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5. DHAP and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are interconvertible by the action of triose phosphate isomerase. These five series of reaction constitute hexose phase and produce two molecules of 3-carbon compound called 3phosphoglyceraldehyde. In hexose phase two ATP molecules are consumed. 6. A molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is phosphorylated and oxidized to 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid in the presence of glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. During this reaction, one NADH 2 is formed. 7. 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid is dephosphorylated to a molecule of 3-phosphoglyceric acid by phosphoglyceric kinase. During this reaction one ATP is formed. This type of ATP synthesis is called direct phosphorylation or substrate level phosphorylation. 8. A molecule of 3-phosphoglyceric acid is then converted into a molecule of 2-phosphoglyceric acid by phosphoglyceric mutase. In this reaction, phosphate molecule is shifted form third carbon to second carbon. 9. A molecule of 2-phosphoglyceric acid is dehydrated to a molecule of 2-phosphoenol pyruvic acid by enolase. Removal of water molecule from the substrate is called enolation. 10. A molecule of 2-phosphoenol pyruvic acid is dephosphorylated to pyruvic acid and ADP is phosphorylated to ATP. This reaction is catalyzed by pyruvic kinase. Thus, in the triose phase, two molecules of a molecule of 3-phospho glyceraldehyde produce 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. In glycolysis, 4ATP and 2NADH 2 molecules are formed and 2ATP molecules are consumed in hexose phase. Hence, the net gain is 2ATP and 2NADH 2 . Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid The two molecules of pyruvic acid formed from a glucose molecule move into mitochondria and are oxidized, decarboxylated to two molecules of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl Co~A). These 2 carbon compounds are formed by Pyruvic dehydrogenase 204
decarboxylation and dehydrogenation. This reaction is catalyzed by pyruvic dehydrogenase and two molecules of NAD + are reduced to NADH 2 . During this reaction two molecules of CO 2 are released. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid occurs only under aerobic condition. Under anaerobic conditions, the pyruvic acid is reduced either to lactic acid or ethyl alcohol depending on the nature of the organism. 5.3.3 Krebs cycle In 1937, Sir Hans Adolf Krebs described the catalytic role of pyruvic acid for the production of energy in the cell. The series of cyclic reactions involved in converting pyruvic acid to carbondioxide and water in mitochondria is called Krebs cycle. It is also known as citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle – TCA cycle. 1. In the first reaction of citric acid cycle, one molecule of acetyl Co~A combines with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid. This reaction is catalyzed by citric acid synthetase. Citric acid contains three carboxylic acid groups. 2. Citric acid is dehydrated to form cis-aconitic acid in the presence of aconitase 3. The same enzyme aconitase catalyzes the formation of isocitric acid from cis-aconitic acid by the addition of a molecule of water. Citric acid, cis-aconitic acid and isocitric acid contain three carboxylic acid groups. 4. The isocitric acid is oxidatively decarboxylated to α- ketoglutaric acid. This reaction is catalyzed by isocitric dehydrogenase. During this reaction, one NADH is formed. 2 5. The α- ketoglutaric acid is oxidatively decarboxylated to form succinyl Co~A. This reaction is catalyzed by α-ketoglutaric dehydrogenase. The energy released during this reaction is conserved in NADH . 2 6. The succinyl Co~A is hydrolysed to succinic acid in the presence of succinyl Co-A synthetase. In this reaction, ADP is phosphorylated to ATP. This is called substrate level phosphorylation. 7. The succinic acid is oxidized to form fumaric acid by succinic dehydrogenase. Here, FAD + is reduced to FADH 2 . 8. The fumaric acid is converted to malic acid by the addition of a molecule of water. This reaction is catalyzed by fumarase. 205
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BOTANY Higher Secondary Second Year
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Preface The most important and cruc
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1. Taxonomy PRACTICALS (30 periods)
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1. TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS Taxonomy
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compared to perianth with two whorl
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a total variety or species. To conc
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well known system of classification
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Self Evaluation I . Choose and writ
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Series (iii) Calyciflorae It includ
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Class III Monocotyledonae Seeds of
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5. How many families were described
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Flower Bracteate or ebracteate, bra
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A twig Sepal Epicalyx Calyx A petal
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Self evaluation I . Choose and writ
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Inflorescence Usually a raceme eg.
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Calyx Ovary Gynoecium Bracteole Flo
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5. Fibre plants Fibres obtained fro
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1.3.3. RUBIACEAE - the coffee famil
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Stem Leaf Aerial, erect, branched,
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1. Beverage plants ECONOMIC IMPORTA
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1.3.4. ASTERACEAE - the sunflower f
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Habit Root Stem Leaf Botanical desc
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Fruit Seed A cypsela. Non-endosperm
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Flower Bracteate (eg. Petunia hybri
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Stamen Epipetalous stamens T.S. of
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(eg. Jatropha curcas). In xerophyti
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Perianth Tepals 5, arranged in sing
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1. Food plants ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
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MONOCOT FAMILY 1.3.7 MUSACEAE - the
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Habit Root Stem Botanical descripti
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Androecium Stamens 6, in two whorls
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1.3.8. ARECACEAE - the palm family
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Habit Botanical description of Coco
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Gynoecium Absent but pistillode is
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II. Answer the following questions
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Classification of meristem Based on
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oval, spherical, rectangular, cylin
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Fibres Fibre cells are dead cells.
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Tracheid conducting elements in ang
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a lining layer of cytoplasm. This i
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2. Epidermis protects the underlyin
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made up of barrel shaped parenchyma
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2.2. Anatomy of monocot and dicot r
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The endodermal cells, which are opp
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Cortex Cortex consists of only pare
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Ground plan A sector enlarged Fig.
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Ground plan A sector enlarged Fig.
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Xylem Xylem consists of xylem fibre
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2.4. Anatomy of a dicot and monocot
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Vascular tissues Vascular tissues a
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1. Formation of interfascicular cam
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Formation of periderm As secondary
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Each annual ring refers to one year
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8. What are complementary cells? 9.
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chromosome has one centromere and t
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Chromosomal puff Dark band inter ba
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The genome size of an individual is
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ound pollen (bbll). All the F1 hybr
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points called chiasmata. Crossing o
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3.4. Recombination of chromosome Th
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Point or gene mutation Point mutati
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127 Fig. 3.6 Chromosomal aberration
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Autopolyploidy Ploidy - flow chart
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cells was injected into the mouse,
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Replication fork Super coil DNA pol
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3.8. Structure of RNA and its types
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Role of RNA in protein synthesis Th
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The transfer of message present in
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IV. Answer the following questions
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to join DNA fragments. Thus the res
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Ti plasmid T-DNA Foreign DNA Bacter
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Restriction enzyme and ligase do no
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4.2 Transgenic plants Introduction
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Page 161 and 162: 2. The number of transgenic plants
Page 163 and 164: Pot plant Explant Inoculation Surfa
Page 165 and 166: . Embryogenesis Formation of embryo
Page 167 and 168: II. Answer the following questions
Page 169 and 170: Strain A Strain B Isolation of prot
Page 171 and 172: The term ‘single cell protein’
Page 173 and 174: 8. What is PEG? 9. How do you remov
Page 175 and 176: Many enzymes consists of a protein
Page 177 and 178: 5.1.3. Theories explaining the mech
Page 179 and 180: II. Answer the following questions
Page 181 and 182: 5.2.1. Significance of photosynthes
Page 183 and 184: The reactions of photosynthesis can
Page 185 and 186: 179 Fig. 5.8. Non-cyclic photophosp
Page 187 and 188: Difference between cyclic and noncy
Page 189 and 190: power NADPH 2 . So, two molecules o
Page 191 and 192: Fig.5.11 Hatch-Slack pathway of CO
Page 193 and 194: Difference between C 3 and C 4 phot
Page 195 and 196: Glycine molecules enter into mitoch
Page 197 and 198: Among leaf factors, such as leaf ag
Page 199 and 200: Epiphyte eg. Vanda Aerial root Part
Page 201 and 202: When an insect is attracted by the
Page 203 and 204: 11. The gas evolved during photosyn
Page 205 and 206: 40. Explain the test tube and funne
Page 207 and 208: 201 Fig. 5.17 Overall scheme of res
Page 209: Fig. 5.18 Process of Glycolysis 203
Page 213 and 214: 9. The malic acid is oxidized to ox
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Page 217 and 218: Nonoxidative phase In this phase, v
Page 219 and 220: Respiratory quotient for anaerobic
Page 221 and 222: 5. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is cle
Page 223 and 224: 32. Write short notes on anaerobic
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Page 233 and 234: 5.5. Photoperiodism and vernalizati
Page 235 and 236: c. sunflower d. maize 4. Which of t
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Page 239 and 240: Clonal selection Crops like sugarca
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Page 243 and 244: methods new improved crops are obta
Page 245 and 246: 6.2. Crop diseases and their contro
Page 247 and 248: Pathogen The mycelium of Cercospora
Page 249 and 250: 3. They also bring about considerab
Page 251 and 252: It is hoped that one day geneticall
Page 253 and 254: 2. The genetic resources of the dev
Page 255 and 256: This will affect millions of uneduc
Page 257 and 258: additives. It depends upon crop rot
Page 259 and 260: COMMONLY AVAILABLE MEDICINAL PLANTS
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urinary infections, tuberculosis, m
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Groundnut oil is used to a limited
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