. Time
3. Location
4. Description of incident
5. Weather conditions
6. Temperature
7. Road conditions
8. Victim’s location upon your arrival, his condition, and tentative
identification
9. If a description of the hit-and-run vehicle can be obtained,
immediately have dispatcher alert other officers in the
surrounding area. The vehicle’s description may be obtained
from eye witnesses or materials recovered at the scene.
207

32 - Vehicles
D. Attempt to locate the fleeing driver and/or vehicle.
E. Photograph the scene. See Chapter 4, Photography.
F. Diagram the scene:
208
1. Take measurements, using a metal tape or ruler.
2. Record location and identifying information with at least two
fixed objects (through triangulation), such as:
a. Street sign pole
b. Corner of a house (record address)
c. Utility pole number
d. Fire lane number
e. Fixed point on a bridge (corner, superstructure girder, etc.)
3. Include the date and time as well as your initials on the diagram.
At the top, indicate which direction is north.
4. Items recovered at the scene should be noted on the diagram with
description and location of each.
G. Recognition of potentially valuable materials:
1. Broken glass (headlights, mirrors, and windshield) or plastic
from scene or from victim’s clothing may be fracture matched
with remaining glass or plastic from suspect vehicle.
2. Broken or fractured pieces of metal (trim, antenna, or sheet metal
pieces) may also be fracture matched with section remaining on
vehicle.
3. Paint chips from scene or vehicle may be fracture matched with
suspect vehicle. Paint layer relationship may be valuable
evidence (see Figs. 16-1 and 16-2 in Chapter 16).
4. Dirt deposits recovered from road surface may be indicative of
approximate point of impact.
5. Physical impressions left on objects at the scene may indicate the
make of vehicle causing the impact. They should be properly
recorded and collected for possible comparison purposes at a
later date.

Vehicles - 32
6. Skid marks and three-dimensional and surface impressions
sometimes can be used to determine direction and speed. There
are limitations to the usefulness of skid marks, debris, and gouge
marks in establishing the exact point of impact. They will,
however, indicate the approximate location of the collision.
Broken parts found at the accident scene may bounce and roll;
therefore, reliable information as to exact point of impact may
not be able to be determined.
II. Victim
A. Living:
1. Obtain complete identifying data to include full name, date and
place of birth, permanent address, temporary address (if nonresident),
telephone number where he/she can be reached when
discharged from hospital.
2. Recover blankets used in conveying victim to hospital. Tag
blankets and place each in a separate paper bag. Air dry if wet or
blood stained. Avoid handling blankets any more than necessary,
to preclude loss of trace material.
3. Recover clothing worn by victim at time of accident. Note any
cutting or tearing of clothing by nurse, attending physician, or
other person rendering aid. Tag each item of clothing and place
in a separate clean paper bag. Air dry if wet or blood stained.
Avoid unnecessary handling of clothing to prevent loss of trace
material.
4. Collect body fluids:
a. Collect at least 5 mL of blood in a lavender-stoppered
(EDTA) blood collection tube, then print patient's name on
the blood tube label. Using a small syringe and needle, insert
needle through the rubber stopper of the liquid blood
standard tube (EDTA) then withdraw approximately 1 mL of
blood. Using a DNA Stain Collection Card, fill all four (4)
of the printed circles on the card with blood. Allow
bloodstains to thoroughly Air Dry, then write patient’s name
on the DNA Stain Collection Card. Package the Stain
Collection card in a clean properly labeled paper envelope,
and seal. Package the blood tube in a styrofoam shipping
container, label properly and seal. Store in refrigerator.
209

32 - Vehicles
210
Collect 20 mL (two tubes) of blood in gray-stoppered
(sodium flouride) blood collection tubes for toxicological
analysis. Print the patient’s name on the blood tube labels.
Package the blood tubes in a styrofoam shipping container,
label properly, and seal. See Chapter 26, Toxicology.
b. Collect all available urine in a plastic or glass jar used by
hospitals for sample collection. Preservatives are not
necessary. Seal and label for identification. Store in
refrigerator. See Chapter 26, Toxicology.
5. Ensure that chain of custody is maintained. All persons involved
in the collection of an item must mark containers or tags
indicating their association with the item. Everyone who has the
item in his/her custody, even for a short time, must be
documented. See Chapter 2, Evidence Integrity for further
discussion of this topic.
B. Deceased:
1. Photograph the body. See Chapter 4, Photography.
2. Note position of body. If postmortem lividity has developed,
determine if it is consistent with position of body when found.
3. Use caution when removing body, to avoid loss of possible trace
material. The body should be placed in a new, unused white sheet
before being placed in a clean, sealed body bag.
4. Check under victim for trace evidence.
5. See Chapter 20, Autopsy for additional information including
procedures for recovery of clothing and foreign materials.
6. See Chapter 26, Toxicology.
III. Vehicle
A. Avoid touching any part of the vehicle which may bear fingerprints,
e.g., steering wheel, mirrors, door handles, brake handle, gear shift
handle, seat belt fasteners, hood, windshield, roof, or any other places
likely to bear fingerprints. To shift gears for towing, grasp the stick
rather than the end knob where suspect may have left prints.

Vehicles - 32
B. Protect the vehicle from contamination by covering with new
wrapping paper or plastic sheeting.
C. Transport on a flatbed truck or trailer or tow (do not drive) vehicle to
nearest garage. The proper examination of the under-structure
requires the use of a hoist.
1. The vehicle should not be towed any extended distance. Trace
evidence such as blood or hair may be lost or destroyed.
2. The vehicle should be towed or hauled from the undamaged end
to avoid additional damage and to avoid destruction or addition
of evidence during towing.
3. The vehicle should be placed under lock and key. Police security
should be maintained to ensure the custodial chain of the vehicle.
D. Photograph the vehicle. See Chapter 4, Photography.
E. Record an accurate description of the vehicle.
F. Recover known and questioned paint samples. Paint samples should
be taken from both the damaged areas and adjacent undamaged areas.
The latter serve as controls or knowns during Laboratory
comparisons. Paint samples should also be taken from the victim’s
vehicle. Fenders, hoods and doors with areas of missing paint should
be removed for fracture match analysis with recovered paint samples.
Where bicycles, baby strollers, snowmobiles, power lawn mowers, or
other small vehicles are struck, the entire object should be sent to the
Laboratory. See Chapter 16, Paints for procedure in recovering paint
samples.
G. In the event that glass has been broken, recover and submit all
knowns and questioned samples.
H. Metal, glass, and plastic pieces showing fractured edges should be
removed, because they may be fracture matched to pieces from the
scene.
I. A systematic examination should be made of the vehicle exterior,
including the undercarriage. See Fig. 32-1.
J. If the suspect vehicle is located some time after the accident (after
having secured the properly-executed search warrant), immediately
record the temperature of the radiator and out-of-doors temperature.
Record serial numbers, vehicle identification numbers (VIN), license
211

32 - Vehicles
212
numbers, condition of brakes, tires (evidence of skidding), mileage
reading, service record, approximate amount of fuel in tank, and
condition of all lights.
K. Examine vehicle for presence of blood, hair, and fibers. If
investigation indicates vehicle passed over victim, the understructure
should be examined, and known samples of grease should
be recovered and recovery location noted.
L. Fabric weave impressions on metal surfaces or paint, and in grease,
should not be overlooked. When possible, the bumpers, hoods, or the
entire vehicle should be conveyed to the Laboratory for proper
photographic documentation of such impressions. To be of use for
comparison, all photos must be life-size (1:1) and include a scale.
M. Sketch vehicle and note on sketch the locations of materials
recovered. This will be useful during your recollection at any court
proceedings (see Fig. 32-1).
N. Properly mark vehicle for identification.

Fig 32-1
Suggested vehicle sketches.
Drawings showing the front, rear, and sides of the vehicle. Similar,
larger drawings should be used to record the location of trace
material and other related evidence.
Vehicles - 32
213

214
Notes

33
Documents
________________________________________________
Questioned document problems involved in criminal matters may be
submitted to the Laboratory for examination and comparison of
handwriting, typewriting, ink, paper, and related materials.
A questioned document may be a will, note, check, or other document
on which the signature, endorsement, or other writing is allegedly forged
or altered; it may be an anonymous letter or a suicide note; it may be an
invoice or receipt which is reportedly altered.
Handwritings can be compared with known or standard handwritings
and, in most instances, identified as to writer.
A questioned document may have been partially destroyed by
burning or tearing, or by other means; it may be a sheet which has been
torn from a book and which involves the matching of torn edges, etc. (See
below.)
Questioned typewriting can be compared with typewriting from
suspect typewriters and, in most instances, (providing samples from the
“guilty” machine are available) be identified as having been typed on that
typewriter, or as not having been typed on the suspect typewriter. (See
below.)
Indentations appearing on a document can often be deciphered by
photographic or other processes.
It can often be determined whether or not handwritten and/or
typewritten additions, alterations, or deletions have been made on
documents. In many instances, the original writing can be deciphered by
visual, chemical, or photographic processes. Infrared and ultraviolet
viewing, photography, and, where warranted, chemical methods are used
in problems involving alteration of documents (See the following).
215

33 - Documents
The final result in an examination of documents is governed by the
quality and quantity of material available to the document examiner for
comparison. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the investigator to submit all
of the questioned (unknown) material involved in the matter, and as much
standard (known) handwriting or other material as possible. It is, of
216
Fig 33-1
Counterfeit checks were passed by unknown subjects and subsequently many
small scraps of paper were recovered from a wastebasket on a suspect's
premises by investigating officers.
Photo A above shows on the left, scrap from wastebasket and on right,
portion of one of the counterfeit checks. Pieces are separated to show
individual characteristics of the cutting blade. Photos B and C show the edges
matched with small projection on check fitted into corresponding area on
stub. Scale: A and B - 1:1, C - 3X.

A
B
Documents - 33
course understood that in some instances desirable standards will be
difficult to obtain. However, where documents are to be used as evidence
in a case, immediate steps should be taken to secure the proper standards
in line with suggestions and recommendations set forth in this chapter.
I. Standards
A. Requested Exemplars:
Fig 33-2
Typewriting samples from two Royal typewriters. Line A is questioned
material. Line B is typed on a suspect but “innocent” typewriter. Enlarged
7X.
Note the scars in the typeface which point to non-identity:
The serif at the bottom of the staff of the “d” is present on line A; it is not
on line B.
Lower curve of “s” is damaged on Line A enlargement: it is not on line B.
The outer right-hand serif on the right side of the “w” is present on line A;
it is not on line B.
The typewriter on which the questioned material was typed was eventually
recovered and identified as the source of the questioned material.
1. Requested exemplars are handwriting specimens written by
request for the purpose of comparison with questioned
handwriting. The text of the suspect writing on the questioned
document should be duplicated on the requested exemplars.
217

33 - Documents
218
The text of the questioned and standard material must be
comparable: A’s can be compared only to A’s, r’s to r’s, and 4’s to
4’s; hand printing can be compared only to hand printing and
handwriting to handwriting. Requested exemplars should
therefore contain the exact wording of the questioned
document or words having similar combinations of letters
written in the same way.
2. To facilitate the taking of requested exemplars, a Handwriting
Exemplar booklet is available to all law enforcement agencies in
the state at no charge. The booklet is strongly recommended for
cases involving checks. It is self contained with instructions, so
that an investigator with no prior training may obtain suitable
requested exemplars for comparison purposes. It is imperative
that the booklet be completed in its entirety, with the same text as
is used on the questioned document.
Fig 33-3
A check was tendered in the amount of $60.00 and cash received in that amount. the
drawer of the check insisted that it was for $6.00, the payee insisted it was for $60.00.
Illustrations A show areas of interest on the check, photographed under normal document
lighting, and by use of regular Laboratory photographic techniques and materials.
Illustrations B show the same areas as in A, but photographed using techniques and
materials which detect and record infrared luminescence.
Payee name and additions to the amount were written using a ball pen of similar blue ink
to that used in the original entries, but containing a component which produced the
infrared luminescent reaction. Scale: 1:1.

3. Procedures For Taking Requested Exemplars:
Documents - 33
a. Do not permit subject to see questioned document while
exemplars are being written.
b. Specimens should be written under the observation of the
investigator or witness at all times. (Do not leave subject.)
c. Have subject seated in a natural position at a table or desk
having a smooth writing surface. Exception: If it is claimed
that questioned material was written under unusual
circumstances (on a car seat; while standing, etc.), take
specimens under like conditions.
d. Furnish subject with paper similar to that used in questioned
writings, i.e., paper should be same size and provide the
same space for writing as does the questioned document. If
the writing in question is on a check, requested exemplars
should be written on individual check blanks. Always
provide subject with a separate sheet for each specimen;
requested exemplars should not be written one beneath
the other on a single sheet.
e. Duplicate the writing instrument. If the questioned document
is written in ink or in ball pen, furnish subject with pen and
ink, or ball pen; if written with an instrument of another kind,
furnish subject with other writing instruments necessary to
duplicate questioned writing. The quality of the writing is
influenced by the writing instrument, and may have a direct
bearing on the identification of the writer.
f. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned
material is hand printed) at a comfortable rate of speed for
subject; give no assistance in spelling or arrangement on
page. Exception: If subject spells a name or word differently
from its spelling on the questioned document, after three or
four specimens have been written, request subject to use
designated spelling.
g. Request subject to initial each specimen as completed.
h. Remove each specimen immediately upon completion by
subject; number in sequence; add date and time, and identify
by initial on each specimen. Investigator’s notations should
be placed inconspicuously in an area removed from subject’s
handwriting.
219

33 - Documents
220
i. Dictate at a fairly rapid rate of speed one or two paragraphs
of material unrelated to the investigation, e.g., article from
newspaper, magazine, or book. Dictate numerals 1 through
10 in various combinations.
j. Inform the Laboratory of the age and apparent physical
condition of the subject or of any circumstance (illness,
fatigue, intoxication, etc.) which might influence his/her
handwriting at the time the standards are taken.
k. Observe and report to the Laboratory the handedness of the
subject, and obtain at least one sample written using
opposite hand. (If subject is right-handed, obtain one
specimen written with the left hand, and vice versa.)
l. Have subject under investigation write by hand in narrative
form and sign any statements that she/he gives.
m. When in doubt, telephone the Laboratory before taking any
requested exemplars. Improper or inadequate requested
exemplars may preclude a definite opinion.
B. Collected Standards
1. Collected standards are genuine writings of the suspects (and
victims) which are written not for the purpose of a handwriting
examination, but during the course of daily activities. Collected
standards exhibit the natural characteristics of the subject’s
handwriting and will indicate to the examiner whether the
request writing is natural or disguised.
2. Genuine writing is handwriting made in the past and admitted by
the writer. Sources include:
a. Handwriting made in the past and admitted by the writer
b. Handwriting witnessed by another person
c. Canceled checks
d. Legal, government, or official documents
e. Employment records
(See Suggested Sources for Collected Handwriting Standards,
following.)

II. Procedure-General
Documents - 33
Document problems vary considerably, and no brief formula could
cover all problems involving documents but, in general, when
handwriting comparisons are desired, submit all writing, papers, tablets,
and pads found at scene of suicide, homicide, or other criminal investigations
where document problems may be involved. Standards should be
submitted in accordance with the guidelines listed below.
A. Forgery
1. All original documents bearing the alleged forgeries.
(Photocopies are generally not adequate for comparison
purposes.)
2. Ten or more collected specimens of the genuine signature,
written at approximately the same date or period as the
questioned signature.
3. A completed requested exemplar booklet written by the person
whose name is allegedly forged.
4. In addition to the requested exemplar booklet, ten to twenty
request specimens of the signature in question written by
suspects. (See pp. 218-219 of this chapter for directions on taking
request specimens.)
5. All available collected standards written by the suspects and
consisting of general handwriting (or hand printing if the
questioned material is hand printed).
B. Anonymous Writings
1. All of the anonymous writings, including envelopes.
(Anonymous letters in the same series are often received by a
number of persons.)
2. Collected specimens from all of the victims, including writings
of a general nature, not signatures alone. (In some cases the
writer of anonymous letters is one of the “victims.”)
3. Collected specimens from suspects consisting of writing of a
general nature, not signatures alone.
221

33 - Documents
222
4. Requested exemplars from suspects and victims, consisting of at
least two 8-1/2 x 11-inch sheets of written material including the
questioned text or material having similar words and
combinations of letters.
C. Typewriting
1. All original documents bearing the typewriting in question.
2. Collected specimens from suspect typewriters. Identify each
specimen with serial number and make of machine.
3. Collected specimens typed by suspect typists.
a. Identify each specimen with serial number and make of machine.
b. Identify each specimen with name of typist.
4. Specimens of the text of the questioned document typed on
“suspect” typewriters exactly as it appears on questioned
document. (Typewriting specimens must bear the serial number,
make of typewriter, and owner’s name.)
5. Ribbon sample showing all characters on keyboard, both upper
and lower case, typed twice.
6. Carbon paper sample showing all characters on keyboard typed
twice in both upper and lower case. (Place sheet of new carbon
on top of sheet of clean white paper and insert in typewriter,
carbon showing. Place ribbon control in “Stencil” position - or
remove ribbon - and type sample through carbon.)
7. “Suspect” typewriter (or other printing machine) if possible to
obtain; if not possible, the ribbon from machine.
8. Information regarding repairs to and/or ribbon changes on
suspect and standard typewriters when possible to obtain.
D. Computer Generated Printing
1. Collect specimens from printers.
2. Proceed as in collection of typewriter specimens.

III. Procedure - Care and Marking of Questioned
Documents
Documents - 33
Questioned documents are minutely examined and often yield
valuable hidden information. For example, examination of a document
may reveal the presence of indentations, which can often be deciphered
by photographic or other means. The presence of wire-staple
perforations, or apparently unrelated traces of carbon or other carbonlesscopy
dyes on a document may prove to be important evidence. Therefore,
it is imperative that extreme care be taken in the handling, marking, and
packaging of questioned documents in order to preserve intact all characteristics
of the document as it is and to avoid the inadvertent
introduction of extraneous characteristics, such as impressions from the
marking of the mailing envelope, etc. The following procedures should
be utilized whenever document cases are to be submitted.
A. Avoid excessive handling.
B. When recovering documents for examination by the Laboratory, the
investigator should always consider the possibility of processing the
questioned material for fingerprints. If documents are to be processed
for fingerprints, they should be handled with gloves. (See the chapter
on Latent and Inked Prints.)
C. No marks of any kind are to be placed upon questioned documents.
Exception: The investigator should place his/her initials and the date
lightly on the reverse side of document in an area away from any
handwriting appearing on either side of the document.
D. Questioned documents (standards as well) should not be folded,
stapled, or pinned together. (Staples may puncture endorsement or
signature, impair its use for identification purposes, and destroy
evidence.)
E. Avoid pointing to or touching questioned document with a pencil,
pen, pointed instrument, or any object which might damage or deface
the document.
F. Documents which have been damaged by tearing or cutting, or by
water, should not be pasted or glued together in an attempt to repair.
They should be placed in protective envelopes or boxes in the same
condition as when recovered.
223

33 - Documents
G. Mark envelope of sufficient size to take the document, “Evidence”
“Documents” (and if fingerprint processing is desired,
“Fingerprints”).
H. Insert document, with a backing of cardboard, into the envelope and
continue packaging as shown Fig. 33-4.
Charred Documents
Printing, typewriting, and handwriting on charred paper or paper
which has been subjected to extremely high temperatures can, in many
instances, be deciphered providing the remains are delicately handled.
When paper has been reduced to ashes, restoration of text is not possible.
I. Procedure-Recovery
A. When burned documents are contained in a metal cash box, cabinet,
or any similar receptacle, the container should be carefully
transported to the Laboratory without removal of contents.
B. If the container cannot be transported to the Laboratory, or if the
burned documents are found in the open, they should be gently lifted
from their resting place by use of a thin but firm cardboard of
sufficient size to raise the entire document or documents. The corners
of the cardboard should be rounded to avoid damage to the
documents. The fragments should be put gently into a rigid box of
sufficient size (shoe box, cereal box, corrugated carton) which has
been prepared by padding the bottom with absorbent cotton or similar
soft material. Cotton may be placed between layers of documents.
(Do not attempt to separate charred sheets when they are found
together or attached.)
C. Individual recovery locations or sources should be recorded.
224

II. Procedure-Packaging and Delivery
Documents - 33
A. It is recommended that delivery of charred documents to the
Laboratory be made in person.
B. When necessary to ship by mail or express, the container holding the
documents should be gently filled to the top with cotton to prevent
shifting of contents.
C. Wrap and seal as recommended. Label wrapper “This Side Up,”
“Evidence,” “Fragile.”
D. Place in an outer, larger box; pad all four sides with packing material
(newspaper, Styrofoam peanuts, etc).
E. Wrap outer box (excepting wooden boxes) as for ordinary shipment
and address to the Laboratory. Mark outside “Fragile.”
F. Attach letter of transmittal and completed Transmittal of Criminal
Evidence form in a white envelope to the top side of the wrapped
container.
225

33 - Documents
A. Mark empty envelope as shown in A.
B. Insert document, unfolded, with a protective backing sheet.
C. Seal envelope; write lightly, in ink, identifying data on tape.
D. Place sealed inner envelope in outer envelope.
E. Seal, address in usual manner; attach completed Transmittal of Criminal
Evidence form to outside of envelope. Mail via certified or registered mail.
226
Fig 33-4
Packaging documents for shipping.

Suggested Sources for Collected
Handwriting Standards
BANK RECORDS
Canceled Checks
Deposit Slips
Microfilm
Mortgages
Promissory Notes*
Safety Deposit Vault Register
Signature Cards*
Withdrawal Slips
CITY RECORDS
Building Department
Building Permits
City Auditor
Canceled Checks
City Clerk
Licenses (Peddler, Tavern,
Special Permits, etc.)*
Voter Registration Lists
Personnel Department
Civil Service Applications
COUNTY RECORDS
County Clerk
Civil Service Applications
Claims for Services or
Merchandise
Fishing, Hunting, and
Marriage Licenses*
Purchasing Department
Bids and Contracts
Register of Deeds
Deeds
Birth Certificates
Public Assistance Applications*
ID Card Applications
Selective Service (Local Board)
Registrations
Treasurer
Canceled Checks
Documents - 33
The following is a list of possible sources of genuine signatures, not
all of which may be accepted in court, but which may prove to be
valuable investigative aids. Those items starred (*) are most likely to be
accepted as standards:
DEPARTMENT STORE RECORDS
Applications for Credit
Complaints and Correspondence
Receipts for Merchandise
Signed Sales Checks
DRUG STORE RECORDS
Register for Exempt Narcotics, Poisons
EMPLOYMENT RECORDS
Application for Employment
(if witnessed)*
Canceled Payroll Checks
Credit Union
Personnel Jacket, Letters, Memos
Receipts for Bonds, Salary, etc.
Withholding Exemption Forms
Work Product (Notes, Ledgers,
Sales Checks, etc.)
FEDERAL RECORDS
(Most Federal Records are Privileged)
Civil Service Regional
Offices Applications (No. 57)
Department of Justice (FBI)
Fingerprint Cards*
Military Records*
Air Force, Army, Coast Guard,
Marines, Navy
(Bases and Stations)
Record Depots (Ex-Service
Members)
Post Office Department
Application for P.O. Box
Registered and Special Delivery
Receipts
Social Security Administration
Applications for Card, Benefits
Veterans Administration
Applications for Benefits
U.S. Treasury
Canceled Payroll Checks
227

33 - Documents
IN THE HOME
Books (Flyleaf Signatures)
Canceled Checks, Notes
Correspondence
Diaries
Insurance Policies*
Military Discharge Papers*
Notebooks
Passports*
Receipts (Rent, Cooking)
Wills
HOSPITAL RECORDS
Admissions, Releases
HOTEL AND MOTEL RECORDS
Registrations, Reservations
INSURANCE RECORDS (LIFE)
Applications for Insurance*
LIBRARY RECORDS
Applications for Cards
ON THE PERSON
Contents of Wallet
(Signed ID Cards of all types)
Letters, Post Cards
Notebooks
Passport*
POLICE AND SHERIFFS'
DEPARTMENT RECORDS
Complaints
Fingerprint Cards*
Receipts for Returned Property*
Canteen Slips
Statements Written by the Suspect
PUBLIC UTILITY RECORDS
Applications for Service
Electricity
Gas
Telephone
Water
REAL ESTATE RECORDS
Property Listing Agreements
228
RELATIVES
Letters, Post Cards
Greeting Cards
SCHOOL AND COLLEGE
RECORDS
Applications for entrance
Daily Assignments
Registration Cards
STATE RECORDS
Conservation Files
Boat, Fishing, Hunting
Licenses*
Department of Revenue
State Income Tax Returns
Worker and Unemployment Files
Unemployment Compensation
Canceled Checks
Motor Vehicle Files
Drivers' Files*
Title Files*
Personnel Files
Civil Service Applications
and Examinations
Corrections Files
Probation and Parole Reports*
Secretary of State
Application for Notary Public*
Taxation Files
Beverage and Cigarette Tax
Applications*
State Treasurer
Canceled Checks
MISCELLANEOUS
Building After-hour Registers
Express Company, Cartage,
Movers' Receipts
Rent Receipts to Tenants

34
Computer Evidence
________________________________________________
More and more frequently computers are being used in the
furtherance of criminal activity, and when found at a crime scene should
be regarded as a possible source of evidence. Computers are being used
to store records of drug transactions, money laundering, child
pornography, prostitution and many other criminal activities. The
information presented in this section refers specifically to stand-alone
IBM PC compatible (DOS/Windows) computers. If the investigator
suspects a network, mainframe, or some other type of system, a computer
specialist should be consulted prior to disturbing or seizing any of the
components. Specialists in computer seizure are available at the
Laboratory for consultation. It should also be noted that the information
presented here is accurate as of the date of publishing. Computer
technology is constantly changing, and seizure methods may change in
the future. If you have any questions, please contact the Laboratory for
technical assistance.
I. Safeguarding Data
If information stored within a computer is incriminating, users can
devise methods to destroy the data if an unauthorized person attempts to
use the system. For this reason, it is essential that precautions are taken
to safeguard the evidence when a computer is seized.
When you discover a computer, immediately remove everyone from
the area. Do not allow them any further contact with the computer
system, since a single keystroke can execute a program that erases
information. Take a photograph of the screen to document any
information that is displayed, and then immediately unplug the computer.
Unplug the computer from the back of the central processing unit (CPU
or main box), not from a wall receptacle. Uninteruptable power supplies
(UPS) are common and can be programmed to execute destructive
processes upon loss of power from a wall receptacle. Do not use the
power switch, since the power switch can be rigged to damage the hard
drive or other components.
229

34 - Computer Evidence
230
Fig. 34-1
Upon encountering a computer, immediately move people away. Next,
photograph the screen to document the information displayed.
Fig. 34-2
Photograph the connections on the back of the computer.

Computer Evidence - 34
Do not execute any commands on the computer prior to pulling
the plug. Commands, such as DIR and PARK can be altered to execute
destructive processes. If there is a modem connected, unplug the modem
cable from the wall. Leave the connections on the back of the computer
undisturbed until they can be documented.
Photograph the cable connections at the rear of the computer. Mark
all cables with evidence tape or tags, and mark the corresponding ports
on the computer in an identical manner. Photograph and document
peripherals, and the marked connections on the back of the computer
system prior to disconnection. This will facilitate the reassembly of the
computer system and the peripherals in the office, courtroom, or at the
Laboratory.
It is recommended that all computer hardware, software, disks, and
manuals be seized. It is a reasonable and common practice to retain
business records on computer media, in addition to the traditional (paper)
method used to maintain and store business records and documents.
All computer hardware should be seized. Conducting a search of a
computer system, documenting the search and making evidentiary
and discovery copies is a lengthy process. It is necessary to determine
that no security devices are in place which could cause the
destruction of evidence during the search, and in some cases, it is
impossible even to conduct the search without expert technical
assistance. Since it would be extremely difficult to secure the system
on the premises during the entire period of the search, and computer
evidence is extremely vulnerable, removal of the system from the
premises will assist in retrieving the records authorized to be seized,
while avoiding accidental destruction or deliberate alteration of the
records. All peripherals should be seized, since some software
programs are designed to work with specific hardware. Without all
the components connected, it may be difficult, if not impossible, to
recover and print the files of interest.
All computer software and disks should be seized. Specific
software programs may be needed to view files stored on the system.
Also, it would be impossible, without examination, to determine that
disks purporting to contain standard, commercially available
software have not been altered or used to store records instead. It is
also possible that disks may contain information other than what is
labeled, and unlabeled disks may contain files.
All manuals and pieces of paper found near the computer should
be seized. The analyst may have to refer to the manual and hand-
231

34 - Computer Evidence
232
written notes to operate the system and to recover the records
authorized to be seized. Many programs can be password protected,
and it is common for users to write passwords and other information
in manuals and on scraps of paper.
II. Packaging and Transporting the Evidence
Computers are delicate electronic instruments that are sensitive to
temperature, physical shock, static electricity, and magnetic fields. When
transported, care should be taken to ensure that computer components are
well cushioned and protected. The original box and packaging material,
if it can be located, is a good container for storing and transporting the
computer. Magnetic media, such as computer hard drives, floppy disks,
magnetic tapes, etc., are very sensitive to magnetic fields. When placing
computer evidence in a car, remember that police radio transmitters are
strong sources of magnetic fields. Do not place computer evidence in
the trunk of a car if the trunk contains a police radio. Once again,
photograph the scene after all computer equipment has been removed.
III. Search Warrants
If you suspect that records of a crime are stored in a computer, or on
floppy disks, magnetic tapes, etc., it is important to include language in
the affidavit and search warrant that allows the search and seizure of this
type of evidence. If you can determine in advance the type of computer
system to be seized, this specific information should also be included in
the search warrant. Contact the Laboratory if you need assistance in
preparing search warrant language.
As mentioned above, when the search warrant is executed, it is
important to immediately isolate the computer from human contact. This
will minimize the likelihood of destruction of information contained in
the computer.
IV. Examination of Computer Evidence
The examination of computer evidence is a highly technical area of
Forensic Science. As such, it is vitally important that computer evidence,
once seized, be handled in accordance with specific procedures intended

Computer Evidence - 34
to preserve the integrity of the information stored on the computer
system. The current accepted practice in the field of computer forensics
is to prepare “forensic copies” of all computer media (hard disks, floppy
disks, compact disc recordables, etc.). A forensic copy is defined as the
copying of the entire physical and/or logical addressable storage space
contained on a piece of computer media. A forensic copy will contain
files that were present on the computer system at the time of seizure as
well as recoverable deleted files, file slack and unused space containing
residual file data. A commercial backup program, such as Microsoft
Backup or equivalent, will not recover this additional information.
Once the forensic copy is prepared, it is the copy which is examined, not
the original media. This practice ensures that no deleterious change can
occur to the original information on the media, thereby protecting the
integrity of the evidence.
Failure to follow prescribed procedures for examining computer
evidence will result in irreversible changes to the files on the
computer system. Simply turning a computer on can alter hundreds
and potentially thousands of files during the short duration of time it
takes an operating system to load.
Due to the highly technical nature of computer forensics, only
specially trained individuals should examine computer evidence. The
Laboratory system provides expertise in computer forensics. It is the
responsibility of the investigating authority to ensure that computer
evidence is handled and examined properly by a competent expert.
Failure to do so could jeopardize the successful finding of truth in your
case.
233

34 - Computer Evidence
234
Computer Seizure Checklist
DOS/Windows-Based PC
The following checklist is provided for stand-alone DOS/Windowsbased
IBM PC compatible computers. If the investigator is unable to
identify the type of system encountered or suspects a network,
mainframe, or some other type of system, a computer specialist should be
consulted prior to disturbing or seizing any of the components.
• Remove person(s) from the computer area.
• Disable/disconnect the modem, if there is one.
• Photograph the screen.
• Unplug the computer from the back of the CPU. Do not use the
computer on/off switch.
• Disconnect power to the printer and other peripherals.
• Mark all cables, both input and output, on the cable and at the
connection.
• Photograph all the marked connections prior to disassembly of
the system. Also photograph or record the serial numbers of the
system components, if they are available.
• Seal computer CPU and other evidence using appropriate
evidence tape. Seal over power connector and cover to ensure
that the computer cannot be powered-up and the cover cannot be
removed.
• Package the computer for transmittal, remove it from the area,
and photograph the scene. Magnetic media should only be
packaged in static-shielded bags or paper. Keep magnetic media
away from electromagnetic fields, such as radio transmitters,
magnets, etc.
• Complete the search of the area, looking for floppy diskettes,
manuals, and notations which might include passwords for
locked files, etc.

A
Accident reconstruction 205
Address
crime laboratories iii
AFIS
See Latent prints
AIDS 1
Air Drying
method 131
plant materials 185
Alcohol
body fluids, in 46, 173-174
use with drugs 173-174
Ammunition
bearing print 86
handling, marking, shipping 65-67
possible determinations 64
See also Bullet; Cartridge
Amniotic fluid
as biohazard 2
Anal swab/smear 164
Anatomical outlines 138-139
Animals
hair identification 169-170
poisoning, procedure 179-182
poisoning, supplementary
information 179-180
Anonymous writing
submitting procedure 221
See also Documents
Antemortem
blood sample recovery 173-174, 180
urine sample recovery 173-174, 180
Arson 193-197
determination of 193-197
flammable liquids 193-197
scenes, evidence 193-197
suspects, evidence 193-197
See also Flammable liquids
Audio Tapes - 53-56
Automated Fingerprint Identification
System
See Latent prints
Automobile
See Hit-and-run; Vehicle
Automobiles—National Insurance Crime
Index
Bureau (formerly: National Auto
Theft Bureau) 206
Autopsy 135-142
anatomical outlines 138
authorization 135
bite mark recovery 136
body fluids and organs 137-141
clothing 137-138
fingerprinting 95-96, 137, 143
firearms evidence 140
hair 137, 140, 169-170, 180
identification of unknown
deceased 143-148
officer procedure 143-148
pathologist procedure 137
photography 18-19, 135-139
poisoning - animal 181
poisoning - human 179-180
report 137, 180-181
specimen collection kit 141
wound area recovery 137, 139
x-ray dental records 153
x-rays 155, 137, 145, 147, 150-152,
156
B
Bile
autopsy recovery 175,180
Biohazard
labels, use of 1-2, 174
shipment 174
Bite marks 159-162
bruises, abrasions, indentations 159
casting 159
legal decisions relating to 159
photography 30, 159
recovery at autopsy 162
removal and preservation 157
saliva recovery 60, 136, 159, 166
suspect work-up 162
Blasting caps 198
Blood
autopsy recovery 58, 130-137, 140, 149
bullets, blood on 64
crime scene procedure 58-60
drug-alcohol determination, in 173
235

hit-and-run, in 131, 210-212
identification of unknown
deceased, in 148
packaging 60, 174
poisoning, in 179, 182
recovery, dried 58
recovery, liquid 58
recovery, moist 58
sexual offenses, in 166
standard samples 60
Bloodborne Pathogen Control
Exposure Plan 1
Bloodborne pathogens 1-2
general guidelines 2
Hepatitis B 1
HIV 1
body fluids containing (table) 2
protection against exposure 2
universal precautions 1
Bloodspatter 57
Body
See Autopsy; Body fluids; Body organs
and parts; Deceased
Body fluids 57-62
drug-alcohol in 60, 57-62, 166,
173-175
evidentiary value 57
packaging 57-62, 137, 165, 174
poison, in 179-180
sexual assault, in 164-180
See also names of individual organs
Body organs and parts
autopsy, in 28, 165, 179-180
Bombing procedures 197-198
Breath test 173
Building materials 109-112
at scene 109
suspect procedures 110
See also Glass; Metal; Paint; Wood
Bullet
detection by x-ray 145
handling, marking, shipping 65-67
tissue, in 138-139
Burglary 103-108
scene, procedure 103
suspect, procedure 104
See also Building materials
236
Camera
See Photography
Carbon paper sample
typewriting identification, in 222
Cardboard boxes
as packaging 9
Cartridge
bearing fingerprints 87
handling, marking, shipping
65-67
possible determinations 64
Casting
See Impressions; Tool Marks
Casts 71
dental stone 72-75
marking 73
SnowPrint-wax 75, 78
sulfur 75-78
Cerebrospinal fluid
as biohazard 2
Cervical swab/smear 164, 135
Chain of custody
See Custodial chain
Checks
counterfeit 216
forged 218
as standards 219-220, 227-228
Chemicals
clandestine drug labs, and 186, 188
fingerprint detection, use in 82
Clandestine drug laboratories 186-188
Clothing
air drying 59, 62, 131-132
autopsy recovery 136-137
identification of unknown
deceased, in 143, 145
recovery and packaging 131-132
seminal stains in 61-62
sexual offenses, in 61, 163, 166
shot or powder patterns in 69
Computer generated printing 222
Computer Evidence 229-233
computer seizure checklist 234
DOS computers 229
execution of commands 229, 231
mainframe 229
network 229
packaging and transporting 232
C

"parking" hard disk 231
photography 229-231
search warrants 232
technical assistance 229
what to seize 231-232
Condoms 167
Controlled substances
See Drugs
Courts
custodial chain, and 20
Laboratory services, and iv, v
Crime Laboratories
field services vii, 25-26
location and function iii
reports stand in lieu of appearance
at preliminary hearings vi
requesting aid from v-vii, 25-26
services iv
tours of viii
See also Field service
Crime scene
protection 5-6
visitors log 6
Criminal damage to motor vehicles
205-206
Custodial chain 20
D
Deceased
hit-and-run, in 210
sexual offenses, and 167
Poisoning; also-names of
specific investigation types
See also Autopsy; Deceased, unknown
Deceased, unknown 143-147
clothing 145
external examination 143-144
identification photographs 145
internal examination 145-146
personal effects 146-147
Dental identification 149-157
evidentiary significance 157-157
examination procedures 149-151
how to locate antemortem
records 156
identification of unknown
deceased 150
NCIC 149
preparation of postmortem
records 151-153
securing antemortem records 153,
155-156
Dental stone 72-75
Documents 215-228
bearing fingerprints 223
care and marking 223-224
charred 224
computer generated 222
indentations on 215, 223
packaging 223-224
photocopies 221
possible determinations 215, 223
standards 217-220, 227-228
See also Anonymous writing; Checks;
Forgery; Handwriting; Typewriting
Division of Narcotics Enforcement
assist in clandestine labs 188
Drug laboratories, clandestine 186-188
Drugs
body fluids, in 173-176
capsule/tablet identification 184
fingerprints on packaging 186
fresh plant material dried 185
marijuana/THC 185
prescription 147, 173-175,
179-181, 184
product identification code 184
sample size for analysis 183
street drugs 183, 185
syringes 173
use with alcohol 173
See also Field drug testing kit; Drug
laboratories, clandestine
E
Electronic imaging
See Photography
Engine
criminal damage to 205
Envelopes
as packaging 7-10
hairs and fibers,
as packaging for 170
manila, as packaging 10
Evidence collection 7-12, 18
Evidence, marking 15, 18
Explosives
assistance 197-198
237

fireworks 199
precautions 105, 197-198
safe burglary, in 105
Eye fluid
autopsy recovery 80
F
Fabric
air drying 131
impressions 212
recovery and packaging 131-132, 166
sexual offenses, recovery 166
Fibers 169-171
evidentiary value 169-170
packaging 169-171
known sample 169-170
See also Clothing; Fabric
Field Drug Testing Kit 183
Field response
See Field service
Field service
function 25-26
procedures 25
Film
photography 30, 49-50
Fingernails
identification of unknown
deceased, in 144
scrapings 137, 165
Fingerprints
See Latent prints; Inked prints
Fire
See Arson
Firearms 63-69
handling, marking, shipping 63-67
possible determinations 64, 68, 69
recovered from water/liquid 63
See also Ammunition
Fireworks 199
Flammable liquids
arson 7, 193-196
clandestine labs 186
collection and packaging 7-8, 12,
193-195, 205
gasoline 205
unlawful to mail 206
Fluids
See Body fluids; Flammable liquids
Footprints
238
See Impressions; Prints, footwear
and tire
Footwear impressions
See Impressions
Forgery
submission procedures 221
See also Checks; Documents;
Handwriting; Typewriting
Fracture matching 133-134
(table) 134
See also Specific kinds of evidence
G
Gasoline
foreign materials in 205-206
See also Flammable liquids
Glass
as evidence for fracture
match 109, 113-115, 208, 210
as packaging 12, 10-12, 174, 180-182,
194, 202
collection and packaging 115
hit-and-run, in 207-208, 211
objects bearing fingerprints 80
recovery and packaging 109, 115
known samples 113
Gun
See Firearms
Gunshot residue 57-60
clothing 60
evidentiary value 57
kit 57, 59
packaging swabs 59
precautions 59
procedure 57, 59
See also Powder, gunshot;
Powder pattern
Hair 169-171
autopsy recovery 135-141
collection of standards 163-164
evidentiary value 169-171
head, standard sample 170
identification of unknown
deceased, in 144
packaging 137, 163, 164, 170, 171
poisoning, in 180
H

pubic combings 137, 163, 170
pubic, standard sample 137, 164, 170
sexual offenses, recovery in
163-164, 166-167
Handwriting
anonymous writings 221-222
collected standards 20, 227-228
evidentiary value 215
forgery 221
request standards 217-220
See also Checks; Documents
Hepatitis B Virus 1
protection against exposure 2
vaccination against 1
Hit-and-run 206-213
body fluids 209-210
clothing 209
deceased victim procedure 210
diagraming 208
fingerprints 210
glass recovery 113-115, 207-208, 211
grease recovery 212
impressions 208, 212
metal recovery 208, 211
paint recovery 126-127, 208, 211
photography 208, 210-211
scene procedure 207-209
skid marks 209
soil recovery 208
towing 210-211
vehicle procedure 210-213
vehicle sketches 212-213
victim living, procedure 209-210
HIV 1
protection against exposure 1-2
I
Impressions
bite marks—See Bite marks
casting material retaining frame 72
documents, on 223
dust, in 100
evidentiary value 99-100
fabric 212
footwear 71-78, 99-100, 103
footwear, photography 34, 38
hit-and-run 208, 212
photography 35-42
preserving 72
procedure, general 71, 99-101
soil, in 201
tire 71-78, 100-101
tire photography 39-40
tool mark 109
See also Tool marks; Casts
Indentations
See Impressions
Inked prints 92-97
autopsy 95-96, 137
electronically recorded live scan 94-95
identification of unknown deceased
143
postmortem 95-96
recording, generally 92-95
fingerprints 93-94
palm prints 94
See also Latent prints
Intoxication, testing for 173-174
K
Kidney
animal recovery 182
autopsy recovery 180
Knife
marks on bone 119
preserving cuts in clothing 129
"Known," definition iv
Known sample
See specific type of evidence
Laboratories, Crime
address and phone number iii
Laboratory of Hygiene, State 176-178
Latent prints 79-91
AFIS 79, 92
arson 194
burglary 104
developing 82-83
development techniques (table) 82
documents 223
drug packaging materials, on 186
film for imaging 50
firearms 64
frequency of occurrence 80
general procedures 80-81
hit-and-run 210
lifting 83-85
L
239

local agency responsibility 79
packaging for preservation 8, 87-91
poisoning 179
procedure 80-81
sexual offenses 167
tools 110, 121
Law Enforcement Bulletin vii
Leather
packaging 11, 132
Liver
animal recovery 182
autopsy recovery 180
LSD 183
tear match 133-134
M
Machine guns
See Firearms
Manila envelopes
as packaging 8, 10, 170, 171
Marijuana
description 185
packaging 8, 185
Marking evidence, generally 14-19
Medical history of deceased 181
Medication
use with alcohol 173
Metal 129
autopsy recovery 135
detection by x-ray 135, 145
evidentiary value 129
fabric weave impressions on 212
hit-and-run, in 207-208, 211
immersed in liquid 63
recovery of samples 129
Metal cans
as packaging 12, 194-195
Mushrooms
See Psilocybe mushrooms
N
Narcotics
See Drugs
National Automobile Theft Bureau
See National Insurance Crime Bureau
National Insurance Crime Bureau 206
NCIC
dental identification, and 149
240
Necrophilia
See Sexual offenses, unusual
Nitroglycerine 198
Numbers, altered 63, 206
documents, on 215, 219
O
Oral swabs 164
Organs, body
See Body organs
Other body fluids 62
P
Packaging
ammunition 64, 68-69
arson investigations, clothing 196
arson samples 193-195
autopsy samples 136-140
biohazard samples 174
blood samples 58-60
body fluids 58-62, 137, 174, 180-182
building materials 109-110
cardboard boxes 9
casts 74
charred documents 224-225
computers 232
documents 223-224
evidence, generally 7-19
fabrics 131-132
fabrics in sexual assault
investigations 166-167
fibers 170-171
firearms 63-64, 68-69
flammable liquids 194, 205-206
for fingerprint examination 87-91
glass samples 109, 115
glass vials and jars 12-13
hair 163-164, 170-171
latent fingerprint on 186
leather 132
marijuana 185
metal cans 12
oral swabs 164, 165
paint samples 126-127
paper 8-11
plant material 185
plastic 11
saliva samples 61, 164

separate collection 131-132
separating items 62
sexual assault evidence 61-62, 163-
167
slide boxes 9, 58, 68-69
soil core samples 203
swabs 164-166
syringes 184
tissue specimens 179-180
tools 121
toxicology specimens 174
urine samples 174
vaginal swabs 164
wood chips from burglaries 117
Paint 125-127
as evidence in burglaries 104
as trace evidence in arson 196
evidentiary value 109, 125
fabric-weave impressions, in 212
fabrics, on 131
fracture matches 125
hit-and-run, in 207-208, 211
packaging 126-127
recovery 126-127
small vehicles, on 211
stolen vehicles 206
tool marks, and 126
Palm prints
See Latent prints; Inked prints
Paper
handwriting standards, in 219
Paper bags
as packaging 8-9
Pathologist
autopsy procedures, general 137-140
autopsy procedures, poisoning
179-180
role in identification of unknown
deceased 143-147
Pen in handwriting standards 219
Perforation matching 133
(table) 134
Pericardial fluid
as biohazard 2
Peritoneal fluid
as biohazard 2
Photocopies and documents 221
Photography 27-52
autopsy 31, 136-138
bite mark 40-42, 136, 166
bloodspatter 57-58
building, exterior 29
building, interior 28-29
burglary 104
casting, prior to 72
computers, seized 229-231
continuity of images 28
document 215
document indentations 215
electronic flash 47
evidentiary value 27, 32
filling frame with image 33
film 49-50
fingerprints 82-83
footwear impressions 38, 100
forensic, general 27-51
"four views" of rooms 28
hit-and-run 208, 210-211
impressions 35-42, 100-101, 201
large format 51
lenses for crime scenes 46
lenses for surveillance 46
lenses, general 46
lenses, macro 46
lighting 32, 35-37
motor vehicle accidents 205
photo log 30
recommended equipment 45-51
reference books suggested 52
scaling 31-35, 37
scaling, required equipment 32, 35
services offered by Laboratory 27
supporting investigations,
procedures 27-30
suspect 28
tire impressions 39-40, 100-101
tool marks 104
training 27
tripod 47-48
unknown deceased 145
victim 28-32
written records 30
Physician
poisoning procedures 179-180
sexual offense procedures 163
See also Pathologist; Veterinarian
Physicians Desk Reference 184
Pipette
liquid transfer, and 13
Pistol
241

handling, marking, shipping 65-69
possible determinations 70
Plaster of paris
See Dental stone
Plastic
as evidence 125, 208
as fire debris 195
as packaging 11, 210
cable ties 64, 131
hit-and-run 208, 210
trace evidence 131
Plastic bags
as packaging 11
fingerprints 180
when not used 8-9, 64, 74, 87,
131-132, 185
Plastic impressions
fingerprints 81
Pleural fluid
as biohazard 2
Poisoning, animal
procedures 181-182
supplementary information 182
Poisoning, human
autopsy procedure 179-180
scene procedure 179
supplementary information 180-181
victim procedure 179-180
Powder
drugs, sample size for analysis 183
fingerprint 79, 82-83, 96
gunshot, in tissue 139
packaging considerations 8
talcum, as cast release agent 72
Powder pattern
in clothing 69
possible determinations 70
Preservative
blood samples 60, 174
Pretrial conference v
Printing, hand 218-219, 221
Prints
burglary 104
footwear and tire 99-100
Prints, footwear and tire 71-72
photography 30
procedure 100-101
See also Impressions, footwear;
Impressions, tire
Psilocybe mushrooms 185, 192
242
packaging 185
Q
"Questioned," definition iv
R
Rape
See Sexual offenses
Reports
stand in lieu of appearance
at preliminary hearings v
Restoring serial numbers 63
Retaining frame
casting impressions 72
Revolver
handling, marking, shipping 65, 67-69
possible determinations 70
Rifle
handling, marking, shipping 66-69
possible determinations 70
S
Saliva
collection procedure 60-61
evidentiary value 60
Sample, standard
See specific type of evidence
Sand
casting impressions in 72-75, 201
photographing impressions in 38, 201
vehicle engines, in 205
See also Soil
Sawdust
See Wood
Screwdriver, marks 119
Sealing evidence 14-19
heat sealing 14
staples, and use of 15, 19
tamper-proof tape 16-17
tamper-proof adhesive strip 19
tape and staples 15
wax 15-16
Seminal fluid
as biohazard 2
Seminal stains
recovery 61-62
sexual offenses, in 62, 166-167
Serial number

estoration 63
Serial numbers
altered 63, 206
computer seizure 234
film for imaging 50
Sexual assault
autopsy procedures 140, 163
bite marks 60-61, 166
blood samples 166
clothing 61-62, 163, 166
evidence collection 163-167
fabrics as evidence 166
involving animals 167
involving dead 167
oral swabs 164-165
pubic hair combings 163, 170
pubic hair standards 164, 170
saliva samples 164
scene processing 165-167
seminal stains 61-62, 166-167
toxicology specimens 166
trace evidence 166
See also Sexual Assault Evidence
Collection Kit
Sexual Assault Evidence
Collection Kit 141, 163, 168, 177
Sexual offenses, unusual 167
Shellac
use with impressions 72
Shoes
arson investigations 196
burglary investigations 110, 132
glass fragments adhering to 113
packaging 7-8, 132
sawdust adhering to 117
soil adhering to 203
wood fragments adhering to 117
See also Impressions; Prints,
footwear and tire
Shot patterns 69-70
in tissue 138-139
Shotgun
handling, marking, shipping 68-69
possible determinations 70
Skid marks 205, 209
Slide box, as packaging 9, 58-59
Snow, impressions in 75-78
Sodium fluoride 60, 166, 174, 210
Soil 201-203
arson, in 194
casting impressions in 72-75
evidentiary value 131, 201
footwear, and 203
grave sites 203
hit-and-run 208
packaging 202-203
photographing impressions in 38
questioned location 201
recovery procedure 201, 203
standard sample from cast 74
trace evidence 196
Standards
document examination 215-216
document, collected 220, 227-228
document, packaging 223
document, request 217-220
typewriting 222
State Laboratory of Hygiene
See Toxicology
Stomach contents
animal, recovery 181-182
human, recovery 146, 180
Sulfur casting 75-78
Synovial fluid
as biohazard 2
Syringes
as biohazard 3, 184
packaging 184
T
Tear matching 133-134
(table) 134
Telephone number
crime laboratories iii
Tissue
autopsy recovery 139, 179
fingernail scrapings, in 165
shot or powder patterns in 139
See Body fluids; Body organs and parts
Tool marks 119-123
burglary, in 104, 119
casting 120
evidentiary value 119
film for imaging 50
paint samples, and 125-126
preservation 109, 120
recovery 119, 109
standards for comparison 121
types and location 119
243

types of investigations 119
Tools
arson investigation, and 194, 196
burglary investigations, in 103-104
evidentiary value 119
fragments 104
packaging 121
recovery from scene 110
standards for comparison 121
trace evidence, and 109
types of investigations 119
See also Tool marks
Tours vii
Towing
hit-and-run vehicle 211
Toxicology 173-182
alcohol and drugs 173-177
animal poisoning, in 181-182
autopsy specimens 137, 141
autopsy, value in 173
drugs and alcohol 173-177
hit-and-run, in 209-210
samples, where to submit 177-178
sexual offenses, in 166
specimen preservation 174
specimens, when blood is
in short supply 60
State Laboratory of Hygiene 176-178
testing: routine and special requests
175-176
where to submit (table) 177
"Trace evidence," definition iv
See also specific types of evidence
Training programs vii, 27, 920
Transmittal of Criminal Evidence form
checklist for use 21, 22
general 21-24
Typewriter
serial number restoration 63
typewriting standards, and 215, 222
See also Typewriting
Typewriting
possible determinations 215
submittal procedures 222
See also Typewriter
U
Universal precautions 1
244
Urine
animal, recovery 182
as biohazard 2
clothing, in 131
drugs and alcohol 173-174
hit-and-run, in 210
human, recovery 179, 180
packaging 174
poisoning, in 179-180
sample storage 174
V
Vaginal secretions
as biohazard 2
Vaginal swabs
sexual offenses, in 164
Vehicle 205-213
arson, in 196
burglary, used in 104
criminal damage to 205
fiber transfer 131
fingerprints 210
fractured parts from 208
hit-and-run, in 125, 126, 206
impoundment 206, 211
moving 211
note in area of crime scene 5
paint samples 207-208
physical impressions left by 208
repainted 206
sketches of 212-213
skid damage 205, 209
soil, and 201
stolen 206
stripped parts, matching 206
trace evidence on operating pedals 201
See also Impressions; Prints,
footwear and tire
Veterinarian
poisoning procedure 181
Victim
photography 28-31, 40-42, 136, 140,
145
recovery of body fluids and
tissue from 71, 60, 61, 139,
163-166, 174, 179, 180
Video taping, Video tapes
authentication 43
duplicating 44

not recommended as exclusive
recording medium 42
procedures 43, 44, 53-56
submitting 53-56
usefulness 42
Vitreous humor
autopsy recovery , 180
Vomitus, recovery 181
W
Water
dilution of urine samples 174
distilled - used in saliva recovery 61
documents wetted 223
drying wetted clothing 131
evidence packaging, and 11, 12
metal immersed in 63
mixing dental plaster, in 73, 75
Wood
evidentiary value 117
sawdust adhering to shoes 117
submission procedure 117
Wound areas
autopsy procedure 138
autopsy recovery 139
photography at autopsy 31
X
X-rays
autopsy 135, 137
dental identification 147, 150-156
superimposition, and 147
to locate dislodged teeth or
fragments 150
unknown deceased identification 145
245