A review of dipterocarps - Center for International Forestry Research

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Non-Timber Forest Products from Dipterocarps Shorea robusta or sal is another important producer of oleoresin in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. It yields an oleoresin known as sal dammar, ‘ral’ or lal dhuma’. Earlier tapping methods gave low and erratic yields. The method recently employed is to cut 3-5 narrow strips of bark 90-120 cm above the ground. When the tree is blazed the oleoresin oozes out as a whitish liquid and on exposure it hardens quickly and turns brown. The cut is freshened by scraping off the hardened resin. In about 12 days the grooves are filled with resin. The grooves are freshened and resin is collected periodically in July, October and January. A good mature tree yields about 5 kg of resin annually. The essential oil, sal resin, on dry distillation yields an essential oil, known as ‘chua oil’. The yield of the oil varies from 41 to 68% depending upon the source of the oleoresin samples. The oil is light brownish yellow in colour and has an agreeable incense-like odour, with specific gravity 0.9420, acid value 4.42, saponification value 15.72 and saponification value after acetylation 39.49. It consists of 96.0% neutral, 3% and 1% phenolic and acidic fractions, respectively. Chua oil is used as a fixative in heavy perfumes, for flavouring chewing and smoking tobacco and in medicine as an antiseptic for skin diseases and ear troubles. The non-phenolic portion of the oil has a suppressing effect on the central nervous system, the phenolic portion is less effective. Vateria indica is also an important source of oleoresin in India. The trade names used for the oleoresin are piney resin, white dammar, Indian copal and dhupa. The trees are tapped either using semi-circular incisions or a fire is lit at the base of the tree so as to scorch the bark, which then splits and the resin exudes. The resin is in three forms: i) compact piney resin which is hard, in lumps of varying shapes, bright orange to dull yellow in colour, with a glossy fracture and resembling amber in appearance, is called Indian dammar; ii) cellular soft piney resin which occurs in shining masses, having balsamic odour, and light green to yellow or white in colour, is called a piney varnish; and iii) dark coloured piney resin from old trees. The resin is a complex mixture of several triterpene hydrocarbons, ketones, alcohols and acids along with small amounts of sesquiterprenes. On distillation, the oleoresin gives an essential oil (76%) with a balsamic odour. The oil consists of phenolic constituents and azulenes, with the latter predominating. The essential oil has a marked antibacterial property against gram negative and gram 190 positive microorganisms (Howes 1949, Chopra et al. 1958). The resin readily dissolves in turpentine, camphorated alcohol and is used in the manufacture of varnishes, paints and anatomical preparations. The liquefied resin mixed with hot drying oil makes a varnish, superior to copal, for carriages and furniture. The resin is used to make incense, for setting gold ornaments, caulking boats (Trotter 1940) and in rural areas, resin mixed with coconut oil is used as torches and candles. It is a good substitute for Malayan dammar and, in solution in chloroform, for amber in photographers’ varnish. The resin has medicinal value. It is credited with tonic, carminative and expectorant properties and is used for throat troubles, chronic bronchitis, piles, diarrhoea, rheumatism, tubercular glands, boils etc. Mixed with gingili (sesame) oil, it is used for gonorrhoea and mixed with pounded fruits, obtained from Piper longum (longpepper), and butter or ghee it is useful for the treatment of syphilis and ulcers. An ointment of resin, wax and the fat of Garcinia indica is effective against carbuncles. It forms a good emollient for plasters and ointment bases (Kirtikar and Basu 1935, Chopra et al. 1958, WOI 1989a). In Southeast Asia the important oleoresin trees are Dipterocarpus cornutus, D. crinitus, D. hasseltii, D. kerrii and D. grandiflorus. The old method of tapping is by notching a hole in the trunk and blazing to stimulate further oleoresin flow. This is repeated at about weekly intervals and the yield per tree is 150 to 280 ml per tapping (Gianno 1986). A less brutal method has been developed, known as the barkchipped method accompanied by application of chemical stimulants, which is less destructive and the yield and oleoresin quality better (Ibrahim et al. 1990). The oleoresin is processed to separate the essential oil from the resin. The essential oil, known commercially as gurjan balsam, is used as a fixative or a base in perfume preparations and occasionally as an adulterant of patchouli and copaiba balsam oils. Traditionally the oleoresin is used for caulking the inside of boats, coating wood as a protection against weather, in torches, and for medicinal purposes. The oil is also used to make varnishes in backyard industries (Burkill 1935). While the biggest suppliers of gurjan balsam oil are Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, limited quantities are produced in India and the Philippines. Sumatra is the biggest producer of all, and in 1984 it produced about 20 tonnes of the oil (Lawrence 1985). The oil is now becoming scarce with an
Non-Timber Forest Products from Dipterocarps increasing demand, resulting in increased prices. The price is currently over US $30 per four gallon tin. The oleoresin is mainly collected by natives and aborigines and has a ready market in Singapore where it is exported to Europe. There are several other less important dipterocarps which are tapped for oleoresin: • Dipterocarpus bourdilloni, a species from Kerala, India, yields opaque, straw yellow, viscid oleoresin which on standing deposits a crystalline unsaturated hydroxy ketone, C H O , M.P. 125 24 42 2 o-126oC. When distilled with steam at 100o , 245o and 380o C it gives 37% 65% and 76% respectively, essential oil (Anon. 1989). • Dipterocarpus costatus from Burma produces a resin used in the treatment of ulcers. • Dipterocarpus gracilis found in Bangladesh and India, produces a good quality oleoresin used in the soapindustry and also as an antiseptic for gonorrhoea and urinary diseases. • Dipterocarpus grandiflorus belonging to the Andamans, Thailand and the Malesian region, produces an oleoresin which exudes as a thick fluid which changes into a semi-plastic mass on long exposure to air. The exudate has a thick honey - like consistency and a balsamic odour, is reddish brown in colour and contains 35% volatile oil and a hard, yellow, lustrous resin soluble to the extent of 75% in alcohol. The oleoresin used in varnish is dissolved in equal parts of linseed oil and turpentine, and dries slowly to a tough hard film. • Dipterocarpus hispidus of Sri Lanka produces resin that has been found to contain dipterocarpol, dammarenediol, and ocotillone. • Dipterocarpus indicus is a species of west coast, tropical, evergreen forests of India. Its oleoresin is used in the preparation of spirit, oil varnishes and lithographic inks. It is also used as an adulterant of dammar and as an application for rheumatism. • Dipterocarpus macrocarpus of India and Burma produces oleoresin that is used as a lubricant and in soap making. • Dipterocarpus obtusifolius of Burma, Thailand, Indochina and northern Peninsular Malaysia has oleoresin that yields a clear, white or yellow resin which burns readily (Watt 1899). • Dryobalanops aromatica found in W. Malesia yields an oleoresin that is aromatic, volatile and is used in 191 medicine, in the preparation of toothpaste, powders and as a diaphoretic and antiseptic; it is also used for treating hysteria and dysmenorrhoea (Agarwal 1986). • Parashorea stellata, a species found in Burma, Thailand, Indochina and Peninsular Malaysia, produces resin which is used as a fumigant. • Shorea siamensis, found in Burma, yields a red resin. • Shorea megistophylla, a species found in Sri Lanka, yields resin that contains ursolic acid, 2-alpha, 3-beta dihydroxyurs - 12-Cn-28-oic acid, asiatic acid and Caryophyllene (Bandaranayake et al. 1975). • Shorea obtusa from Burma produces a white resin. • Shorea roxburghii, a widespread species found in India, Burma, Thailand, Indochina and Peninsular Malaysia, yields a resin, which is used as stimulant and for fumigation (Anon. 1985a, WOI 1988). • Shorea tumbuggaia is a species found in India which yields a resin which is used as an incense and as a substitute in marine yards for pitch. It is also used in indigenous medicine as an external stimulant and a substitute for Abietis; Resina and Pix Burgundica of European pharmacopoeias (Watt 1899). • Vatica chinensis, a species found in India and Sri Lanka, yields abundant resin nearly transparent and yellow in colour resembling that of V. lanceaefolia and used in varnishes. • Vatica lanceaefolia from Bangladesh, Burma and India, yields from its bark a clean, white, aromatic oleoresin which turns light amber in colour on hardening and is used as incense. When distilled, a strong smelling essential oil (9.2%) commonly known as scented balsam or ‘chua’ is obtained. It is used to flavour chewing tobacco with betel leaves. It also yields a strong smelling balsam ‘ghunf’ used in religious ceremonies. Piney tallow, dupade oil, piney yennai, or tam, obtained from the seeds is mainly used for lamps and is also suitable for soap and candle making. • Vatica obscura, found in Sri Lanka, produces a gummy exudation used for caulking boats. • Vatica tumbuggaia, a species found in India, yields a good quality oleoresin. Dammars Dammar is the hard, solid or brittle resin which hardens soon after exudation when its small content of essential oil evaporates. Although all dipterocarps produce dammar, only a few are of commercial importance. In Southeast Asia, the important genera are Neobalanocarpus, Hopea and Shorea. The most
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A Review of Dipterocarps Taxonomy,
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ã 1998 by Center for International
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Authors S. Appanah Forest Research
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SPINs Species Improvement Network T
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Foreword The Center for Internation
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Introduction As a consequence, much
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Introduction each project that is m
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Biogeography and Evolutionary Syste
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Conservation of Genetic Resources i
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Seed Physiology P.B. Tompsett Seed
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Seed Physiology 59 (Sasaki 1980, Ya
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Seed Physiology 61 § orthodox; and
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Seed Physiology 63 Table 4. Lowest-
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Seed Physiology 65 Table 5. (contin
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Seed Physiology 67 Table 6. Viabili
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Seed Physiology 69 Dipterocarp seed
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Seed Physiology 71 Roberts, E.H. 19
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Seed Handling 74 viability of the s
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Seed Handling 76 the basic activiti
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Seed Handling 78 Table 2. Seed (fru
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Seed Handling 80 Table 3. Mean inse
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Seed Handling 82 Seedling storage u
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Seed Handling 84 air will ensure ra
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Seed Handling 86 ASEAN Forest Tree
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Seed Handling 88 Tompsett, P.B. and
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Seedling Ecology of Mixed-Dipteroca
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition Table
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition Table
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition specie
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition in Sab
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition where
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition 5. Lim
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition Group
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Root Symbiosis and Nutrition Takaha
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Pests and Diseases of Dipterocarpac
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Management of Natural Forests S. Ap
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Management of Natural Forests about
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Page 155 and 156: Management of Natural Forests Uebel
Page 157 and 158: Plantations 152 macrocarpa, V. indi
Page 159 and 160: Plantations 154 are: Dipterocarpus
Page 161 and 162: Plantations 156 and no longer in ne
Page 163 and 164: Plantations 158 able to store them
Page 165 and 166: Plantations 160 ‘Predictive Test
Page 167 and 168: Plantations 162 Qureshi et al. (196
Page 169 and 170: Plantations 164 Tomboc and Basada (
Page 171 and 172: Plantations 166 are removed. Anothe
Page 173 and 174: Plantations 168 intervention. Sange
Page 175 and 176: Plantations 170 mono-layered. The r
Page 177 and 178: Plantations 172 diameter of 46.3 m
Page 179 and 180: Plantations 174 Ang, L.H., Maruyama
Page 181 and 182: Plantations 176 Cheah, L.C. 1971. A
Page 183 and 184: Plantations 178 Kadambi, K. 1957. B
Page 185 and 186: Plantations 180 Moura-Costa, P. 199
Page 187 and 188: Plantations 182 Regional Workshop o
Page 189 and 190: Plantations 184 Conference on Dipte
Page 191 and 192: Non-Timber Forest Products from Dip
Page 193: Non-Timber Forest Products from Dip
Page 203 and 204: Scientific Index BIXALES, 25 BOLETA
Page 205 and 206: Scientific Index EPHEMEROPTERA, 119
Page 207 and 208: Scientific Index Ovalis section, 8,
Page 209 and 210: Scientific Index Shorea leptoderma,
Page 211 and 212: Scientific Index VATERINAE sub-trib
Page 213 and 214: General Index barus kapur, 192-3 ba
Page 215 and 216: General Index endangered species, i
Page 217 and 218: General Index distribution, 15 enda
Page 219 and 220: General Index nurse crops, 161, 165
Page 221 and 222: General Index seed material, cryopr
Page 223: General Index TPI, 139 tractors, 15
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