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how much legal autonomy Jews had and begin to understand how Jews engaged with a number of coexisting legal orders. By studying the ways in which Jews and Muslims used various kinds of courts on a quotidian basis, we can move beyond either a neo-lachrymose conception of Jewish history or one which views the past with rose-tinted lenses. Instead, we can begin to grasp how the legal and confessional pluralism of the Islamic Mediterranean fostered a society into which Jews could be fundamentally integrated in the absence of emancipation or religious equality. 378
Glossary of Arabic and Hebrew Terms: ‘Aqd: Islamic legal document notarized by ‘udūl (pl. ‘uqūd). Beit din: Jewish law court (pl. batei din). Dayyan: Jewish judge. Dhimma: Literally, “protection.” The contract by which non-Muslim monotheists were granted certain rights in an Islamic state. Dhimmī: protected non-Muslim monotheist. In the Moroccan context, dhimmī was synonymous with Jew. Duwār: a small village. Fatwā: Islamic responsum. Funduq: warehouse. Halakhah: Jewish law. al-Ḥazān: title used in Arabic for distinguished Jews. Ḥazaqah: usufruct rights on a property (as stipulated by Jewish law). Ḥubs: Islamic pious endowment (pl. ḥubūs, also called a waqf, pl. awqāf). Ketubbah: Jewish marriage contract (pl. ketubbot). Khalīfa: provincial viceroy or deputy of another official. In Morocco, this term did not connote “caliph” but rather any deputy—usually of the Sultan. Lafīf: type of testimony in which twelve Muslim men testified to something about which they had personal knowledge. Makhzan: Moroccan central government. Maqāl: the initial allegation or deposition in a lawsuit in a sharī‘a court. Maẓālim: refers to a kind of tribunal in which the ruling authorities (the sultan or one of his ministers) heard appeals from subjects about instances of injustice (maẓlima). Millāḥ: Jewish quarter. 379
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IN THE COURTS OF THE NATIONS: JEWS,
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Abstract This dissertation examines
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Table of Contents Abstract………
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throughout the process was vital to
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and Arielle Rubenstein, Stephanie S
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Introduction This dissertation exam
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on the internal history of the Jewi
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cases they made up close to half of
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study of law in the Islamic world w
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of these institutions remain opaque
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and, for some individuals, appealin
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actors with agency and to understan
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many of those who espouse the neo-l
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In recent years, the neo-lachrymose
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alternative framework to that of au
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including courts—which were of pr
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Recently scholars working on the me
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We are left with two models of Jewi
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Legal pluralism is an approach to u
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orders. I also turn the focus from
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Nonetheless, the tendency of forum
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Legal pluralism does not explain wh
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Jewish communities were no less var
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is perhaps best attested by the fac
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To help remind readers that the thr
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abusive Makhzan officials, infringe
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Chapter One: Between Batei Din and
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went to batei din and sharī‘a co
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school relevant for our purposes is
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Jewish and Islamic legal systems re
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ehind, a large number were undoubte
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atei din generally, it does reflect
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Jews used batei din not only as not
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Jerusalem. 33 The collection consis
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(azraqu al-‘aynayn)—a trait for
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undoubtedly made much of their mone
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preventing members of the community
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‘udūl. 76 These ‘udūl, whose
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Eliyahu b. Ya'aqov Zohra bat Ya‘a
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and Muḥammad would return the mon
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Table 2.1 Types of Entries 2% 2% 2%
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allegation or deposition in a case
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court approximately once a week, ei
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The introduction of the “protecti
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ule; the ‘udūl almost always too
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documents would stand up as evidenc
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Empire. 49 A document in the Assarr
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legal procedure was relatively mino
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een optional as not all bills of de
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Qa‘da 1309 (June 12, 1892), two
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mostly meant extending credit on go
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Other release documents specify tha
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al-faqīh Aḥmad al-Filālī al-Ma
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Lease contracts, on the other hand,
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which was operated by Muslims durin
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Shalom’s knowledge of Islamic law
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elow). Although the majority of law
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weeks after the plaintiff filed the
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gathered twelve men who testified t
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whether the qāḍī accepted al-
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in the Assarraf collection indicate
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(ittifāqīyan) and were testifying
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In another instance of oath avoidan
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Sharī‘a courts provided a crucia
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agreement notarized according to Is
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ability and desire to move among di
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‘udūl. 14 Most real estate trans
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equire or benefit from adjudication
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Simultaneous Use of Jewish and Isla
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evidence from the nineteenth centur
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to sue other Jews in sharī‘a cou
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But what about intra-Jewish lawsuit
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ut for the most part this is a here
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the sum of three duoros per month.
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only in Jewish law. This happened i
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in the millāḥ of Marrakesh on Ap
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aware of Jewish law and sometimes t
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of a rabbi to determine the proper
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‘Aṭṭār, in order to find out
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Muslims’ jurisdictional boundary
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that they had successfully done so.
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the Moroccan legal system more broa
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translated as the territories under
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elatively scant work on the legal h
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law, even if they did not consisten
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abrupt end after his death, as the
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put it, “in all medieval Muslim s
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about its image in the eyes of fore
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an injustice or an act of oppressio
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In designing its new army, the Makh
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The Ministry itself, although in co
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Minister of Complaints, a man about
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It is not entirely clear whether th
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initial letters. 102 The convention
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whether the sultan simply failed to
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Chapter Five: Appeals to the Minist
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Jews and the Ministry of Complaints
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The nature of these sources prevent
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Causes for Complaint Most of the ap
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products (such as barley). 23 This,
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appears numerous times). 29 While t
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matter what their religious backgro
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when amounts are specified they ten
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cases which were ultimately settled
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Jews who had been robbed. 62 The su
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from July 28, 1892, a group of Jews
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nature of sharī‘a courts. 83 In
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legal proof of his claim. 91 It is
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the Jewish victims were compensated
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central government could only do so
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and Muslim was responsible for arra
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sometimes the Makhzan officials’
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A more formidable obstacle to settl
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The Jewish creditor, however, reque
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The practice of exaggerating the va
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official accused a Jew of falsifyin
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esolve disputes with their Jewish d
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property. 178 In this case, the Mak
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Chapter Six: Collective Appeals to
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frequency of Jews’ petitions acro
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The concentration of petitions duri
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“right”—as in, the rights to
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merchants serve as judges on a rota
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Makhzan officials at times evoked t
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The evidence of Jews’ appeals to
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governor). 46 The next winter the J
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along with a legal document contain
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Following this escalation of violen
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The governor of Debdou similarly pr
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custom and the sultan’s command.
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minister of foreign affairs, receiv
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Yet murder cases were not the only
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Moroccan legal system. On the one h
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In 1884 the Jews of Fez appealed to
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Although at first these appeals mig
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The Jews of Meknes appealed to the
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In other instances, Makhzan officia
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about their own coreligionists. The
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Europeans—a sentiment that at oth
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complain about their muḥtasib, em
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Chapter Seven: Foreign Protection a
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Perhaps most important, however, is
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of consular courts functioned throu
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of Muslims from becoming protégés
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cases between its own nationals or
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of consular courts by specifying th
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an important moment in the history
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were required to notify their consu
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dealt with cases by means other tha
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In other instances, consuls wrote t
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qāḍī” attesting a debt owed t
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The following two chapters examine
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clarify when and why he had taken t
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Even scholars who argue against see
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ecognize their contract since “th
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of the individuals concerned. 31 Pr
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concerning the incident, which they
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speculated that the reluctance of t
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protection) of Yitzḥaq b. Nissim
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cooperate with foreigners’ reques
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Dinar Ohana), an American protégé
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Jews tried to ensure a fortuitous o
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ordered Assayag to stop paying Zagu
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efused. 100 Faced with this dead en
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claimed that Emsellem had no right
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number of foreign subjects and prot
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By subjecting the suit to Moroccan
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sued Mas‘ūd al-Shayẓamī (Meso
Page 337 and 338: Foreign subjects and protégés wer
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Page 341 and 342: AIU’s attention either through pe
Page 343 and 344: A competing narrative of Moroccan J
Page 345 and 346: non-Jewish Westerners alike, I argu
Page 347 and 348: international press. Demnat might s
Page 349 and 350: attribute the Makhzan’s efforts t
Page 351 and 352: The events in Demnat were not the o
Page 353 and 354: finally wrote to Muḥammad Bargās
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Page 357 and 358: of 1863. Four Jews were accused of
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Page 361 and 362: etracted his initial testimony clai
Page 363 and 364: the remaining two subjects. Only af
Page 365 and 366: organizations, and the foreign pres
Page 367 and 368: Marseillais, The Times, The Pall Ma
Page 369 and 370: coreligionists’ position. 112 Avn
Page 371 and 372: had been following the standard pra
Page 373 and 374: did not declare that Jews and Musli
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Page 377 and 378: tolerance. 142 Such a policy would
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Page 381 and 382: Epilogue On March 30, 1912, France
Page 383 and 384: courts to matters of personal statu
Page 385 and 386: This sort of continuity in legal pr
Page 387: intra-Jewish cases to these courts
Page 391 and 392: Ẓahīr: Royal decree (spelled “
Page 393 and 394: United States: United States Nation
Page 395 and 396: ———. Kitāb al-istiqṣā li-
Page 397 and 398: Becker, Jerónimo. España y Marrue
Page 399 and 400: Chetrit, Joseph. Diglossie, hybrida
Page 401 and 402: Ennaji, Mohammed. Expansion europé
Page 403 and 404: Gotzmann, Andreas. “At Home in Ma
Page 405 and 406: ———. Les protégés : contrib
Page 407 and 408: Marcus, Abraham. The Middle East on
Page 409 and 410: Perron, M. Précis de jurisprudence
Page 411 and 412: ———. “Forum Shopping Among
Page 413: Cultural Dimensions, edited by Mich
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