Integration: mapping the field volume II - Nationalarchives.gov.uk

Integration: mapping the field
volume II - distilling policy
lessons from the "mapping
the field" exercise
Claire Fyvie
Alastair Ager
Gavan Curley
Maja Korac
Home Office Online Report 29/03
The views expressed in this report are those of the authors, not necessarily those of the Home Office (nor do they
reflect Government policy).

Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Publications and reports by NGOs and statutory bodies. UK references dating
from 1996 onwards: Immigrants and refugees : Claire Fyvie & Alastair Ager
Queen Margaret University College, Edinburgh
Executive summary 4
Section 1. Immigrants and migrants 4
General 4
Adult education training and employment 5
Health 6
Housing 6
Section 2: Refugees 7
General 7
Adult education training and employment 8
Health 8
Housing 9
Publications and reports by NGO’s and statutory bodies;
Section 1: Immigrants and migrants
1. General 10
The Scottish Office Central Research Unit (1999) The Impact of Migration
in Rural Scotland. The Scottish Office: Edinburgh.
Kam Yu, W. (2000) Chinese Older People: A Need for Social Inclusion in
Two Communities (Summary Report). The Policy Press.
McLeod, M., Owen, D., & Khamis, C. (2000) Black and Minority Ethnic
Voluntary and Community Organisations: Their Role and Future
Development in England and Wales. Policy Studies Institute: London.
Netto, G. et al (2001) Audit of Research on Minority Ethnic Issues in
Scotland from a ‘Race’ Perspective. Scottish Executive Central Research
Unit.
i
3
10
10
11
13
15

2. Adult education, training and employment 17
Berthoud, R. (1998) Incomes of Ethnic Minorities. Policy Studies Institute:
London.
Blair, M., Bourne, J. et al (1998) Making the Difference: Teaching and
Learning Strategies in Successful Multi-ethnic Schools. DfEE: London.
Shropshire, J., Warton, R. & Walker, R. (1999) Unemployment and
Jobseeking: Specific Groups and their Experiences. DfEE: London.
Fitzgerald, R., Finch, S. & Nove, A. (2000) Black Caribbean Young Men’s
Experiences of Education and Employment. DfEE: London.
Owen, D., Green, A., Pitcher, J., & Maguire, M. (2000) Minority Ethnic
Participation and Achievements in Education, Training and the Labour
Market. DfEE: London.
Pathak, S. (2000) Race Research for the Future: Ethnicity in Education,
Training and the Labour Market. DfEE: London.
3. Health 28
Ahmad, W. et al (1998) Deafness and Ethnicity: Services, Policy and
Politics. The Policy Press.
Department of Health (2000) Learning Difficulties and Ethnicity. Centre for
Research in Primary Care, University of Leeds/ DoH.
Qureshi, T., Berridge, D., & Wenman, H. (2000) Where to Turn? Family
Support for South Asian Communities. National Children’s Bureau.
Scottish Executive (2001) Fair for All: Improving the Health of Ethnic
Minority Groups and the Wider Community in Scotland. Scottish Executive:
Edinburgh.
4. Housing 35
Radia, K. (1996) Ignored, Silenced, Neglected: Housing and Mental Health
Care Needs of Asian People. YPS for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Royce, C. et al (1996) Set up to Fail? The Experiences of Black Housing
Associations. York Publishing Services: York.
Property Research Unit, University of Cambridge (1998) Rents, Viability
and Value in Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Associations. Joseph
Rowntree Foundation.
ii
17
18
21
22
24
26
28
29
31
32
35
37
38

Section 2: Refugees 40
1. General 40
Refugee Council (1996) The State of Asylum: a Critique of Asylum Policy in
the UK. Refugee Council: London.
Refugee Council (1997) An Agenda for Action: Challenges for Refugee
Settlement in the UK. Refugee Council: London
Refugee Council (1998) Refugee Women’s Directory: a Directory of
Resources across the UK for Women Asylum Seekers and Refugees. Refugee
Council: London.
Knox, Katharine (1999) A Credit to the Nation: A Study of Refugees in the
United Kingdom. Refugee Council: London.
Refugee Council (1999) Unwanted Journey: Why Central European Roma
are fleeing to the UK. Refugee Council / Christian Aid: London.
Asylum Rights Campaign (2000) Out of Sight, Out of Mind: A Report on the
Dispersal of Asylum Seekers in the UK. Asylum Rights Campaign: London.
Audit Commission (2000) Another Country: Implementing Dispersal under
the Immigration and Asylum Act 1999. Audit Commission: London.
Oxfam / T&G / Refugee Council (2000) Token Gestures: the Effects of the
Voucher Scheme on Asylum Seekers and Organisations in the UK. Oxfam /
T&G / Refugee Council: London.
2. Adult education, training and employment 52
Refugee Education and Training Working Group (Undated), Refugee
Education Policy for the 1990s: Towards Implementing the Refugee
Education Charter. Refugee Council / World University Service: London.
Refugee Council (undated) Refugee Employment and Training: a Positive
Policy for the 1990s. Refugee Council: London.
Salinas, Corinne/World University Service (1997) Refugee Engineers in the
UK: a Study of Engineering Employers and Refugees Qualified as
Engineers. World University Service (RETAS): London.
Africa Educational Trust (1998) Refugee Education, Training and
Employment in Inner London: a Baseline Study. FOCUS Central London
Ltd: London.
iii
40
41
42
43
44
46
48
51
52
54
56
58

Horn of Africa Youth Scheme (HAYS) and Save The Children Fund (1998)
Let’s Spell It Out: Peer Research on the Educational Support Needs of
Young Refugees and Asylum Seekers Living in Kensington and Chelsea.
Save the Children Fund: London.
The Industrial Society (1999) Turning Refugees into Employees: Research
into the Barriers to Employment perceived by Women Refugees in London.
The Industrial Society (in association with Fair Play): London.
Refugee Council/MbA Training Research and Development Ltd. (1999)
Creating the Conditions for Refugees to Find Work. Refugee Council:
London.
Refugee Education and Training Advisory Service / Redbridge Signposting
Centre / Charities Evaluation Services (2000) What Worked For Us?
Empowerment through Joint Evaluation. Refugee Education and Training
Advisory Service: London.
Rosenkranz, Hernan (2000) A Concise Guide to Refugees’ Education and
Qualifications. World University Service / RETAS: London.
Peters, Helen/University of North London (2001) Portfolio Building for the
Purpose of AP(E)L: A Self-Access Pack for Qualified and/or Experienced
Refugees and Asylum Seekers in the UK. Refugee Assessment and Guidance
Unit: London.
3. Health 70
Health Education Authority (1998) Promoting the Health of Refugees. A
Report of the Health Education Authority’s Expert Working Group on
Refugee Health: Its Present State and Future Directions. Immigration Law
Practitioners Association: London. Funded by the Health Education
Authority.
Aldous, J. et al (1999) Refugee Health in London: Key Issues for Public
Health. Health of Londoners Project: London. Supported by London’s
Health Authorities and their Directors of Public Health.
CVS Consultants and Migrant and Refugee Communities Forum (1999) A
Shattered World: The Mental Health Needs of Refugees and Newly Arrived
Communities. CVS Consultants: London.
Levenson, R. & Sharma, A. (1999) The Health of Refugee Children:
Guidelines for Paediatricians. Kings Fund/Royal College of Paediatrics and
Child Health: London.
Refugee Council (1999) Refugee Health Services Directory: a Directory of
Health Services for Refugees Provided by Statutory and Voluntary Sector.
Refugee Council: London.
iv
60
63
65
67
68
69
70
72
74
77
78

Dean, R. (2000) The Mental Health Status of Refugees from Kosovo at The
London Park Hotel. King’s College, University of London: London.
Gosling, R. (2000) The Needs of Young Refugees in Lambeth, Southwark
and Lewisham. Community Health South London NHS Trust: London.
Funded by the LSL Health Action Zone.
Woodhead, D. (2000) The Health and Well-being of Asylum Seekers and
Refugees. Kings Fund: London.
Department of Health/Schwartz, M. (2001) Survey of the Experience of
Three Refugee Communities in Camden and Islington in Accessing Health
Care. Department of Health: London.
4. Housing 86
Refugee Council/Association of London Government (1996) No Place to
Call Home: Report and Recommendations for London Local Authorities on
the Implementation of New Legislation Affecting Refugees and Asylum
Seekers. Association of London Government: London.
CARILA Latin American Welfare Group (1997) The Housing Situation of
Latin American Refugees Living in London. CARILA (Latin American
Welfare Group): London. Funded by the Housing Associations Charitable
Trust (HACT).
Refugee Council (1998) Rent-in-Advance Guarantee Scheme: End of
Project Report. Refugee Council: London. Funded by J. Paul Getty Jnr.
Charitable Trust, the Housing Associations’ Charitable Trust, the Housing
Corporation and Refugee Housing.
Garvie, Deborah (2001) Far From Home: the Housing of Asylum Seekers
in Private Rented Accommodation. Shelter: London. Funded by the
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation.
Published Academic Research about the Integration of Immigrants from 1996-
2001: Gavan Curley
Executive Summary 94
v
79
80
82
84
86
87
89
91
93

General 95
Education and training 95
Labour market 96
Health 97
Housing 97
1. General 98
Israel, Mark. (1996). ‘The “Strangest of Minorities”: The Shifting
Visibility of South African Post-War Migration to Britain.’ New
Community, 1996, 22, 3, 479-493.
Berry, John. (1997). ‘Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation.’
Applied Psychology: An International Review/Psychologie Appliquee:
Revue Internationale, 46, 1, Jan, 5-34.
Dörr, S. and Faist, T. (1997). ‘Institutional conditions for the integration of
immigrants in welfare states: a comparison of the literature on Germany,
France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands.’ European Journal of Political
Research, 31, 4, 401-426.
Kagitcbasi, Cigdem. (1997). ‘Whither Multiculturalism?’ Applied
Psychology: An International Review/Psychologie Appliquee: Revue
Internationale, 46, 1, Jan, 44-49.
Triandis, Harry C. (1997). ‘Where is Culture in the Acculturation
Model?’. Applied Psychology: An International Review/Psychologie
Appliquee: Revue Internationale, 46, 1, Jan, 55-58.
Ward, Collen. (1997). ‘Culture Learning, Acculturative Stress, and
Psychopathology: Three Perspectives on Acculturation.’ Applied
Psychology: An International Review/Psychologie Appliquee: Revue
Internationale, 46, 1, Jan, 58-62.
Kershen, A.J. (ed). (1997). London: The Promised Land? The Migrant
Experience in a Capital City. Aldershot: Avebury
Wrench, J. (1997). ‘New Towns and Racism: Barriers to mobility for
settled migrant populations in Great Britain’ in B.S. Bolaria and R. E.
Bolaria (eds) International Labour Migrations. Oxford University Press:
Delhi
Joppke, Christian. (1999). Immigration and the Nation-state: the United
States, Germany, and Great Britain. OUP: Oxford.
vi
98
99
101
104
104
104
105
106
108

Siddhisena, K.A.P. And White, P. (1999). ‘The Sri Lankan Population of
Great Britain: Migration and Settlement.’ Asian and Pacific Migration
Journal, 8, 511-536
Banton, M. Kymlicka, W. and Westin, C. (2000) ‘Report of the
Commission on the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain: UK, North American
and Continental European Perspectives.’ Journal of Ethnic and Migration
Studies, 26, 4, 719-738
Parekh, Bhikhu. (2000). The Future of Multi-ethnic Britain. Runnymede
Trust/Profile Books: London,
Banton, Michael. (2001). ‘National Integration in France and Britain.’
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27, 1, 151-168
2. Education and training 116
Bryan, Beverley. (1996). ‘Learning School: Cross-Cultural Differences in
the Teaching of English.’ Changing English, 3, 2, Oct, 201-207.
Chaplin, R.H. Thorp, C, Ismail I.A., Collacott, R.A. and Bhaumik, S.
(1996). ‘Psychiatric disorder in Asian adults with learning disabilities:
Patterns of service use.’ Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 40,
298-304, Part 4.
Crabb, Ruth. (1996). ‘Working with Hassan.’ Multicultural Teaching, 14,
2, Spr., 22-25
Wrench, J. and Hassan, E. (1996). Ambition and Marginalisation: A
qualitative study of under-achieving young men of Afro-Caribbean origin
Research Studies RS31. Department for Education and Employment:
London
Ghuman, P.A.S. (1997). ‘Assimilation or integration? A study of Asian
adolescents.’ Educational Research, 39, 1, 23-36.
Lightbody, Pauline, Nicholson, Stephen, Siann, Gerda and Walsh, Dave.
(1997). ‘A Respectable Job: Factors Which Influence Young Asians'
Choice of Career.’ British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 25, 1,
Feb, 67-79
Kahin, Mohamed H. (1998). ‘Somali Children: The Need to Work in
Partnership with Parents and Community.’ Multicultural Teaching, 17, 1,
Aut., 4-16
vii
110
111
112
114
116
118
119
120
122
124
125

Parker-Jenkins, Marie and Haw, Kaye Francis. (1998). ‘Educational Needs
of Muslim Children in Britain: Accommodation or Neglect?’ Steven
Vertovec and Alisdair Rogers (eds.), Muslim European Youth:
Reproducing Ethnicity, Religion, Culture. Research in Ethnic Relations
Series, 193-215
Leblond, Dominique and Trincaz, Jacqueline. (1999). ‘Pluriculturality in
the French and British Education Systems: Cross Perspectives.’ Eduation
and Social Justice, 1, 3, 16-24
Rassool, Naz. (1999). ‘Flexible Identities: Exploring Race and Gender
Issues among a Group of Immigrant Pupils in an Inner-City
Comprehensive School.’ British Journal of Sociology of Education, 20, 1,
March 23-36.
3. Labour market 131
Gidoomal, Ram. (1997). The UK Maharajahs: Inside the South Asian
Success Story. Nicholas Brealy Publishing : London
Shields, M. A. and Wheatley Price, S. (1998). ‘The earnings of male
immigrants in England: evidence from the quarterly LFS.’ Applied
Economics, 30, 9, 1157-1168.
Cox, R. (1999). ‘The Role of Ethnicity in Shaping the Domestic
Employment Sector in Britain.’ J. Momsen (ed.), Gender, Migration and
Domestic Service. London: Routledge.
Mingione, E. (1999). ‘Immigrants and the informal economy in European
cities.’ International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 23, 2, 209-
211
Wrench, John, Hassan, Edgar and Qureshi, Tarek. (1999). ‘From School to
the Labour Market in Britain: the Qualitative Exposure of Structures of
Exclusion.’ John Wrench, Andrea Rea and Nouria Ouali (eds.), Migrants,
Ethnic Minorities and the Labour Market: Integration and Exclusion in
Europe, 54-71. London: MacMillan Press
Brown, Mark Simon. (2000). ‘Religion and Economic Activity in the
South Asian Population.’ Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23, 6, Nov, 1035-
1061.
Kershen, Anne J. (ed.). (2000). Language, Labour and Migration.
Ashgate: Aldershot and Burlington.
Edin, P.A., Fredriksson, P. and Aslund, O. (2001). Ethnic Enclaves and
The Economic Success of Immigrants - Evidence from a Natural
Experiment. Discussion Paper Series- Centre For Economic Policy
Research London, 2729
viii
126
128
130
131
133
134
135
136
138
140
142

Wheatley Price, Stephen. (2001). ‘The Unemployment Experience of Male
Immigrants in England.’ Applied Economics, 33, 201-215
4. Health 145
Haour-Knipe, Mary and Rector, Richard. (1996). Conclusion: Shaping a
Response. Mary Haour-Knipe and Richard Rector (eds.) Crossing Borders:
Migration, Ethnicity and AIDS, 239-245. Taylor and Francis : London
Chan, Yiu Man. (1997). ‘Educational Experiences of Chinese Pupils in
Manchester.’ Multicultural Teaching, 15, 3, Sum. 37-42
Eade, John. (1997). ‘The Power of the Experts: The Plurality of Beliefs and
Practices Concerning Health and Illness among Bangladeshis in
Contemporary Tower Hamlets, London.’ Lara Marks and Michael
Worboys, (eds.), Migrants, Minorities and Health: Historical and
Contemporary Studies, 250-271. Routledge : London
Rait, G. Burns A. (1997). ‘Appreciating background and culture: the
South Asian elderly and mental health.’ International Journal Of Geriatric
Psychiatry, 12, 10, 973-977.
Wedderburn-Tate, C. (1998). ‘Backs to the future: The contribution
Caribbean immigrants have made to the NHS.’ Nursing Management, 5, 4,
5
Baraitser, Paula. (1999). ‘Family Planning and Sexual Health:
Understanding the Needs of South Asian Women in Glasgow.’ Journal of
Ethnic and Migration Studies, 25, 1, 133-150
Chan, Christine. (2000). ‘The Quality of Life of Women of Chinese
Origin.’ Health & Social Care in the Community, 8, 3, May, 212-222.
5. Housing 155
Bowes, Alison, Dar, Naira and Sim, Duncan. (1997). ‘Tenure Preference
and Housing Strategy: An Exploration of Pakistani Experiences.’ Housing
Studies, 12, 1, Jan, 63 - 84
Sandhu, H. (1999). ‘Housing needs of Asian elders.’ Axis, 54, 3, 17 157
Published academic research on refugees in Britain 1996-2002: Dr Maja Korac 158
ix
143
145
147
148
149
150
151
153
155

Executive Summary 159
General 159
Education and training 160
Labour market 160
Health 161
Housing 161
1. General 163
Lam, T and Martin, C. (1997) The settlement of the Vietnamese in
London: official policy and refugee responses. London: South Bank
University
Kaye, Ron (1998) Redefining the Refugee: The UK Media Portrayal of
Asylum Seekers (in The New Migration in Europe: Social Constructions
and Social Realities, Ed’s Khalid Koser and Helma Lutz.. Basingstoke:
Macmillan
Robinson, Vaughan (1998) “The importance of information in the
resettlement of refugees in the UK” Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 11,
No. 2, p 146-160)
Robinson, Vaughan (1999) “Clusters of ignorance, disbelief and denial:
refugees in Wales” Journal of Refugee Studies Vol. 12, No. 1, p 78-87
Bloch, Alice (2000) “Refugee settlement in Britain: the impact of policy on
participation” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1, p.
75-88
Griffiths David, (2000) “Fragmentation and consolidation: the contrasting
case of Somali and Kurdish refugees in London” Journal of Refugee
Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3, p. 281-302
Robinson, Vaughan (2000) “Lessons learned? A critical review of the
government programme to resettle Bosnian quota refugees in the United
Kingdom” International Migration Review, Vol.34, No. 4, p. 1217-1244
Zetter, Roger and Pearl, Martyn (2000) “The minority within the minority:
refugee community-based organisations in the UK and the impact of
restrictionism on asylum-seekers” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies,
Vol. 26, No. 4, p. 675-697
x
163
165
167
169
171
175
177
180

2. Education and Training 183
Bloch, Alice (1996) Beating the barriers: the employment and training
needs of refugees in Newham London: London Borough of Newham (also
relevant to 3. Labour Market)
McDonald, Jeremy (1998) “Refugee Students’ experiences of the UK
education system” in Refugee Education: mapping the field, edited by Jones
Crisps and Jill Rutter, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham
Power, Sally; Whitty, Geoff and Youdell, Deborah (1998) “Refugees,
asylum seekers and the housing crisis: no place to learn” in Refugee
Education: mapping the field, edited by Jones Crisps and Jill Rutter, Stokeon-Trent:
Trentham
3. Labour market 192
Pile, Helga (1997) The asylum trap: the labour market experiences of
refugees with professional qualification London: Low Pay Unit
4. Health 195
Gorst-Unsworth. C. and E. Goldenberg (1998) “Psychological sequelae of
torture and organised violence suffered by refugees from Iraq” British
Journal of Psychiatry, 1998, Vol. 172, p. 90-94
Jones, David. and Gill, Paramjit S. (1998) “Refugees and primary care:
tackling the inequalities.” British Medical Journal, Vol. 317, , p. 1444-1446
Hargreaves, Sally, Holmes, Alison and Jon S. Friendland (1999) 'Health care
provision for asylum seekers and refugees in the uk'. The Lancet, Vol. 353,
May 1, 1999, p. 1497-1498
Bell, Andy (2000) “Asylum seekers: needy, not guilty” British Journal of
Health Care Management, Vol. 6, No. 5, p. 229-230
Burnett, Angela and Peel, Michael Health (2001) “Needs of asylum seekers
and refugees in the UK” British Medical Journal, Vol. 322, 3, p. 544-547
6. Housing 205
xi
183
187
189
194
196
197
199
201
203

Zetter, Roger and Martyn Pearl (1999a) “Sheltering on the margins: social
housing provision and the impact of restrictionism on asylum seekers and
refugees in the UK” Policy Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, p. 235-254
Zetter, Roger and Martyn Pearl (1999b) “Managing to survive: Asylum seekers,
refugees and access to social housing” Bristol: Policy Press
xii
205
207

Introduction
The ‘Integration: Mapping the Field’ project surveyed British research on immigrants
and refugees conducted between 1996 – 2001 predominantly within academic and
NGO sectors (over 3200 bibliographic references). The exercise included extensive
searches of literature and current research alongside interviews with numerous experts
in both sectors. The research produced two reports. The first report entitled
Integration: Mapping the Field Volume I, outlines conceptual and methodological
issues, significant gaps in knowledge, and views on the future development of policyrelevant
research on integration of immigrants and refugees in the UK. It
demonstrates that there is a serious lack of data and other factual knowledge about
processes and factors of immigrant and refugee integration. It also contains a number
of databases covering bibliographies of academic publications and reports by NGOs
and statutory bodies, lists of current research, key journals, websites, research centres
and relevant organisations.
This report constitutes Volume II of the Mapping the Field project. In it a selection of
studies from Mapping the Field: Volume I are reviewed. As Volume I by necessity
had the broad remit of mapping the entire literature regarding integration it was not
possible to go into detail regarding particular studies. Volume II then provides a more
thorough review of a selection of the work mentioned in Volume I. Together Volumes
I and II constitute an in-depth reference document that can be utilised both to inform
policy and to inform future research.
This document consists of three reports that specifically review selections of:
• Publications and reports by NGOs and statutory bodies on immigrants and
refugees produced between 1996-2002.
• Published academic research about the integration of immigrants from 1996-2002
• Published academic research on refugees in Britain between 1996-2002
Each of the three reports reviews studies exploring a variety of themes from a range
of different perspectives for both immigrants and refugees including:
1) general issues relating to these populations;
2) education and training;
3) labour market;
4) health; and
5) housing.
The five categories mentioned above are by no means the only important aspects of
integration that call for special attention. Rather these categories have been chosen
because they are considered a minimum requirement for the integration process to
start. Furthermore a number of studies and / or reports listed under these categories
include examination of other aspects of integration. For example, specific groups (e.g.
families, children, women), welfare and social policy, discrimination and racism,
justice and legal systems etc. In addition, it is expected that literature under the
category “General” will include studies and reports that approach integration
‘holistically’ and more as a process rather than focusing on a single aspect of
settlement. Also, it is considered that literature in this category also includes studies
1

that address conceptual and methodological issues concerning integration in a more
general sense.
A selection criteria was adopted in order to decide which of the 3,200 citations from
Volume I were to be more fully reviewed in Volume II. In order to give as broad but
in-depth review as possible a wide variety of research and reports were examined.
Selection criteria were developed to help select a wide variety of research and reports
concerning parameters such as: scope (i.e. local regional, national), specific focus (i.e.
refugees and or immigrants in general, specific ethnic groups and or elderly, women,
children, family). Therefore, the goal of the selection criteria was to enhance selection
of a number of bibliographic references that approach integration from different
perspectives and thus are suitable for closer examination of their potential to influence
policy. These criteria for selection ensured that studies from different viewpoints and
on a range of different topics were reviewed.
In particular, attention is paid to the focuses adopted by individual studies, their
methodologies and findings and the policy recommendations that arise from these.
Within the five categories the studies are listed in ascending and then alphabetical
order, thus indicating the progression of research up to the current date.
In attempting to distil policy lessons from the ‘Mapping the Field’ exercise, the
methodological limitations of many of the studies are reviewed, in terms of the
populations they access and the research methods applied. Many of the studies,
particularly but not exclusively those produced by NGOs and statutory bodies, lack
methodological detail, making it impossible to determine the validity of the evidence
base for the policy recommendations they propose. A large proportion of the studies
employ qualitative techniques or are based on small-scale surveys or anecdotal
evidence, frequently relating to local areas or particular ethnic groupings. These
limitations suggest that caution should be applied when accepting the policy
recommendations arising from these studies’ findings, as their strength and
generalisability are in many cases unclear or limited.
However, this Volume combined with Volume I provide a comprehensive reference
tool that will be useful in terms of reviewing current research into integration,
providing a guide for further research.
2

Publications and reports by NGOs and statutory
bodies. UK references dating from 1996 onwards:
Immigrants and refugees
Claire Fyvie & Alastair Ager
3

Publications and reports by NGOs and statutory bodies. UK references dating
from 1996 onwards: Immigrants and refugees
Executive summary
The integration of immigrants and refugees in the UK is a complex, multidimensional
process that relates to all aspects of the social, cultural, civil, economic
and political life of the nation. For the purposes of this review, this process has been
analysed in terms of four major themes: general issues; adult education, training and
employment; health; and housing. These four themes are not the only aspects of
integration worthy of attention. Nor do the references selected here for discussion
constitute the only significant work of relevance to these themes. Rather, reflecting
the terms of reference of the review and the need to ‘scale down’ the vast literature
identified within the ‘Mapping the Field’ exercise, the information presented here
should be viewed as a ‘snapshot’ of the work conducted in this field, demonstrating
the great variety of perspectives from which integration has been approached, and
pointing to some of the valuable sources of information that are useful in distilling
policy lessons for the UK.
The reviewed publications and reports from NGOs and statutory bodies represent a
very broad spread of approaches to research and evidence. Some are clearly driven by
the motivation for advocacy on behalf of minority ethnic or refugee groups, with
recommendations reflecting value positions rather more strongly than an evidence
base. Many of these make no reference to methodological issues, give no indication
of the basis of their recommendations, or simply make no recommendations at all.
Others represent rigorous and objective evaluations of need and service effectiveness,
and provide detailed methodologies and clearly derived recommendations. The
conclusions below seek to take into consideration such varied agendas and
methodologies in the presentation of findings. Where they are known, the methods of
data collection and the evidence base of recommendations are reported and critiqued.
Studies that allow such analysis represent a minority of the publications and reports
reviewed here, however, and the information gaps inevitably compromise the extent
to which policy lessons can be drawn. In this respect, researchers interested in
influencing future policy on immigrants and refugees clearly need to become more
aware of the limitations they impose on the utility of their findings, when they fail to
make methodological details explicit in their reports. Details of sampling and
interview methods are particularly important if the generalisability, validity and
reliability of findings are to be appraised. In view of these limitations, the summary
pages which follow indicate the weighting that might appropriately be attached to
particular reports.
Section 1: Immigrants and migrants
General
People from minority ethnic groupings appear to be all but invisible in official data
sets, resulting in a scarcity of major quantitative analyses and a general lack of clear
evidence on which to base policy recommendations. Attempts to identify basic
patterns of service use have thus been severely hampered, as have efforts to make
4

meaningful comparisons with the majority population, or to monitor change
systematically. There have, however, been many small-scale, qualitative studies,
largely restricted to local areas, that have effectively articulated the views and
experiences of service users. Common themes emerging from this body of work
indicate generally low levels of knowledge and use of services by minority ethnic
people, the existence of substantial language barriers, a lack of awareness of social
rights, evidence of institutional and structural barriers to accessing public services,
and widespread experiences of substantial inequalities, racism and discrimination.
Beyond identifying such commonalties, the studies summarised in this review
demonstrate that needs of differing minority ethnic groups vary widely given their
frequently distinctive social and economic profiles. In so doing, these studies reaffirm
the widespread finding that it is both difficult and unwise to represent minority ethnic
groups as a single, homogenous mass at which policy initiatives can be aimed in equal
measure. The evidence suggests instead that each group should be viewed as a
separate research and policy grouping, whether this is within universal policies, such
as social exclusion, or within specifically targeted programmes.
Underlining the need for policy to reflect the diversity of minority ethnic groups, the
majority of studies reviewed here advocate a needs-led approach involving greater
flexibility in the design and delivery of services that can take account of individual
requirements, and of cultural and religious preferences. Difficulties in communication
between persons from minority ethnic groupings and service providers are particularly
well documented. Recommendations on this issue go far beyond the provision of
interpreting services, advocating the routine involvement of minority ethnic
community groups in service planning and implementation across the policy
spectrum. The importance of multi-agency working is also consistently highlighted,
particularly in terms of the potential for collaboration between mainstream statutory
or voluntary projects and minority ethnic-led voluntary agencies.
Adult education, training and employment
Studies in this section highlight the need to understand the heterogeneity that exists
within the ethnic minority population in the UK. With regard to education and
employment issues, people from different ethnic minority groups have quite different
experiences, and even within ethnic groupings, there are important differences in
participation and achievement. Whilst there has been an improvement in the position
of Indian and Chinese ethnic groups, for example, there is a clear pattern of
continuous underachievement for other minority ethnic groups, starting in early and
compulsory education, continuing through further and higher education, and
persisting in the labour market. Three particular ethnic groups consistently underperform
in the education system and the labour market, namely Bangladeshis, black
Caribbeans and Pakistanis. Indeed, people of Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin
represent the lowest attaining groups on virtually every measure, demonstrating, for
example, four times the poverty rate found among white people.
To address these issues effectively, the reviewed literature consistently calls for clear
policies based on robust and reliable evidence. Methodological limitations, however,
such as small sample sizes, and a lack of socio-economic information at both local
and national levels, mean that the current evidence base for informing policy in this
5

sector remains incomplete and inconclusive. Further research and analysis is clearly
needed to investigate why people from certain ethnic groups are more disadvantaged
in terms of their education and employment than others.
Health
The development of clear policy guidelines in the health sector is similarly hampered
by a lack of national and regional level analyses of both quantitative and qualitative
data. Although some Health Boards and Trusts are already responding to the service
needs of minority ethnic communities, many have not undertaken basic health needs
assessments and consequently have little knowledge of the ethnic minority
populations they serve. In the absence of such information, health organisations
appear to be tackling ethnic minority health problems in a piecemeal fashion, mainly
through a series of one-off, short-term, time-limited projects.
There are consequently widespread calls for a more strategic approach based on a
core set of values that can provide clear guidelines for action. Direct consultation and
engagement with users from ethnic minority communities is widely viewed as a key
element of such an approach, and the extension of existing mechanisms of
consultation is recommended with a view to achieving this. The recruitment and
retention of ethnic minority staff, particularly in front-line and senior management
levels, are also regarded as essential developments if successful integration is to be
achieved, and the NHS is encouraged to design recruitment and selection policies that
can ensure equal opportunities in this respect.
Although the literature seems to regard a quality mainstream health service that is
sensitive to the needs of all users as the ideal option, the resource limitations of the
NHS clearly have implications for the policy issue of mainstreaming versus specialist
provision. As in the other main sectors considered in this review, it would seem that
the cultural needs of some minority ethnic health service users are currently more
likely to be met in specialist provision than in mainstream services. Specialist services
often have a more intimate knowledge of the needs and cultural background of
minority ethnic groups, are frequently more aware of race equality issues, and may
have extensive experience of working with these populations. There is evidence,
however, that specialist service provision is generally under-resourced and insecure,
and often hampered by rigid funding remits. Decisions at both national and local
levels about the funding, extent, and nature of such services will thus have farreaching
consequences for the health needs of these minority groups.
Housing
The call for the protection and development of specialist services is echoed in the
housing sector, alongside general recognition that the needs of minority ethnic groups
are not being met satisfactorily by mainstream services. Evidence reviewed here on
black and minority ethnic housing associations, however, suggests that, whilst being
particularly sensitive to the needs of minority ethnic groups by providing language
services and offering culturally more appropriate homes, such specialist associations
are more vulnerable to financial change than mainstream associations, and without
continued government support may thus be at greater risk in terms of their future
survival.
6

More generally, housing policies that treat ethnic minorities as a single, unified group
are widely condemned. Whilst minority ethnic groups appear to have been at the
receiving end of a wide range of housing initiatives such as urban renewal
programmes, they have generally not been adequately involved in their planning and
implementation. Such programmes have consequently often ignored the diversity and
differences within local areas. Calls are therefore made for improvements in the
information bases of localities and in the targeting of initiatives. Some have
recommended that minority ethnic representation on partnership boards and networks
should be a condition of funding for future housing projects. This would need to be
undertaken as a strategic policy, however, with guidelines ensuring effective
involvement rather than tokenism.
Section 2: Refugees
General
Although the multitude of inter-related factors influencing the process of integration
indicate that a holistic approach should be favoured, studies indicate that coherence
and co-ordination have often been lacking in policy and practice towards refugees in
the UK. Apart from a few short-term projects, provision has been ad hoc, patchy and
in the hands of a great variety of agencies, many of which have operated in ignorance
of the work of others. This lack of joint working is widely perceived to be a serious
threat to the effective implementation of the governmental policy, along with poorly
co-ordinated policy guidance from key government departments, and inadequate
resources for both the statutory and voluntary sectors.
Significant policy lessons are suggested by the reviewed studies for both local
authorities and regional consortia, and for government departments. Due to the
current lack of information available on refugee populations, the former clearly need
more effectively to identify the needs and profile of all asylum seekers and refugees in
their area, and to carry out strategic reviews of all existing services and resources for
these populations. On the basis of such information they would then be in a stronger
position to consider how resources can be pooled to develop joint provision, and to
develop effective consultation mechanisms that ensure the involvement of asylum
seekers and refugees in further service planning. The importance of promoting
refugee community organisations is consistently highlighted throughout the literature,
and local authorities would appropriately ensure that local grant criteria address the
needs of these particular groups.
Recommendations to government based on the evidence of the review generally focus
on strengthening the national framework and are therefore aimed mostly at the Home
Office, although there are policy implications too for the Department of Health, the
Department of Social Security, and the Department for Education and Employment.
Protocols for information sharing among government departments, and from
government departments to local agencies, are among the key recommendations to
arise from the review, as are calls to issue good practice guidance to local authorities
in dispersal areas. All such recommendations are prefaced by the need to provide
adequate resources for the voluntary and statutory sectors to strengthen the support
infrastructure in cluster locations.
7

Adult Education, training and employment
Many studies have highlighted the low levels of employment among refugees in the
UK, with estimated unemployment rates varying between 75% to 90% depending on
methodology and geographical area. Underemployment is acknowledged to be
another major problem. Despite apparently high levels of qualifications among many
refugees in Britain, the majority work in informal, short term, low paid, menial jobs
with no job security. Refugee women are particularly excluded from the labour
market, with a very low proportion in work.
There is a high degree of consensus in the reviewed literature about the main barriers
that impede access to employment. These include a lack of adequate spoken and
written English; a lack of work experience gained in the UK; non recognition of
qualifications obtained overseas; a lack of information about employment and training
services; a lack of information about refugee support networks and organisations; a
lack of knowledge about the UK job search culture and labour market; cultural
barriers to effective job seeking; employers’ lack of understanding about immigration
status; racial discrimination by employers; and a lack of childcare provision.
Refugee community organisations again appear to have a key role in overcoming
these barriers, and policies aimed at increasing their capacities with respect to
education and employment services are widely supported. Throughout the literature,
particular emphasis is also placed on investment in teaching refugees English, and the
importance of accessible, affordable, multi-level teaching is consistently highlighted.
The introduction of systems that would facilitate the recognition of overseas
qualifications is also advised.
Reviewed studies support a number of specific changes in government policies,
including the standardised provision of education and employment related
information to refugees and asylum seekers on their arrival in the UK; the reform of
the benefit system to facilitate the combination of part-time work with receipt of
benefits; the launch of initiatives to educate employers about the skills refugees have
to offer; and the introduction of changes to immigration procedures that would
improve the confidence of employers to employ refugees.
Health
Although there is limited research in the UK on the health problems of refugees and
even less on the effectiveness of refugee-specific services, there is some consensus on
a number of points. The majority of refugees appear to have satisfactory physical
health status on arrival in the UK. Many of the health problems that subsequently
emerge are attributable to the poverty and social exclusion they face in the UK. A
significant minority of refugees may, nonetheless, experience persistent post
traumatic mental health problems deriving from their earlier experiences.
Although the uptake of registration with GPs among refugees appears reasonably
high, difficulties in accessing health services are well documented in the literature.
The main barriers to accessing health appear to be related to the response of primary
care services, language and cultural differences, a lack of information about the NHS,
8

and poor awareness of refugee issues and entitlement among health professionals.
Approaches that emphasise the work of refugee community organisations are again
considered to be particularly effective in overcoming some of these barriers. Other
key recommendations include the improvement of language support, the provision of
standardised health information packages to all refugees and asylum seekers entering
the country, and the development of systems to disseminate information throughout
the health service.
Housing
Refugees and asylum seekers tend to live in temporary accommodation, much of
which is substandard, and many share overcrowded accommodation with friends or
relatives. As a result of changes in legislation in 1999, homeless asylum seekers are
now excluded from the mainstream social housing system in the UK, and are
increasingly being placed in the private rented sector where there is no effective
regulatory regime. The inexperience of non-housing agencies, poor inter-agency cooperation,
and the urgent need to procure large numbers of dwellings within strict
budgets, are all held responsible for the widespread poor practice in this sector.
Evidence suggests the value of a thorough review of the housing for asylum seekers
provided by NASS, particularly in relation to homes subcontracted from private
landlords. Co-ordination with local authorities, refugee community groups and other
relevant agencies in the provision of housing for asylum seekers receiving refugee
status clearly needs to be improved. Studies also suggest the empowerment of local
housing enforcement agencies and the involvement of refugee community groups in
the development of suitable local housing schemes.
9

1. General
Publications and reports by NGO’s and statutory bodies
Section 1: Immigrants and migrants
The Scottish Office Central Research Unit (1999) The Impact of Migration in
Rural Scotland. The Scottish Office: Edinburgh.
Focus
This study looks at patterns of migration in Scotland and examines the impact of inmigration
in a selection of case study communities: Skye, North East Fife, Kyle and
Carrick, Black Isle, Mearns and Crieff.
Methodological issues
This research was conducted between March 1997 and July 1998 by a research team
from Aberdeen and Dundee Universities. The study consisted of analysis of migration
patterns using existing data sources; a study questionnaire survey of 689 households;
personal interviews with 33 people living in the case study areas; and consultation
with agencies and organisations with an interest in rural Scotland.
The term ‘migrant’ is not defined in this summary report, but it would appear to refer
mainly to people indigenous to the UK. Such a population might be expected to have
different experiences to those from ethnic minority communities whose countries of
origin are outside the UK. The findings of this report may therefore have very limited
relevance for policy makers concerned with ethnic minority issues.
Main findings
Between 1991 and 1995 the population of rural Scotland increased by 35,000 and
this pattern of in-migration to rural Scotland is set to increase;
The 1991 census data show that young people in the 16-29 age group formed 36%
of in-migrants to rural areas, and that only 7% of in-migrants were over 65;
Migrants are attracted by the quality of life, caring communities, a robust rural
economy, landscapes and environment, and good service provision;
In-migration is bringing prosperity to rural Scotland: migration has boosted the
rural economy and created rural jobs, often through self-employment;
Migrants are making a valuable contribution to rural community life, supporting
local organisations and joining in with local sporting and social activities;
The increase in the rural population has policy implications for national and local
government, notably in relation to housing and service provision.
Recommendations
No recommendations were made.
10

Kam Yu, W. (2000) Chinese Older People: A Need for Social Inclusion in Two
Communities (Summary Report). The Policy Press.
Focus
This study examines the caring needs of Chinese older people from a user’s
perspective and explores a number of aspects of life for the Chinese community
which particularly affect older people.
Methodological issues
This study is based on interviews and focus groups carried out in 1998 and 1999 with
a total of 100 Chinese older people (over the age of 60) in London, Glasgow,
Rotherham, Doncaster, Sheffield and Barnsley. The research also included a survey of
the health of Chinese women, a review of the Home Affairs Committee Report on
Chinese people, a study of the needs and problems of middle-aged Chinese people, a
study of Chinese ex-mentally ill people, a study of the attractiveness of meeting points
for Chinese people, and a study of the views of professionals on the improvement of
the social and economic position of Chinese older people.
Further details of the methodology were not available in this summary report, and the
degree to which the findings are representative of the older Chinese population in
general is therefore unknown. Nevertheless, a number of practical ways of
implementing the report’s recommendations are usefully listed here, and these
deserve consideration should further methodological information become available.
Main findings
The common causes of older people’s detachment from the mainstream
community included: language barriers, insufficient knowledge of social and public
services, lack of awareness of social rights, low expectations of their life in the UK,
negative experience of retirement, poor mental and physical health, and poor selfimage;
97% of respondents said they found it difficult to use social services. Difficulties
included: inability to speak English and particularly to understand social services
jargon, lack of information about services and older people’s rights to these, and the
costs of using services;
Respondents’ self-esteem was low: 65% thought that they were seen as “useless”
and “burdens” because they no longer made any contribution to society and their
family. Over half described their mood as “a little sad” or “very sad” most of the time;
Factors leading to older people’s detachment from the Chinese community
included inadequate support from their family, low physical mobility, and poor social
networks;
The ability of middle-aged Chinese people to care for older dependants is often
exaggerated. In common with older people, they face difficulties in using formal
caring services, such as language barriers, lack of knowledge of social services, and
difficulties expressing health concepts from their own cultural perspective. They also
have to deal with their own problems, such as economic pressures and occupational
hazards.
11

Recommendations
Chinese older people’s participation in society should be increased;
Raise the visibility of their needs;
Improve access to services;
Raise their expectations of retirement;
Provide life-long learning opportunities.
12

McLeod, M., Owen, D., & Khamis, C. (2000) Black and Minority Ethnic
Voluntary and Community Organisations: Their Role and Future Development in
England and Wales. Policy Studies Institute: London.
Focus
This mapping exercise identifies black and minority ethnic-led voluntary and
community organisations throughout England and Wales, and explores the role that
these organisations play.
Methodological issues
The study was conducted by the Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations at Warwick
University and CSR Partnership, a Birmingham-based regeneration consultancy.
Data were collected by means of a postal questionnaire sent to 1,000 randomly
selected black and minority ethnic organisations: 200 replies were received. Case
studies were also conducted in the Soho and Handsworth areas of Birmingham and
the Stonebridge and Alperton areas of Brent, London. Organisations in the two case
study areas were interviewed in greater depth. Data were also gathered from a survey
of 300 black and minority ethnic residents and semi-structured interviews with 50
mainstream agencies and funders.
The term ‘black and minority ethnic’ is used here to mean ‘visible’ (non-white)
minorities and ‘black and minority ethnic organisations’ are defined as organisations
primarily led by and serving people from black and minority ethnic communities.
This mapping exercise is the first large-scale study of these organisations in England
and Wales, and it therefore represents a potentially very useful source of information.
Its results should be interpreted in the light of its 20% response rate to the postal
questionnaire, however, and in the absence of methodological details concerning the
case studies, residents survey and semi-structured interviews, the extent to which its
findings are valid or reliable is unknown.
Main findings
Around 5,500 black and minority ethnic voluntary and community organisations
currently operate in England and Wales;
They provide a varied range of services to minority ethnic communities,
particularly to people with significant social and economic needs. They tend to serve
particular minority ethnic communities, sometimes on a neighbourhood basis, but
more commonly on a town or borough basis;
The survey results challenge the common perception of these organisations as
being small, informal bodies living a hand-to-mouth existence. Almost 90% of
respondent organisations had a formal legal status and just over half had an annual
income of between £50,000 and £250,000;
The survey also suggests that organisations have staying power. More than 60%
had been in existence for ten years or more. Income for almost half the organisations
responding had been rising over the past five years. Nearly a quarter owned their
premises;
13

Nevertheless, the organisations surveyed were concerned about their
sustainability, particularly in connection with a lack of access to core funding
activities and lack of official recognition;
Interviews with people from black and minority ethnic communities suggest that
there is also a low level of awareness of the work being carried out by minority-led
organisations;
Mainstream funders’ policies with respect to these organisations vary greatly. Few
have an explicit policy for supporting them on an on-going basis, but some are
beginning to recognise that this needs to be done. There is a marked lack of a
“joining-up” of approaches to capacity building at the local level.
Recommendations
No recommendations were made.
14

Netto, G. et al (2001) Audit of Research on Minority Ethnic Issues in Scotland
from a ‘Race’ Perspective. Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.
Focus
This audit identifies and reviews research relating to minority ethnic people in
Scotland from 1990 onwards. It discusses key themes arising from the identified
research, highlights significant research gaps and suggests areas for future research.
Methodological issues
This study involved desk-based searches of published and unpublished literature and
an extensive postal survey to a wide range of organisations, distributed by both the
Scottish Ethnic Minorities Research Unit (SEMRU) and the Centre for Education for
Racial Equality in Scotland (CERES).
The main focus of the study was on ‘visible minorities’ (those born in the African and
Asian continents and their descendants), although research relating to other minority
ethnic groups, in particular refugees and asylum seekers and gypsy travellers, has also
been included in the study.
The authors state that broad definitions of ‘visible minorities’ and ‘research’ were
adopted with a view to maximising the information available about minority ethnic
communities in Scotland. Beyond these definitional issues, however, they do not
indicate their selection criteria for inclusion in the audit and the degree to which the
reviewed literature is representative of the entire field is therefore unknown.
Nevertheless, the electronic database of research material which was constructed as
part of this study represents a major resource for policy makers working in this field.
Main findings
There were few national, regional or longitudinal studies relating to the minority
ethnic population and few comparative studies between the majority and minority
ethnic population. Instead, there was a predominance of small-scale qualitative studies
that were restricted to local areas;
Many studies articulated the views and experiences of service users and potential
users. Few studies evaluated the extent to which lead organisations had mainstreamed
race equality into their organisational structures and processes;
Research activity tends to have concentrated on housing, education, social care
and health issues. Less attention has been paid to access to justice or employment and
enterprise; and even less to poverty, rural issues and issues related to identity or
involvement in the democratic process;
Cross-cutting themes emerging from the research identified by the audit include
the need for public service design and delivery to reflect individual needs, including
cultural and religious requirements; low levels of knowledge and use of services by
minority ethnic people and evidence of institutional and structural barriers to
accessing public services. Identified research also provides evidence of racial
disadvantage, discrimination and harassment in some policy areas;
The audit highlights a lack of research on issues of identity, involvement in the
democratic process, diversity within and among minority ethnic groups or the nature
15

and impact of multiple discrimination. The audit also identifies a lack of evaluation of
the implementation of equal opportunities policies and a relative absence of a rural
dimension to minority ethnic research studies.
Recommendations
The audit suggests that cross-cutting research is required to support the
development of ethnic monitoring systems, to evaluate the impact of race equality
policy and practice in key policy areas, to explore issues of diversity, identity and
active citizenship, and to provide a rural research dimension to national research
studies.
16

2. Adult education, training and employment
Berthoud, R. (1998) Incomes of Ethnic Minorities. Policy Studies Institute:
London.
Focus
This study provides information on the total incomes available to minority
households.
Methodological issues
The study is based on detailed analysis of data from the Family Resources Survey for
1994/5 and 1995/6. This analysis covers 2,520 households from minority groups, as
well as nearly 50,000 white households. The samples of African and Chinese
households were, however, small and it is therefore not possible to be confident of the
accuracy of the estimates for these particular groups.
The summary report reviewed here provides no further information about the
methodology employed. Caution should therefore be applied to its findings in the
absence of further methodological information, not only with regard to this study, but
also with regard to the National Surveys on which its findings are based.
Main findings
Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are by far the poorest groups in the country. High
unemployment among men, low levels of economic activity among women, low pay,
and large family sizes, all contribute to a situation in which 60% of Pakistanis and
Bangladeshis are poor. This is four times the poverty rate found among white people;
Indian and Chinese people have high levels of employment, and their earnings are
on a par with those of white workers. Overall, however, their rates of poverty are
higher than for white households;
Many people of Caribbean origin are unemployed and there is a high rate of lone
parenthood in this community. Wages for Caribbean men (though not for women)
also tend to fall below those of their white equivalents. But overall, the rate of poverty
among Caribbeans is only slightly higher than among white households;
It is difficult to characterise Africans as a single group, and they have not
previously been the subjects of detailed study. But this research suggests that their
incomes are low - lower than those of Caribbeans with whom they are often
compared;
The social security system, and especially the means-tested benefits, contributes to
a large proportion of the incomes of some minority groups, especially Pakistanis and
Bangladeshis.
Recommendations
No recommendations are given in this paper.
17

Blair, M., Bourne, J. et al (1998) Making the Difference: Teaching and Learning
Strategies in Successful Multi-ethnic Schools. DfEE: London.
Focus
This report identifies the practices of ‘successful’ minority ethnic schools and
considers the extent to which these practices might be transferable between different
schools in different contexts.
Methodological issues
The researchers visited 11 primary and 18 secondary schools selected using the
OFSTED data base, and information from LEAs, educationalists, local communities
and parents. Girls’ schools were not included because research has indicated underachievement
of boys is a particular problem. Selective entry grammar schools were
also excluded.
The criteria used for selection were schools with over 10% of students from
Bangladeshi, black Caribbean or Pakistani backgrounds, who were shown to be
achieving specific standards. Of the schools visited, 3 primary and 2 secondary
schools were selected for the case studies. Two further secondary schools received
extra visits in order to focus on provision for Gypsy Traveller students and refugee
students. The final report draws on exemplar materials from 9 primary schools and 12
secondary schools.
Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and open-ended interviews
with Heads, senior management, subject and class teachers, support teachers and
classroom assistants, parents and students. Relevant LEA personnel were also
interviewed. School Development Plans, policy documents and monitoring records
were collected and analysed. The researchers also observed classes, attended afterschool
activities, staff meetings, a parents’ meeting, a governors’ meeting, and a staff
INSET. In addition, four focus group meetings were carried out, three with parents,
and one with head teachers and an LEA Advisor for refugees, all from the three main
ethnic groups.
This study uses clear and apparently valid sampling techniques and appears to survey
the views of a wide range of relevant personnel. Although the report states that it
draws on material from a total of 9 primary schools and 12 secondary schools,
however, the number and nature of the interviews conducted is not specified in this
summary report and therefore the degree to which the findings are representative is
unknown. In addition, it should be noted that the survey does not include girls’
schools, nor does it investigate the practices of schools with less than 10% of students
from ethnic minority backgrounds. In spite of these limitations, the broad base of
consultation described by the authors suggests that serious consideration should be
given to the detailed and practical recommendations presented in this report.
Main findings
18

A common feature of the case study schools was the strong and determined lead
on equal opportunities given by the head teacher;
Effective schools listened to and learnt from students and their parents, and tried
to see things from the students’ point of view;
Effective schools created links with local communities;
They tried to work with the “whole child”;
They had clear procedures for responding to racist bullying and racist harassment;
They worked on strategies for preventing exclusion;
There were high expectations of both teachers and students and clear systems for
targeting, tracking and monitoring of individual student progress;
Monitoring by ethnicity enabled schools to see whether all groups were achieving
equally, to identify unexpected shortcomings in provision, and to target specific areas
for attention. Monitoring also raised wider questions about setting, banding and
exclusion processes.
Recommendations
Leadership:
The training of head teachers should include a substantial element in which issues of
diversity, racism, the language demands of the curriculum and the broader needs of
diverse school populations are dealt with in a coherent and systematic way. These
issues should be an essential element of governor training. The framework for
continuing professional development being developed by the TTA offers the chance
for such a coherent approach;
Relationships in schools:
Issues of race and ethnicity should be included as a compulsory element of initial
teacher education as well as forming part of teachers’ continuing professional
development. Experienced practitioners also need space individually to reassess their
practice and update their acquaintance with research. Teachers need to be given skills
training on how to talk to students, how to mediate between them and between
groups, and how to enable students to listen and engage in constructive debate;
Effective strategies for raising standards:
Schools need to build systems of accountability into their structures, which help to
counter tendencies toward low academic expectations of minority ethnic group
students. Schools should work closely with parents to ensure that students take full
advantage of revision and homework sessions;
Ethnic monitoring:
Some way should be found of tying the national OFSTED data base on National
Curriculum Assessments or GCSE attainment to data on the presence of substantial
ethnic groups at the school cohort level. Ethnic monitoring needs to be incorporated
into the routine practices of schools, and its results used to break down stereotypes
and crude assumptions. National data needs to be collected by ethnic background on:
National Curriculum Assessments, GCSE and GNVQ results, banding and setting
placements, option choices, SEN referrals, exclusions, and attendance;
Specific provision:
Opportunities should be created for Section 11 language support teachers to take
specialist training courses and accreditation. Strategies for supporting the needs of
bilingual learners should be explicitly included in TTA arrangements for ITT course
accreditation, as well as in the National Literacy Strategy training programme.
Teachers need to develop an understanding of the specific needs of groups such as
19

efugees, gypsy travellers, and Afro-Caribbean students. They also need to devise
whole school strategies which are geared towards overcoming the blocks to academic
attainment, as well as the problems of early dropout and exclusion. There is an urgent
need to investigate the experience of transition to secondary school of minority ethnic
group students and to monitor the academic progress of high achieving primary
students when they transfer to secondary school. The TTA drive to recruit teachers
from minority ethnic groups should include explicit forms of monitoring their
professional development.
20

Shropshire, J., Warton, R. & Walker, R. (1999) Unemployment and Jobseeking:
Specific Groups and their Experiences. DfEE: London.
Focus
This report examines the causes of persistent and long-term unemployment among
particular groups of people, including ethnic minorities.
Methodological issues
The analysis was based on a re-examination of data collected in connection with the
evaluation of Jobseeker’s Allowance. These data were drawn from a representative
national survey of almost 5,000 people who were unemployed in June 1995.
Respondents were interviewed on three occasions over a two year period (Autumn
1995 to Summer 1997). The groups of interest were: people with disabilities (25% of
all claimants), people studying while claiming benefit (14%), ethnic minorities (11%),
postal signers (6%), and people working part-time while unemployed (3%).
This study appears to provide useful data comparing the experiences of unemployed
ethnic minorities with those of other groups of unemployed people. However, no
details of the methodology employed are provided in this summary report and in the
absence of further information its findings should be treated with caution.
Main findings
Ethnic minorities experienced greater difficulties finding and retaining work than
did other claimants;
Regardless of gender, more ethnic minorities held academic qualifications than
did other claimants;
The median length of unemployment experienced by those from ethnic minorities
was, at eight months, twice that for other respondents;
The problems ethnic minorities had in moving into work may have been
compounded by their unfamiliarity with the legalities around signing on as
unemployed and being able to participate in activities they believed would improve
their job prospects.
Recommendations
No recommendations were made in this summary report.
21

Fitzgerald, R., Finch, S. & Nove, A. (2000) Black Caribbean Young Men’s
Experiences of Education and Employment. DfEE: London.
Focus
This report presents quantitative data concerning the experiences of black Caribbean
young men with regard to education and employment.
Methodological issues
This report is based on 264 interviews with black Caribbean young men aged between
18 and 30. Interviews were carried out between July 1998 and February 1999. A
random sample was selected from addresses from the 50% of post code sectors most
densely populated by black Caribbean men as specified by the 1991 census. The
response rate was 58%. The researchers conclude that sample can therefore be said to
be representative of this half of 18-30 year old black Caribbean respondents and of
those people living in the 50% of postcodes most densely populated by the black
Caribbean community.
This is the largest study of this kind with black Caribbean young men and its findings
are potentially therefore of considerable interest to policy makers. The authors used
appropriate methods of random sampling; however, they do not supply details of their
interview methods in this summary report, and the findings must therefore be treated
with some caution. The wider generalisability of the findings may also be
constrained, as there is no evidence that they apply to black Caribbean young men
living in areas less densely populated by the black Caribbean community.
Main findings
Only 53% of black Caribbean young men interviewed in this study were
employed (compared with 81% of white males aged 18-30 interviewed in the Labour
Force Survey);
The following factors were found to have a positive association with a successful
labour market outcome: academic qualifications, access to private transport, job
quality score (job in last two years with particular benefits), and a positive parental
attitude towards school. Truancy at secondary school was found to have a negative
association with a successful labour market outcome;
The majority of respondents - employed or unemployed - held a positive view
towards work and the role it played or could play in their life, and a negative view
towards unemployment;
24% of respondents held academic qualifications only, 10% held vocational
qualifications only, 49% held both vocational and academic qualifications, and 16%
held no qualifications;
45% of respondents admitted to staying away from school without permission on
at least one occasion. The most important reasons cited for truancy were that the
lessons were boring, irrelevant or held no interest;
Education was seen as important by respondents;
When asked directly, 44% of those questioned said they felt they had been treated
unfairly because of the colour of their skin when trying to get a job; 32% said they
were treated unfairly because of their skin colour at work, and a quarter of
22

espondents said they had been unfairly treated when at school, college or university
for this reason.
Recommendations
No recommendations were made.
23

Owen, D., Green, A., Pitcher, J., & Maguire, M. (2000) Minority Ethnic
Participation and Achievements in Education, Training and the Labour Market.
DfEE: London.
Focus
This report presents statistics on ethnicity in the fields of education, training and the
labour market, with a view to providing a relatively up-to-date picture of the
experience of ethnic minority groups throughout the life course.
Methodological issues
This report presents the main findings of the Minority Ethnic Participation in
Education, Training and the Labour Market report. The main data sources used in
compiling the information were of three types: sample surveys, administrative
records, and the 1991 census. Further details of the methodology are not provided in
this summary report and the results should therefore be treated with caution. The main
findings would appear to be consistent with the findings of similar studies, however,
and a copy of the full report should therefore be sought with a view to providing
useful ‘benchmark’ data for policy makers.
Main findings
The experience of minority ethnic groups is not uniform. The accepted picture of
minority disadvantage ignores the evidence of considerable progress and achievement
by people from some minority ethnic groups in examination results, job creation and
career progression;
Minority ethnic groups are projected to account for more than half of the growth
in the working age population over the next ten years;
White students perform better than those from minority ethnic groups overall, but
fewer achieve 5 or more passes at GCSE grade A to C than those from Indian and
“other” ethnic groups;
Economic activity rates are higher for people aged 25 to 44 than for younger and
older people. Differences in participation rates among ethnic groups are least in this
age group. Amongst the older age groups differences in participation rates become
more apparent. The economic activity rate for Pakistani and Bangladeshi men in the
45-64 age group is 62% and 40% respectively. In comparison the economic activity
rate for white men is 78%;
White women earn more than women from minority ethnic groups in London, but
outside London, women from Chinese and “other” ethnic groups have highest
earnings. Men also display a similar earnings pattern;
Minority unemployment rates are usually at least twice as high as those for white
people, and highest for Bangladeshi, Pakistani and black African people. However,
Indian and Chinese people tend to experience relatively low unemployment rates;
Bangladeshi groups appear to benefit most (with the exception of the Chinese
ethnic group) from the New Deal programme;
There has been steady progress among all ethnic groups towards meeting the adult
National Learning Targets (data for younger age groups is not available). All minority
groups (with the exception of Pakistani and Bangladeshi groups) are exceeding
24

achievement among white people. Qualification levels among Pakistani and
Bangladeshi groups remain very low.
Recommendations
No recommendations were made in this summary report.
25

Pathak, S. (2000) Race Research for the Future: Ethnicity in Education, Training
and the Labour Market. DfEE: London.
Focus
This paper draws on evidence from research, statistics and evaluation studies to
examine the position of different ethnic groups in education, training and the labour
market.
Methodological issues
Although this DfEE ‘Research Topic Paper’ is fully referenced, it contains no details
of the methodology employed by its author. Although it is a potentially valuable
source of ‘benchmark’ statistical information, therefore, particularly in terms of its
clarification of differences in the educational and occupational achievements of
different minority ethnic groups and its identification of relatively disadvantaged
target groups, its utility for policy makers is severely limited in the absence of any
further methodological information.
Main findings
Ethnic minorities make up 6.6% of the working age population in Great Britain
and over 11% of pupils in maintained primary and secondary schools (England);
On entry into pre-school, children of white UK heritage have the highest mean
score in cognitive skills (verbal and non-verbal), with the lowest scores being
recorded for Pakistani children. The differences among ethnic groups are reduced
when factors such as parents’ educational and occupational classifications are taken
into account;
Bangladeshi, black and Pakistani pupils perform less well than other pupils in the
early key stages. Pupils from these three ethnic groups also tend to achieve
significantly less by the end of compulsory education;
Under a third of white boys with parents in manual occupations achieve 5 or more
GCSE grades A-C compared with the average of almost half for all white pupils.
Among Black boys, less than a quarter gain 5 high grade GCSEs;
Staying on in full-time education after compulsory schooling is more common
among ethnic minority groups (over 85%) than white young people (67%). In
contrast, a higher proportion of white young people are in full-time employment
(10%) and government supported training (12%) than their ethnic minority peers (3%
in full-time jobs and 4% on government supported training);
A large proportion of young Bangladeshis and Pakistanis are not in education,
training or employment. Due to sample sizes, these findings should be noted with
caution;
Outcomes for ethnic minority people on Work Based Training for Young People
are lower than for whites. Bangladeshi (37%), black African (37%) and Pakistani
(39%) young people in Other Training (OT) are least likely to be in employment
compared to 63% of white participants. Ethnic minority people on Modern
Apprenticeships (MA) are more successful in getting jobs than those on OT, but are
still less likely than whites to be in employment after training;
At age 18, a higher proportion of Indians and whites have a level 2 equivalent
qualification or higher than black or Pakistani/Bangladeshi students;
26

Ethnic minorities as a whole are over-represented in higher education, accounting
for 13% of undergraduate students;
Ethnic minority HE students are disproportionately studying at the “new” (post
1992) universities. White working class are also under-represented in “old”
universities;
A lower proportion (37%) of ethnic minority first-degree graduates obtain an
upper second or first class honours degree than white graduates (53%);
A lower proportion of ethnic minority (66%) than white adults (80%) are
economically active. Only about half of Bangladeshi and Pakistani adults of working
age are economically active;
Unemployment among ethnic minority men is up to three times higher than for
white men - and for ethnic minority women, four times higher than white women;
After allowing for differences in personal characteristics, large differences in
employment rates between white and ethnic minority men remain. This means
discrimination by employers cannot be ruled out as a key factor;
Early evidence from New Deal for Young People shows that a lower proportion of
ethnic minority people than white move into sustained unsubsidised or subsidised
employment and a higher proportion into education and training, despite being better
qualified;
Bangladeshi and Pakistanis are the poorest groups, with 60% living in low-income
households. Among working couples, 40% of Bangladeshis and Pakistanis with
children receive some means-tested support compared with 8% of whites;
Ethnic minority people represent 18% of all participants on Work Based Learning
for Adults. But outcomes are lower for ethnic minority participants than for whites.
Asians are least likely to gain qualifications at the end of training, while black
participants are least likely to be in a job after training;
53% of Bangladeshi women and 40% of Bangladeshi men have no qualifications.
Black African men and women, despite being extremely well qualified, experience
extremely high levels of unemployment;
Similar proportions of black, Indian and white adults have level 3 equivalent
qualifications compared with a much smaller proportion of Pakistanis and
Bangladeshis. Black and Indian adults are more likely to be qualified to level 4 than
whites and Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.
Recommendations
No recommendations are made in this paper.
27

3. Health
Ahmad, W. et al (1998) Deafness and Ethnicity: Services, Policy and Politics. The
Policy Press.
Focus
This study provides a national overview of initiatives and services addressing the
needs of minority ethnic deaf people and their families.
Methodological issues
This national study of initiatives with minority ethnic deaf people had three stages of
data collection: a postal survey of a range of statutory and voluntary organisations in
England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland; telephone interviews with identified
initiatives; and face-to-face interviews conducted with 85 people. Of these 85 people,
45 were workers, line managers and volunteers, 37 were users, and 4 were
researchers. Overall, 45 respondents were deaf, hard of hearing or deafened.
Further details of the methodology employed were not available in this summary
report and in the absence of such information the findings need to be interpreted with
caution.
Main findings
A significant development is the emergence of cultural and social groups led by
minority ethnic deaf people;
Deaf people and their families often lacked a common language in which to
communicate. A number of initiatives focused on sign language teaching for parents;
Deaf clubs and organisations were often regarded as hostile and slow to change;
There was a concern that deaf people found it difficult to learn about their
ethnicity and religion. It was felt that schools could play a stronger role in the
development of a positive ethnic identity;
Access to information and services was hampered by poor provision of both
community language and sign language interpreters;
The majority of initiatives focused on Asian and Afro-Caribbean deaf people
and/or their families, and were based in large cities. Provision was poor for other
minority ethnic groups. There was little provision for older deaf people and deaf-blind
people;
Most initiatives relied on short-term funding. Initiatives in the voluntary sector
were particularly vulnerable to funding cuts. Rigid funding remits hampered the
flexibility with which initiatives could respond to user needs;
The mainly deaf workers in the voluntary sector lacked training, information,
resources and organisational support to compete for funding;
The mainly hearing minority ethnic workers in the statutory sector felt
unsupported, often faced racial hostility from white colleagues and users, and had
limited prospects for careers progression.
Recommendations
No recommendations are made in this summary report.
28

Department of Health (2000) Learning Difficulties and Ethnicity. Centre for
Research in Primary Care, University of Leeds/ DoH.
Focus
This scoping study examines services for people with learning difficulties from
minority ethnic communities, identifying problems in accessing relevant services and
providing examples of approaches and projects that meet their needs more
appropriately.
Methodological issues
The study consisted of a review of the literature and interviews with key respondents.
Only the Executive Summary was available for the purposes of this review, and as no
details of the methodology are provided in the summary document, the findings
reported here should be interpreted with care.
Main findings
Minority ethnic communities face substantial inequalities and discrimination in
employment, education, health and social services;
The higher prevalence of learning difficulties in South Asian communities has
been linked to high levels of material and social deprivation. These may combine with
other factors such as poor access to maternal health care, misclassification and higher
rates of environmental or genetic risk factors;
People with learning difficulties from minority ethnic communities experience
simultaneous disadvantage in relation to race, impairment and, for women, gender;
Negative stereotypes and attitudes held by service professionals contribute to the
disadvantage they face.
Recommendations
The principles that underpin service planning and provision need to take account
of the particular needs and values of people from different minority ethnic
communities;
Partnership with minority ethnic community groups is needed to influence service
planning, monitoring and evaluation and to meet local needs. Groups may need
support to take part in joint ventures. Consultation exercises require the involvement
and support of community organisations if they are to succeed.
The concept of advocacy needs to be developed in some communities and
advocacy or self-advocacy groups need secure resources in order to develop. Schemes
promoting advocacy and independent living skills may need to work with families as
well as individuals with learning difficulties in recognition of family structures which
are different to those in majority ethnic communities;
An understanding of independence that emphasises individuality may run counter
to the values of collectivism and close family relationships that exist in some
communities. The role of family and community networks needs to be taken into
account when planning services for individuals;
29

Barriers to independence in education and employment result in limited choices
and low expectations. Restrictive attitudes towards disability within minority ethnic
communities and in the wider context need to be addressed;
Empowerment requires information, choice and involvement in decision-making.
Support groups can increase participation and control for minority ethnic people with
learning difficulties and their carers, as well as providing emotional support.
However, such groups are generally small scale and isolated and may be unable to
provide progression to other provision if cultural needs are not recognised in other
services;
Support networks for minority ethnic carers and people with learning difficulties
can act as gateways to a range of support services. Outreach is needed to include those
who cannot attend groups. A variety of activities and appropriate publicity are needed
to increase awareness of service provision within minority ethnic communities;
Bilingual staff and interpreters are needed to improve communication and access
to services. Recruitment of minority ethnic staff is needed at all levels in service
organisations, with adequate support and training to help them perform their roles;
Service providers should have accurate and ongoing information from and about
minority ethnic communities to meet their needs adequately;
Although the ideal is a quality mainstream service that is sensitive to the needs of
all users, the cultural needs of some minority ethnic service users are currently more
likely to be met in specialist provision, though this is generally under-resourced and
insecure. Decisions about the extent and nature of services should be made at a local
level in consultation with service users and informal carers.
30

Qureshi, T., Berridge, D., & Wenman, H. (2000) Where to Turn? Family Support
for South Asian Communities. National Children’s Bureau.
Focus
This study explores the use of family support services by South Asian families in one
case study authority.
Methodological issues
The case study was conducted in Luton. Focus groups were organised with the four
main South Asian ethnic and religious groups involving 53 parents. Social workers
were interviewed who were responsible for work over the previous year with 20
South Asian families. Four of these were developed into more detailed individual case
studies involving discussion with parents. Key senior managers were also
interviewed.
No further details of the methodology are provided in this summary report. Although
the study underlines the importance of developing specific policies for particular
minority ethnic groups, therefore, this finding must be treated with some caution as its
methodological validity and reliability are unknown.
Main findings
In focus group discussions, South Asian parents expressed the view that family
stress and breakdown were more common in their communities than was often
perceived by professionals and the wider public;
Though there were specific cultural and religious issues, comments from South
Asian parents about family support and professional help were similar to findings
from other research involving white families;
Parents identified economic hardship and poor housing for South Asians as
significant obstacles in bringing up children;
A major barrier to receiving family support was said to be that parents were
unaware of what was available;
In this sample, most South Asian women would have welcomed an extension of
family support services, whereas the men were less enthusiastic;
Social services employed very few Asian staff and no South Asian managers.
There were no specific policies concerning services for South Asian families, and no
specific training had been provided for staff. Compared with existing information, the
case study authority is probably quite typical of many others in England;
Most social workers had tried to provide culturally appropriate services but felt
they lacked confidence and skills in this area;
Professionals’ misunderstandings about family circumstances had sometimes led
to negative assumptions about parenting.
Recommendations
Considerations of “race” and culture should inform the basic frameworks of family
support, and professional skills should be developed to enable this to occur. Essential
in this are the quality of social work management and practice, irrespective of family
origins.
31

Scottish Executive (2001) Fair for All: Improving the Health of Ethnic Minority
Groups and the Wider Community in Scotland. Scottish Executive: Edinburgh.
Focus
In 2000 the Scottish Executive Health Department commissioned a ‘stocktake’ of
policies and practices used by Health Boards and Trusts to integrate minority health
issues into their mainstream work. This report of that audit analyses the extent to
which this has been achieved, and sets out how the situation might be improved.
Methodological issues
For the purposes of this report, ‘ethnic minority’ refers to all subgroups of the
population not indigenous to the UK, who hold cultural traditions and values derived,
at least in part, from their countries of origin.
The analysis in this review was based on data from questionnaires and structured
interviews delivered to Health Boards and Trusts. It included desktop analysis of
relevant strategic and policy documentation as well as additional evidence from NHS
organisations. Mann Weaver were utilised as external advisers and consultants to
identify good practice in managing diversity and equality from their national work in
the health sector, as well as good practice within and beyond the NHS.
Insufficient methodological details were available in this summary report to allow a
judgement of the likely validity or reliability of its findings. Further information on
the methodology utilised by the authors should be sought, however, as this study
represents one of the few investigations of the extent to which lead health
organisations have mainstreamed minority health issues into their organisational
structures and processes. Its recommendations deserve serious consideration by policy
makers and have therefore been represented here in full.
Main findings
Health Boards and Trusts were at very different stages in responding to the health
and service needs of ethnic minority communities;
The priority accorded to the issue has been low in some areas, due to the relatively
low visibility of ethnic minority communities and the wider pressure on resources;
Many NHS organisations were undertaking work, but the approach tended to
involve short-term, time-limited projects to improve understanding of needs,
consultation, and access to interpreting and translation services;
Many NHS organisations have not undertaken a Health Needs Assessment, and
consequently have little knowledge of the ethnic minority populations they serve;
In rural areas a “colour-blind” approach to ethnicity and culture may result in
services that fail to reach ethnic minority people or meet their needs;
There were examples of good practice and these should be drawn on more widely
by NHS Scotland in developing models that are systematic rather than piecemeal;
The service needs a strategy for progressing on a number of fronts, rather than
addressing ethnic minority health problems through one-off projects;
32

NHS staff are keen to build ethnic minority issues into mainstream organisational
processes.
Recommendations
Ownership and accountability:
It is imperative that lead responsibility for race and health is taken at Chief Executive
level;
Strategic approach:
There is a need to identify a core set of values that will underpin services and provide
clear guidelines for action. This will involve securing commitment at executive and
non-executive levels, the integration of these issues into NHS strategic policy and
planning processes, including partnership arrangements, and the development of
implementation plans with mechanisms for performance managing their delivery;
Equal opportunities:
NHS organisations must have in place an equal opportunities policy that is in line
with national guidance, and communicated to all levels of the organisation;
Health needs assessments:
Organisations must understand their local population profile and identify and assess
their specific health needs in consultation with service users and carers. There must be
a better and more co-ordinated assessment of the needs of ethnic minority
communities at national and regional levels. The gap between public health
knowledge and planning and resourcing of services at local level must also be
bridged. Public health professionals must influence managerial processes more
effectively and managers must be more responsive to the evidence-based knowledge
of their public health colleagues. The recently established Public Health Institute of
Scotland should play a key role in this;
Rural communities:
The Remote and Rural Areas Resource Initiative (RARARI) should consider how
health professionals providing services to ethnic minority communities in rural parts
of Scotland could be supported;
Asylum seekers and refugees:
NHS organisations must work together to build their capacity to deal with the specific
health needs of these groups;
Gypsy travellers:
Access to health services and support from local health services must be improved for
this group. Gypsy travellers are recognised as a distinct ethnic group who are covered
by the commitment made in the Health Plan and the recommendations of the
stocktake;
Removing barriers to access:
This should go beyond recognition of the need for interpretation and translating
services, and should involve a culture change within the NHS;
Partnership working:
There must be more effective cross-agency working. NHS organisations must develop
a preventative public health research agenda to identify and assess emerging issues for
ethnic minority communities. Further work should also be undertaken to ensure that
ethnic minority health issues are incorporated into local authority-led Community
Plans;
Building capacity:
33

A vibrant voluntary sector is central to effective dialogue between ethnic minority
communities and health organisations. NHS organisations must work to strengthen
links with, and provide meaningful support to, local and national ethnic minority
community groups;
Dialogue with ethnic minority communities:
Existing mechanisms of consultation should be extended to include direct consultation
and engagement with users, carers and potential users of services from ethnic
minority communities. The involvement of young people and women should
particularly be encouraged;
Recruitment of ethnic minority staff:
Health organisation recruitment and selection strategies must be designed to develop a
diverse workforce and ensure that people from ethnic minority communities have an
equal opportunity to be represented in front-line and senior management levels;
Development and retention of ethnic minority staff:
NHS Scotland must ensure local implementation of its policy that racial
discrimination or harassment will not be tolerated. Specific steps should be taken to
ensure that learning and training programmes are available to all.
34

4. Housing
Radia, K. (1996) Ignored, Silenced, Neglected: Housing and Mental Health Care
Needs of Asian People. YPS for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Focus
This report identifies the housing and care needs of Asian people with mental health
problems.
Methodological issues
This study was conducted in four London Boroughs: Brent, Harrow, Ealing and
Tower Hamlets. Information was gathered on the work of over 140 organisations and
projects and a questionnaire was devised for Asian mental health service users.
Surveys were carried out in two phases in 1994-95: first in North London and then in
East London, for which a bilingual questionnaire was produced.
Further details of the methodology are not supplied in this summary report. The full
version is now out of print and, in the absence of any additional information, the
findings presented need to be interpreted with care.
Main findings
Housing for Asian people with mental health problems was in many cases
inappropriate and often added to their difficulties in daily living;
Asian people with mental health problems reported difficulties with neighbours,
burglaries, racial attack or harassment, and fears for personal safety;
Users felt they did not have enough support, or the right kind of support, from
professionals and staff to be able to take charge of their own lives;
There were few services specifically aimed at Asian people with mental health
problems. Those that were available did not, on the whole, offer a quality service;
Users felt isolated. They reported feeling ignored by professionals, being given
medication rather than being listened to, and being left alone to manage until a crisis
occurred;
Many interviewees had financial difficulties. Most were unemployed and although
many were receiving benefits, they were not fully aware of their entitlements;
Service users felt their situation could be improved by: a choice and range of
quality housing, help with independent living skills, specialist advice on housing and
welfare benefits, access to employment, sheltered employment training and education,
counselling in Asian languages, and advocacy;
Myths and stereotypes about Asian people continue to dominate the thinking of
both professionals and policy-makers. Such untested assumptions are hampering
progress in working with Asian communities and with those people who have mental
health problems.
Recommendations
Specialist housing with support should be provided by offering a range of quality
supported independent housing and residential care, specialist housing that caters for
35

the needs of Asian people with mental health problems, and a team of trained
outreach support workers to service both residential projects and those people living
more independently in the community;
Asian service users should be empowered by ensuring they are informed of their
rights to assessment and services, offering interpreting and translation services,
respecting Asian users’ choices about their treatment and care, involving and
consulting Asian service users in the planning of services, and supporting the
development of self-advocacy;
Principles and standards should be developed to ensure a quality service, and the
range of services to meet the identified needs of Asian people with mental health
problems should also be developed. The Bangladeshi community has additional needs
for English language and literacy classes, interpreters and advocates and specialist
support for children of Bangladeshi people with mental health problems;
More Asian people should be trained to become counsellors. Staff in mainstream
services should be trained to be more sensitive to cultural issues, and training in race
and mental health should be part of all professional qualifying courses. More
interpreters and advocates should be employed.
36

Royce, C. et al (1996) Set up to Fail? The Experiences of Black Housing
Associations. York Publishing Services: York.
Focus
This study examines the growth and development of black and minority ethnic
housing associations and poses questions concerning their future viability.
Methodological issues
The research consisted of: a survey of 91 black associations together with secondary
data to establish a database; a further survey of management-only and developing
black associations; case studies of some of these developing associations; interviews
with lenders; and a study of comparable white-led associations. No further details of
methodology were provided and the results must therefore be viewed with some
caution.
Policy makers should interpret this document in the light of more recent policy
changes that have emphasised a switch from support for black housing associations to
support for black housing needs.
Main findings
There are more than 100 active black and minority ethnic associations and cooperatives
based mainly in London and the major conurbations;
Black and minority ethnic associations are, on the whole, quite young, almost half
having been established since the 1988 Housing Act. Most are very small, although
the three largest now own more than 5,000 homes between them;
The majority are management-only associations, but among these most want to
register with the Housing Corporation and develop their own stock;
For successful developing associations, raising private finance has proved less
difficult than the associations themselves expected. Asset base, cash flow and
management capacity determine terms and conditions, not being a minority
association;
Even so, many lenders prefer not to lend to small associations, or make small
loans. Black and minority ethnic associations pay more than many larger mainstream
associations because of their size and rapid rate of expansion;
Whether or not arrangements with other associations work well depends on the
specifics of the arrangements and the associations involved. There is no blueprint for
success. Few associations are keen to merge, preferring to retain their identity and
control;
The Housing Corporation’s strategies for black and minority ethnic associations
have been vital in enabling them to succeed. There are very few, if any, examples of
white-led associations starting up and developing as effectively in the last decade;
Although they have been successful in the current market, black and minority
ethnic associations’ very success makes them vulnerable to changes in the economic
and subsidy environment.
Recommendations
No recommendations are made in this report.
37

Property Research Unit, University of Cambridge (1998) Rents, Viability and
Value in Black and Minority Ethnic Housing Associations. Joseph Rowntree
Foundation.
Focus
Most black and ethnic minority housing associations (BMEs) are relatively small,
young and potentially financially vulnerable. Changes in the policy and economic
environment have led to concerns about their continued viability. This study focuses
on key issues that affect this viability.
Methodological issues
The methodology involved a questionnaire to all BME associations, a financial
analysis of the associations’ strengths and weaknesses, case studies of BME and
comparable non-BME associations in four local authority areas, a similar analysis of a
larger sample of associations covering different levels of financial viability and spread
more widely across the country, and sensitivity analysis of the impact of economic
and policy change on the financial viability of BME associations. Further details of
the methodology employed are not supplied and the findings should therefore be
treated with caution.
The policy question here is whether BME organisations have a specific separate role
to play in the longer term or whether housing strategies should concentrate on
meeting ethnic needs of all types through more mainstream solutions. Without further
methodological data it is difficult to interpret the findings on this issue. The
researchers nevertheless indicate that financial and regulatory pressures are likely to
make separate survival impossible.
Main findings
BMEs fall into two main groups: those associations aiming to provide a
specifically community-oriented service, and those that are more mainstream in their
approach, which tend to compete more directly with non-BME associations;
BMEs rent levels are higher than average. Rents for new homes are often lower
than those for new tenancies in older homes, reflecting the extent to which BME
associations must compete for development;
The vast majority of BMEs have little or no capacity to keep rents on new lettings
down by cross-subsidising from earlier developments. Moreover, their financial
situation is worsening and growth rates are slowing;
BMEs are financially vulnerable to changes in economic circumstances - notably
interest rate rises - to the impact of rent restraints and to changes in housing benefit;
BMEs tend to provide larger properties and have higher densities of occupation
across the range of property sizes;
The more community-oriented BMEs provide specialist services - often using
staff specially recruited for their relevant skills - which are used by their tenants on a
day-to-day basis;
38

Although partnerships with non-BME associations are seen as necessary and work
reasonably well, BMEs often feel like junior members and do not always achieve the
types of development that address their particular objectives.
Recommendations
BMEs need to develop individual, longer term plans to realise their particular
objectives and to utilise their particular skills. It is important that these qualities are
not lost in the face of increasing pressures for growth and standardisation;
There should be more recognition that there are very different needs from
different ethnic communities.
39

1. General
Section 2: Refugees
Refugee Council (1996) The State of Asylum: a Critique of Asylum Policy in the
UK. Refugee Council: London.
Focus
Reacting to changes in welfare provision for asylum seekers and the proposed Asylum
Immigration Bill (1995), this report challenges the argument that the majority of
asylum seekers are bogus, presenting relevant statistics and examining the
Government’s interpretation of the 1951 UN Convention on the Status of Refugees.
Methodological issues
A number of interviews and documents are referenced throughout this report. No
information regarding the report’s methodology is provided, however, and its findings
must therefore be treated with caution.
Main findings
The high rate of refusals of asylum claims cannot be explained purely by
economic migration;
The image of asylum seekers as bogus refugees is an invention;
The main costs to the State of asylum seekers derive from the long waits and the
growing backlog of the determination process;
According to the Home Office’s own research, “the majority of asylum seekers
come with substantial work and educational qualifications, the bulk of which are
under-utilised”;
External barriers erected by the Government over the past ten years deliberately
hinder flight from persecution: asylum seekers are forced to travel on false papers;
The social rights of asylum seekers have been eroded to such an extent that many
are now homeless and destitute;
Internal barriers erected by the Government over the past ten years have restricted
access to a fair asylum determination procedure;
The detention of asylum seekers in the UK is increasing and compares
unfavourably with the treatment of asylum seekers in Europe;
A climate of disbelief is prevalent at the Home Office in assessing claims.
Procedures are skewed to the disadvantage of asylum seekers. Many asylum seekers
come from countries with well documented human rights abuses, which the Home
Office appears reluctant to acknowledge;
UK policies are the result of overall harmonisation by European Interior
Ministers, and tend to conform to the lowest common denominator of policies across
the European Union.
Recommendations
The Refugee Council believes that the way forward is the establishment of a
commission to examine the UK’s asylum determination procedures.
40

Refugee Council (1997) An Agenda for Action: Challenges for Refugee Settlement
in the UK. Refugee Council: London
Focus
This document presents a set of policy proposals in order to inform debate on the
development of a Refugee Settlement Policy in the UK.
Methodological issues
The authors claim that the policy proposals result from ‘extensive consultations with
the Refugee Council membership’. No further details of the methodology are supplied
and, as the basis for the recommendations is unknown, they must therefore be
interpreted with some care.
Main findings
No findings are presented in this report.
Recommendations
A settlement policy should contain:
A fair and effective asylum determination procedure;
A strategic approach and responsibility sharing linked to clarity of roles, legal
duties and responsibilities, with the central government taking the lead role in coordinating
policy and setting out realistic objectives for local government, other
statutory providers and the voluntary sector;
Consultation and new forms of partnership between central and local government,
statutory providers and the refugee sector, in order to facilitate co-ordination of
activities and targeting of resources;
Quality standards and minimum levels of service provision which meet widely
accepted criteria of welfare provision and take into account the short-term and longterm
needs of refugees and asylum seekers;
Monitoring and evaluation to review the effectiveness and appropriateness of
specific initiatives;
Refugee involvement through the development of community-based refugee
organisations with assets, organisational capacity and long-term viability;
Public education to increase awareness of the experiences of persecution and
special needs of refugees and asylum seekers;
Equal opportunities with recognition being given to the special needs of refugee
women and children.
41

Refugee Council (1998) Refugee Women’s Directory: a Directory of Resources
across the UK for Women Asylum Seekers and Refugees. Refugee Council:
London.
Focus
This directory lists organisations, groups and other resources that provide a service to
women refugees and asylum seekers in the UK.
Type of information
The directory is mainly aimed at refugee community organisations and other
organisations that advise refugee women. It contains more than 200 entries covering a
range of contacts for particular groups of women, older women, women with
disabilities, women with addictions etc. Each entry gives practical details on the
organisation listed, including a short description of the kind of services offered,
address, telephone and fax numbers, opening hours and other relevant information.
Quality and usefulness
The entries and indexes are arranged alphabetically, which can make navigation
difficult. Most of the entries are London based although, unlike some similar
directories, a significant number are located elsewhere throughout the UK. Many of
the entries are incomplete.
42

Knox, Katharine (1999) A Credit to the Nation: A Study of Refugees in the United
Kingdom. Refugee Council: London.
Focus
This report provides an historical overview of British government and popular
responses to refugees over the past 450 years. Challenging current political debates on
refugees which often focus on restricting access to asylum in the UK, this report
examines the contributions refugees have made to the UK.
Methodological issues
The author reviews six publications relating to immigration and the settlement of
refugees in Britain, drawing conclusions on the basis of this small and
unrepresentative sample of the available literature.
The emphasis in this report on “famous exiles” risks implying that only successful
refugees deserve support and its findings are unlikely to be of use to policy makers.
Main findings
Political debates focusing on restricting access to asylum in the UK are neither
new, nor are they beneficial;
Refugees have contributed enormously to both the economy and society of Britain
over the past 450 years;
Many famous household names are among those who have sought refuge in
Britain;
A new approach from all elements of British society is required to redress public
attitudes towards refugee issues.
Recommendations
No recommendations are made in this report
43

Refugee Council (1999) Unwanted Journey: Why Central European Roma are
fleeing to the UK. Refugee Council / Christian Aid: London.
Focus
This report examines the flight of Roma asylum seekers from the Czech Republic,
Slovakia and Romania to the UK in 1997 and 1998. It looks at the situation Roma
face in each of these countries, and at their treatment as asylum seekers in the UK,
both by the Government and in the media.
Methodological issues
The report was produced by three researchers using existing documentary evidence on
Roma rights issues, augmented by field research and interviews carried out between
November 1998 and January 1999. A number of field visits and interviews are
referred to throughout the text, but no details of the methodology are provided and the
report’s findings and recommendations must therefore be treated with reservation.
Throughout the report, the term “Roma” is used as a generally accepted generic name
for the group of peoples who speak a Romani tongue and/or share a common ethnic
identity, culture and history.
Main findings
Roma people face extremely high levels of poverty, societal discrimination and
near total exclusion in the three countries studied. The racism and exclusion they
suffer are often met by an indifferent response by home governments, and in some
cases are even condoned and encouraged by politicians and officials;
In some cases this racism and exclusion can reach such levels of persecution that
Romany asylum seekers will qualify for refugee status as defined by the UN
Convention;
The UK Government has followed a policy of denying any validity to Romany
asylum applicants, in the face of overwhelming evidence from a wide variety of
respected sources. Asylum applications from Central European Roma have been
refused en masse in the UK as being “manifestly unfounded”. Repeated official
statements have sought to link Romany asylum applicants with abuse of the asylum
system and illegal immigration;
This policy of denial extends to the use of detention of male Roma as a deterrent
to further applicants, contrary to UK Government guidelines;
The Government’s policy of denial and public statements has encouraged an
atmosphere of racial hatred and harassment.
Recommendations
Asylum applications made by Roma must be subject to thorough, fair and serious
individual examination by the authorities, and the UK Government must end its
policy of outright denial of such claims;
The UK Government’s policy and practice with regard to Romany asylum seekers
is racist and discriminatory, and should be considered by bodies such as the Council
44

of Europe, the UN Human Rights Committee and the UN Committee to Eradicate
Racial Discrimination;
The countries studied in this report must remain under the scrutiny of international
bodies such as the European Union, the UN Committees on Human Rights and for the
Eradication of Discrimination, and others, to promote the development of civil
society, equality and minorities policies and practice;
A co-ordinated high-level investigation of the situation of the Roma in all the ex-
Communist countries of Europe by the UN Human Rights Commission or Council of
Europe may be of value in this process;
Such developments should be supported through the targeted provision of
resources by the above bodies to the governments of these countries, and to Romany
NGO’s;
Serious consideration should be given to the development and promotion of a
European Charter for Roma Rights, and a consolidated European Roma Development
Fund.
45

Asylum Rights Campaign (2000) Out of Sight, Out of Mind: A Report on the
Dispersal of Asylum Seekers in the UK. Asylum Rights Campaign: London.
Focus
As part of their critique of the 1999 Immigration and Asylum Bill, the ARC
commissioned this report to examine the practical effects of a dispersal policy being
used by most London local authorities and some refugee agencies, with a view to
assessing the long term implications of this policy.
Methodological issues
The research was conducted during a one month period by an independent consultant.
It had three main components: policy consultation with the NGO sector and other
relevant agencies; interviews with sending and receiving local authorities about their
current policy and practice; 32 face-to-face individual interviews with asylum seekers
selected in order to reflect a diversity of profile and experience.
Details of sampling methods are not provided although some attempt has clearly been
made to survey a representative sample of NGOs, other relevant agencies and local
authorities. Few details are provided with regard to interview methods, and since
asylum seeker interviewees were all contacted via an NGO or solicitor, this very small
sample cannot be considered representative of the asylum seeker community more
generally, many of whom may be living without organised local support or legal
representation. Due to the very small sample size of asylum seekers and the lack of
information on methodology, the results of this study should be treated with
considerable caution.
Main findings
Many asylum seekers in need of support may decide not to apply because they do
not want to be dispersed;
Concerns were expressed about the conduct of assessment in detention;
Many asylum seekers end up in the UK accidentally. Those that do not come by
chance said they came because of family ties, language, or the fact that no visa is
required for Commonwealth countries;
The enforcement of premature returns from ‘temporary protection’ in other
European countries can lead to renewed displacement and fresh claims for asylum in
the UK;
A high percentage of asylum seekers disappeared or left, soon after being
dispersed;
The interface between the support/dispersal system and the legal system has been
badly neglected;
One of the most important support mechanisms for asylum seekers was their
English classes;
Support for asylum seekers from their own communities is of primary importance;
Many significant problems can be alleviated by very small amounts of money (£5
or £10) e.g. for telephone calls, stamps and stationery etc;
46

Local authority policies regarding the dispersal of asylum seekers with mental
health problems are unclear and are likely to be disregarded under the new ‘no choice’
system;
Many London authorities do not contact or enlist the co-operation of the local
authority in which they are contracting accommodation, which makes it difficult to
provide information on local services to asylum seekers before they depart London;
The reception period is experienced as a time ‘in limbo’, with little or no
conception of the geography or society of the surrounding area.
Recommendations
The dispersal of asylum seekers should take place to “cluster areas” where
appropriate community and support services can be most easily provided;
Strategic development of legal services is being seriously neglected in the current
preparations for dispersal, with potentially disastrous consequences for refugee
protection;
Substantial resources will be required for the voluntary sector to expand and
strengthen the support infrastructure in the cluster locations. This should include
development of refugee community groups and specialist services for torture
survivors;
Dispersal will not lead to successful refugee settlement throughout the country
unless adequate resources are invested in both the statutory and voluntary sectors in
order to ensure the development of employment, training, English language teaching
and other services;
Within the proposed dispersal system, the ability to choose between various
locations should be maximised and individuals matched with accommodation that
meets their individual needs and preferences;
The new system should be transparent and accountable to an independent body,
with asylum seekers understanding their rights and how to seek redress if these rights
are not respected.
47

Audit Commission (2000) Another Country: Implementing Dispersal under the
Immigration and Asylum Act 1999. Audit Commission: London.
Focus
Written principally for local government and health authorities, this report aims to
facilitate the effective implementation of the policy of dispersal by local agencies.
Methodological issues
This study was conducted by a team of five researchers, with input from an advisory
group drawn from local government, central government, other professional bodies
and the voluntary sector. Further advice was provided by a refugee community panel,
with representatives from a range of refugee organisations.
The study is based on visits to 15 fieldwork sites: 10 councils and 5 health authorities.
The local authorities visited comprised four London boroughs, one county council,
two district councils, two metropolitan boroughs and one Welsh unitary authority.
Health authorities included four based in London and one in the north west. All of the
sites visited had substantial experience of providing services to asylum seekers. The
findings are also informed by an Audit Commission questionnaire survey of 101
social services authorities in England and Wales, and by other published research.
Further details of the methodology are not provided in this report. In particular,
sampling methods are not specified and the methods of interview are not described.
The findings should therefore be treated with some caution. Nevertheless, given the
level and range of consultation evident in its compilation, this report represents a
valuable source of information and its conclusions merit very serious consideration by
policy makers. Its extensive recommendations have been reproduced here in full.
Main findings
Poor joint working, inadequate local services or a lack of political support could
potentially jeopardise the new (phased in during 2000) national dispersal policy;
To make dispersal work, regional consortia should plan strategically. The starting
point is a sound understanding of asylum seekers’ needs, alongside a review of
existing service provision;
Overcoming barriers to services and proactive management of community
relations will be vital;
More active involvement of local asylum seekers and refugees can improve
services and help local agencies avoid costly mistakes;
The quantity, range and quality of services for asylum seekers and refugees varies
across England and Wales. Shortfalls in key services tend to be more acute in areas
with little experience of this client group;
Local agencies need to consider how they can develop services to meet the needs
of new arrivals. Without effective support services, asylum seekers easily become
locked in a cycle of exclusion and dependency in their new community;
The efforts of local agencies may not deliver better standards of support for
asylum seekers unless there are parallel improvements in the national framework;
48

Turning around asylum applications and appeals more quickly, along with better
co-ordinated policy guidance from key government departments, are priorities;
A fair and transparent funding regime must also underpin the new arrangements.
Without this, there is little incentive for local agencies to participate.
Recommendations for regional consortia and local authorities/agencies
Improving the delivery of services at local level will involve councils, health
agencies, registered social landlords and housing associations, private sector
landlords, the police and the voluntary sector, working in partnership through the new
regional consortia. Together these agencies will need to:
Establish clear managerial and political leadership for regional consortia;
Carry out a strategic review of services, priorities and resources for asylum
seekers and refugees, considering how resources can be pooled to develop joint
provision;
Identify the needs and profile of all asylum seekers and refugees within the area,
ensuring that data are shared between agencies;
Establish information systems to monitor the take-up of services among asylum
seekers and refugees, and to identify the costs arising;
Develop a public relations strategy for asylum seekers and joint procedures for
communicating with the media;
Promote sensitive policing policies to ease community tensions;
Review accessibility of services to asylum seekers, and improve access where
problems are apparent;
Develop effective consultation mechanisms to involve asylum seekers and
refugees and their community groups in service planning;
Promote the development of refugee community organisations and ensure that
local grant criteria address the needs of this group;
Consider whether existing regeneration programmes, National Lottery funding or
private sector sponsorship could provide additional resources for dedicated services
for asylum seekers or refugees.
Recommendations for government departments
Improving the national framework falls mostly within the remit of the Home Office,
with the Department of Health (DoH), the Department of Social Security (DSS), and
the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) contributing on specific
aspects.
The Home Office should establish protocols for information sharing and
notification procedures between government departments, and from government
departments to local agencies;
The DoH and DfEE should issue good practice guidance to local health authorities
and education authorities respectively to ensure effective service delivery to asylum
seekers and refugees;
The National Asylum Support Service (NASS) should ensure that national
information on asylum seekers is shared with consortia and other local agencies to
inform service planning;
The DoH/NASS should issue new arrivals with information about their
entitlement to health services and a simple explanation of how the UK health system
operates;
49

The Home Office/DfEE should consider whether restrictions on all/specific types
of voluntary activity for asylum seekers should be lifted;
The Immigration and Nationality Directorate (IND) should issue standard
documentation to new arrivals at each port of entry and consider introducing a “rights
statement” that asylum seekers can carry with them that sets out their entitlement to
services;
NASS should provide each consortium with details of other housing providers that
are contracted to provide accommodation in their area;
The Home Office/DSS should review the decision to terminate accommodation
and support for adult asylum seekers 14 days after a positive decision on their asylum
claim;
The IND should seek to expand the practice of holding immigration interviews in
regional offices in order to reduce travel costs;
Port Health Control Units should issue medical records to those screened at ports
of entry that can be used to inform other health service providers;
The DoH/Home Office should review the funding framework for support for
unaccompanied minors and issue best practice guidance to local authorities on
providing services to this group;
The DSS should issue guidance to standardise practice across local Benefits
Agencies on the allocation of national insurance numbers to asylum seekers and
refugees;
The Home Office, DfEE and the DoH should ensure that there are sufficient
resources available to dispersal areas to meet the reasonable cost of statutory services
for asylum seekers;
NASS should collect more information on the comparative costs of services to
asylum seekers and their links to performance outcomes;
The Home Office should ensure that government policy on asylum seekers and
refugees is better co-ordinated at a national level, perhaps through a national strategic
framework that is designed to meet the needs of this group.
50

Oxfam / T&G / Refugee Council (2000) Token Gestures: the Effects of the
Voucher Scheme on Asylum Seekers and Organisations in the UK. Oxfam / T&G /
Refugee Council: London.
Focus
This report assesses the impact of the voucher scheme introduced following the
Immigration and Asylum Act of 1999.
Methodological issues
This report is based on a survey of more than 50 organisations working with asylum
seekers across the UK. Details of the methodology are not supplied in this summary
document.
In its White Paper of February 2002 the Government has stated its intention to phase
out the voucher support system. This paper may therefore now be of limited interest
to policy makers.
Main findings
Vouchers are inherently discriminatory, marginalising those that use them, and
making them targets of abuse and harassment in the community.
All 50 organisations surveyed agreed that the voucher scheme had caused an
increase in the number of asylum seekers experiencing problems;
A majority of organisations said that asylum seekers were not able to buy enough
food;
A majority of organisations felt that asylum seekers could not maintain good
health under the voucher system;
A majority of organisations reported that asylum seekers had complained that they
had received poor treatment from shops accepting vouchers, and hostility from other
shoppers;
Delay or non-arrival of vouchers was causing problems;
A majority of organisations said that asylum seekers were not coping well with
the voucher scheme.
Recommendations
Introduce a cash-based system of support;
Ensure that change should be provided immediately;
Provide access to related benefit support (e.g. milk tokens, vitamins, or other
safety-net provisions);
Improve Parliamentary and governmental scrutiny of the system;
Provide a realistic level of support. Vouchers are worth only 70% of Income
Support; There is no reason why refugees should be denied access to a level of
support regarded as society’s safety net;
The government needs to take an active role in educating the public about the
basic facts about asylum seekers.
51

2. Adult education, training and employment
Refugee Education and Training Working Group (Undated), Refugee Education
Policy for the 1990s: Towards Implementing the Refugee Education Charter.
Refugee Council / World University Service: London.
Focus
The authors present a “Refugee Education Charter”, consisting of ten key principles
or recommendations, which they argue should form the basis of a centrally planned
and co-ordinated refugee education policy.
Methodological issues
No details of methodology are provided in this report, and the basis of the
recommendations is therefore unknown. The authors list the organisations supporting
this ‘charter’, however, many of which are key organisations working closely with
refugees. The detailed proposals may thus express the views of an influential body of
refugee-related organisations and may therefore be of interest to policy makers.
Recommendations
Schooling for refugee children:
The experience of refugees and information about their societies, culture and language
should be reflected in mainstream education through the curriculum, teaching
materials, staff policy and extra-curricular activities. Schools should view homeschool
liaison as part of their multi-cultural and anti-racist policy.
Learning English:
A planned programme of intensive English language training should be available to
all refugees who need it. A national policy should be adopted to provide adequate
English language training for all refugees arriving in the UK as soon as they are able
to pursue it. The Income Support and Social Security regulations should change to
allow all refugees to study English for one year full-time or the equivalent part-time
while claiming Income Support. The DES and Home Office should channel sufficient
funds to local education authorities for them to guarantee adequate English language
provision for all refugees, irrespective of where they live. ESOL courses should be
designed to offer maximum flexibility, including the option of summer courses as
well as flexible entry dates.
Access to further and higher education:
Refugees should have equal access to further and higher education. Colleges and
universities should provide study skills courses and appropriate language support
across mainstream courses for refugees. The design of courses should take account of
refugees’ needs for flexible entry requirements and entry times throughout the
academic year.
Professional requalification:
There should be a national system to assess competence and recognise qualifications,
skills and experience gained overseas. Higher education institutions should liaise and
negotiate with professional bodies to set up bridging courses with a strong focus on
orientation towards the UK system. Authoritative information needs to be available to
52

local guidance services and educational institutions. An effective national system to
identify equivalent qualification should be set up.
Financing refugee education and training:
The main barrier to refugees’ access to further and higher education is financial. The
DES should give those with exceptional leave to remain the same educational
entitlements as those granted refugee status. If no decision on an asylum claim has
been made by the Home Office within six months, the presumption should be that
asylum seekers have the same educational entitlements as those given refugee status.
Local Education Authorities (LEAs) should exempt people with refugee status from
the borough residency requirement. LEAs should provide grants to refugees at a level
equivalent to mandatory awards and should give consideration to grants for part-time
courses for special groups such as refugees.
Removing barriers for women:
Educational institutions should recognise refugee women as a special category within
their equal opportunity policies. Equal opportunities policies should include the
provision of crèche facilities and should prioritise childcare in terms of funding and
other resources. LEAs should make advice locally available through refugee
communities. Refugee women should be trained to provide this service.
Refugee statistics:
Detailed statistics on the gender, age, location and family structure of refugees should
be collected nationally and locally, to allow the development of appropriate education
services.
Advice and information:
Legal and educational advice and information should be made available to all
refugees who need it, both in English and in community languages.
Consulting refugees:
Education policy and provision should develop in consultation with refugees and
organisations representing them. Procedures for consulting refugee organisations
should be established by the government and local authorities.
Resourcing refugee programmes:
Government departments, local authorities and agencies will be able to act effectively
only if they have access to expertise, guidance and resources from a central specialist
source. Such a specialist source is required to draw up and take forward a national
policy on refugee education, in consultation with refugee communities and agencies.
Once a policy has been formulated and agreed, a Unit must be created, with access to
the relevant ministries, located in the DES or the Home Office, or established as a
quango. This Unit should be staffed with personnel expert in the field of refugee
education and training, and given responsibility to develop necessary legislative
proposals, regulations and guidelines for the full implementation of the policy.
Adequate central government funding will be essential for the implementation of this
refugee education policy.
53

Refugee Council (undated) Refugee Employment and Training: a Positive Policy
for the 1990s. Refugee Council: London.
Focus
The authors present a “Refugee Employment and Training Charter”, consisting of ten
key principles or recommendations, which they argue should form the basis of
training and employment policies adopted by central and local government,
employers, professional bodies and trade unions.
Methodological issues
No details of methodology are provided in this report, and the basis of the
recommendations is therefore unknown. The authors list the organisations supporting
this ‘charter’, however, many of which are key organisations working closely with
refugees. The detailed proposals may thus express the views of an influential body of
refugee-related organisations and may therefore be of interest to policy makers.
Main findings
No findings are presented in this report.
Recommendations
Appropriate secure and long-term employment for refugees is a reasonable
expectation and refugees must therefore have the right to seek appropriate education
and training to further that end.
Advice and assessment: refugees should be entitled to independent and
appropriate counselling, advice and assessment on careers and employment-related
issues, to ascertain what they may ideally and reasonably wish to do;
Imaginative schemes must be provided, especially for language provision and
support, for work-preparation schemes or for training that will reflect the varied
experience and transferable skills of refugees, and which will match the needs and
aspirations of refugees to realistic local and national employment opportunities;
People seeking asylum and their families should be entitled to full rights including
the right to training and permission to work while their applications are being
considered;
Employers in both the public and private sectors should recognise the potential
and capabilities of refugees and avoid negative images and stereotypes. Recruitment
practices must be appropriate and sensitive to these issues;
The previous working experience of refugees should be recognised and assigned
credit.
Overseas professional and vocational qualifications of refugees should be
recognised and where necessary, fair processes should be developed to enable
requalification and assessment of competence to be easier.
Self-employment for refugees may be appropriate, and access to support, advice,
and financial services should therefore be facilitated;
Discrimination against refugees in all its forms must be avoided, including
discrimination based on gender, age, or physical or mental disability;
54

The European dimension: refugees must be allowed standards and conditions of
work equal to those enjoyed by EC nationals who are either employed or selfemployed
within the European community.
55

Salinas, Corinne/World University Service (1997) Refugee Engineers in the UK: a
Study of Engineering Employers and Refugees Qualified as Engineers. World
University Service (RETAS): London.
Focus
This study investigates whether refugee engineers are considered to be employable by
British employers.
Methodological issues
For the purposes of the research, a refugee engineer is defined as: ‘a professional who
has qualified abroad (outside the EU) as an engineer, who speaks fluent English and
who is legally entitled to work and remain in the UK either as a refugee or someone
with ELR, or as an asylum-seeker with permission to work’.
Three trained researchers carried out interviews with 15 engineering companies
situated in London, Birmingham and Newcastle. All interviewees were in charge of
recruiting engineers and technical staff. A focus group of six refugee engineers was
also held.
The selection criteria for the engineering companies indicate that a wide range of
companies were surveyed in terms of engineering specialisations. The low response
rate, however, suggests that these companies may have had particularly positive
attitudes towards refugee issues and should not be regarded as representative of
engineering employers more generally. Details of the interview methods are not
supplied. Further research into employee attitudes is required before policy lessons
can be distilled in this area.
Main findings
Employers showed little awareness and understanding of refugee issues in the UK
and derived most of their information from the media;
Employers do not see refugee status either as an advantage or a disadvantage in
terms of employment of refugees. In recruiting new staff they stress that they are
looking for “the best person for the job”.
Their perception of refugees, however, is that they have little or no skills;
Even if refugees are able to produce qualifications, employers do not seem to
believe that their standards are up to the standards required by the workplace;
Other obstacles for employment as perceived by employers are the language
barrier, and the belief that refugees might not fit in with the business culture in the
UK;
Some employers suggested that “intermediate agencies” should play a liaising role
between refugees seeking employment and employers who are recruiting new staff;
Refugee participants highlighted the following main barriers to the UK
engineering market: recognition and British equivalence of overseas qualifications;
language skills; gender discrimination; lack of information about refugees’ right to
work; undermining of refugees’ technical know-how; lack of work experience in the
UK; lack of understanding of job-hunting culture in the UK; lack of information; lack
of funding.
56

Recommendations
The authors make the following recommendations to refugee agencies:
Provide employers with information about refugees’ backgrounds and
entitlements, and the contribution they can make to their businesses;
Put refugee engineers into placements, to give refugees knowledge of the UK
work culture and provide employers with some understanding of the added value
refugees can bring to their business;
Establish a long-term strategy to break barriers and misperceptions by setting up
appropriate fora and networks between employers and refugee agencies.
57

Africa Educational Trust (1998) Refugee Education, Training and Employment in
Inner London: a Baseline Study. FOCUS Central London Ltd: London.
Focus
This study presents baseline information about refugees living in the nine boroughs of
the Central London area. It reports on the education and training needs of these
refugees, and on the barriers to employment that they face.
Methodological issues
This study was commissioned by FOCUS Central London, on behalf of the Refugee
Training Partnership (RTP). The aim of the RTP is to provide access-level training to
enable refugees and asylum seekers to enter mainstream training, education and
employment.
A team of six researchers conducted this study from September to December 1997. It
involved an initial review of the literature, followed by meetings and interviews
(telephone and face-to-face) with over 40 official bodies, refugee organisations, and
local refugee and community groups working in the London area. Details of sampling
techniques or interview methods are not provided in this report, and the degree of
representativeness or validity of the findings is not known. The results and
recommendations should therefore be treated with some caution.
For the purposes of the study, the definition of ‘refugee’ included ‘asylum seekers
irrespective of the current state of their asylum determination, those who have
obtained refugee status as set out by the Geneva Convention or were granted
“indefinite or exceptional leave to remain” regardless of how long they have been in
the UK’.
Main findings
Refugee profile:
Based on Home Office and Refugee Council figures for the period 1986 to 1996, the
researchers estimated that there were 256,700 refugees and asylum seekers living in
the UK, of which the majority (an estimated 86.5%) live in London. Of those that live
in central London, approximately two thirds of the refugees are male, although the
exact proportion of men to women varies among the different communities. The
majority are under 30 years of age, and approximately 20% are children under 16.
Few community groups have accurate information on the number of refugees from
their own community, and most have a very limited knowledge about the English
language abilities and educational levels of the people in their communities.
Main barriers to education and training:
Problems with the English language;
Lack of information about the availability of courses, facilities and funding;
Shortage of childcare facilities;
Lack of clarity about eligibility for training courses because of their refugee or
asylum status.
Main barriers to employment:
58

Lack of familiarity with the UK working atmosphere and job-seeking culture;
Lack of work experience in Britain and a corresponding lack of UK references;
Discrimination;
Gender inequalities;
Lack of childcare facilities;
Employers’ concerns about legal status.
Recommendations
A wider range of English language courses is needed. The researchers recommend
the development of a new “entry-level” English language course for refugees and
asylum seekers. They also underline the importance of seeking ways to encourage and
increase access to education and training for women refugees.
The need for improved dissemination of information. More resources should be
devoted to the collection and dissemination of information about the regulations and
conditions which affect the education, training and employment needs of refugees.
The need for improved communication between the RTP and refugee groups.
Further qualitative research is needed to investigate how employers can be
encouraged to become more involved with the training and recruitment of refugees,
and to identify which education and training courses are most likely to lead to paid
employment for refugees.
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Horn of Africa Youth Scheme (HAYS) and Save The Children Fund (1998) Let’s
Spell It Out: Peer Research on the Educational Support Needs of Young Refugees
and Asylum Seekers Living in Kensington and Chelsea. Save the Children Fund:
London.
Focus
This project assesses the educational support needs of young refugees and asylum
seekers from the Horn of Africa who attend secondary school in Kensington and
Chelsea, Hammersmith and Fulham, and Westminster.
Methodological issues
The term “refugee” is used throughout the report to describe young people who are
asylum seekers, as well as those with refugee status and with “exceptional leave to
remain”.
Save the Children Fund recruited seven young refugees to conduct this peer research
project on young refugee issues. The researchers used qualitative methods, conducting
a total of 34 semi-structured interviews and one focus group, with young people aged
between 14 and 18 years of age. Most of the young people were from Eritrea and
Ethiopia, but Somalia and Sudan were also represented. More young women (20)
were interviewed than young men (14). Professionals from the Save the Children
Fund also conducted eleven further semi-structured interviews with adults in refugee
community organisations and in Education Departments. Further methodological
details are not provided.
This report makes extensive recommendations based on a very limited number of
interviews. Sampling methods and methods of interview are unclear, and it cannot be
assumed that the findings are representative of the views of refugee community
organisations and education departments either within or beyond the borough of
Kensington and Chelsea.
Main findings
Most (70%) spoke little or no English when they arrived in Britain;
Only a quarter of the young people interviewed had received any information
about the British education system when they arrived in the UK. Nearly all said that
such information would have been useful;
The young people were often distanced from close family, and frequently lived in
care or alone. Many felt isolated, excluded in lessons, and more than half had been
treated badly by other students.
Students said they needed more support from their teachers and from refugee
support workers. They requested more peer education and the information necessary
to make informed choices.
Schools and refugee community groups are not adequately linked in ways that
could help both to understand and support each other. There is a lack of community
youth provision specifically for refugees.
Recommendations
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Starting school in Britain:
Students should be shown around a new school and provided with information
outlining their policies. Schools should provide written information on the British
education system (available in translation) to help students integrate into the system,
and make informed choices about qualifications and career routes.
Language support:
Students’ language needs should be adequately assessed and they should receive the
appropriate English language support to match their needs. Classroom teachers
working with EAL (English as another language) students should be trained to
provide adequate support. After school and lunch hour language and homework clubs
should be made available for students; run by, or in partnership with, local community
groups. Other young people - both British students and speakers of other languages -
should be involved to help their peers to learn English.
Teacher support:
All teachers working with refugees and other EAL students should receive
appropriate training. Students should be asked whether they want teachers and others
to know that they are a refugee. This information should not be shared without their
consent. Teachers should be aware of their students’ different home cultures, and
integrate positive examples into lessons. Schools should ensure teachers have the
information they require.
Refugee support work:
More refugee support workers are needed to offer a range of support such as
accessing services, making informed choices about education, and integrating into
school. Refugee Student Representatives should be introduced into schools to help
link refugee students and teachers.
Peers and friends:
Teachers should assign willing “student helpers” to show new students around the
school, to answer questions and to introduce them to other students. Teachers should
actively support new students to make friends, e.g. by mixing up students during
group work and sports.
Bullying and racism:
Schools should undertake thorough audits, and should seek out different methods of
tackling bullying and racism. All schools should have clear anti-racism and antibullying
policies, and ensure all students and staff fully understand these. Teachers
should receive training on how to deal with racism and bullying, and young people
should be involved in running workshops or training on bullying/racism in schools.
Schools should dispel myths about refugees and about the countries they come from.
Instead, they should present positive images of their countries and cultures. Support
should be available for those who are victims of racism or bullying.
Educational achievement:
Students should take informed choices about qualifications and should not be steered
into taking vocational qualifications.
School contact with families and communities:
Schools must ensure parents/carers receive information in an easy-to-read format. An
interpreter should be provided when required and parents should receive important
correspondence in translation. Schools should build links with refugee community
organisations.
Community youth provision:
Local authorities should inform young people of local community/youth groups.
Schools should distribute this information. Young people should be consulted about
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their needs and involved in planning and managing services, e.g. through the
establishment of a youth forum for refugees. There is a need for local youth projects
for refugees, particularly targeting new refugee arrivals. “Buddy schemes” could
match new arrivals to Britain with another older refugee who would befriend and
offer support. Appropriate media (websites, radio stations, magazines etc.) should be
used to share information.
Other pressures:
Local authorities should ensure education grants and travel allowances meet the needs
of their students. Advice workers and counsellors should be provided, preferably in
schools.
General:
All social security entitlements should be restored to asylum seekers. Additional
government funding should be provided to meet the support needs of young refugees.
Local authorities with small refugee populations could pool resources to ensure
adequate support across these boroughs. Inter-authority networks (between education,
health, social services, housing, and local refugee organisations) should be established
to address the needs of young people in a holistic way. International organisations
(e.g. NGOs and UN organisations) should provide schools, community groups and
refugee forums with information on refugee issues and their countries.
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The Industrial Society (1999) Turning Refugees into Employees: Research into the
Barriers to Employment perceived by Women Refugees in London. The Industrial
Society (in association with Fair Play): London.
Focus
This research project aimed to assess the barriers that prevent refugee women in
London from fully participating in the labour market. Specifically, it explored
education and training, the effects of redundancy and employment, the impact of
flexible working/ home working, and the childcare needs of the group.
Methodological issues
The research was conducted by three individuals, all experienced in working with
under-represented groups in the workforce. A qualitative approach was used,
incorporating individual and focus group interviews with refugee women. Interviews
were held with refugee women from a sample of London Boroughs, representing a
range of ethnic backgrounds. The researchers list 117 refugee organisations that were
invited to participate in this investigation. They do not specify the final sample size,
however, and the extent to which interviewees were representative of the wider
community of women refugees is therefore unclear. Details of interview methods are
also not provided and the results and recommendations of this study must therefore be
treated with some caution.
Main findings
Women refugees described a multitude of barriers to employment including:
Language - the ability to converse in English;
Cultural - awareness of UK culture and expected behaviours e.g. interview skills,
writing CVs, and the importance of selling themselves at interviews;
Confidence and general levels of self esteem;
Qualifications - lack of acceptance of non-UK qualifications;
Racial prejudice - seen to be more of a barrier by Black refugees;
Family responsibilities;
Bureaucratic “systems” in the UK.
Recommendations (for London’s employers, Government/DfEE, London
Development Agency, education and training providers, London TECs/ Local
Learning and Skills Councils and local authorities)
To focus on specific issues of those groups and individuals facing social exclusion
as part of a social inclusion strategy;
To undertake analysis of processes amongst institutions and corporate bodies that
are discriminatory and reinforce social exclusion amongst refugees;
To promote innovative local action to tackle labour market barriers against
refugees in employment initiatives;
To develop local equality strategies and action plans in consultation with refugee
groups;
To work with local employers to raise awareness of refugee women’s employment
potential, barriers to jobs and any solutions and support available to overcome them;
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To support inclusive learning strategies and adopt measures in local partnerships
that enhance access and outcomes for refugee women;
To manage cultural and gender diversity in the workforce;
To have positive consideration of refugee status in fair recruitment practice;
To develop a New Deal for refugees to address multiple labour market barriers;
To support local refugee employment strategies alongside welfare and other
service provision.
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Refugee Council/MbA Training Research and Development Ltd. (1999) Creating
the Conditions for Refugees to Find Work. Refugee Council: London.
Focus
This report attempts to identify the conditions that would need to exist for more
refugees to find work in Britain.
Methodological issues
For the purposes of this research the term “refugee” was defined as anyone who
described themselves as a refugee, whatever their immigration status.
The research methodology involved a brief literature review, the facilitation of three
focus groups with a total of 31 refugees from a variety of countries, semi-structured
face-to-face interviews with five refugees to provide case study evidence, and semistructured
telephone interviews with nine large and medium sized employers. The
research focuses on the experiences of refugees and employers in London.
The authors state that refugee participants were recruited by refugee organisations, but
further details of sampling methods are not provided and the sample cannot be
considered representative of the refugee community more generally. Employer
participants were selected on the basis of their past involvement with the research
consultants, and their representativeness must also therefore be in question. Although
extensive details concerning the interview methods indicate that the validity and
reliability of the data produced is likely to be high, the sample size and sampling
techniques undermine the generalisability of the findings and the recommendations
should therefore be treated with some degree of caution.
Main findings
Many of the services that could assist refugees to find and keep satisfying work are
already being provided by various agencies including the Refugee Council, local
refugee organisations, the Employment Service etc. However a number of problems
prevent refugees from accessing these services:
Awareness of services is patchy. Although refugees were in contact with
community-based organisations, few were aware of wider services for refugees.
Awareness of mainstream employment and training services was even lower;
Many of the barriers that prevent them from finding work also prevent them from
accessing services e.g. lack of child care, lack of English, transport costs etc.
Access to mainstream services may be hampered by over-reliance on communitybased
refugee organisations;
Many refugees in menial jobs do not have the time to undertake training or look
for satisfying work, and many would not be eligible for support services as they are
not unemployed.
Recommendations
The authors make the following recommendations to Refugee Council services:
A major programme should be launched to increase the capacity of local refugee
organisations to provide initial support and guidance to refugees and to sign-post them
65

to other services. This programme would involve additional resources for these
organisations, training and development activities for staff and volunteers, and the
collection and dissemination of information about national and local services relevant
to refugee employment;
There should be greater investment in teaching refugees English. English teaching
should be provided at different levels, from basic English to technical and business
English. Teaching should be affordable, available in a variety of venues, and
accessible in terms of childcare facilities and transport costs.
The Refugee Council should campaign for greater recognition of foreign
qualifications. It should try to access funding to provide a national service to assist
refugees in having their qualifications recognised. A programme of accreditation of
prior learning could help refugees achieve equivalent vocational qualifications.
The authors go on to make the following recommendations for changes in government
policies:
On arrival in the UK, refugees and asylum seekers should be given information in
their home languages about local and national refugee organisations, local English
classes and mainstream services such as local authority services, Citizens’ Advice
Bureaux and local training provision. On being granted the right to work, the Home
Office should then provide refugees and asylum seekers with full information about
employment and training services in their local area;
The benefit system needs to be reformed to make it easier to combine part-time
and casual work with receipt of benefit (e.g. along the lines of the Australian system).
The new in-work benefit, the Working Families Tax Credit, should be available to
refugees and asylum seekers;
A major initiative should be launched to educate employers about the skills and
experiences refugees have to offer;
The Government must make it very clear to both employers and refugees who is
eligible to work and for how long;
Relatively minor changes to immigration procedures could dramatically improve
the confidence of employers to employ refugees. These changes include the
standardisation and simplification of immigration paperwork; a standard work permit
(with photograph) given to refugees clearly stating how long they have permission to
work for; the inclusion of an “employer help line” telephone number on immigration
documents; the facility for employers to find out how long a refugee will be allowed
to stay in the country (this would require the government to give guarantees to asylum
seekers that they could stay for a set period while their cases are being decided).
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Refugee Education and Training Advisory Service / Redbridge Signposting
Centre / Charities Evaluation Services (2000) What Worked For Us?
Empowerment through Joint Evaluation. Refugee Education and Training
Advisory Service: London.
Focus
This pilot project evaluates the extent to which the services provided by two London
based organisations, the Refugee Education Training and Advisory Service (RETAS)
and the Redbridge SignPosting Centre (RSC), contributed to the empowerment of
their users.
Methodological issues
The research was carried out by four users of the RETAS and RSC during a six month
period in 2000. A mixed methodology was employed, using postal questionnaires (51
returned), 15 telephone interviews, and two focus groups (10 participants).
The study has a very narrow focus of research and, given that its findings are not
readily generalisable to other training programmes for refugees, it is unlikely to be of
significant use to policy makers.
Main findings
Most of the respondents at both RETAS and RSC were happy with the way they
were treated by these organisations;
Most of the users who participated in the evaluation had gained access to
education and training, and attributed their various achievements to the services they
had received from RETAS and RSC.
Recommendations
The services provided by RETAS and RSC should be more effectively publicised;
More “drop-in” services are required;
The confidentiality and equal opportunity policies of both organisations should be
monitored to ensure their effectiveness;
Future evaluation projects should be longer and should include more training for
the evaluators.
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Rosenkranz, Hernan (2000) A Concise Guide to Refugees’ Education and
Qualifications. World University Service / RETAS: London.
Focus
This handbook is a guide to the education system for refugees in the UK. It describes
how to access the education system at all levels and contains a comprehensive guide
to requalification routes for most of the “regulated” professions in the UK.
Type of information
The term “refugee” is used in this handbook in two different senses. Sometimes it
includes all displaced persons who have applied for asylum regardless of the outcome
of their application On other occasions, it refers to those who have been granted
refugee status under the UN Convention only. The use of the term is usually clear
from the context.
The key issues regarding refugees’ access to education and training are identified as:
Lack of documentary evidence of studies and qualifications
Translations of diplomas
Assessment and recognition of qualifications
Lack of appropriate funding for education, training and recognition of diplomas
and qualifications
Interruption of studies
Lack of references
Need for “bridging courses”
The handbook presents information on: refugees’ education entitlement, fees and
maintenance; the educational structure in the UK; pre-school and compulsory
education; post-compulsory and further education; higher education; how to apply for
a course; equal opportunities; and recognition of overseas qualifications.
Quality and usefulness
This handbook is an invaluable source of information for refugees, community groups
and career advisors. It is well-structured, very accessible, and directly addresses the
barriers that prevent refugees from requalifying or having their qualification
recognised in the UK.
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Peters, Helen/University of North London (2001) Portfolio Building for the
Purpose of AP(E)L: A Self-Access Pack for Qualified and/or Experienced Refugees
and Asylum Seekers in the UK. Refugee Assessment and Guidance Unit: London.
Focus
This pack is designed for refugees and asylum seekers who have qualifications and
experience from another country and want to demonstrate the value of these in the
UK.
Type of information
The pack presents a step-by-step process of how to write a portfolio which refugees
can then use to help get their qualifications and experience recognised for education
or employment. The completed portfolio contains two main parts: a written account of
the refugee’s learning, and any evidence to support this written account.
Quality and usefulness
A reasonably high level of English is required to use this pack and most refugees will
need tutorial advice and guidance to compile the portfolio. Access to a computer is
also recommended. The authors suggest that it will take most refugees between two
and six months of several hours’ work per week to work through the pack as a whole.
The time commitment and the complexity of the process of portfolio compilation are
likely to deter many refugees from using this pack.
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2. Health
Health Education Authority (1998) Promoting the Health of Refugees. A Report of
the Health Education Authority’s Expert Working Group on Refugee Health: Its
Present State and Future Directions. Immigration Law Practitioners Association:
London. Funded by the Health Education Authority.
Focus
This report provides an appraisal of the factors which prevent the adequate uptake of
health services amongst refugees and asylum seekers. It identifies the key factors in
meeting their health needs and provides examples of good practice.
Methodological issues
In June 1997 the Health Education Authority commissioned an Expert Working
Group to consider ways of promoting health amongst refugees. This report is the
outcome of the deliberations of that Group. Beyond identifying the membership of the
Group (8 members), details of the methodology are not provided.
The authors acknowledge that they have not produced a comprehensive review of the
health care needs of refugees, but suggest that they provide an overview of the main
issues faced by all those working among these groups. In the absence of any
information on the selection of Group members or the evidence base of members’
recommendations, however, this claim is not supported, and the findings and
recommendations presented below must consequently be treated with some caution.
The report adopts a broad definition of “refugee” to include those applying for
asylum, those given ELR, those given refugee status, those who have had their
application refused and are going through the appeals process, and other groups who
fall outside this definition but who face similar problems.
Main findings
Access:
Not all refugees will undergo health screening at the Port Health Control Units. Even
for those that are screened, the availability of quality information on health issues and
the NHS is poor. Reasons for refugees not registering with GPs include preoccupation
with housing, employment and money, language problems, and limited availability of
translated information regarding the structure of the NHS and provision of services.
There is also uncertainty about charges, low expectations of services available and
concern regarding confidentiality between government departments and the NHS.
GPs remain confused over refugee entitlements;
Communication:
Word of mouth is one of the best ways to convey information to refugees due to the
strength of oral traditions in many refugee cultures. Videos and audio-cassettes are
also useful tools. There is a lack of awareness at a local level of materials that may
have been produced elsewhere. Several health authorities, statutory bodies and
voluntary organisations have produced directories of health services and health
promotion materials designed for use by those working with refugees. Peer and
70

community educators are also effective in communicating health messages. A one-toone
language service is essential to communicate with those whose English is limited;
Education and training:
GPs often feel anxious and out of their depth in trying to cope with the special needs
of refugees. There is a dearth of training packages for front-line professionals
covering the health, social and legal issues facing refugees. Appropriate training for
health professionals to meet the challenge of working in a multi-cultural society is
under-developed both at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in the UK. Refugee
health care professionals are under used;
Women’s health:
Poor language skills represent an important barrier to accessing health care. Many
refugee women cannot read or write in their own language. Access to English classes
can be difficult due to the need for childcare. Special sensitivity is required by GPs in
dealing with the sexual health needs of refugee women;
Children:
A lack of coordination, inter-agency working and limited guidance from the
Department of Education to deal with the complex needs of refugee children impedes
service development. Mental health services for children have been fragmented by
changes in the Health Services resulting from the NHS Act of 1990;
Mental health:
Refugees have a high incidence of depression, anxiety, panic disorder, agoraphobia
and substance misuse. Language barriers, complex appointment systems, the
formality of the setting, and feelings of stigmatisation and humiliation, present
formidable barriers to accessing care;
National and regional coordination:
Many mainstream NHS services still fail to project an inclusive multi-cultural image,
which creates a barrier to access for many refugees. Refugee community
organisations are typically under-resourced, over-worked and restricted by short-term
funding. Health related information is either not available at a national level or cannot
be found in the relevant language.
Recommendations
New arrivals should be given written information, in the appropriate language,
about the structure and routes of access to the NHS at the ports of entry. The
involvement of the relevant refugee communities in design is important;
Client-held records should be introduced for newly arrived refugees which would
improve continuity of care;
GPs should be encouraged to offer permanent registration to refugees;
Quality of interpreting services should be encouraged through development and
evaluation of innovative ways of service delivery;
A simple guide on refugees’ legal, social and health needs should be developed
and sent to all the health authorities/primary care groups.
71

Aldous, J. et al (1999) Refugee Health in London: Key Issues for Public Health.
Health of Londoners Project: London. Supported by London’s Health
Authorities and their Directors of Public Health.
Focus
This report presents estimates of the numbers and distribution of refugees in London,
and provides a review of refugee health needs. It aims specifically to provide
information relevant to health policy makers.
Methodological issues
This major report was produced by a task force of The Health of Londoners Project
which includes London public health professionals, refugee health workers, and
academic and research colleagues. Beyond defining the composition of the task force
(15 members), however, no details of methodology are provided. The information
presented in the report is fully referenced but the inclusion and exclusion criteria for
references is not stated. This report represents a potentially valuable resource for
policy makers, therefore, but the lack of information on the selection of the task group
or on the criteria for citing references mean that its recommendations must be treated
with some caution.
Main findings
There are doubts about whether relatively high primary care registration rates
found in some studies of settled refugee communities are applicable in all cases.
Registration is often only temporary, and refugees tend to cluster on the lists of
certain practices;
The response to mental health problems ranges from appropriate treatment in
primary care for conditions such as depression, to specialist services for the subset of
individuals with major mental health problems following trauma. There is some
evidence of low uptake of counselling and mental health services among refugee
communities;
There is little evidence on the effectiveness of current systems for managing
refugees with communicable diseases. At present there is no common policy across
London for following up those entrants who are assessed at the port of entry, or for
those who do not declare themselves at the port;
Some form of initial health assessment of new entrants, going beyond screening
for communicable disease, offers an opportunity to act as an introduction to health
services for new migrants. It should ideally be seen as positive movement to help
individuals through assessments of their own health and to start a continuing process
of NHS contact;
One of the most effective ways of ensuring appropriate services is to recognise the
roles that refugee and related community groups can play in the planning,
development and delivery of services;
Language support is a crucial issue and the most important factor in relation to
primary care. The capability to provide interpreting services varies across London;
Systems for providing health information to refugees are fragmented across the
capital;
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There is confusion among health professionals over refugees’ and asylum seekers’
rights to health care;
There is an absence of systematic quantitative information on refugees within
London, and the evidence base for evaluating specific initiatives aimed at improving
the health of refugees is limited;
There is the potential for collaborative work across areas and in some cases on a
pan-London basis.
Recommendations
Better systems should be developed for identifying the numbers and demographic
characteristics of refugees to help the planning of services. Computerised systems in
the Home Office should help with this, and health and local authorities should work
together to link information from different sectors;
The Department of Health should promote research into the health needs of
refugees, especially into the effectiveness of interventions;
The Department of Health, in collaboration with the Communicable Disease
Surveillance Centre, should review the whole process of new entrant screening;
Health authorities, primary care groups and Trusts should examine and monitor
how their local primary health services support refugees in terms of access, care and
onward referral to specialist services;
Health authorities should ensure that clear guidelines on refugees’ rights to NHS
care are disseminated to staff throughout the service. Organisations responsible for
education and training need to consider the development of training materials and
programmes for NHS staff;
Health authorities and PCGs should ensure adequate access to services for
translation, interpreting and advocacy for refugees within their own area. Health
authorities should consider how to develop an agreed framework, standards and
guidelines for the use of interpreting services for PCGs. It is important that the
Department of Health has appropriate methods of allocating resources to cover the
costs of such services in health and local authorities;
Health and local authority services, the voluntary sector and the Home Office
should ensure that key statutory services that have first line contact with refugees are
able to provide information about the NHS, and are able to liaise with the health
service where appropriate. Health authorities need to form effective partnerships with
the voluntary sector and local authorities to address the wider determinants of health,
including housing, employment and education;
The Department of Health and Home Office should provide systems for
disseminating information about the health service to inform refugees. This could
include contacts through the port of entry or through immigration services and be
coordinated at a national level;
Health authorities and PCGs need to engage local refugee communities in
planning and delivering services for refugees. It is important that such work is
supported on a long-term basis and integrated into local strategic plans for health and
health services;
The Department of Health and health authorities, in collaboration with other
sectors, need to consider how coordinated action between districts and at regional or
national level can improve the accessibility and quality of facilities for interpreting,
information for and about refugees, and shared resources for health promotion.
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CVS Consultants and Migrant and Refugee Communities Forum (1999) A
Shattered World: The Mental Health Needs of Refugees and Newly Arrived
Communities. CVS Consultants: London.
Focus
This document provides information on the types of mental health problems that are
being presented, and the typical causal factors arising both in the UK and in the
country of origin. It also addresses the more general issues of access to health care
and explores some of the factors that affect service development in this context.
Methodological issues
This project begins with a review of the literature on appropriate models and methods
of working with refugees with a mental health problem. Fieldwork consisted of
interviews held with 38 different projects providing services to refugees with mental
health problems. These projects included services provided from within the NHS,
specialist providers of mental health services to refugees, and services provided by
refugee community organisations. Further details of the methodology are not supplied
and the degree to which the projects surveyed are representative of the range of
projects available is unknown. The number and methods of interview are similarly
unknown, casting doubt on the validity and reliability of the data.
Although the impact of government policies and practices on the mental health of
refugees is not directly addressed by the report’s authors, the main findings presented
here appear to be consistent with those detailed in similar reports on this subject and
may therefore deserve consideration by policy makers. In this document the term
“refugee” includes people with three different types of immigration status as
recognised by the Home Office: full refugee status, exceptional leave to remain, and
asylum seekers awaiting a Home Office decision on their asylum applications.
Main findings
Mental health problems amongst refugees may be much higher than previously
recognised;
The types of mental health problems that are most common amongst different
refugee groups are: problems specifically affecting children and women, marital
problems, trauma responses such as post traumatic stress disorder, depression,
bereavement, suicide, and substance abuse;
These mental health problems may be longstanding; may be a consequence of
torture and ill treatment in the country of origin; or may be brought about by the
destabilising aspects of the refugee experience including the insecurity associated
with being a refugee;
Refugee communities may have different understandings of mental health
conditions and what to do about them;
They may not know about the mental health services that exist or may be reluctant
to approach them;
Refugees may be less likely to be referred by their general practitioner and may be
less likely to receive treatment and diagnosis at an early stage;
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Refugees may be less likely to receive non-physical treatments such as
psychotherapy, counselling and alternatives to institutionalised care and more likely
to receive physical treatments and strong medication.
Recommendations
A major investment in primary and secondary health care in this field is essential;
Mental health professionals need to work with refugee organisations to improve
their understanding of how mental health is perceived by different refugee
communities;
Training for professional staff on refugee issues is a key part of any strategy.
Mental health professionals need to have some familiarity with the language and
cultural norms of refugees in order to decide what is normative and what is
dysfunctional;
Outreach is a key tool in raising awareness of mental health issues and needs to
address issues such as access arrangements, and concepts such as confidentiality and
counselling;
Effective mental health awareness is more likely to be achieved through face-toface
work than through leaflets and other written materials (although these are still
needed);
Helping to ameliorate the physical and material circumstances of refugees is likely
to improve their mental health;
Refugees should automatically be offered an overall health check shortly after
arrival. This will need to be promoted by specialist post holders making home visits
etc. Refugee community groups should act as a link or advocate in this respect;
Children and young people may need separate services. The focus is likely to be
on activity based therapy rather than talking therapies, and on the future rather than
the past. Mental health professionals need to be aware of the different roles children
may have in refugee families. Community based “mentoring” strategies may be
helpful to support fatherless children;
Whilst counselling is often unknown in the country of origin, it may be a useful
tool for supporting refugees. The process needs to be explained and the user needs to
understand and consent to that process. Cognitive behavioural therapy may be a
particularly effective approach as it works with the user’s own belief systems. Some
of these techniques can be taught relatively easily to refugee groups. Traditional and
faith healers can also be enlisted to help;
Wherever possible, counselling should be in the refugee’s mother tongue. Where
this is not possible, interpreters trained in the counselling process should be used;
Distraction or getting a user involved in different activities is a preferred response
to mental health problems in many cultures. Activities linked to traditional arts and
crafts should be considered, and may be a particularly effective way of accessing
women users;
Religion is a key factor in counselling for many refugees. Mental health
professionals need to have some familiarity with the religion in question. Users
should be linked into traditional spiritual advisors and rituals where these are
available in the UK;
Community based organisations need to have clear boundaries with regard to the
mental health services they can provide appropriately and effectively. There is a
critical need for formal links to be made with mainstream clinical services. Such links
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may be improved by placing trained workers in a community setting, or by employing
refugees with mental health training or qualifications in an NHS setting.
76

Levenson, R. & Sharma, A. (1999) The Health of Refugee Children: Guidelines
for Paediatricians. Kings Fund/Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health:
London.
Focus
These guidelines give advice to paediatricians on the physical, psychological and
cultural needs of refugee children in the UK.
Type of information
The guide contains information on the process of asylum applications for children; the
role of the Refugee Council Children’s Panel in the UK; the entitlements and rights of
refugee children under law; medical matters such as immunisation, ante-natal care and
birth, and mental health; language and communication; confidentiality; and the role
and addresses of relevant NGOs and other relevant resources.
Quality and usefulness
The guide is well researched and information is presented in a clear and accessible
format.
77

Refugee Council (1999) Refugee Health Services Directory: a Directory of Health
Services for Refugees Provided by Statutory and Voluntary Sector. Refugee
Council: London.
Focus
This directory details mainstream and voluntary health projects and initiatives
specifically aimed at, or with an interest in, refugee, black and ethnic minority issues.
Type of information
The directory contains 240 entries. Each entry gives practical details on the
organisation listed, including a brief description of the services offered, address,
telephone and fax numbers, opening hours, languages and other relevant information.
Quality and usefulness
This is a useful reference tool for health care providers, social services and other
advisory groups. Most (230) of the entries are listed according to London health
authority boundaries. There are only 10 “regional” entries covering the rest of the UK.
Many of the entries are incomplete. Regularly updated versions of this publication are
required.
78

Dean, R. (2000) The Mental Health Status of Refugees from Kosovo at The London
Park Hotel. King’s College, University of London: London.
Focus
This report uses psychometric questionnaires to assess the mental health status of a
sample of refugees from Kosovo living at the London Park Hotel.
Methodological issues
The research was conducted during October 1999 at the London Park Hotel. There
were 716 residents registered at the hotel at that time, of which a random sample of
100 were interviewed. Only residents who said they were from Kosovo were included
in the analysis.
Although interviewees may have been representative of the Kosovan population
staying at the London Park Hotel, the degree to which this sample is representative of
the wider Kosovan refugee community is unknown.
A questionnaire available in English and Albanian was used, supplemented by the
General Health Questionnaire 12, and the Psychosis Screening Questionnaire. Details
of the interview methods are not provided in this report.
The quantitative findings of this study replicate those of many previous studies
investigating the prevalence of mental health problems in refugee populations. The
methodology of this particular study is not rigorous, however, and policy makers are
advised to interpret the findings with caution. In addition to reporting her quantitative
data, the author also makes a number of observations. These are anecdotal and should
not be regarded as evidence-based.
Main findings
80% of respondents were 25 years of age or under. The majority had arrived at the
hotel in the past couple of months;
The majority had left full-time education early;
There was a high level of reported psychological distress, supporting the findings
of similar studies that have noted five times more reported mental health problems in
refugees than in non-refugees.
Recommendations
Some form of social support or “mother figure” should be provided, particularly
for the younger residents;
Problems of loneliness and boredom need to be addressed, perhaps through liaison
with local sports clubs;
Support networks should be fostered, connecting refugee communities in other
areas;
English survival language classes should be continued;
Basic medical prescriptions should be easier to obtain;
Residents with chronic health problems need to be catered for.
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Gosling, R. (2000) The Needs of Young Refugees in Lambeth, Southwark and
Lewisham. Community Health South London NHS Trust: London. Funded by
the LSL Health Action Zone.
Focus
This report assesses the health needs of refugee children in Lambeth, Southwark and
Lewisham, highlights the gaps in service provision, and identifies the training and
support needs of professionals.
Methodological issues
Information was collected by the use of focus groups, written questionnaires,
telephone interviews, one-to-one interviews and discussions, group discussions and
observation of projects. During the course of the research, a total of 211 service
providers and policy officers, 20 community and youth workers, and 34 refugee
children (aged 12-16 years) were consulted. Details of sampling and interview
methods are not provided in this report, however, and although a substantial sample
size was surveyed, the level of validity and reliability of the data is unknown, and the
extent to which the findings can be generalised must be in doubt. The findings and
recommendations should therefore be treated with caution.
Main findings
Young refugees face a number of barriers when accessing services in Lambeth,
Southwark and Lewisham. Most significantly, they face communication barriers and
there is a lack of awareness of services that are available;
Factor impacting on health and well being are boredom, isolation, nutrition,
inappropriate placements, lack of health education, bullying, and intergenerational
conflict;
Interagency co-operation is beginning, but there are still a number of difficulties
faced by professionals delivering a service to young refugees. Further training and
support are required, as well as improved information systems and improved
interagency working.
Recommendations
Access workers should be recruited from refugee communities to work
specifically with young refugees requiring support in accessing services. They should
work with existing refugee youth projects and schools;
The specific health and social needs of young refugees should be addressed. The
following projects are suggested: mental health, health promotion, support projects for
15-17 year olds placed in adult accommodation, development of a foster carers
resource pack, and a project to combat bullying;
The following infra-structural improvements should be made: increased training
and support for front-line staff, development of information systems, and
improvement in referral systems between agencies and boroughs;
Inter-agency working should be developed and supported;
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There should be employment opportunities for health professionals who are
refugees. This may mean facilitating work placements for professionals who are in the
process of re-qualifying;
Negative images of refugees should be challenged and positive images actively
promoted in both the local and national media;
Health authorities should consider utilising local skills e.g. supporting interpreting
training courses to provide quality interpreting.
81

Woodhead, D. (2000) The Health and Well-being of Asylum Seekers and Refugees.
Kings Fund: London.
Focus
This paper explores the impact of the Immigration and Asylum Act of 1999 on the
health of asylum seekers and refugees.
Methodological issues
This research was carried out in London in November 2000. Informal interviews were
conducted with a total of nine individuals working for NGOs or statutory sector
organisations providing services to asylum seekers and refugees in London. No details
of sampling techniques or interview methods are provided.
The author acknowledges that the evidence contained in this paper is anecdotal. He
notes that his sample represents a “snapshot” of views, and suggests that further
research is required to support his findings. The small size of the sample and the lack
of methodological data indicate that the findings and recommendations should be
viewed with caution.
Main findings
Most asylum seekers and refugees arrive well and in apparent good health,
although an important minority arrive in considerable distress;
Health might not be the first priority upon arrival. Housing, asylum, security, food
and warmth are more likely to be needed. Serious ill health may appear as a pressing
concern later on;
Some asylum seekers and refugees arrive with mental health problems as a result
of torture, conflict and war e.g. post traumatic stress disorder;
Some asylum seekers have needs that cannot be contained by GPs but do not meet
established criteria for psychiatric intervention. These people fall between two stools
and receive inadequate health care;
Unofficial self-medication (e.g. through alcohol and street drugs) often helps
victims cope with the psychological effects of torture and war;
The quality of health services for asylum seekers and refugees around the country
is inconsistent and depends largely on local health authorities and services providers;
There is a lack of information for health professionals and for refugees and
asylum seekers. Translation of leaflets remains poor;
Interpretation and advocacy services are poor and under-resourced;
There is no easy access to free prescriptions for asylum seekers and refugees;
The paucity of state-funded services is putting immense strain on NGOs,
voluntary sector organisations and community groups;
The voucher scheme is having far-reaching effects on the mental health - as well
as nutritional status - of asylum seekers and refugees;
Problems with the dispersal system are discouraging some from applying for
asylum, forcing some to go “underground”;
Asylum seekers and refugees are housed in poor conditions, often in damp,
overcrowded and inappropriate accommodation that is subject to little regulation. This
can seriously affect individuals’ physical and mental health;
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Young asylum seekers and refugees lack role models and mentors. Some lose
respect for their families and join gangs, partaking in street culture, and potentially
marginalising themselves even further.
Recommendations
Rigorous research is required in this area;
Research should focus on the health status of asylum seekers and refugees per se;
Alternatives to the current system need to be considered;
Collaborative research is required to build the capacity of service providers;
A consultation exercise with key players (including policy makers, service
providers, local communities, and asylum seekers and refugees) should strengthen the
research.
83

Department of Health/Schwartz, M. (2001) Survey of the Experience of Three
Refugee Communities in Camden and Islington in Accessing Health Care.
Department of Health: London.
Focus
This project identifies barriers to accessibility and appropriateness of health care
services for refugees in Camden and Islington, and makes recommendations to
improve services.
Methodological issues
The research process included community consultation, focus group discussions, and
structured interviews with 639 people from the Eritrean, Ethiopean, Oromo and
Somali communities. A focus group discussion was also held with health care service
commissioners and providers. Further details of the methodology are not provided in
this summary document and the findings and recommendations must therefore be
treated with caution.
Main findings
The Horn of Africa refugee community non-registration rate with GPs is 14.6%
compared with the general UK population rate of 1%;
The majority of respondents failed to registered because of language problems, a
lack of awareness of the need to register, and fear of consequences for their asylum
application;
There was no information about the structure of the health services in refugees’
home languages, and the NHS interpreting service in the district was inaccessible to
the Horn of Africa communities. Most used interpreters from their communities, or
friends, although the vast majority preferred professional interpreters;
Some health staff were reported to be unsympathetic to refugee/asylum seeking
patients;
The uptake of preventative services for women was comparatively low;
The expertise of health professionals in refugee communities was not utilised;
More than three quarters of respondents did not know how to make complaints
about health care services;
Health care professionals and support staff lacked awareness of the culture of their
patients;
Respondent satisfaction with community refugee health projects was
comparatively very high;
The majority of respondents felt that the NHS’s generic services were appropriate
for their health needs.
Recommendations
Information provision:
Simple, user friendly publicity materials in local languages should be produced on
health care services. There should be standard information sheets on common
illnesses. Refugee communities should be consulted on information provision;
Advocacy and interpreting:
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Access to the NHS Advocacy and Interpreting service should be improved, and
community self-advocacy and interpreting should be supported. There should be
support for ESOL classes run by refugee health projects and other agencies;
Training for service providers:
Training sessions should be provided on the health care and mental health care of
refugees/asylum seekers, multicultural awareness, equity, and the accessibility and
appropriateness of health care services;
Refugee communities:
Training should be conducted on accessing NHS services, NHS complaints
procedures, community and self advocacy, women’s and children’s health, and mental
health services. The health authority should involve refugee community organisations
in consultation, planning and commission processes. Relations between health service
providers and refugee communities should be improved;
Resources:
More grants should be made available to refugee community groups, e.g. to provide
interpreting services, cultural counselling and information provision. More resources
should be available to health care service providers who have refugee/asylum seeking
patients. Resources should be available for refugee health professionals to upgrade
their skills so that they can practise in the UK.
85

4. Housing
Refugee Council/Association of London Government (1996) No Place to Call
Home: Report and Recommendations for London Local Authorities on the
Implementation of New Legislation Affecting Refugees and Asylum Seekers.
Association of London Government: London.
Focus
This report provides advice on the implications of the 1996 Asylum and Immigration
Act and subsequent court decisions, and offers advice on good practice for local
authorities.
Type of information
The report lists the main provisions of the 1996 Act and describes the implications of
the Act for local authorities in terms of services for children and families, the
provision of housing, and social security entitlement. Recommendations are made
regarding practical ways to assist those affected by the loss of benefits and other
entitlements. Local authorities are advised to view refugees and asylum seekers as a
distinct target group for policy development, employment opportunities and service
delivery. Language needs, education and employment, racial harassment, isolation,
and community development strategies are highlighted for particular consideration.
Advice is given on the establishment of multi-agency fora and the implementation of
action programmes.
Quality and usefulness
This document contains both technical advice on specific benefits and other
entitlements, and general advice on good practice. Whilst technical advice on
interpreting the new laws is clearly helpful, the basis on which the “good practice”
guidelines have been determined is unclear and policy makers should therefore apply
some caution when interpreting this document.
86

CARILA Latin American Welfare Group (1997) The Housing Situation of Latin
American Refugees Living in London. CARILA (Latin American Welfare
Group): London. Funded by the Housing Associations Charitable Trust
(HACT).
Focus
This report identifies the problems faced by London-based Latin American refugees
in all areas of housing, shows how the housing needs cannot be met effectively by
existing services, and presents ways of improving the housing situation.
Methodological issues
Throughout the report the term ‘refugee’ is used generically to refer to refugees as
defined by the UN Convention, asylum seekers and migrants. The term ‘asylum
seeker’ is used to refer to those refugees who have claimed asylum and are awaiting a
final Home Office decision.
The research project was carried out from February to July 1995. A total of 53
structured interviews were held with Latin American refugees attending the CARILA
office for assistance. Several interviewees were then followed up at home, providing
material for a number of case-studies. Latin American organisations and other
agencies who deal with Latin Americans in the course of their work were also
interviewed. Further details of the methodology are not provided.
Although the authors claim that their sample represented a cross-section of the Latin-
American community, the sample consisted of people who came to the CARILA
office for assistance, and thus cannot be viewed as a fully representative sample.
Details of interview methods or questionnaire design are not provided. The findings
and recommendations presented here should therefore be treated with caution.
Main findings
Among those surveyed, Latin American refugees in the private rented sector,
particularly in bed and breakfast accommodation, suffered the worst living conditions;
Those in temporary council accommodation suffered similar living conditions,
and often lost their support networks (e.g. GPs, schools, English classes) when they
were allocated permanent housing;
Some boroughs are not sensitive to refugees’ needs and insist on making final
offers of housing in outer London boroughs;
The task of providing support to newly arrived Latin American refugees usually
falls to the Latin American community organisations;
Latin American community organisations are all severely over-stretched and
under-staffed;
Non-priority homeless refugees have little hope of securing decent
accommodation in the private sector, and must look to housing associations to do this;
Housing association waiting lists are often closed for months;
Local authorities, the DSS and many mainstream bodies expect Latin American
refugees to provide their own interpreters. Latin American community groups play a
large role in providing these services.
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Recommendations
Local authorities should develop the fairest policies possible for asylum seekers.
The current random practices should be replaced by uniform provision across the
boroughs;
Local authorities should be sensitive to the needs of refugees. They should avoid
housing them outside the borough from which they have applied, and should provide
written information about where to get assistance if housing benefit is cut off;
Latin American community groups needs to monitor the adherence of housing
officers and social workers to borough policies;
Housing associations need to be more accessible;
Effective housing services can be most appropriately given by adequately funded
existing Latin American organisations;
The role of Latin American community groups in providing interpreting and
housing advice services should be acknowledged and these services should be
adequately funded.
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Refugee Council (1998) Rent-in-Advance Guarantee Scheme: End of Project
Report. Refugee Council: London. Funded by J. Paul Getty Jnr. Charitable
Trust, the Housing Associations’ Charitable Trust, the Housing Corporation and
Refugee Housing.
Focus
This is a report on a pilot Rent-in-Advance/Guarantee scheme aimed at increasing
access to the private rented sector for refugees without a statutory entitlement to
housing.
Methodological issues
This pilot project was developed jointly by the Refugee Council, the Refugee Arrivals
Project (RAP) and Refugee Housing. It was conducted in the London borough of
Lewisham during an 18 month period, by one full-time worker, supervised by a
support/steering group made up of representatives from the three organisations. An
initial consultation exercise involved approximately 60 organisations or individuals,
consulted by means of face-to-face interviews, telephone conversations or
questionnaires. These included 11 letting agents, 13 refugee community organisations
(RCOs), 7 housing organisations, and 18 private sector access schemes. The
subsequent pilot scheme achieved 14 lettings, housing a total of 21 people.
Further details of the methodology, including sampling and interview methods, are
not provided in this report. The degree to which the results of this scheme may apply
to different refugee contexts is therefore unknown. Other Rent-in-Advance/Guarantee
schemes conducted in London boroughs have demonstrated similarly positive results,
however, and this pilot scheme may therefore deserve serious consideration by policy
makers.
Main findings
Landlords and agents are increasingly reluctant to accept housing benefit
claimants;
Housing needs are most acute amongst young, single people, new arrivals and
asylum seekers;
Much of asylum seeker homelessness is “hidden” i.e. overcrowded households,
people staying with friends or relatives;
In many areas there is a shortage of hostel and other temporary accommodation;
The inability to raise deposits is a significant barriers to the private rented sector;
Rent-in-Advance schemes can be successful in increasing access to the private
rented sector. Although they are not the solution to homelessness, they can develop
into a significant resource for some homeless people for whom there is no statutory
duty and no other alternative.
Recommendations
The scheme should be continued and expanded;
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Registered social landlords should explore working with refugee community
organisations in the development of suitable local schemes which meet the housing
needs of those asylum seekers with no statutory entitlement to housing;
The potential for a scheme operating as part of a UK refugee settlement policy
should be explored.
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Garvie, Deborah (2001) Far From Home: the Housing of Asylum Seekers in
Private Rented Accommodation. Shelter: London. Funded by the Calouste
Gulbenkian Foundation.
Focus
This report examines the appropriateness of the private rented sector to house asylum
seekers and, based on these findings, offers policy and good practice solutions to the
problems identified.
Methodological issues
The research was carried out between January and March 2000 and was conducted in
five local authority case study areas in England. Environmental health officers
(EHOs) in the five areas completed a questionnaire whenever they inspected private
rented accommodation which they knew to be, or believed was likely to be, occupied
by an asylum seeker household. A total of 154 dwellings housing 309 people were
inspected. Seminars were convened in each study area. These were attended by a
range of local people involved with the placement of asylum seekers in private rented
accommodation. Further information was collected from a number of individuals
involved in the housing and support of destitute asylum seekers at both national and
local levels.
This study describes clear selection criteria and provides details of the questionnaire
employed for the survey. Interview methods are not specified, but this study appears
generally to have adopted rigorous methodological standards and deserves serious
consideration by policy makers.
Main findings
In all five areas, private rented accommodation had been procured by agencies
with little or no previous experience of working with private landlords;
Almost 17% of the total dwellings visited were found to be unfit for human
habitation. The most common reasons for unfitness were unsatisfactory facilities for
the preparation and cooking of food, and serious disrepair;
The majority (86%) of the houses in multiple occupation (HMOs) visited were
found to be unfit for the number of actual or intended occupants;
Asylum seeker households in over 80% of the occupied HMOs visited were
exposed to unacceptable risks of fire;
Bed sits were by far the worst type of dwelling, and shared houses were the
second worst type;
28% of the occupied homes visited were accommodating more occupants than
suggested by the number of bed spaces;
30% of the occupied homes visited failed to meet the needs of the asylum seekers
living there in terms of location, the particular needs of children, distance from
amenities, lack of amenities meeting religious or cultural needs etc;
Children under 18 years accounted for 16% of occupants in the homes visited;
There was evidence of a lack of information sharing and co-ordination between
placing and enforcing agencies;
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Existing information was not being used by accommodation procurers to identify
good local landlords, or to avoid landlords with a poor management record.
Recommendations
There should be an urgent and thorough review of the housing and wider support
being provided by the NASS system, particularly in relation to the use of homes subcontracted
from private landlords;
Asylum seekers must be provided with the necessary information and official
assistance, together with the means to develop mutual support, to enable them to
resolve any problems themselves and enforce their remaining rights to an appropriate
and safe place to live;
The NASS contract specifications for HMOs must reflect current housing
legislation (e.g. relating to fire precautions);
Realistic and effective mechanisms should urgently be put into place to ensure
that NASS informs, consults and works with local authorities and other relevant
agencies operating in the areas where asylum seekers are being housed;
Local housing enforcement agencies should be provided with comprehensive
information about the housing of asylum seekers in their areas, and consulted about
potential contracts with local private landlords.
92

Published Academic Research about the Integration
of Immigrants from 1996-2001
Gavan Curley
93

Published Academic Research about the Integration of Immigrants 1996-2002
Executive Summary
For this section of the Mapping Exercise, the literature has been scaled down to
encompass five central areas considered to be crucial to an examination of
immigrants’ modes of integration into UK society, the barriers faced thereby, and the
access to institutions and services essential to that process. These are classified as:
General (including many comparative and conceptual studies); Education and
Training; the Labour Market; Health; and Housing. The academic works in these
fields range from periodical articles based on primary research, to commissioned
works employing Governmental statistics and surveys, to secondary research and
more traditional pieces in both journal and book form.
As regards the methodology used, there are wide variations in the evidence bases
used, with many works offering little or no methodological background – sometimes
due to the subjective or theoretical nature of the study, and sometimes due to the
localised and anecdotal nature of the author’s focus. Policy recommendations are
equally erratic, invariably being implied rather than explicit. In this context, it has
often seemed unwise to extrapolate authors’ arguments to produce conclusions they
may or may not have reached. Nonetheless, efforts have been made wherever possible
to draw out policy lessons from the summaries included.
As for the summaries themselves, these have been selected from the 177 References
in the Dataset – sometimes by suitability and sometimes by necessity – in an attempt
to present a representative sample of academic work in the field across the five
subject areas previously listed. Works which appeared too slanted in emphasis
towards the pre-1996 era, which did not fall within the provided selection criteria,
which appeared overly specific or descriptive, or which simply repeated works
already reviewed, were disregarded for the purposes of this exercise. Given the time
constraints operating, a number of works have also been disregarded for reasons of
lack of availability.
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General
The works reviewed in this section – with the notable exception of the Parekh Report
(which makes wide-ranging recommendations covering every policy area) – often
seem to come across as opinion pieces or exercises in conceptualisation. Even when
the authority of a particular survey is cited, there is a lack of clear conclusions upon
which to base policy recommendations. What comes through more is a general sense
of history in the evolution of UK immigration and integration policy, and the place
this occupies in comparison to certain European neighbours. At the macro level, a
sense is communicated that direct Governmental control of social institutions is a
better guarantor of effective integration strategies than via private operators – even
when subjected to tight regulation. This can be set against the context of a strongly
statist evolution of UK multiculturalism. At a more micro level, many studies also
emphasise the variables which can impinge on or shape any such state-led integration
initiatives: the strategies adopted by members of minority communities, their own
personal and cultural backgrounds, and the fluid role also played by the host or
receiving community. An awareness and consideration of such factors will aid any
policy-making process, as will an ongoing dialogue with and appreciation of all parts
of the minority population.
Education and training
While many studies highlighted the particular difficulties faced by individual minority
groups, broad common findings also emerged. Many authors stressed the importance
of home-school links, of cultural understanding, support and awareness, of adequate
language provision (in both English and country of origin languages), of closely
monitoring issues of racism, and of developing a better understanding of pupils’
evolving – and often dual or synthesised – sense of identity. The issue of low teacher
expectation is also raised. There is also an interesting contrast drawn between the
sharply differing collectivist and individualistic modes of racial integration in,
respectively, French and British schools.
When the focus falls on particular ethnic groups, however, varying patterns of
educational achievement and acculturation do emerge – both within and across
groups. Afro-Caribbean pupils suffer particularly from under-achievement, low
95

teacher expectation and high rates of school exclusion – boys being worse effected
than girls. Within the Asian community strong differences emerge, with Hindus and
Sikhs recording greater comfort at integration than Muslim children – Muslim boys
having the greatest difficulties. The issues of cultural maintenance and funding for
Muslim schools were additional concerns for Muslim pupils and leaders.
Aside from the broad recommendations made above, it is hard to point to any clear
policy recommendations or detailed patterns of educational achievement and
integration as the studies are mostly small, localised exercises.
Labour market
Many studies took as their starting point the well-documented ‘ethnic penalty’
findings in the field of employment studies that show Britain’s minority ethnic
population to be disadvantaged across a range of social and economic outcomes. A
generally more extensive and reliable evidence base for these works (as compared to
studies in the fields of education, health and housing) in addition reveals the
considerable variations in outcome which exist between and within ethnic groups.
Black and Pakistani and Bangladeshi groups seemed generally to experience lower
rates of pay, higher unemployment and lower status jobs than their Indian
counterparts. Suggested barriers to employment integration were: language ability,
pre-migration factors (levels of education, training, etc), racism – in selection
procedures, the workplace, and as a deterrent from seeking work in certain districts –
and lower levels of qualifications. Domestic circumstances, for instance overcrowding
and impoverishment, need also to be taken into account.
As for actual policy recommendations, these are again limited, other than generally
pointing to a need for ongoing governmental diligence in countering racism, to the
importance of considering the particular difficulties faced by different groups – for
instance, Pakistani communities in the north of England whose traditional industries
have long been in decline – and to the need for increased awareness and
understanding of the specific challenges being faced by Muslims as a group.
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Health
In surveying the available data in the field of health, the most striking characteristic
was the very small-scale, localised nature of the majority of the works, and the
difficulty of finding broader, reliable and nation-wide data sets and policy
recommendations for use by service providers. Nonetheless, certain themes emerge.
The point is made that ethnic groups are not homogeneous, and that health needs and
beliefs, as elsewhere, do vary. Cultural sensitivity is important, but should not be
overplayed. Studies point also to a need for greater co-ordination between providers,
governmental bodies and experts. Finally, there is a general identification of the need
for further and wider research into minority health needs.
Specifically, elderly members of minority communities are identified as at particular
risk, and as facing greater linguistic barriers. Differing cultural attitudes of certain
South Asian communities – as regards mental health and learning disabilities – are
also highlighted, as are the specific challenges raised by traditional health beliefs,
long working hours and language difficulties within the Chinese community.
Housing
A general need for closer examination of minority housing needs and a move away
from stereotypical conceptions is identified. Varying attitudes and aspirations exist in
this sector, as among all communities. Racism continues to play a significant role in
minorities’ experience and choice of housing type and location, with consequent
implications for patterns of segregation verses integration, and Councils’ allocation
and dispersal policies. In general, however, this section of the literature was marked
by a distinct lack of comprehensive surveys of minority groups’ experiences of
housing, such that it is very difficult to reach any firm or reliable policy conclusions.
97

1. General
Israel, Mark. (1996). ‘The “Strangest of Minorities”: The Shifting Visibility of
South African Post-War Migration to Britain.’ New Community, 1996, 22, 3,
479-493.
Topic
A survey of the South African immigrant population of the UK (about 70,000 in
1991) and the ways in which their social invisibility and political influence have
allowed them to evade immigration restrictions.
Main findings
The population today is predominantly white (with perhaps 5-6 thousand non-whites),
often successful in terms of income and social status, and includes those who came to
further their careers as well as those who came to escape the effects of apartheid.
Migration has been mostly post-war, has peaked at times of particularly violent
confrontation in South Africa, yet has mostly been ignored in academic and media
circles – a phenomenon which the author seeks here to explain.
This state of affairs is put down firstly to the attitude of the UK immigration regime –
white migrants not being seen as immigrants, but as ‘returners’. Until 1962 there was
no official, stated government immigration policy, and even during the 1960s and 70s
South Africans largely escaped the restrictions placed on other Commonwealth
citizens, with commentators and politicians on the Right especially perceiving South
Africa as virtually not a foreign country. In many cases, successive changes to the
immigration laws – at least up until the 1981 British Nationality Act – actually served
to make it easier for South Africans to settle in the UK (even after their withdrawal
from the Commonwealth). This process was described by one commentator as being
developed “to buttress a racially based British identity which fused white Britons to
their diaspora in the dominions”. From the other side of the equation, generally welleducated,
articulate South Africans were able to ‘play the game’ and exploit social
contacts and bureaucratic loopholes, often with the help of support committees and
organisations. During the 1970s, political asylum became an increasingly employed
mode of entry, with war resisters making up some of this number and benefiting from
their own committee, set up in London in 1978.
Conclusions
The author sees the case of South African immigration to the UK as a perfect example
of a deliberate, state-led racialisation of immigration flows which shows up how
debates on immigration in the UK, though couched in numerical terms, have generally
been about the quality or ‘race’ of immigrants. In this context, the seamless
integration of South African migrants has been facilitated by their social invisibility,
coupled with their political visibility, and by the connivance or acquiescence of
British officialdom.
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Berry, John. (1997). ‘Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation.’ Applied
Psychology: An International Review/Psychologie Appliquee: Revue
Internationale, 46, 1, Jan, 5-34.
Topic
The author outlines a conceptual framework within which acculturation and
adaptation can be investigated, and presents some general findings based on a sample
of empirical studies. The central question then is; what happens to individuals who
have developed in one cultural context, when they attempt to live in a new cultural
context?
Main findings
The article is divided into three sections: a definition of concepts, a presentation of
empirical evidence on the acculturation framework, and areas of potential application.
In referring to literature in the field, the author points out that this largely relates to
processes in North America, Australia and Europe.
Concepts
• Acculturation: the distinction from assimilation is emphasised and the classic
definition offered as “phenomena which result when groups of individuals having
different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent
changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups”.
• Plural societies: people of many cultural backgrounds living together in a diverse
society.
• Acculturation strategies: these take into account two major issues (cultural
maintenance, and contact and participation) to generate four broad strategies –
assimilation, separation, integration and marginalisation. These then depend for
their form on the freedom of action of the non-dominant culture: assimilation can
be forced, in a ‘pressure cooker’-type situation; separation can become
segregation; and marginalisation is more the possible outcome of these pressures,
rather than an active choice. Integration is presented as a mutual accommodation
dependent on the dominant culture’s open and inclusive attitude towards cultural
diversity. The non-dominant group must in turn accept the basic values of the
larger society whilst also wishing collectively to maintain the group’s cultural
heritage.
• Psychological acculturation: this is divided into three levels of difficulty for the
individual: relatively easy (concepts such as culture learning, social skills
acquisition, culture shedding); serious conflict (terms like culture shock, or
acculturative stress); and major, incapacitating difficulty (inability to cope leading
to serious psychological disturbances, such as clinical depression).
• Adaptation: changes that take place in response to environmental demands, often
divided into psychological, sociocultural and economic.
Acculturation framework
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The key variables that the author contests should be attended to when carrying out
studies of psychological acculturation are presented. These must take into account
both the dominant and non-dominant society and are broadly divided into situational
and personal variables:
• Society of origin – factors relating in particular to the migration motivation;
• Society of settlement – especially the dominant multicultural ideology;
• Group-level acculturation – physical environment, diet, economic, social and
cultural changes affecting the group;
• Psychological acculturation phenomena – the five main phenomena are presented
as: acculturative experience, or life events; appraisal of this experience, or
stressors; strategies used, or coping; immediate effects, or levels of stress; longterm
outcomes, or adaptation;
• Factors existing prior to acculturation – personal factors such as age, gender, level
of education, expectations and cultural distance;
• Factors arising during acculturation – length of time spent in this process, strategy
adopted (with studies consistently showing integration to be the most successful),
coping strategy, degree of social support and experience of prejudice and
discrimination.
• Potential applications / policy recommendations:
The author feels there are a variety of factors under human control, and thus amenable
to policy change, both in the society of origin and of settlement, and at both the group
and individual levels:
• Society of origin: pre-departure counselling and training, as well as realistic goal
setting;
• Society of settlement: national policies that promote the balancing act of
integration, in addition to public education and social legislation promoting the
benefits of pluralism and the costs of discrimination, backed up by national
studies of attitudes to multiculturalism and specific groups to monitor progress.
Also provision of information on cultural / social support programmes, as well as
the benefits of participation in national institutions, together with warnings of the
dangers of marginalisation. Overall emphasis on mutual accommodation.
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Dörr, S. and Faist, T. (1997). ‘Institutional conditions for the integration of
immigrants in welfare states: a comparison of the literature on Germany,
France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands.’ European Journal of Political
Research, 31, 4, 401-426.
Topic
The article looks at the differing degree of access immigrants have to the welfare state
in the four countries examined – focusing on health care, old age insurance, housing
and vocational training – and the degree to which welfare state institutions and
individuals’ right of residence influence the integration of immigrants into the welfare
state. The authors review the literature in this field in order to reach some conclusions.
Main findings
Broadly similar patterns of post-war immigration and a shared history of
comparatively advanced welfare states lie behind the choice of the four countries in
the study – Germany, France, Great Britain and the Netherlands. The legal position of
migrants has differed, however, and political and historical variations have produced
very different welfare structures – offering different institutional conditions for a
social integration of migrants. The authors examine the legal position of migrants in
each country; the respective welfare systems; and finally the effect of the institutional
framework on the integration of migrants.
Legal position of migrants
A brief outline is given of the general approach to rights of residence, before the
individual migration policies are explored, and then the linkage between migrant
status and claims to social security:
• Migration policy: in Germany, the waiting period for acquiring citizenship is ten
years, as opposed to five in the other three countries, reflecting its emphasis on not
being an ‘immigration country’ (the principle of descent, as applied to ethnic
German repatriates from Eastern Europe, being dominated), with migrant workers
in the 1950s and 60s seen as a temporary phenomenon. In France, a historically
more open attitude, as well as colonial obligation in North Africa in particular,
produced a rather different situation. In the UK the open door policy and
automatic citizenship from Commonwealth countries up to 1962, and progressive
tightening since that time, have shaped the migrant profile. Colonial history has
similarly influenced the Netherlands, with migrants from former colonies
Indonesia and Surinam in particular entering the country as citizens. Since the
early 1970s all four countries have restricted immigration as far as possible, with
families of residents and refugees now constituting the two main groups of non-
European migration.
• Claims to social security: the legal position which provides the basis for an
individual’s access to social benefits and work permits is in all four countries
fundamentally tied to the right of residence, and is broadly broken down into the
categories of: asylum seeker, recognised refugees, quota refugees, humanitarian
and de facto refugees, labour migrants, family members, students, and those with
a permanent residence permit after a longer stay. Differences between the
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countries are not great, though for instance asylum seekers in Germany, France
and the Netherlands do not have access to regular health services as access is
linked to the work permit.
Institutional conditions in the four welfare states
• Germany: the general approach – as for health and retirement – is of compulsory
insurance, with governmental welfare as a back-up. Vocational training is
dominated by non-government social partners and there is a relatively small stock
of social authority housing.
• France: the system operates on similar principles to Germany, though there is also
a minimum guarantee, more social housing, and vocational training is far more
centralised and controlled by government.
• Great Britain: main features are a low level of insurance, a greater role for private
insurance, and a basic income guarantee. Other differences include: a governmentsupplied
National Health Service, generally lower than EU-average welfare
payments, a public authority housing sector moving towards the private /
charitable sector, and very little government involvement in vocational training.
• Netherlands: a mixture of citizen income and national insurance; massive public
authority housing sector (42% of the total housing space); and a largely private
vocational training system.
Effect of the institutional framework on the integration of migrants
These are divided by the authors into specific areas of welfare provision:
• Old age insurance: the point is made that immigrants are especially at risk of income
poverty in old age. This is especially the case in Germany as pensions are paid in
proportion to income, and migrants who do not obtain a work permit, or do not take
up work for other reasons, cannot accrue the minimum years necessary for eligibility.
Migrants are also affected by the 50 years residency requirement of the Dutch
system, and by the long-term contributions in the UK system. Migrants benefit from
the minimum pension guarantee in France.
• Health care: the contrast is drawn between low / no income groups (including
many migrants) being excluded from the German and French insurance-backed
systems, and the UK government-directed system, which is more conducive to
meeting demands for, for instance, special programmes to meet migrant needs or
discrimination initiatives.
• Housing: this sector is generally recognised as crucial to the social situation and
integration of immigrants. The UK position of government-controlled housing
stock is again useful for directing anti-discrimination allocation policies, which
trickles down to the charitable / housing association sector. Equitable access is
similarly guaranteed in the Netherlands. The more private German system allows
more leeway for discriminatory practices, while France’s policy of mass
allocation of social housing specifically to immigrants avoids this pitfall while,
however, risking ghettoisation (attempts are now being made with quotas to
counter this).
• Vocational training / further education: crucial to the process of socio-economic
integration of immigrants. Broadly, the authors find that a governmentally
institutionalised system (as in France and the Netherlands) guarantees far easier
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access for migrants than a system which is controlled in relatively unregulated
training markets (as in Great Britain and Germany) – that is, one in which
employers or private sponsors decide about access to training places.
103

Kagitcbasi, Cigdem. (1997). ‘Whither Multiculturalism?’. Applied Psychology:
An International Review/Psychologie Appliquee: Revue Internationale, 46, 1, Jan,
44-49.
Triandis, Harry C. (1997). ‘Where is Culture in the Acculturation Model?’.
Applied Psychology: An International Review/Psychologie Appliquee: Revue
Internationale, 46, 1, Jan, 55-58.
Ward, Collen. (1997). ‘Culture Learning, Acculturative Stress, and
Psychopathology: Three Perspectives on Acculturation.’ Applied Psychology: An
International Review/Psychologie Appliquee: Revue Internationale, 46, 1, Jan, 58-
62.
Topic
The three short pieces above are all responses to the John Berry 1997 article already
summarised (‘Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation’).
Kagitcbasi takes issue with certain aspects of state multiculturalism. He points out
the irony of tolerance leading to intolerance that can result for instance from
government support for Muslim groups: support for migrants’ culture accentuating the
otherness and difference of these minorities from the majority population. Freedom of
religion can also be used as a repressive social measure, especially against women by
denying education, and so forth. The complexity of such situations is, he feels,
somewhat lost in Berry’s analysis, and there is insufficient emphasis on measures
targeting the majority population. He points finally to the need for large-scale
sensitisation and training with regard to an understanding and appreciation of the
different cultures and languages existing in a society.
Triandis takes issue with much of Berry’s terminology (preferring, for example,
biculturalism to integration) and emphasises the comparative importance of the
cultural distance factor in the acculturation model.
Ward merely stresses the need for further discussion of these three phenomena in
Berry’s piece, while broadly finding it a useful framework.
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Kershen, A.J. (ed). (1997). London: The Promised Land? The Migrant Experience
in a Capital City. Aldershot: Avebury
Topic
The contributors examine the historical and contemporary reasons why London has
been the destination of a long-term and steady flow of migrants; the roots of the
migrant groups; and the concessions and contributions that have been, and need to be,
made. The main groups examined are the Irish, Jews, Huguenots, Bangladeshis and
African Caribbeans. The main questions posed are whether London has been the
promised land for those who have sought economic opportunity, political and
religious freedom and refuge within its boundaries, and whether the experience of
settlement has been one of isolation or of interaction with both native and other ethnic
groups.
Main findings
Historically, the combination of Empire and industry in an economic context provided
one of the major reasons why Britain, and in particular London, was perceived as the
promised land. Active recruitment of labour (as of Chinese seamen in the 19 th century
and textile workers following World War 2) added to this trend, as has London’s ease
of access (as a busy port, and later air terminal) and open door policy towards
immigration in the 19 th century. An historical reputation for political and religious
tolerance is another contributory factor – though Colin Holmes in his chapter
questions whether this can still now be cited.
Patterns of migration are also examined, with the changing and expanding geographic
properties of London taken into account. Issues of re-emigration and re-migration are
also raised – whether people have stayed put or moved on. Different reasons for
permanent settlement are examined: from improved housing conditions, diversified
business opportunities and improving standards of academic achievement; to
dependence on social services in London; to for instance Bangladeshi elders returning
home only to find they no longer fit into the rural society from which they came, and
re-migrating to London.
In assessing whether a perception of the promised land has been born out by the
reality, the authors also highlight the differing measures of success, and look at the
role played by racism and xenophobia in colouring the image of the promised land.
Finally, the question is raised of what the future holds for London as a destination for
migrants, particularly given current immigration controls.
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Wrench, J. (1997). ‘New Towns and Racism: Barriers to mobility for settled
migrant populations in Great Britain’ in B.S. Bolaria and R. E. Bolaria (eds)
International Labour Migrations. Oxford University Press: Delhi
Topic
The paper draws upon research in an English ‘new town’ to highlight forces which
may inhibit the movement of populations of migrant descent from areas of original
concentration (inner cities) to ‘white’ areas characterised by greater affluence and
lower unemployment. This is set against an increasing trend in research that, in trying
to establish the reasons behind continuing low-paid and insecure jobs among migrant
populations, has pointed the finger at inner city residence itself as a major determining
factor in life experiences. Resources and jobs are flowing out of these areas, where
four out of five members of ethnic minority groups live.
Methodology
One hundred individuals from ethnic minority communities were interviewed during
the summer of 1990.
Main findings
The debate is mentioned between those who cite ethnic choice versus discrimination
as the factors behind residential segregation. A study in Leicester for example pointed
to the desire to live with one’s own cultural and linguistic group, and to form
community and religious organisations, behind the commitment of 75% of Asians to
stay in the area. Nonetheless, those Asians who did disperse from these ethnic clusters
faced increased conflict with the majority white society. There is clearly overlap
between the concepts of choice and constraint, with conflict between the two likely to
increase as a younger Asian generation grows up with different attitudes and
expectations from their parents.
The research in this paper investigates the experiences of ethnic minorities who have
made the move into ‘white’ areas – in this case the New Town of Harlow in Essex. As
background, it is worth pointing out that such New Towns have often been seen as
white-only zones, with research suggesting many whites moved to them precisely
because there were no members of ethnic minorities. This obviously has implications
for the tone of race relations in somewhere like Harlow today.
The findings of the interviews are then categorised and set out:
• Educational experiences: there was a general feeling among black pupils of being
disadvantaged on racial grounds in Harlow schools, with almost 90% citing
specific incidences – including violent assaults – and many expressing a view of
inaction by school authorities. This often led to exclusion or serious
underachievement.
• Teacher stereotyping: insensitivity and racial stereotyping were frequently
mentioned, with low expectation and restriction of course / exam choice a
common claim – even leading some parents to send their children to school
elsewhere.
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• Employment experiences: there was found to be a general lack of awareness
among employers of equal opportunities issues, and a perception that this was
simply ‘not an issue’ locally. There were also widespread informal recruitment
methods (word of mouth etc.) – inconsistent with the CRE 1984 Code of Practice
for employers, as reinforcing barriers to ethnic minority employment.
• Experience of finding work: there were many descriptions of perceived
discrimination in recruitment practices, and of being pushed into lower-level jobs,
with some respondents again resorting to seeking work outside the area. The
council was included in such allegations.
• Problems at work: different levels of workplace discrimination were described –
from being passed over for promotion, to being made to work longer hours than
white colleagues, to actual physical harassment.
• Housing and harassment: the council policy of local dispersal of ethnic minorities
was blamed for an increased sense of isolation and intensity of racial harassment;
widespread racist abuse was reported both in the home and on the streets.
• Perceptions of policing: two thirds of the comments on the police were
unfavourable – ranging from simple inaction when faced with reports of racist
attacks, to outright hostility (for example one-sided policing in clashes with neo-
Nazi groups).
Conclusions
New Towns like Harlow were shown to be problem areas for people from ethnic
minorities, with virulent racism and prejudice only just beneath the surface – one
council officer describing how they felt this was specifically ‘to do with Harlow, how
it formed as a New Town, who moved here, what industries moved here, and why
people moved here’. Problems were made more acute by the relative smallness of the
population, with less sensitivity to their needs or community support. The intensity of
the problems also seemed far greater than in other urban areas. This, the author
believes, is just one part of a broader picture of how access to opportunities in areas of
growth and prosperity can be made more difficult for ethnic minorities than for
whites. It also has a direct relevance to the debate on voluntary or discriminatory
forces in the generation and maintenance of ethnic segregation (i.e. dispersal) and also
to the influence of geography on unemployment rates among migrants. Finally, the
author feels this research firmly rebuts culturally-based theories of inequality and
assimilation, and confirms that structural constraints, such as the persistence of racism
in the labour market and elsewhere, make proper integration impossible, resulting in
the over-representation of migrant-descended generations in poor work and
unemployment.
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Joppke, Christian. (1999). Immigration and the Nation-state: the United States,
Germany, and Great Britain. OUP : Oxford.
Note: The focus of this summary is on Chapter 7 – ‘Between Citizenship and Race:
Great Britain’ – as this has the greatest relevance to issues of integration in the UK.
Topic
The author examines and compares the experience of immigration in the US,
Germany and Great Britain, and assesses the impact it has had on two key dimensions
of the nation-state: citizenship and sovereignty.
Main concepts
The observation is made that Commonwealth citizens arrived in the UK as formal
citizens, with equal civil and political rights. Accordingly, British immigration
integration was first and foremost welfare state integration, though the distinction of
race was articulated early on. Britain’s history, comprising various ethnicities, made it
quite elastic, however – a factor emphasised by the pluralistic model of Empire – and
assimilation was either conceived as not required (in liberal thinking) or as impossible
(to the conservatives), in direct contrast to many other Western countries. The liberal
position, producing an elite-crafted official multiculturalism, eventually won the day.
The distinction from the US is then drawn, with Afro-Caribbeans not perceived as a
historically discriminated-against group, and affirmative action policies thus resisted.
The author then considers the development of race relations law, noting that – as in
Germany – integration has been seen as a matter for state policy, rather than society.
Crucial moments include the 1976 Race Relations Act’s action against indirect
discrimination and the 1981 Scarman Report, with the development during the 1980s
of ethnic monitoring identified by the CRE as a key achievement.
The development of official multiculturalism is then explored, the point noted that
this has often been complicated – in contrast to the US and Germany – by the absence
of a constitution. As regards local race politics, the importance of local government is
noted, as is the politicising influence of the UK’s very geographically concentrated
ethnic populations – as compared with the US and Germany. The positive evolution
of Community Relations is also noted.
The development of a coherent anti-racist voice, and the particular role of certain
Labour-controlled Councils, is then outlined, with its accompanying right-win
backlash. The particular case of Muslims in Britain is also examined, with the point
made that they have been denied racial group status. The Rushdie affair and the issue
of funding for Muslim schools are given particular attention, as is London’s status as
a centre both for fundamentalist activities and the larger world Islamic movement.
Conclusions
In trying to integrate co-nationals, the author identifies in Britain a liberal racerelations
policy as a counterpoint to its restrictive immigration policy. He also notes
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the historical tension between citizenship universalism and racial group particularism.
Multiculturalism has been practised to the letter – a statist race-relations consensus
breeding the tendency to be outflanked by a militant ‘anti-racist’ Left and a nationalist
‘anti-anti-racist’ Right. A more recent challenge to this consensus has been raised by
Muslims – the author asserting that their demand for religious recognition shows the
limits of an integration approach that has extolled race at the cost of other group
markers; in turn, Muslim demands for Islamic schools and book-banning are seen as
revealing the limits of multiculturalism in a liberal state.
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Siddhisena, K.A.P. And White, P. (1999). ‘The Sri Lankan Population of Great
Britain: Migration and Settlement.’ Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 8, 511-
536
Topic
A discussion of the geographical and other characteristics of the Sri Lankan
community in Great Britain – estimated to number about 65,000, using information
from the 1991 Census. The author feels there has been a lack of attention paid in
research to this significant group.
Main findings
The history of Sri Lankan immigration is outlined, and its particular characteristics
and contrasts with other South Asian groups discussed. The country itself, to start
with, is very mixed, with about 74% being Sinhalese, the rest mostly made up of Sri
Lankan and Indian Tamils; 69% of the population are Buddhist, with the remainder
made up of Hindus, Muslims and Christians. The history of migration to the UK has
been long, with steady numbers reported back to the 1951 Census (Sri Lanka having
become independent in 1948). Early on, many were ‘returning’ British colonial
immigrants, or relatively well-educated individuals seeking professional jobs in the
UK as a route out of a stagnant economy (these are thought to have been largely
Sinhalese). By the 1990s, however, the largest number were refugees fleeing the civil
war (thought to be mostly Tamil). Now there is a lack of clarity over precise numbers
and ethnic denomination, as this information is not included in the Census form. Sri
Lanka has simply been included in the category ‘Other Asian’.
As for the distribution of the Sri Lankan population, this is highly concentrated, with
some 82% living in London and the South East – North West London and suburban
areas generally making up the majority. As for demography, a very high proportion
are of working age (86.8%), with both men and women being relatively economically
active, with low unemployment rates and quite small households – as compared with
most other South Asian groups – as well as a high average level of education. Some
76% were in owner-occupier housing.
Conclusions / recommendations
Sri Lankans should be regarded as a settled community within Britain, and such a
recognition should spur the consideration of community settlement issues analogous
to those that have been subjected to research among other groups. In dealing with
populations of Sri Lankan origins there is also a need to remember the divided and
contested ethnicities of the island. Direct engagement with a somewhat overlooked
community will in future be required to build a fuller picture of geographical,
sociological, demographic and economic issues as they affect this group.
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Banton, M. Kymlicka, W. and Westin, C. (2000) ‘Report of the Commission on
the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain: UK, North American and Continental
European Perspectives.’ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 26, 4, 719-738
Topic
Three reviews of the 2000 Parekh Report offering criticism and comparative analysis
from three different geopolitical perspectives.
Policy assessments
As this article essentially covers ground already outlined in the actual report, rather
than making fresh recommendations, it does not seem worth spending too long on its
consideration. Nonetheless, a few international points of comparison are of interest.
Kymlicka highlights some key aspects of the debate:
• the lack of exploration of the terms of naturalisation by which people are accepted
as British;
• the positive experience of Canada’s adoption of an official Multiculturalism Act;
• the potential difficulty of employment equity plans, given that in both the US and
Canada, where affirmative action remains controversial, such schemes are
gradually being scaled back;
• and finally, the implications of the claims of minority nationalisms within the UK,
whereby the prospects for developing a robust form of multiculturalism depend on
retaining ‘Britishness’ at the core of people’s identity, rather than allowing the
political debate to be structured in terms of ideals of Scottishness / Englishness /
Welshness (the regionalist parallel is drawn with Canada-Quebec, 02
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Parekh, Bhikhu. (2000). The Future of Multi-ethnic Britain. Runnymede
Trust/Profile Books: London,
Topic / focus of analysis
An analysis of the current state of multi-ethnic Britain by the Commission on the
Future of Multi-ethnic Britain – set up by the Runnymede Trust and chaired by
Bhikhu Parekh. The Commission attempts to propose ways of countering racial
discrimination and disadvantage and make Britain ‘a confident and vibrant
multicultural society at ease with its rich diversity’.
Methodological issues
The report looks at the experiences of both groups and individuals from all the main
ethnic groups, and from across the UK. It addresses issues relating to long-term,
second generation and newly arrived immigrants and refugees.
Research methods
Both quantitative and qualitative methods of research were used over a two year
period. Quantitative research includes data from, for example, the ONS Labour Force
Survey 1998 (on ethnicity population figures), Social Trends, and the Higher
Education Statistics Agency. Qualitative research covers interviews and focus groups,
group and individual submissions, reports from Commission visits around the UK,
and feedback from meetings and seminars. The Report also draws on a wide range of
published research and documentation.
Main findings
The report is divided into three parts: Visions for Britain, Issues and Institutions, and
Strategies for Change:
• Visions for Britain: a discussion of six themes identified as necessary for building
and sustaining a community of citizens and communities: rethinking the national
story and identity; understanding that all identities are in a process of transition;
developing a balance between cohesion, equality and difference; addressing and
eliminating all forms of racism; reducing material inequalities; building a
pluralistic human rights culture. These are the principles underpinning the whole
of the report.
• Issues and Institutions: these are divided into: police and policing; the criminal
justice system; education; arts, media and sport; health and welfare; employment;
immigration and asylum; politics and representation; religion and belief;
government leadership; legislation and enforcement; organisational change.
• Strategies for Change: policy recommendations are made throughout the report.
Recommendations
These are summarised in the checklist which constitutes the final chapter, but are too
numerous to describe – the full list is attached.
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Recommendations for further research include: to assess the impact of government
race equality initiatives in the classroom; qualitative research on perceptions of
fairness in the criminal justice system; research on the contribution of Asian and black
firms to the UK’s GNP.
113

Banton, Michael. (2001). ‘National Integration in France and Britain.’ Journal of
Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27, 1, 151-168
Topic
A comparison between integration strategies and outcomes in France and Britain. The
author expresses the intention and importance of escaping from ideologically loaded
policy research (which he feels dominates the field) to what he calls ‘pure research’ –
aimed at focusing on very general characteristics of human behaviour, in this case
people’s preference for association.
Main findings
As a starting point, the author contrasts the findings of two major recent surveys – the
INED French study ‘De l’immigration a l’assimilation: une enquete sur les immigres
et leurs enfants’ (Tribalat et al. 1996) and in the UK the Policy Studies Institute study,
‘Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversity and Disadvantage’ (Modood et al. 1997).
Differences arise from the structures of the receiving societies; from the earlier
process in Britain; and from differences between immigrant groups – aspects of the
Algerian and Spanish experience in France are seen as analogous to that of the Irish in
Britain, yet the Irish are not classified as an ethnic minority or included in the PSI
study. In approach, the French conception of immigration was found as conforming to
a logic of equality before the law (similar to Germany and Belgium) whereas in the
UK and the Netherlands, for example, a logic of minorities formed the guiding
principle. The author then considers the respective difficulties over naming: in France
the critical distinction being between citizen and foreigner, while the UK has been
preoccupied by the transition from naming by country of origin to the more nebulous
‘ethnic group’.
The key omission in these kind of reports, the author feels, when considering aspects
of integration, is the near total absence of the majority population, other than as a
source of discrimination (many trends affect majority and minority alike, as with
globalisation). In this context, the key question is – what are both groups being
integrated into?
The author then restates the principle of ‘ethnic preference’ – or the group that a
person prefers to be identified with – before outlining the three main processes of
national integration in Britain and France:
i) Entering the receiving country’s system of social stratification:
Factors playing a role over the years are outlined, such as initial preference for
income over leisure by migrant workers trying to establish themselves; cultural
practices such as preferential cousin marriage which maintained close ties to the
country of origin; declining frequency to visit countries of origin over time and by
subsequent generations; in France, name-changing to appear more French.
ii) Changes to the majority either to make room for them or to resist their entry:
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Majority preferences also change – opinion polls reveal a steady decline in social
distance which British people express towards ethnic minority members. Cross-ethnic
marriages are one indicator: between 1984 and 1995 the incidence of male Pakistanis
/ Bangladeshis with a white partner increased from 6 to 16%; among West Indian
males from 20 to 38%; and among West Indian females from 13 to 21%. French
figures reveal a similar trend.
iii) Much of the change is the result of interaction between members of the
majority and the minorities within particular institutions and is channelled by
them.
Interaction and changes in the fields of housing, education and religion are
considered.
Conclusions
It is hard to draw out any definite policy implications or recommendations from the
article. Finally, the author simply stresses that similarities in developments in the field
of integration in Britain and France may be hidden beneath differences in national
ideology (cultural differences vs moral equality) and could be further explored
through study of the determinants of changes in ethnic preference. Majority-minority
relations are, furthermore, influenced by changes originating in the wider society,
which also affect ethnic preferences, with other changes in such preferences being the
product of interaction.
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2. Education and training
Bryan, Beverley. (1996). ‘Learning School: Cross-Cultural Differences in the
Teaching of English.’ Changing English, 3, 2, Oct, 201-207.
Topic
A description of the demographic profile of the Chinese community in Britain.
Main concepts
Using figures from the 1991 Census and Labour Force Survey 1986-1988, these
reveal a widely scattered population, though with a large concentration in London and
the South East. The possibility of their social needs – including language provision,
cultural activities and community care – being overlooked by local authorities and
central government, due to this wide and often thin distribution, is raised.
Over half of the community were born in Britain or Hong Kong. Their age profile
shows a concentration between the ages of 20 and 40, and the authors highlight the
positive economic and social implications this could have, as well as the possibility of
a rapid rise in the population in the near future. These trends would only be
intensified, one would think, by the fact that in comparison with the economically
active population, the unemployment figure in the Chinese community is about 6%,
which is far lower than the national average. There are also a relatively low number
on government work schemes. A high proportion are employed in the catering
industry.
Policy implications
It has to be remembered that the figures in this article pre-date the handover of Hong
Kong to China in 1997. While there are therefore no figures on the extent of
emigration from the Principality since that date, there was certainly an upturn in
emigration from both Hong Kong and China following the 1989 Tiananmen Square
massacre, although the post-97 exodus predicted by many has not yet materialised. As
the authors point out, however, a population of some 130,000 with the possibility of
coming to the UK would have a huge impact on the existing Chinese community (in
1991 numbering approximately 157,000 people, or 0.28% of the British population).
Policy-makers would in particular have to take into account the social and economic
implications of the relatively high financial and professional status of much of this
(English-speaking) population.
There are contrasts between the teaching of English and the wider approach to the
function of schooling itself between Jamaica and the UK. While lack of resources is
cited by students who have come over from Jamaica, they also point to the more
structured, skills-based teaching and direct approach in Jamaica, and the benefit of
Creole-speaking teachers. ‘Learning school’, or understanding that schooling is a
project to be learnt, was another issue highlighted by some pupils acclimatising to the
UK system – a lack of structure and concept of ‘what school is for’ being flagged as
one factor in an almost inexorable slide into underachievement. The author finally
emphasises the need for a common cultural understanding about how schools work,
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and for a common language and understanding of that language to make adjustment to
and communication of those ideas possible.
117

Chaplin, R.H. Thorp, C, Ismail I.A., Collacott, R.A. and Bhaumik, S. (1996).
‘Psychiatric disorder in Asian adults with learning disabilities: Patterns of
service use.’ Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 40, 298-304, Part 4.
Topic
A study of Asian and white adults with learning disabilities seen by a specialist
hospital department in Leicester in 1991. [A brief summary only is offered below
given the age of the research work and the fact that there are few actual
recommendations or identified barriers to care.]
Main findings
The study found that Asians were under-represented on the Leicestershire Learning
Disability Register. The register’s source of information is from specialist care
services in contact with the individual, and therefore reflects numbers actually in
contact with these organisations. A lack of awareness of available services may
contribute to this under-representation. The authors stress that further work in primary
care, schools and Asian communities be undertaken to detect unmet health care needs.
It may also be that, within communities, learning disabilities are not recognised as a
condition which requires specialist help. Once in contact with such agencies,
however, Asians were as likely to be referred to specialist psychiatric services as
white people. In general, a need was identified for more research into the prevalence
of mental disorder among Asians with learning disabilities.
118

Crabb, Ruth. (1996). ‘Working with Hassan.’ Multicultural Teaching, 14, 2, Spr.,
22-25
Summary
A very specific account of how a Section 11 teacher worked at integrating a Somali
pupil newly arrived in the UK into his new school through cultural and language
work. The difficulties of assessing progress in a child with only rudimentary English –
along National Curriculum lines – are raised. There is also the perception of rigidity
in the daily timetable, particularly at Key Stage 2, when trying to accommodate a
pupil with such particular needs.
119

Wrench, J. and Hassan, E. (1996). Ambition and Marginalisation: A qualitative
study of under-achieving young men of Afro-Caribbean origin Research Studies
RS31. Department for Education and Employment: London
Topic:
The study takes the generally accepted statistics that young men of Afro-Caribbean
origin are over-represented among the unemployed; and that Afro-Caribbean boys
perform less well in the educational system when compared with both Afro-Caribbean
girls and pupils of either sex from other ethnic groups. It then attempts to give an
insight into the factors that give rise to this situation.
Methodology
The project combines three main sources of information: 1991 Census; previous
research and existing literature in the field; interviews with 50 Afro-Caribbean young
men aged between 16 and 24 (25 in Coventry and 25 in Birmingham) and at the least
qualified end of the attainment spectrum.
Main findings
Afro-Caribbean people experienced unemployment rates about 2½ times greater than
those of white people in 1991 (male: 24.3% to 10.7%; female: 14.6% compared with
6.3%). Among the 16-24 male age group this unemployment figure rose to a third.
They were also about twice as likely to be participating in government training
schemes: 22% of economically active 16-17 year olds were on such schemes,
illustrating their importance in moderating the chance of unemployment for young
men between school and work.
• Education: general bitterness was expressed at not having achieved more, with
about a half reporting incidences of truancy. Little was said about racism or
harassment from other pupils, but a lot was said about problems with teachers –
perceived stereotyping and injustices, often leading to temporary or permanent
exclusion (40% of the sample experiencing this at some time). With heightened
concern from staff and parents about disruptive pupils, being identified as more
likely to be troublesome may disproportionately affect Afro-Caribbean pupils,
with subsequent consequences for labour market success.
• Employment: 68% of the sample were unemployed, and these reported
disillusionment, lack of self-respect, and increased social isolation. A hard core of
6 out of 34 unemployed were not even looking for work. Youth Training schemes
evoked a generally negative response: as being not challenging enough, too low
paid, or having too little esteem. In terms of working location, both affluent and
working class white-dominated areas were seen as best to avoid. Suspicion of
failure at job interviews being due to colour were common.
Conclusions
Nonetheless, a general theme emerged of still being keen to ‘get on’, of ambition –
though not if this meant demeaning work or tolerating racist practices. In this respect,
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there was quite a distinction from many studies of disaffected unemployed white
young males on estates – the Afro-Caribbean males were not seen as on their way to
forming a rump underclass: positive values and aspirations were still dominant and
they had not abandoned the system. The young men did not intend to be passively
assimilated into British society, but neither did they intend to drop out of it. The
authors finally point out though that this sample reached only up to 24 years old, and
that older males who had experienced further years of unemployment and job
rejections might well see their ambition and relative optimism change.
121

Ghuman, P.A.S. (1997). ‘Assimilation or integration? A study of Asian
adolescents.’ Educational Research, 39, 1, 23-36.
Topic
A research project on the acculturation processes of young, second generation South
Asians – working from the hypothesis that girls would show more positive attitudes to
the adoption of British norms compared with boys, and that Hindu and Sikh young
people would score higher on the acculturation scale than Muslims. The implications
for the education of young Asian people are also explored.
Methodology
One hundred and forty-six boys and girls from four comprehensive schools in the
West Midlands completed a questionnaire and an acculturation scale.
Main findings
Researchers have tried to identify areas of conflict and consensus which are likely to
affect the social and personal identities of young Asian people, for whom adolescence
can be a particularly tense and anxious time as they attempt to reconcile the often
conflicting values of home and school, and encounter racism in their daily lives. The
school-family conflict has often been characterised as one between an individualistic
and collectivistic orientation. Specific sources of conflict can arise from
encouragement given to girls and the teaching of physical education and drama, and
particularly the religiosity of Asian households compared with the generally secular
school ethos.
In this study, overall both boys and girls supported gender equality, wanted to retain
community languages, wanted the freedom to meet young people in youth clubs, were
in favour of visiting the homes of their white friends, wanted to attend their places of
worship and to fulfil their parents’ wishes. They tended to disagree with things which
expressed a ghetto mentality (e.g. eating Asian food all the time, only making friends
within the community) and were ambivalent about certain ideas (e.g. going out with
white boys and girls, that marriages should be family-arranged). The general
indication was a desire to integrate into British society, as opposed to assimilation or
separation. It also pointed to the development of bicultural identities.
As hypothesised, Muslim boys came out of the study as the most traditionalist and
least likely to acculturate. Girls generally scored higher on the acculturation scale –
reflecting the overall more tolerant attitude documented among females. Sikh and
Hindu parents, in general, were more liberal compared with Muslim parents – treating
boys and girls equally: this was reflected in the children’s attitudes. A further
classification was between those from homes with a non-manual and manual labour
background – the latter displaying more traditionalist attitudes: this difference is put
down to non-manual workers having greater opportunities to interact with the
indigenous population, and a higher level of education.
Policy recommendations
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The implications for the education of young Asian people are identified by the author:
Teachers need to be aware that most young Asian people are bilingual, and that this
can be a positive thing – many still viewing Asian languages as of little value;
Most young people are seeking some form of synthesis of their home and school
cultures. By adopting a positive attitude to other cultures, teachers can help ethnic
minority young people.
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Lightbody, Pauline, Nicholson, Stephen, Siann, Gerda and Walsh, Dave. (1997).
‘A Respectable Job: Factors Which Influence Young Asians' Choice of Career.’
British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 25, 1, Feb, 67-79
Topic
The aim of the project was to try to find out why some university courses are more
attractive to certain groups of school-leavers (in this case, South Asians) than to
others, and to identify some of the influences behind young people’s choice of career,
paying particular attention to any differences associated with ethnicity or cultural
background.
Methodology
Data was used from a study in Scotland in 1994/95 where questionnaires were sent to
older secondary pupils and first year students, with selected follow-up focus groups.
Main findings
The background to such a study is described as the well-documented persistence of
exclusion from employment opportunity particularly among impoverished young
black and Asian people. Nationally, unemployment levels for ethnic minority groups
remain far higher than for whites, even when they have higher educational
qualifications (in 1993, 14% of highly qualified ethnic minority men and 9% of
women were unable to obtain paid work, compared with 5% and 4% of white men
and women respectively). This trend seems to be bucked, however, in Scotland:
fewer ethnic minority school leavers went into Youth Training and fewer remained
unemployed – their main destination was higher education (unemployment figures
may also somewhat be explained by the fact there is a far higher self-employment rate
among ethnic minorities in Scotland than in England). This is also reflected in
academic achievement – 36% gaining 3 or more Highers, as against an average of
27% for all leavers.
As for university course choice, a higher proportion than their white counterparts
enrolled for medicine, law, business studies, accountancy and dentistry – a perception
of a ‘respected’ profession being of great importance. Other important factors
identified were a desire to play a useful role in society, and to be in contact with
people sharing similar beliefs. This coincides with findings revealing the great value
placed on education generally by both children and parents in ethnic minority groups
– as a source of pride and status within the community. Most students in this study
reported considerable parental interest, though also great pressure to enter certain
professions. They also refuted the stereotype by reporting that education was seen as
just as important for girls as for boys. Entering their parents’ business was not a
favoured option, and the aspirations of males and females were very similar. There
was no direct evidence that these young people were choosing careers with the aim of
avoiding discrimination.
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Kahin, Mohamed H. (1998). ‘Somali Children: The Need to Work in Partnership
with Parents and Community.’ Multicultural Teaching, 17, 1, Aut., 4-16
Topic
The author looks at the need for schools to work in partnership with Somali parents
and the community, identifying common concerns, and building on the assumption
that home-school links are an integral part of good schooling – particularly pertinent
to a Somali community often isolated from the mainstream community. Interviews
were held with a group of Somali parents, as well as teachers and pupils (precise
numbers and location not given).
Main findings
The main issue is identified as a lack of facilities to promote contact between home
and school, with Somali parents showing a strong desire to contribute to their
children’s education: over 80% were found to attend parents’ evenings. Language
barriers and an educational tradition where the teacher’s role is very distinct from that
of the parent may, however, militate against the most being gained from such
encounters.
To aid contact, the author advocates changes at both the macro and micro level:
government taking more active steps to promote antiracist policies and multicultural
education, and schools addressing issues of access (both physical and linguistic) and
racism. Each group expressed their main concerns:
• Pupils’ concerns included: English language skills; social / cultural barriers;
unfamiliar rules / curriculum; racism; low expectation from teachers.
• Parents’ concerns included: lack of knowledge of the UK education system and
school policies; availability of halal food for children; restricted links with school.
• Teachers’ concerns included: not enough information on Somali pupils;
inadequate bilingual teaching materials; poor attendance.
Policy recommendations
A number of policy recommendations are made by the author:
• Training for teachers in home-school links and community relations;
• More opportunities to involve Somali parents in their children’s education;
• Better channels of communication;
• A more welcoming school atmosphere – demonstrating interest in the Somali
community / culture; bilingual support networks, etc;
• School measures to accommodate Somali children: homework clubs, prayer areas,
halal food, separate changing areas, respect for language and culture, bilingual
teaching materials, etc;
• Appointment of a Somali speaker to undertake outreach and liaison work, school
or LEA-based.
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Parker-Jenkins, Marie and Haw, Kaye Francis. (1998). ‘Educational Needs of
Muslim Children in Britain: Accommodation or Neglect?’ Steven Vertovec and
Alisdair Rogers (eds.), Muslim European Youth: Reproducing Ethnicity, Religion,
Culture. Research in Ethnic Relations Series, 193-215
Topic
The chapter looks at the aims of Islamic education, the concept of multiculturalism,
and assesses the extent to which educational needs are being accommodated or
neglected – looking at the work already achieved during the 1970s and 80s and the
outstanding needs yet to be addressed.
Methodological issues
The scope of the study was limited to schools in which the majority of children were
first-generation British Muslims of Asian descent, and was conducted over a 12
month period in schools in London, Leicester, Bradford, Bolton and Derby.
Research methods
Empirical data based on research into the views of headteachers of private Muslim
schools and of state schools with a majority of Muslim children.
Main findings
A brief historical examination of the role of faith in schools in Britain is offered,
including the debate over voluntary-aided schools, which were not extended to
Muslim schools, following the 1985 Government (Swann) Report on multicultural
education.
The authors then attempt to set out the broad aims of Islamic education, first adding
the caveat that – as in other religions – parents are divided over the need for a
religious basis in the education of their children. The views of prominent Islamic
writers and experts as to the educational needs of Muslim children are then examined
more closely. These are categorised as:
• Religious / cultural needs: includes religious workshops, instruction, celebration
of important festivals, diet and school dress;
• Curricular needs: includes issues arising from sex education, language instruction,
and ensuring that an Islamic dimension is reflected in the curriculum.
• General needs: the importance of strong home-school links is stressed, so that
Muslim parents do not feel isolated from mainstream school life, and also of
Muslims becoming more involved in school governance. There are also the
questions of single-sex schooling and voluntary-aided status for private Muslim
schools.
The results of the study are then presented. To summarise, English language needs
were the major concern of state school head teachers while within Muslim schools the
major perceived need was a total spiritual dimension to Muslim children’s lives,
which the head teachers were attempting to accommodate through school ethos and
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the curriculum. Other needs raised included resources, teacher awareness and racism
monitoring.
Recommendations
Structural aspects of school needs – such as dress, physical education, diet, prayer
rooms – are seen as being quite well catered for. Academic attainment is seen by state
school heads as being a key remaining concern – centring on English language
acquisition, a balanced curriculum and effective home-school links – all of which will
require increased financial support and resources. In curricular terms, the authors also
advocate a move towards a less ethnocentric curriculum.
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Leblond, Dominique and Trincaz, Jacqueline. (1999). ‘Pluriculturality in the
French and British Education Systems: Cross Perspectives.’ Eduation and Social
Justice, 1, 3, 16-24
Topic
A comparison between the differing means employed within the British and French
education systems to achieve equality of opportunity for immigrant children.
Methodology
The research was based on interviews and group discussions with two groups of
exchange students from universities in Paris and Birmingham.
Main findings
The central difference in views and approaches to pluralism is identified by the
authors as that between two opposing rationales – universalism and differentialism. In
the UK, the demands of local communities have become almost institutionalised, with
efforts subsequently made to shape academic structures and curricula so that they
better suit immigrant children’s needs. Conversely, in France it is the children who
are seen as needing active assistance in adapting to prescribed national curricula – an
extra complication arising from the strong principle of secularism precluding
accommodation of religious practices.
This fundamental difference in approach, and its perceived implications for the
integration of minority children into the education system and wider society, can be
seen in the students’ strong reaction to their experiences in the other country. The
French students were amazed that questions of origin and race, in relation to identity,
were continuously pushed to the forefront, whereas they felt they were simply treated
as a mass of French students. They felt the UK system promoted segregation by race
and gender, encouraged discrimination and threatened equality. They were especially
disturbed by visiting one school where 97% of the students were Asian, mostly
Muslim – this seemed to them to challenge the whole concept of multiculturalism.
Even the use of the word ‘race’ was to the French students both offensive and
meaningless. From the other side, the British students perceived France to be
assimilationist and coercive. A further significant difference is the strictly secular
nature of the French education system, leading the students to question the
appropriateness of the British morning act of worship – again seen as encouraging
segregation. An alternative suggestion was a shared ethics and citizenship class. It
seemed this strongly secular and republican model above all enhanced a strong sense
of national identity. For their part, the British students were shocked that Muslim girls
could not wear religious headscarves.
Language provided another example of division – the French students amazed that
some second and third generation immigrants had trouble speaking English, and
disturbed by the emphasis on languages of origin. This was again seen as encouraging
people to remain in their ‘cocoon world’. A British student conversely felt that
linguistic and cultural heritage was a crucial part of a child’s sense of belonging.
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Conclusions
The authors felt the study exploded the myth of cultural convergence in Europe and
exposed the lack of common symbols of identity in Europe. Both sets of students also
acknowledged that each system was still characterised by low teacher expectation of
minority groups, and comparative actual underachievement, but the crucial difference
drawn was that in Britain this was categorised as a racial problem, in France as a
social problem.
129

Rassool, Naz. (1999). ‘Flexible Identities: Exploring Race and Gender Issues
among a Group of Immigrant Pupils in an Inner-City Comprehensive School.’
British Journal of Sociology of Education, 20, 1, Mar, 23-36.
Topic
The article looks at the experiences of immigrant pupils at an inner-city
comprehensive to explore their sense of identity and status.
Methodological issues
The study took place at Year 10 of a mixed comprehensive school in inner London,
with 50% of pupils coming from ethnic minorities. The children of first and second
generation immigrant families are represented, as well as a significant group of
children of Somali refugee families. The study was incorporated into the action plan
of the year’s Personal, Social and Moral Education programme.
Main findings
The author highlights the flexibility of identities, with historical and cultural
differences within immigrant groups noted, as well as the hybridisation of cultures
over a period of time, and the challenge this presents to the homogeneity of national
cultures. The countering of genderised identities is also explored, as is the reversion to
traditional cultural practices by second generation immigrant youths, in response to
feelings of exclusion from mainstream society. Religion can also be employed in this
respect. The particularly multicultural nature of the school’s borough is also identified
as a positive factor in helping pupils feel comfortable and insulated from the wider
world – often identified as racist. A frequent comment is on the supportiveness of
their families, and the high value they place on education. The author considers the
nature of flexible identities and globalisation.
Conclusions
In concluding, the author comments that all the pupils felt confident about who they
were and had a vision of how they would like to develop as adults. They had all
drawn significantly on their cultures, community and family for support in their
development. The point is also drawn out that intergenerational differences do not
necessarily represent conflict. The need for education, especially in later secondary
years, to take on board the issue of providing pupils with the necessary skills to
operate in an often exclusionary world is also highlighted. The need for positive and
dynamic role models to identify with in public life is also stressed.
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3. Labour market
Gidoomal, Ram. (1997). The UK Maharajahs: Inside the South Asian Success
Story. Nicholas Brealy Publishing : London
Topic
A look at how leading South Asian entrepreneurs have contributed to the UK
economy. The background of the community and reasons for its success, as well as
the challenges it has faced, are outlined before individual examples of success – in
terms of wealth and influence – are presented. Finally, the ways in which Government
has helped the South Asian community and what more could be done in the future are
discussed. I shall focus here on the obstacles faced by the community and
recommendations for the future.
Main findings
Several challenges for the future are considered by the author. The problem of social
dislocation and identity confusion for UK-born South Asians is initially raised, and
the point made that – contrary to the general emphasis of the book – much social
deprivation exists within the South Asian community, and racial discrimination and
glass ceilings are still rife. Furthermore, the author identifies a weakening of key
structures of Asian society, such as the family and family-run businesses, with welleducated
second generation Asians unwilling to enter the family enterprise, yet
finding jobs out in the marketplace hard to come by – with serious consequences for
both generations. He points to riots in Bradford, Birmingham and Toxteth –
identifying one cause as social frustration, aggravated by unemployment. Increasing
incidences of Asians being in trouble with the law are also reported. In the face of
this, he fears some in the community itself may become stuck in a stereotypical image
from the past – of high standards of behaviour and strong parental role models. He
sees UK Asians becoming more vulnerable in general to the social pressures that the
West as a whole is facing.
The family-run, classic South Asian business is also under threat, the author feels, in
part because of a reluctance to approach the government and other public sources of
funding and business advice – with the subsequent threat of economic
marginalisation. This reluctance to look outside one’s community he puts down to:
discrimination – at both the personal and structural level – and a failure in
communication from the side of funding agencies (coupled with a lack of
understanding of Asian culture and work ethic). Banking is another aspect where a
different approach is required – banks needing to be more relationship-based, offering
integrity, continuity and confidentiality.
Policy recommendations
• A government minister to look specifically at ethnic minority representation at all
levels;
• Government research into barriers to the growth of small owner-managed
businesses;
• Training opportunities relevant to young Asians;
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• Change management assistance from government and its agencies;
• More information on funding and sources of business advice and market
intelligence (for example, by using Asian languages and media;
• More ethnic awareness and expertise in funding bodies, banks, etc;
• More Asians on the boards of public companies;
• More Asians in local authorities, NHS trusts, TEC / Business Link boards, etc;
• More government use of South Asians’ global trade links and expertise;
• Encouraging South Asian entrepreneurs to set up Soros-style charitable
foundations.
• develop their full academic potential, as well as the realisation of bicultural
identities.
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Shields, M. A. and Wheatley Price, S. (1998). ‘The earnings of male immigrants
in England: evidence from the quarterly LFS.’ Applied Economics, 30, 9, 1157-
1168.
Summary
The article attempts to highlight the importance of distinguishing between native born
and foreign born males when investigating the labour market experience of both
ethnic minorities and white immigrants. The data for the study concerns males aged
16-64 taken from the Quarterly Labour Force Surveys between December ’92 and
November ’94.
The findings are unfortunately purely descriptive and statistical, again to the point of
being unreadable, and offer no causal insight into the barriers faced in accessing
higher earnings.
133

Cox, R. (1999). ‘The Role of Ethnicity in Shaping the Domestic Employment
Sector in Britain.’ J. Momsen (ed.), Gender, Migration and Domestic Service.
London: Routledge.
Topic
The author examines how recruitment processes enhance the ghettoisation of the paid
domestic labour sector, which in 1995/96 for example accounted for some
£3.89 billion, with over 100,000 working as nannies alone.
Methodology
Quantitative – survey of advertised demand – and qualitative, interviews with
agencies, workers and employers carried out in London between 1995 and ’97. The
sector includes part-time cleaners, live-in au pairs, mother’s helps and nannies, with
women recruited from all over the world.
Main findings
Different political arrangements used in the past to recruit domestic workers are
described, in addition to them arriving illegally. Special arrangements have existed at
different times to, for instance, recruit: au pairs from parts of Eastern Europe;
Filipinas and Malaysians for a variety of domestic roles; Australians and New
Zealanders taking advantage of working holiday arrangements; and Spanish and
Portuguese young women coming to work under EU freedom of movement laws.
Britain also exports highly trained nannies, butlers and so on – especially to North
America and continental Europe. Paid domestic labour in London has grown
alongside income polarisation. To break down by nationality: cooks, housekeepers,
maids and full-time cleaners were almost exclusively from the Philippines, Portugal
and Spain (agencies commenting that these were the best domestic workers); au pairs
were mainly from Italy, Germany, France and Spain; and nannies and mother’s helps
often British, though also from South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.
Recruitment came through agencies and informal networks:
• Agencies: had strong ideas, based on experience and feedback from clients, on
who were the best and worst domestic workers; also reported that nationality was
the most important consideration for employers – being perceived as the best
guide to the personality and skill level of a worker. Stereotypes were perpetuated
and self-reinforcing: Filipinas being good at ironing; New Zealanders good with
children, and so forth. Certain nationalities could thus be completely excluded
from the books.
• Informal networks: again the result was ghettoisation of particular groups within
particular occupations, groups also referring friends and relatives from their own
community, and employers preferring to stick with the same nationality. Negative
experiences were also attributed to national traits.
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Mingione, E. (1999). ‘Immigrants and the informal economy in European cities.’
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 23, 2, 209-211
Topic
The author, as editor, introduces the symposium on Immigrants and Informal
Economy in European Cities, setting the informal activities of immigrants, and the
social and economic changes in European cities, in the context of globalised socioeconomic
changes such as the diffusion of atypical types of work, and deindustrialisation.
Main findings
The main issues involved are described as the boundaries between formal and
informal activities, migratory experiences, strategies and policies, and the forms of
ethnic entrepreneurship existing in diverse contexts. The findings of the four
contributors to the symposium from across Europe are then summarised:
• Italy: immigration is a recent phenomenon, with relatively little ethnic
entrepreneurship – precarious jobs and the black market constitute the informal
activities. A crucial issue is the uncertain nature of Italian immigration policies
and the impact this has on immigrants’ social and work conditions. This produces
diverse forms of social insertion or marginalisation and discrimination –
integration and inter-ethnic tension becoming a growing issue.
• Belgium: a lack of citizenship rights and precarious, low-income work produce a
variety of informal strategies for insertion among a largely Turkish and Moroccan
immigrant population, with recent restructuring of the economy having a
particular impact.
• Netherlands: a consideration of the ‘mixed embeddedness’ of ethnic
entrepreneurship – the combination of personal advantages deriving from one’s
own community of origin and the opportunities offered by the host city’s market.
• Germany: a specific look at female Turkish entrepreneurship in Berlin.
Conclusions
The author concludes by pointing out that immigrants remain at the bottom of a
labour market that is more heterogeneous and unstable than that of the industrial
waves of immigration. These new conditions still, however, leave room for
entrepeneurial activities based on cultural and communal solidarity resources and
relatively larger and more cooperative families. Significant differences also exist
across Europe, dictated by for instance migration policies, immigrants’ historical
informal strategies, and mixed embeddedness.
135

Wrench, John, Hassan, Edgar and Qureshi, Tarek. (1999). ‘From School to the
Labour Market in Britain: the Qualitative Exposure of Structures of Exclusion.’
John Wrench, Andrea Rea and Nouria Ouali (eds.), Migrants, Ethnic Minorities
and the Labour Market: Integration and Exclusion in Europe, 54-71. London:
MacMillan Press
Topic
The authors examine the issue of labour market discrimination in the post-school
experiences of the children of Britain’s post-war migrants within the context of
economic restructuring: the impact of the loss of low-skilled jobs, the decline of
migrant-dominated industries, and employment relocation from urban areas to new
greenfield sites.
Main findings
Evidence of racism and discrimination in this field can be established through a
variety of means, for example:
• Via indirect evidence at the statistical level – for instance by tracking a school
leaver group and allowing for attainment differentials and labour market
conditions;
• Discrimination or ‘practice’ testing – for instance a 1993 exercise whereby similar
applications and CVs from different ethnic groups were sent in for senior medical
posts;
• Qualitative research.
The major part of the article is concerned with the last method: interviews with three
main actors in the processes of transition from school to work – employers who
recruit school leavers; a national agency which advises young people on training and
finding work; and a sample of ‘excluded’ ethnic minority people themselves. Studies
of the first two actors are briefly described – finding, for instance, more indirect
discrimination in an apprenticeship scheme, and that careers officers offered many
examples of racial discrimination by employers, yet often felt powerless to confront
this, effectively colluding in the practice of guiding ethnic minority young people
elsewhere. Interviews with the third group, young people themselves, are then
considered.
The authors’ interviews were carried out in 1996 with 50 Afro-Caribbean and 50
Bangladeshi young men aged 16-24, with relatively low qualifications. Both by sex
and origin, these groups were identified as experiencing particular difficulties. For the
Bangladeshis, various educational factors are identified as influencing later
achievement: parents’ lack of English language skills, with support and school liaison
implications; overcrowding at home making homework difficult; poverty at home
encouraging early school leaving; a third reported racial harassment that made them
stick with their peers and distracted them from schoolwork. Afro-Caribbean’s
concentrated on conflict with teachers and exclusion from school, rather than racism,
as the major destabilising factors at school – the authors point here to the educational
marketplace tendency in schools and pressures on teachers as exacerbating factors.
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About two thirds of both groups were unemployed, and their perceptions and
experiences of racism and discrimination since leaving school are then described.
They also describe the racialisation of areas into black/Asian spaces and white spaces
and the effects this has on the employment patterns of different communities – fear of
racial attack or of simply not being welcome leading to indirect segregation, and
inevitable restrictions in training and employment opportunities.
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Brown, Mark Simon. (2000). ‘Religion and Economic Activity in the South Asian
Population.’ Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23, 6, Nov, 1035-1061.
Topic
The study uses the 1994 National Survey of Ethnic Minorities to consider the
religious dimension to observed differences in economic activity among South
Asians. Substantial differences are found between religious sub-groups.
Main findings
The work was inspired by the already well-documented ‘ethnic penalty’ findings in
the field of employment studies, that show Britain’s minority ethnic population to be
disadvantaged across a range of social and economic outcomes, and specifically
outline a process of systematic discrimination in the labour market. The size of this
penalty varies considerably, however, between non-white groups. In this context, a
number of commentators have argued that, with an increasingly active role in the
shaping and defining of minority group identity, religion is now emerging as a new
basis for minority discrimination in Britain. In response, the article investigates three
aspects of the religious dimension in the economic experience of South Asians:
• differences in the share of the working age population in paid employment;
• differences in the job profile of those employed;
• differences in reported income.
Clear differences were found between Sikhs and Hindus: Sikhs were less likely to be
economically active, more likely to be unemployed, less well represented in top status
jobs, more dependent on self-employment to achieve high status employment, and
less well paid. Muslims were generally more disadvantaged than either group.
Meanwhile, Indian Muslims were very different to other South Asian Muslims:
activity rates were higher, as was the proportion in professional employment and the
higher income bands. Finally, Indians outside the three main religious groups
appeared to be relatively advantaged. Despite these differences, it is harder to
establish causality, though three central influences are highlighted:
• Differences in human capital acquired by first generation migrants prior to
migration. The relationship between religion and social and economic factors
relating to country of origin is naturally hard to quantify;
• The author believes a more direct effect may be at work in the form of religious
discrimination. The relatively disadvantaged position of Muslims in particular
may tie in with the view that Muslims are increasingly experiencing a negative
profile within the British media and society at large (though the Indian Muslim
factor does buck this trend);
• Finally, the author identifies a direct effect operating through attitudinal and
aspirational differences between religious groups that impinge on, and may effect
the success of, labour market participation.
An additional external factor may also be the concentration of ethnic minorities in
particular sectors, leading to uneven experiences during recession or economic
restructuring: for example the massive rise in Pakistani unemployment during the
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1980s following the collapse of the textile industry in which they were heavily
concentrated.
Policy recommendations
For government, the findings may indicate that, in addition to collecting data on
religion as it affects service needs (for example religious education in schools),
religious affiliation may serve to differentiate the South Asian population across more
secular domains, including economic activity. The possible benefits would therefore
suggest reform of the standard ethnic classification used in the 1991 Census.
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Kershen, Anne J. (ed.). (2000). Language, Labour and Migration. Ashgate:
Aldershot and Burlington.
Topic
The editor identifies the ability to communicate and the facility to provide for
dependants and self as the two essentials of civilised society. Both present particular
difficulties to immigrants and have a great impact on their lives.
Main issues
The key questions to be investigated are presented: what role has language played in
the integration process and how serious a handicap is majority language deficiency?
Furthermore, what kind of labour is on offer, and can the stigmas and stereotypes
attached to those alienated by reason of sound of voice or low level of employment
ever be eliminated?
The book divides, as the title suggests, into two sections of contributions. Regarding
language, the point is made that language and identity are inevitably entwined. A
contributor looks at how the Irish voice and syntax have been the catalyst for racism
and negative stereotyping (survey respondents in one study for example describing
greater scrutiny when applying for benefits). Alongside such exclusion and racism,
ironically, is a downgrading of cultural recognition due to perceptions of ‘sameness’
and the lack of an ethnic definition in official monitoring. The community continues
to experience harassment by neighbours, employment restrictions and lack of social
mobility through being pigeon-holed in unskilled manual labour. The writer
concludes that language lies at the heart of the social positioning of Irish people in
Britain. Other contributors look at how Yiddish-speaking immigrants faced
snobbishness from co-religionists, and at how Bangladeshis identify themselves by
their Bengali language.
The book illustrates how language deficiency frequently acts as a catalyst for tension
and racism, imposing behavioural pressures on the immigrants, as well as its more
practical implications. Recent medical research has even shown that among elderly
immigrants to Britain who have not mastered the native tongue the resultant feelings
of isolation have produced the depressive condition known as SAD (symptoms of
anxiety and depression). In health terms the dangers of illiteracy and inarticulacy are
particularly real (risking misdiagnosis and inappropriate medication) – one physician
commenting that ‘the conversation between doctor and patient is the heart of the
practice of medicine’. While efforts are made to tackle this communication barrier,
various authors also highlight the way in which the racialisation of language has
reinforced the ghetto mentality and encouraged immigrants to adopt policies of
silence as a means of acquiring invisibility.
As regards labour, the majority of these chapters consider historical examples of the
hardships faced by immigrants seeking employment (from 19 th century African slave
mariners to Chinese and Indian indentured labour), as well as the barriers faced by
refugees in Newham (which I will not consider in the context of this study). The
related question of old-age provision is also considered, in the context of the crisis
situation facing pension systems in many European countries. The contributor
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provides evidence that it is the elderly members of ethnic communities – particularly
those from Bangladesh, Pakistan and Somalia – that will be worst affected. These
joined the labour market later than the indigenous workforce and have been in receipt
of lower wages, and thus can expect to receive little more than the basic state pension
– an income provision only just above the poverty line. With the tendency also to send
money home to the country of origin, there has been little or nothing over for poorer
immigrants to put by for their old age.
Recommendations
There are no specific policy recommendations made, aside from the fairly self-evident
conclusion that in coming years, migrants will need to communicate in the dominant
language, whilst at the same time keeping hold of their perceived identity through
mother tongue retention, and will require some form of labour – these two factors
having a defining importance in determining the direction and fortunes of migrants’
lives.
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Edin, P.A., Fredriksson, P. and Aslund, O. (2001). Ethnic Enclaves and The
Economic Success of Immigrants - Evidence from a Natural Experiment.
Discussion Paper Series- Centre For Economic Policy Research London, 2729
Topic
The authors aim, using a variety of research methods, statistics and equations, to
provide estimates of the causal effect on economic outcomes of living in an enclave,
or ghetto. They contest arguments that immigrant concentration stalls labour market
integration by decreasing the rate of human capital accumulation (especially language
skills) and that segregation hinders economic assimilation since it reduces contacts
with employment opportunities. They offer the counter-arguments that living close to
people with the same background may provide a better network for finding jobs, and
that it may provide an environment with less discrimination.
Methodological issues
The research employed a government immigrant dispersal initiative in Sweden
between the mid-1980s and 1991 – this exogenous factor allowing reliable
comparisons to be made between those in enclaves and those outside. Throughout, an
immigrant is described as someone born outside Sweden (excluding OECD
countries).
Main findings
The existing literature, as mentioned, has generally concentrated on the US and
painted a negative economic portrait of the ghetto, with immigrants worse off than
those in integrated areas. The authors find such studies unreliable, as they do not
adjust for individuals’ choice of where they live.
To provide estimates of the effects of segregation, the authors look at two outcomes:
earnings and idleness (defined as having no earnings and not participating in regular
education):
• Earnings: they found that high ability immigrants located outside ethnic enclaves
to a greater extent, and that immigrants derived a positive return from living in
ethnic enclaves;
• Idleness: an increase in ethnic concentration was found to reduce idleness, with
size of enclave having little effect.
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Wheatley Price, Stephen. (2001). ‘The Unemployment Experience of Male
Immigrants in England.’ Applied Economics, 33, 201-215
Topic
An examination of the unemployment experience of immigrant men in the English
labour market. White and non-white men’s experiences are compared, and the
variables of duration of stay and country of birth considered.
Methodology
Data from the UK Labour Force Surveys in 1993 and 94 are used to obtain a sample
size of 75,000 males aged 25-64, with models estimated separately for white and nonwhite
native born and foreign born men.
Main findings
The author first of all highlights the lack of attention paid to the fact that the majority
of people from ethnic minorities were born outside the UK, and to the differences in
labour market performance between native born and foreign born individuals. He
mentions also the non-transferability of skills, the adjustment of immigrant outcomes
over time, and the differences in performance according to country of birth. Increased
years of education significantly reduced the probability of unemployment for all
groups, except non-white natives. Additional years of potential labour market
experience had no significant effect on the unemployment likelihood of non-white
native born men. Similarly, additional years of pre-migration potential labour market
experience did not help explain the unemployment experience of either foreign born
group. Unemployment rates of recent immigrants were more than double the average
rate. White immigrants, after only 10-15 years, experience unemployment rates
similar to those of native born whites, whereas that of non-white immigrants never
converged to those of white natives.
Country of birth produced wide variations in unemployment experience, even after
other factors were taken into account. These are attributed to: quality of education
obtained abroad; the transferability of human capital acquired before migration; and
lack of English language and other skills. The initial unemployment rate experienced
by non-white immigrants is 41% - double that experienced by white immigrants. It is
suggested that the latter group may arrive with more pre-arranged jobs, may be better
informed about the opportunities available, more effective in job search activity, and
face less discrimination than non-whites. Amongst non-white immigrants, the
probability of unemployment was especially high for those born in Central and East
Africa, and especially low for Indians – pointing to variations in English language
use, quality of schooling and appropriateness of labour market skills.
Conclusion
Other than an assertion that measures of discrimination based on broad ethnic groups
are misleading, given the differentiated unemployment experience amongst blacks
and South Asians, few other recommendations are made. Indeed, it is hard to interpret
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much given the heavily statistical and economic jargon-filled nature of the writing,
which makes the article almost unreadable.
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4. Health
Haour-Knipe, Mary and Rector, Richard. (1996). Conclusion: Shaping a
Response. Mary Haour-Knipe and Richard Rector (eds.) Crossing Borders:
Migration, Ethnicity and AIDS, 239-245. Taylor and Francis : London
[Note: other chapters in the book referred to in this summary and included in the data
set bibliography are those by: Charles Westin; Maureen Louhenapessy; Haour-Knipe
and O’Brien; Guy Goodwin-Gill; Sherr and Farsides; Renee Sabatier; Narimani, Galle
and Tovar.]
Topic
This, the final chapter in the authors’ own book, attempts to identify some of the
salient themes that emerge throughout the book concerning the relationship between
migration, ethnicity and AIDS. The focus is on Europe.
Main findings
Contributors have generally tried to downplay the HIV risk represented by migrants,
focusing instead on their vulnerability to HIV – by virtue of their often unfavourable
social and economic conditions and the relationship between these and HIV
transmission. In this context the notion of stigma is explored, set against the historical
trend for blaming migrant populations for infectious diseases. The issues of border
controls and screening (especially of asylum seekers) as tactics employed by states to
control the disease are then discussed, as are the legal and human rights bases for such
practices.
Many contributors to the book also looked at the theme of care issues (and the link to
prevention) as they affect migrants, and it is described how Belgium set the precedent
in Europe for AIDS prevention programmes amongst migrants. Another theme is the
importance of working across cultural differences – taking them into account, but not
using them as an excuse for inaction – the key being to involve communities in any
initiatives. Here, the notion that community leaders can actually be major obstacles is
raised, best practice being to go directly to those affected. The politically weak nature
of migrant communities and the fear of stigma have also to be taken into account.
Two major faultlines in tackling HIV are identified as migrant prostitution and illegal
immigration, and how these can take people outside healthcare structures.
Policy recommendations / conclusions
A general feeling is expressed that testing and exclusion have dominated the
international response to HIV. The authors identify two major themes that can help
define the way forward:
• That there is a public health rationale for providing AIDS care and prevention to
vulnerable populations of migrants;
• And that resistance resources may spring from within migrant groups.
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Further research and information on existing programmes is necessary, as is
information sharing between countries of origin and host countries. More general
information is also needed on the overall health status of migrant populations, as well
as specific research to ensure that effective policies are developed to reduce
vulnerability to HIV and inequalities in the delivery of health and social services.
Government officials, experts and service providers need to link forces to improve
reception and assimilation of immigrants. The authors also point out that there is an
entire economic and ethical debate still to be had on HIV/AIDS and migration.
146

Chan, Yiu Man. (1997). ‘Educational Experiences of Chinese Pupils in
Manchester.’ Multicultural Teaching, 15, 3, Sum. 37-42
Topic
The author explores the educational experiences of children of Chinese origin in the
context of a community which a Home Affairs Committee in 1985 found to be
suffering from five factors that constituted ‘a formidable barrier to full participation in
British life’: language problems; ignorance of citizens’ rights under British law and in
the welfare service; cultural differences; dispersal of the Chinese population; and long
and unsocial working hours.
Methodology:
Two hundred pupils at secondary schools in Greater Manchester constituted the
sample for this study, with 58% being British born. Most lived in private housing, and
over half expressed no religious beliefs. Both quantitative and qualitative research
methods were used – in the form of questionnaires and interviews.
Main findings
A clear majority were happy at school and enjoyed lessons, boys being slightly more
negative, yet age, home language and length of stay making little difference. Some
who were unhappy did, however, cite racist bullying as a major factor. About half
expressed an interest in learning about Chinese language and culture. Three quarters
said they spoke and wrote English fluently, with about half reporting good grades.
Unsurprisingly, there was proportionality between length of stay and English / general
academic achievement, Chinese language home speakers also experiencing
comparatively greater difficulties.
Policy recommendations
The author concludes that anti-racist measures were important to counter negative
self-image among pupils who identified themselves as British rather than Chinese.
Language difficulties were often simply down to a relatively short time spent in the
UK, but also perhaps to the variable quality of teaching and resources in Chinese
community centres, which provided the majority of language skills training with little
such opportunities being afforded pupils within formal education.
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Eade, John. (1997). ‘The Power of the Experts: The Plurality of Beliefs and
Practices Concerning Health and Illness among Bangladeshis in Contemporary
Tower Hamlets, London.’ Lara Marks and Michael Worboys, (eds.), Migrants,
Minorities and Health: Historical and Contemporary Studies, 250-271. Routledge :
London
Topic
The author looks at the health needs of Bangladeshis (especially in Tower Hamlets)
and highlights a perceived failure by authorities to about Bangladeshi beliefs and
practices, without which he feels that the delivery of more resources and schemes
developed by health professionals will tend to offer a one-sided solution.
Main findings
He points to the Islamisation of the community and its effect on how Bangladeshis
approach health and illness. This takes place in the context of an ongoing three-way
struggle between the arenas of medicine, Islam and folklore:
• Medicine: the Western focus on analysis and treatment of disease, viewing the
body as a physical entity;
• Islam: historic ‘Unani’ medicine as the official body of Islamic medical
knowledge, updated by a ‘new traditionalism’ amongst religious leaders;
• Folk beliefs and practices: this includes belief in spirits, witchcraft, holy men and
herbalists – especially among poorer families.
The author describes the variety of different Islamic and folkloric practices and
beliefs, illustrating also the differences of opinion on these matters among religious
and community leaders. He also highlights how such remedies are invariably
prescribed by powerful male leaders and aimed especially at women and young
children. The observation is made that Bangladeshi settlers approach health and
illness in a way that reveals the dynamic, contested process of cultural construction as
traditions are adapted to the conditions of urban life in Western Europe; and that
white people also occupy a plural, contested world of diverse beliefs and practices
concerning the body.
He also warns against the dangers of confirming racist stereotypes about uneducated
immigrants, folk beliefs and superstition. Ultimately, however, there are no concrete
recommendations for the medical and caring profession, or on how medical and nonmedical
beliefs and practices can better coexist.
148

Rait, G. Burns A. (1997). ‘Appreciating background and culture: the South
Asian elderly and mental health.’ International Journal Of Geriatric Psychiatry,
12, 10, 973-977.
Topic
An investigation into the effects of culture, experiences and environment among the
elderly South Asian population as it impacts on attitudes towards mental illness and
its treatment.
Main findings
The authors point out firstly the cultural, linguistic and religious diversity among
people of South Asian origin, defined as encompassing India, Pakistan and
Bangladesh. The history of migration to the UK is briefly sketched and the point
asserted that, despite degrees of cultural retention, the assumptions made by society
regarding community strength, extended families and support without the
involvement of formal professional structures, are false. Cohabitation does not
necessarily imply care for older family members. The triple challenge of racism,
ageism and socio-economic deprivation faced by this group is also highlighted.
Against this background, the authors have found a lack of research into South Asian
mental health needs, as compared with physical health. As regards particular features
of this population’s experience of mental health issues, it is suggested the notion of
depression is a somewhat unfamiliar concept; that people’s experience of dementia
may have been limited due to previously lower life expectancy; and that the act of
migration has its own impact. An unwillingness to refer to psychological symptoms of
illness, and to look instead for physical factors, is also cited. Communication,
language and translation difficulties are an additional factor. Primary care – crucial as
this is the site for initial screening and presentation – is also comparatively poorly
resourced in inner city areas, where the majority of elderly ethnic minorities live.
Accessing reliable information and research is greatly aided by effective community
links – through for instance religious figures, day centres and voluntary groups. For
example, in Manchester screening tests for depression and cognitive impairment have
been adapted for use with the South Asian elderly using community focus groups.
Policy recommendations
There is evidence that minority elders are under-represented in health and social
services. There is a need for providers to be appropriately trained with better
guidelines, taking the particular needs of elderly ethnic minority groups into account
and utilising an improved dialogue with the relevant community. Further research is
also needed to better define populations and to establish the prevalence and type of
mental illness in the South Asian community, the effects of gender and class, and
acceptable and culturally sensitive means of detection and management.
149

Wedderburn-Tate, C. (1998). ‘Backs to the future: The contribution Caribbean
immigrants have made to the NHS.’ Nursing Management, 5, 4, 5
Summary
The background of West Indian involvement in the health service is outlined, back to
Enoch Powell’s encouragement of their recruitment in the 1950s whilst Minister of
Health. The author highlights their past contribution to the NHS and the present
systemic failures: numbers of black recruits to nursing decreasing and the National
Management Training Scheme failing in its attempt to increase the number of black
trainees. She points to the failure by the NHS to recruit locally – looking overseas for
nurses – especially given a labour environment where black people with qualifications
are twice as likely to be unemployed as their white counterparts. There is nothing
further really in a very short article, other than a generally expressed belief that this
issue should have a higher profile amidst the 50 th anniversary celebrations of the
NHS.
150

Baraitser, Paula. (1999). ‘Family Planning and Sexual Health: Understanding
the Needs of South Asian Women in Glasgow.’ Journal of Ethnic and Migration
Studies, 25, 1, 133-150
Topic:
The author conducted interviews with 20 South Asian women using family planning
services to ascertain their views on what, if any, barriers existed in South Asian
women’s access to family planning services. The implications of these finding for
service providers are then considered.
Methodological issues
Twenty individuals were interviewed, though their views were also sought on South
Asian women in the city as a group. The scope of the study was limited to the
Govanhill / Pollokshields area of Glasgow – the most ethnically diverse part of the
city.
Main findings
The interviews were held, with interpreters always present, in three different clinics in
the area described above, and an additional four women attending a baby clinic were
also interviewed, in order to document the views of women not necessarily using
family planning services. The author presents the results of these interviews under a
number of different categories:
• Family planning service use by South Asian women: found to be proportionate to
the local population for the well woman clinic, but disproportionately high for
domiciliary service.
• Age / marital status: the average age of the interviewees was 31, approximately in
line with overall users of the services. All the women had been married, and all
bar one had children. Conversely, the majority of non-South Asian clinic users
had no children. The author identifies the need for further research into the sexual
health needs of unmarried South Asian women.
• Religion: 20 Muslim, 3 Sikh – though none felt religion had any bearing on the
use of contraception by married women.
• Place of birth / time since immigration: most interviewees emphasised the
influence of these factors on attitudes to and use of sexual health services.
Distinctions were drawn between those who had grown up in rural areas in South
Asia as opposed to cities, and those from South Asia versus those brought up in
the UK – the latter in both cases seen as more ‘modern’ in their attitudes to
contraception.
• Changing attitudes: time spent in the UK had an influence, as did generational
gaps.
• Language: 16 of the 24 women interviewed spoke good English, and all spoke
Punjabi or Urdu. Many expressed an interest in English language classes.
• Language-related communication problems: those with English language
difficulties varied from those using family members / friends as interpreters,
locating an Urdu / Punjabi-speaking doctor, to preferring an interpreter. Some felt
the presence of relatives a support, while others felt embarrassment or
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awkwardness at relatives being involved.
• Non-linguistic communication problems: general embarrassment at discussing
sexual health, but not at attending the clinic. This was again accentuated if from
South Asia (especially a rural area). A preference for women doctors was also
expressed, as was the notion that younger, unmarried women might well use
family planning clinics away from the area, neighbours and friends being less
likely to see them. The general perception was that it was unacceptable for
unmarried women to discuss sexual health.
The author also investigated the primary sources of sexual health information, found
to be female relatives (sisters, sisters-in-law, but not parents) and the media. Finally,
satisfaction was expressed with the quality of information provided by health
professionals.
Policy recommendations
The implications for service providers are finally considered by the author. She feels
there is an over-emphasis on linguistic needs and a need not to generalise in
descriptions of religious and cultural practices. A diversity of views had been
discovered, thus also highlighting the danger of using ‘community representatives’ to
plan services. As mentioned, there is also a need for more research to document the
sexual health information and service needs (if any) of unmarried South Asian women
in Glasgow.
152

Chan, Christine. (2000). ‘The Quality of Life of Women of Chinese Origin.’
Health & Social Care in the Community, 8, 3, May, 212-222.
Topic
The paper draws on qualitative data (interviews with 30 individuals) to explore the
quality of life of Chinese mothers with pre-school children in Manchester – in terms
of work conditions and leisure, housing, marital support and life satisfaction. In
addition, their socio-economic background and self-reported health status are
considered.
Main findings
Research has identified a variety of factors affecting Chinese health – mental stress
and social isolation, vulnerability, lack of childcare, obstruction to career
development, low pay, limited leisure, being between two cultures, and domestic
violence. Health care, in turn, has been negatively influenced by factors such as:
language barriers, unfamiliarity with the NHS, under-utilisation of preventative
services, and cultural difficulties – particularly the mixed feelings which traditional
health beliefs generate that oppose Western medicine and treatment methods.
To summarise the specific findings of this study:
• Marriage, social support and life satisfaction: interviews revealed a generally poor
experience of marital life and many arranged marriages. Many missed their
homeland, their hopes being focused on a better life for their children, and
experienced feelings of isolation and loneliness.
• Work conditions and leisure: two thirds worked in the catering industry, and often
combined multiple home and work roles. Long, unsociable hours were cited as
preventing whole families from integrating properly in to the host community,
with frequent moves being another factor. Watching Chinese videos and gambling
(mainly involving men) were the main leisure pursuits.
• Housing and living environment: the interviewees were equally distributed
amongst council housing, private rented and privately owned accommodation.
Overcrowding was often mentioned as a problem.
• Self-reported health condition / health care facilities: poor psychological health
and feelings of anxiety and stress, related to overwork and feelings of separation
and alienation, were reported. Friends and relatives were seen as a preferred health
resource to doctors, supplemented by Chinese health materials sent from the
homeland. Several also reported difficulties in finding interpreters for health
consultations. Unfamiliarity with the health care delivery system and general
discomfort at attending such consultations were also expressed.
Conclusions / recommendations
The author feels the community is struggling to adjust to life in the UK while working
at the same time in the catering industry. Many members suffer from a disadvantaged
educational background, with little English language skill, and an impoverished
marital and life-support structure. Generally low socio-economic status is a feature.
Gaining access to local resources, including health resources, is inhibited by long
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working hours and the language barrier. Generally the author identifies a need for
further, more comprehensive study – particularly in relation to Chinese immigration –
so that the relationship between ethnicity and health in Britain can be clarified and the
framework of the NHS developed in the community.
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5. Housing
Bowes, Alison, Dar, Naira and Sim, Duncan. (1997). ‘Tenure Preference and
Housing Strategy: An Exploration of Pakistani Experiences.’ Housing Studies,
12, 1, Jan, 63 - 84
Topic
The article explores the housing preferences, moves and experiences of Pakistani
households, based on a research study in Glasgow.
Methodology
Interviews were carried out with 19 families in suburban and inner city areas of
Glasgow: 12 were owner-occupiers, 2 council tenants, 4 private tenants, and 1 in a
housing association.
Main findings
The authors set the exercise against the backdrop of a disadvantaged group in society,
with little opportunity to exercise choice in the housing market and a history of
suffering discrimination in the allocation of local authority housing and racist
treatment from building societies, estate agents and builders. In examining housing
choice, the authors identify a number of factors which have militated against effective
research in this area:
• lack of distinction of Pakistanis from other South Asians
• differences in housing policy and structure across the UK
• lack of comparison with other ethnic groups
• lack of attention to council tenants – the assumption being that owner-occupation
is always the preference
• lack of qualitative, rather than quantitative, data in the field.
The paper focuses on the characteristics of households and the strategies adopted to
satisfy their needs. How housing searches and moves are conducted and funded are
examined, as are attitudes to council housing, and finally the more general housing
likes and dislikes of Pakistani families. The study found a number of specific
constraints within the housing system that the Pakistani families operated within:
• Funding: widespread difficulties are reported, with loans often sought from family
or friends rather than a building society, and general avoidance of and trouble with
estate agents;
• There were large areas of Glasgow where Pakistani families felt unsafe and were
reluctant to live. Proximity to Asian shops, facilities such as the Mosque, good
schools and transport and, above all, good friends and neighbours, were seen as
the key factors in finding a suitable house to live in;
• Perception of failure by the local authority to meet the housing needs of the
Pakistani community. Private rented sector sometimes an acceptable alternative,
though this is described as being in decline locally;
• Racial harassment.
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Addressing these constraints, a number of strategies were employed. Changing
household size had an important impact on the frequency of moves, and Pakistani
families showed themselves willing to move around the inner city, rather than keeping
to particular sectors, in contrast to their white counterparts.
Policy recommendations
The authors feel a major gain from the interview technique – focusing on life history
– has been an avoidance of stereotyping. In general, it is important to avoid
homogenisation and assumptions about housing need. Needs that depart from the
‘norm’ of owner-occupier status and inner city location cannot be ignored. Wildly
varying attitudes and aspirations exist, and these can also change – council housing
for example is increasingly becoming a part of Pakistani culture.
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Sandhu, H. (1999). ‘Housing needs of Asian elders.’ Axis, 54, 3, 17
Topic
A project to identify the continuing and future needs of Asian elders.
Methodology
In-depth interviews with over 500 Asian elders in four London boroughs: Newham,
Hounslow, Waltham Forest and Greenwich.
Main findings
Overall, a need was identified for 1700 sheltered bed-spaces and a further 1500 very
sheltered housing units. The numbers of lettings of sheltered housing and care homes
to Asian elders has been declining over the past few years, with research projections
predicting rising need in the coming years.
Sheltered housing was found to be one, but not the only, option considered by Asian
elders – culturally sensitive management being an important issue. Adaptation of
accommodation and simply staying put are alternative solutions that also need to be
considered – supporting Asian elders within their families. Finally, the ageing
demography of first generation Asians in this country over the next 10-20 years needs
to be taken into account by policy-makers and service providers.
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Published academic research on refugees in
Britain 1996-2002
Dr Maja Korac
158

Published Academic Research on refugees in Britain 1996-2002
Executive Summary
Academic research on refugees in Britain published over the last six years has tended
to address a number of related questions, either individually or in combination.
Researchers have sought to establish the particular needs of this group, have measured
the extent to which these needs are met through current provision and have identified
the barriers, be they structural, attitudinal or legislative, that have led to a shortfall in
refugees' needs being adequately addressed. While a number of studies have explored
the barriers confronting refugees in general, others have adopted a narrower focus,
exploring in detail their needs, and the available provision, in relation to education
and training, the labour market, health or housing. The following sections consider
these areas in turn and review a cross-section of the studies identified as part of the
‘Mapping the Field’ exercise. These sections summarise the specific focuses of the
selected studies, the findings they report and the recommendations proposed on the
basis of these findings.
Prior to examining these areas individually, it is worth reviewing the studies’
methodologies, in terms of the populations they access and methods they employ, to
attempt to assess the cumulative strength and generalizability of their findings. A
number of studies, particularly in the area of health, lack sufficient detail regarding
the methodologies employed. However, generally speaking, the selected studies
employ qualitative techniques or are based upon small-scale surveys involving for the
most part samples, in some cases purposive or accidental rather than random, in the
region of 100 individuals. Many of the studies were conducted at a local level, with a
predominant focus on London, and those with a national remit tend to examine the
specific experiences of particular ethnic groups. Therefore, while generally
complementary findings and recommendations emerge from the studies undertaken in
each area, these methodological characteristics need to be borne in mind when
proposing policy or future research on the basis of this evidence base, as they limit its
strength and generalisability. Moreover, a systematic review of evidence in this area
is recommended, to enable the formulation of a research agenda by identifying areas
where additional or different types of studies are needed, and to indicate both the
strength and direction of the evidence in key areas for those involved in policymaking.
1. General
Studies that have explored in general the barriers facing refugees have examined how
policies and perceptions, be they those of central government, service providers or the
media, have influenced each other, and have affected statutory and voluntary
provision for refugees. One set of studies has considered these issues with reference
to particular programmes or service providers (including Refugee Community
Organisations and government programmes to resettle refugees of particular
nationalities). Another group of academics have adopted specific policy trends as
their primary focus, with the increasingly restrictionist legislation and policies
towards refugees developed in the late 1990s being paid particular attention.
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These studies concur in identifying both structural and attitudinal barriers that have
prevented the effective provision to refugees of services and programmes to meet
their needs. A range of factors are identified that comprise barriers; these include the
prevention of refugees from working in the first six months of their residence, the lack
of official recognition for non-British qualifications (structural barriers) and the
planning of unsuitable provision, on the basis of a racialised view of refugees and a
focus on those that are newly arrived (attitudinal barriers).
On the basis of these findings, the studies recommend a series of changes to dismantle
the structural and attitudinal barriers hindering the provision of effective services to
refugees; these include a removal of the ban on employment during their first six
months in the UK and the development of culturally sensitive policies tailored to
refugees of different nationalities. In addition, the studies propose a number of paths
which future research should follow to expand our understanding of this area,
including the dissemination of evaluated good practise in refugee provision and the
further investigation of newspapers’ roles in shaping perceptions in this area.
2. Education and training
The selected studies explore the educational and training needs of refugees and the
barriers to the development of effective provision to meet these, generally with
reference to younger refugees, in particular homeless refugee children and refugee
students. Despite the different populations researched, a commonality emerges in the
needs identified, in terms of effective English language courses and the recognition of
non-British qualifications, and the barriers preventing these from being addressed. In
addition to the low quality of English language teaching and the absence of
recognition for foreign qualifications, a lack of educational guidance and the
restrictive quality of recent legislation were identified as barriers to effective
educational provision for refugees, while recommendations were developed which
emphasised the need for the removal of these barriers.
3. Labour market
The two studies focussing on the labour market selected from the range identified in
the ‘Mapping the Field’ exercise explore the experiences of refugees in this particular
sphere, in terms of the impact of policies on refugee participation in the market in
general, and more specifically in terms of the labour market experience of those
refugees with professional qualifications.
These studies highlight the existence of structural barriers to refugees' participation in
the labour market that were previously shown to limit the effectiveness of educational
provision, in particular the fact that they are not allowed to work during their first six
months of residence, leading to long term unemployment and the lack of recognition
for non British qualifications. Examination of the labour market experience of
refugees with professional qualifications highlights the impact of these barriers, with
the majority out of work and those who had secured employment being over qualified
and underpaid, on the basis of their qualifications and previous experience.
On the basis of these findings, the studies concur in recommending that in general
work should be encouraged rather than restricted for refugees, there should be a
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greater recognition of non-British qualifications. In addition, a series of
developments are recommended to further aid refugees’ entry into the labour market
including the linking of training with future employment and the establishment of a
national agency with a remit to improve practise in this area.
4. Health
Recent academic studies concerned with the health of refugees investigate the specific
health problems caused by their particular status and characteristics (including their
experience of exile, poverty and dependence), and the challenges they present to
health care providers, particularly in terms of issues of planning.
Taken together, these studies provide evidence that there are specific health issues
relating to refugees’ status and particular characteristics, which can be addressed to
some extent through the provision of effective support. Mental health problems were
found to be influenced by a range of factors inherent in refugee status, including
family separation and hostility from the host population; however, early recognition
of these problems was highlighted as a key factor in their prevention. On the other
hand, poor social support was identified as a stronger prediction of depression than
factors associated with trauma, likely to be widely experienced among refugees.
Problems with the actual provision of healthcare to refugees tended to result from a
lack of awareness and limited understanding of the relevant issues. The NHS was
found to have had minimal consultation and involvement in the policy of dispersal,
leading to rapid local rises in the numbers of patients which the service might not be
capable of supporting. Most GPs were unaware of screening at ports while refugees
viewed initial health procedures as stigmatising and primarily aimed at protecting the
native population.
On the basis of these findings, a number of changes in policy and practise, at both the
national and local level, were proposed. It was recommended that any policy of
dispersal should be accompanied by sufficient investment to meet refugees’ health
needs and that health departments in areas with substantial refugee populations should
acquire appropriate facilities, such as translators. Similarly, at the national level, it
was suggested that the lack of appropriate facilities and guidance were addressed with
the development of a Department of Health information pack for refugees and the
establishment of a telephone interpreting service.
5. Housing
Academic studies of refugees focussing on the area of housing examined the
experiences of providers, including registered social landlords, rather than the
refugees themselves, exploring the impact of the increasingly restrictionist policies
developed in the late 1990s on their provision of social housing for this population.
These studies tended to report significant variations in the quality of social housing
provision, and a fragmentation in this area generally, with these features being
attributed in part to recent government policy and spending in this area. In addition to
general improvements in service quality, specific recommendations were proposed
which were geared to address these problems; these included the linking of healthcare
with housing projects and the recognition that refugees are not a homogenous group,
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particularly with reference to the development of practices for female-headed
households.
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1. General
Lam, T and Martin, C. (1997) The settlement of the Vietnamese in London:
official policy and refugee responses. London: South Bank University
Focus
This study focuses on the experiences of integration of Vietnamese in the UK,
particularly in London. It assesses the government programme set for Vietnamese
refugees in the UK and their responses to it. The study specifically focuses on
settlement problems of refugees without prior ties with UK society.
Within this framework the study looks at their experiences of learning the language,
education and training, labour market participation, housing, health and social
integration.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The term ‘refugee’ is used in this study to refer to those who were accepted in the UK
on a special government programme.
The authors discuss concepts of adaptation, acculturation and integration, and
specifically examine the concept of integration understood as a model where refugees
retain their ethnic identity, but also actively interact with the receiving society.
The study approaches integration as a process and examines the process of adaptation,
adjustment and integration in the later stages of settlement.
Methodological issues
This study is both local and national in scope, because it explores the situation of
Vietnamese refugees in London, many of whom were originally resettled in other
areas of the UK (i.e. dispersed). Their settlement in London is the result of secondary
migration, which they undertook in order to reunite with their families and friends.
.
This research primarily examines the settlement experiences of Vietnamese who were
in the UK 10 years or more, and who were at the time of the research settled in the
London boroughs of Greenwich, Lambeth, Tower Hamlets, Southwark and
Lewisham. The sample of respondents, however, included also people who arrived
later. The fieldwork was conducted between December 1993 and May 1994.
Methods used
The study combines quantitative and qualitative research methods, that is a survey
and in-depth interviews. The sample consisted of 111 respondents for the survey. In
addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with 10 refugees. This sample cannot be
considered representative of the population of Vietnamese in London and/or the UK,
because the selection was based primarily on the authors’ personal connections with
the Vietnamese community in London. The authors do not mention if a kind of quota
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sampling was used to determine the actual characteristics of respondents. However, as
the authors emphasise, the characteristics of the sample examined in this study
correspond to the findings of the Home Office study conducted in 1995 about the
Vietnamese in the UK.
The respondents in this study came mainly from North Vietnam and were principally
of ethnic Chinese origin. There were more men than women among the respondents
(approximately 60 per cent and 40 per cent respectively). They were overwhelmingly
young (men predominantly between 30 and 50 years of age, and women
predominantly between 16 and 40 years of age), from rural areas with relatively poor
education, compared to the mainstream society, and traditional skills, such as farmers,
fishermen, sailors and boat-builders. Women were particularly disadvantaged
concerning their educational level.
Main findings
The main finding of this research is that building up a cohesive ethnic group does not
hamper the process of integration and development of contacts outside the ethnic
community. This study documents the importance of building on ethnic resources in
order to integrate on ones own terms. These resources helped the Vietnamese refugees
to adjust to the new society by relying on their informal networks, which were
particularly useful in the phase when their English language skills were still very
poor. Moreover, these networks have been crucial for finding work through ethnic
enclaves connected with the food and apparel sectors.
Recommendations
This research assessed the consequences and problems with the program of dispersal
set for Vietnamese refugees in the UK. It documented that the development of intraethnic
relationships and resources, which proved to be crucial for integration of
Vietnamese refugees, had been stymied by policy, in the first place via legislation
effectively trapping the low-skilled into a low-wage spiral and secondly (i.e. the lack
of effective training programmes linked with the actual labour market needs), through
physical/geographical dispersal of these refugees.
The policy of dispersal was detrimental to the Vietnamese, who effectively overturned
it by relocating themselves to London. They have generated networks to facilitate
access to employment, housing and self-provided support. This has been achieved
with minimal resources to public social services, except income support. However,
there have also benefited and particularly appreciated education.
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Kaye, Ron (1998) Redefining the Refugee: The UK Media Portrayal of Asylum
Seekers (in The New Migration in Europe: Social Constructions and Social
Realities, Ed’s Khalid Koser and Helma Lutz.. Basingstoke: Macmillan
Focus
This study focuses on the media portrayal of refugees and its relationship to the policy
process. Specifically, it centres on broadsheet newspaper coverage in terms of the
manipulation of language in commenting upon the status of refugees and asylum
seekers.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
This study examines the role of the media in agenda setting and news framing in
relation to the specific issue of their portrayal of refugees and asylum seekers. The
concept of agenda setting is defined as the process of determining which issues are
seen as priorities for policy development and political action. The concept of news
framing considers the news as a frame through which reality is socially constructed.
The term ‘refugee’ is used in this study to describe both refugees and asylum seekers.
Methodological issues
This study is national in scope. The analysis is based on an application of the content
analysis approach and of a form of discourse analysis, i.e. structuralism, with its close
analysis of text to reveal implicit meaning.
Methods used
The timespan of the research is from October 1990 to October 1995. Three broadsheet
newspapers were studied to span the political spectrum – The Times, The Guardian,
and The Independent.
The research combines both qualitative and quantitative methods. In analysing the use
of language it uses quantitative analysis of the use of specific terms which have
explicit, and in fact pejorative meanings. It also relates the analysis of media coverage
to concurrent external events linked to the refugee agenda.
Main findings/arguments
The frequency of the use of terms: phoney or bogus refugee(s) or asylum seeker(s),
economic refugee(s), and economic migrant(s) when referring to refugees and asylum
seekers was analysed. It was found that The Guardian and the Independent used the
terms primarily (more than a third of the time) in the context of criticising their use or
reporting criticism of use by others. The Times made less use of all the terms than the
other two newspapers, but it also made comparatively little criticism of the use of
such terms and reported no critical commentary.
Furthermore, the research found that in the majority of cases the usage of the terms
was a report or a quotation of, most commonly, a UK politician or government
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official. This suggests that, at least in this sample, the newspapers are not taking the
lead in setting the agenda. Rather, the newspapers are largely accepting the agenda as
defined by politicians and government officials. The pattern is somewhat different for
The Times, however, in which in approximately half the items the writer used the
expressions directly rather than quoting.
Recommendations
This study, among the first to look at the media portrayal of refugees and asylum
seekers in a systematic manner, suggests several areas/directions for future research:
• A systematic analysis of tabloid newspapers on the same issue.
• To widen the scope of this type of research by covering both radio and
television.
• An investigation of less explicit and more subtle representations of refugees
and asylum seekers, such as the use of terms ‘migrant’ and ‘immigrant’ when
referring to refugees.
• A comparative research and analysis of the media in Europe in order to
determine similarities and differences in the treatment of refugees and asylum
seekers by the media in Europe.
• Media campaigns to redress the balance of the relative negativity in which
refugees and asylum seekers are depicted. For example, media campaigns to
emphasise the benefits and contribution of refugees and asylum seekers to the
UK economy and society.
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Robinson, Vaughan (1998) “The importance of information in the resettlement
of refugees in the UK” Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 11, No. 2, p 146-160)
Focus
This study focuses on the informational vacuum that exists in the UK about refugees,
their settlement patterns and their socio-demographic characteristics.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
Information, the main focus of this study, is understood as data about refugees,
including evidence-based information about their characteristics, aspirations and
needs, as well as the process of dissemination of acquired knowledge.
The term ‘refugee’ is used in this study to describe both refugees and asylum seekers.
Methodological issues
This study is national in scope, assessing the scale and type of information available
about refugees in the UK. The point of departure of this study is insight gained
through research about the number or refugees and asylum seekers in Wales, and
about the scale and type of provision for them.
Methods used
The author develops and uses an idealised model of organisational decision-making to
illustrate information needs and potential information flows in this process. The
application of this model to the situation in the UK forms the basis of analysis in this
study.
Main findings/arguments
The study documents the problems with relative lack of knowledge about refugees in
Britain. It points to seven different reasons for this lack of information:
1. The absence of official bespoke data on refugees and asylum seekers in the
UK: As a result, even organisations specifically established to serve the needs
of refugees lack basic information such as the number of persons resorting to
their catchment area or their socio-demographic characteristics. Consequently,
they are forced to plan and operate in an information vacuum.
2. The unsuitability of official generic data sources for research into refugees and
asylum seekers: The absence of such data, force researchers to turn to generic
sources or the collection of bespoke primary data. These methods, however,
cannot provide accurate estimates of the number of refugees/asylum seekers,
nor can they tell us much about their socio-demographic characteristics.
3. The lack of an official agenda of strategic and action-oriented research:. This
is due partly to data limitations but also because of the historic failure of either
the Home Office or the Refugee Council to instigate or encourage strategic
programmes of research into refugees in the UK.
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4. The limitations of official research : These limitations are primarily due to the
absence of official data on refugees and their characteristics which has meant
that even where official research is undertaken it has to be tentative in nature.
5. The absence of a cadre of professional academic researchers: Refugee Studies
tend to lack an institutional base within academe. Consequently, academics
involved in the field are appointed in other disciplines, and expected to have
more mainstream research interests as well.
6. Weaknesses in the dissemination of models of good practice: Although it is
clear that models of good practice exist in the UK, the central problem is to
adequately disseminate them. To meet this goal it is important to develop a
national strategy concerning the dissemination process.
7. The absence of benchmarking and retrospective evaluation:. This weakness is
not unique to the situation in the UK, and arises from the absence of
longitudinal and long-range retrospective research. In addition, there is a lack
of benchmark data against which future change can subsequently be measured.
Recommendations
This study clearly documents that information about refugees is a critical tool in
developing and implementing policy, and in enhancing refugee settlement. The author
gives four recommendations:
1. More research on characteristics, needs and aspirations of refugees;
2. A strategic programme of disseminated research either to analyse any new
secondary data which might become available or generate new primary data
and knowledge;
3. A strategy of dissemination of good practice;
4. A strategy to change public opinion via education.
At the heart of these four recommendations is information about refugees, which if
effectively analysed and disseminated can help develop effective settlement policies.
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Robinson, Vaughan (1999) “Clusters of ignorance, disbelief and denial: refugees
in Wales” Journal of Refugee Studies Vol. 12, No. 1, p 78-87
Focus
This study examines the scale and type of social services provided to refugees in
Wales. In order to assess these services, the study gives estimates of the number of
refugees and asylum seekers in Wales, and their geographical distribution across the
Principality; an inventory of service provision for refugees; and an analysis of the
assumptions underpinning provision.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The author does not define explicitly the term ‘refugee’ used in the study. However,
the discussion indicates that he uses the term to refer to both refugees and asylum
seekers.
Methodological issues
This study is regional in scope, assessing the scale and type of provision for refugees
in Wales. However, it has both regional and national implications and relevance,
because it examines and assesses the situation of refugees in a region with reference
to the broader national context of the UK.
In estimating the number and distribution of refugees this research did not use any
source of statistical data, because the official data specifically on refugees does not
exist in the UK. Hence, a range of organisations in Wales, which might have been in
contact with refugees or might have represented them, were contacted and asked to
provide information on numbers and distribution of their clients and/or members.
In assessing the scale and type of provision for refugees in Wales, the research
focuses on a range of statutory and non-statutory bodies as the unit of analysis.
Therefore, the study does not include data on refugee-identified needs and
experiences.
Methods used
The research was conducted in 1996. It is based on a postal self-completion survey,
combined with telephone interviewing. Two sets of questionnaires were used. First
questionnaire was used for estimating the number of refugees and their distribution.
Second questionnaire was used for assessing the scale and type of provision for
refugees in Wales.
With respect to the first questionnaire, 329 were dispatched and 27 per cent were
returned; this is considered typical for this type of survey. In addition, some of these
responses were followed-up by telephone interviewing, and an additional eight
organisations were also telephoned rather than sent a questionnaire. The estimates
collected were then combined into a single national distribution map. Also, individual
estimates were aggregated to provide a total for the Principality.
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With respect to the second questionnaire, 225 were sent and 34 per cent were
returned. The data collected were then coded and computerised for statistical analysis.
Main findings
According to the estimates based on this research, there were 1,016 households of
refugees and asylum seekers in Wales in 1996, containing perhaps 3,500-3,600
individuals. The majority of known refugees/asylum seekers were concentrated in
Cardiff (67 per cent of the Welsh total), Newport (16 per cent), and Swansea (12 per
cent). It is estimated that the vast majority of these refugees were Somali (70 per
cent), but there were also Vietnamese, Iranian, Sudanese, and Iraqis.
With respect to scope and type of provision, this research found that: i) decisionmakers
in Wales do not consider refugees to be an important issue; ii) overall
provision is piecemeal and only indirectly addresses the unique needs of refugees; iii)
existing provision is primarily targeted at newly arrived refugees/asylum seekers; iv)
very few organisations are in direct contact with refugee organisations, thus, most of
their assessment of the needs of refugees and assistance given is based on individual
views of officers; v) organisations tend to racialise the term ‘refugee’ and use it only
to refer to persons from visible minorities; vi) organisations tend to define/see as a
refugee primarily young people (men) less ‘at risk’ than the indigenous population,
while forgetting about those who are traumatised, disabled, old and/or women.
Recommendations
While this study does not assess directly a policy pertaining to refugees and asylum
seekers, it makes a valuable contribution to the policy in this field, by documenting
difficulties and problems enforced by the lack of data on asylum seekers and refugees.
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Bloch, Alice (2000) “Refugee settlement in Britain: the impact of policy on
participation” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1, p. 75-88
Focus
This study examines the character of social policy towards refugees and asylum
seekers in Britain and the impact of policy on participation. In other words, this study
assesses the consequences of policies set up for these two categories of forced
migrants by examining how they affect their participation, primarily in the labour
market.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
Within the broader category of social policy towards refugees and asylum seekers this
research examines specifically the effects of immigration status and associated
citizenship rights on the economic and social settlement of refugees and asylum
seekers.
Employment is considered in this study as a key factor affecting the settlement of
refugees, and therefore, it focuses primarily on the economic aspects of integration by
defining participation as the labour market participation. Thus, in assessing the
character and quality of participation of refugees and asylum seekers in the labour
market the study examines primarily the structural factors, such as the right to work,
affecting their employment. In addition, the analysis also explores the attitudinal
factors, such as perception of UK as home and aspirations for return migration, as
elements influencing the labour market participation of refugees and asylum seekers.
Also, the study provides a discussion of refugee-identified factors affecting
settlement.
This study examines the situation of: i) refugees, defined as persons with the
Convention status; ii) asylum seekers, defined as persons who are waiting for their
asylum claim to be considered by the Home Office; and iii) persons with Exceptional
Leave to Remain (ELR), thus, those with temporary status and without security of
settlement.
Methodological issues
This study is local in scope, exploring the labour market situation of refugees and
asylum seekers in the London Borough of Newham. Nevertheless, it has both regional
and national implications and relevance, because it examines and assesses the impact
of the national policy pertaining to refugees and asylum seekers by focussing on the
situation of forced migrants in one locality.
This research examines the settlement issues of refugees and asylum seekers from
three ethnic groups and or communities: Somali, Tamil and Congolese. The fieldwork
was conducted in 1996. Approximately a half of those involved in this research
arrived in the UK prior to 1992 while another half arrived in 1992 or later.
Consequently, the study combines examination of the process of settlement of
relatively recently arrived and those who have been in the UK for several years.
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Methods used
It is based on a survey, which used translated questionnaires and bi-lingual
interviewers from each of the three communities. The sample of 180 respondents was
based on quotas set for age, gender and length of residence to ensure that variables
known as important for settlement are included. Based on non-probability methods,
this sample cannot be considered representative of the population of refugees as a
whole. However, given the lack of official and reliable data and the geographic
mobility of refugees it is not possible to compile a complete and accurate sampling
frame. Thus, by combining the use of gatekeepers as a source of information and
access to refugee communities, and quotas as described above, the sample in this
study can be considered as representative as possible within the given constraints.
This study although primarily quantitative, also includes qualitative data on refugeeidentified
factors affecting settlement.
Main findings
This research identifies the following structural barriers to the economic and
social settlement of refugees and asylum seekers:
1. Eligibility to work: This problem affects primarily asylum seekers who are not
allowed to apply for a permit until they are in the UK for six months. This
problem is compounded by the fact that it takes between six months to a year
for a decision to be made, and in some cases even longer. According to the
findings of this research, 6 per cent of those interviewed did not have a work
permit and some have been living in the UK for years. Thus, the author
concludes, that policy which does not allow asylum seekers to work makes
them long-term unemployed and make it very difficult to enter the labour
market even after it is no longer illegal. Immigration status and the labour
market participation are therefore clearly linked.
2. Difficulties to recognise qualifications obtained outside Britain and problems
of retraining. Three-quarters of all respondents in this research had an
educational qualification on arrival in the UK. However, less then a quarter of
respondents in this survey who had qualifications, were able to recognise their
education and professional skills. Moreover, of those who were looking for
work, over two-thirds had skills that they had been unable to use in a paid job
in the UK.
With respect to the problem of retraining, it has different effects on different
categories of forced migrants. Many refugees, according to this research, are
reluctant to retrain because they are already too far advanced in their career paths.
For asylum seekers and those on ELR retraining can be prohibitive as they are not
immediately entitled to student grants and would have to pay overseas fees.
Furthermore, because the latter two categories of forced migrants lack the security
of settlement in the UK, there is little incentive to spend the time and money
gaining qualifications.
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The author concludes that one of the consequences of qualifications not being
transferable is that refugees and asylum seekers are not able to use the skills and
experience they bring with them on arrival. Also, problems with retraining mean
that they cannot fill in the labour market gaps and needs in the most effective
way.
Among other factors affecting labour market participation of respondents in this
research, the author points to the high level of deprivation of the locality where
the research took place, resulting in higher level of unemployment rates in
Newham than in Greater London (12.3 per cent and 6.7 per cent respectively) and
even higher rates of unemployment among studied population in the locality (46
per cent).
The propensity to participate in the labour market was also affected by gender,
English language skills, household composition and educational qualifications.
This research revealed that men were more often employed than women (20 per
cent and 7 per cent respectively) and everyone who was working spoke English.
Also, in the households with children, none of the women worked. Finally, all
those who were working at the time of the research, with the exception of one
person, had an educational qualification on their arrival. However, they had low
paying jobs with poor terms and conditions of employment. There were many
respondents with high levels of qualifications who were unable to find work due
primarily to the structural barriers mentioned earlier.
This research also identifies the following attitudinal factors affecting the
economic and social settlement of refugees:
1. Force or choice in choosing the UK: Among respondents in Newham, more
than two-thirds said they came to Britain because they had no other choice.
Consequently, over 40 per cent said that they would prefer some other
destination. The author points to a strong propensity among those who would
have preferred a different destination to want to go to countries whose policies
were more open to refugees. This suggests the importance of immigration
status in the lives of refugees.
2. Perceptions of the UK as home and their relation to immigration status. This
research found that those with refugee status are much more likely to see the
UK as home than were those on temporary admission.
As regards to refugee-identified factors affecting settlement, this study
reveals that the most frequently mentioned factor was immigration status.
Not being secure about their status prevented people from getting on with
their lives and therefore settling in the UK. Other refugee-identified factors
were lack of services, access to education, and feeling like an outsider, as
well as lack of confidence, the weather and being homesick.
Policy assessment and/or recommendations made
This study assessed the consequences of the limited access to welfare and labour
market introduced by the Asylum and Immigration Act 1999 as well as by the
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Acts enforced in 1993 and 1996. It examined the consequences of a broad range
of restrictions concerning citizenship rights of forced migrants settled in the UK.
These restrictions concern: i) access to social housing and introduced changes to
the appeals systems; ii) changed employment policies; iii) removal of entitlement
to social security benefits for those who made their asylum application in-country
rather than at the port of entry and for those who are appealing against a Home
Office decision on their case; and iv) the voucher scheme.
The study documents empirically that the main structural barriers to refugee
participation in the labour market and, consequently, to their social settlement
have been erected by the policies developed to regulate and control asylum in the
UK. It demonstrated the impact of structural policies, especially citizenship, on
labour market activity as well as on attitudes to settlement. The study concludes
this assessment by arguing that the exclusion of refugees and asylum seekers from
economic life and in some cases from welfare benefits makes it impossible to
even try and participate in the economic and social life of the country of asylum.
Without security of status and the associated citizenship rights it is very difficult
both structurally and emotionally to participate. Thus, the author emphasises that
the plan to assess asylum claims more quickly should help to alleviate some of the
problems faced by asylum seekers. Furthermore, the author recommends based on
her findings, that work for asylum seekers should be encouraged rather than
restricted given its importance for settlement.
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Griffiths David, (2000) “Fragmentation and consolidation: the contrasting case of
Somali and Kurdish refugees in London” Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 13, No.
3, p. 281-302
Focus
The most important aspect of this study for the purposes of this additional
mapping exercise, is its focus on how the use of ethnicity in the context of
political organisation impacts upon the resettlement and adaptation of refugees.
The study examines these processes in a comparative way, by focusing on the
Somali and Kurdish refugee communities in London.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
No specific definition of the term refugee.
Methodological issues
The contrast between the Somalis and Kurds is initially drawn in terms of Kunz’s
typology of refugee groups, which emphasises their relation to the political
conflict in the country of origin. Analysis then moves onto the examination of the
divisions within refugee communities, as a more viable type of analysis.
Methods used
The study is qualitative in nature. It is based on semi-structured interviews with
co-ordinator and key workers in the principal Kurdish associations in London.
Because of the negligible presence of Somali associations, co-ordinators were
interviewed where possible. But in the case of non-Somali organisations
interviews were carried out with Somali personnel. In addition, the study used
information collected from individual refugees from both groups. It also used a
range of secondary data on the topic. Fieldwork was conducted in two main
phases between December 1994 and the spring of 1999 in the London boroughs of
Tower Hamlets, Newham (Somali community), Haringey and Hackney (Kurdish
communities).
Main findings
One of the most important findings of the research for this additional mapping
exercise is that the capacity of a particular group within refugee communities to
articulate a ‘communal voice’ may significantly influence their access to resources
in the local settlement context.
The study also found that amongst Somalis there are the fragmentary forms of
community organisation. Kurdish refugees, in a strong contrast, are characterised
by the consolidation of the associations in the Turkish-Kurdish community.
However, according to this research both communities lack group-wide forms of
solidarity.
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The fragmentary forms of social organisation in the Somali community, as this
research found, impede their capacity to articulate a ‘common voice’ and thereby
secure access to resources in the local settlement context. By contrast, the
nationalist project of the Kurds united them at sub-group level, and their
associations successfully managed to combine the long-term goal of political
mobilisation with the day-to-day concerns of welfare support and provision.
Recommendations
This study is relevant for policy makers because it shows how factors common in
refugee settlement, for example, the need to secure resources in the local context,
may have radically different outcomes according to the specific histories,
identities and aspirations of the refugee group in question. This in turn is
important for creating flexible and culturally sensitive policies and special
programmes for groups of refugees from different countries of origin.
176

Robinson, Vaughan (2000) “Lessons learned? A critical review of the
government programme to resettle Bosnian quota refugees in the United
Kingdom” International Migration Review, Vol.34, No. 4, p. 1217-1244
Focus
This study critically evaluates the government programme to manage the reception
and resettlement of Bosnian quota refugees who arrived in the UK between November
1992 and August 1995.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The term ‘refugee’ in the study refers to the status granted to refugees on special
government programmes. At times, however, the term ‘refugee’ is used when
referring to asylum seekers too.
Methodological issues
This study is national in scope. It assesses the outcome of the government programme
set on the national level.
The term ‘integration’ is not explicitly defined in the study, but there is sufficient
evidence that the author considers integration to be both functional, i.e. housing,
education and training, employment, as well as social, i.e. links and ties to the
community within and outside the refugee group.
The Bosnian Programme is evaluated by the examination of its: i) organisational
structure put in place to administer the programme; ii) the objectives of the
programme; iii) the scale of funding allocated to it. The study then examines the
implementation of the programme and critically appraises the outcome.
Methods used
The analysis in the study is based on the reports and other documents concerning the
development and implementation of the programme, as well as interviews with
representatives of the statutory bodies involved in the implementation of the
programme. Interviews were qualitative in nature, conducted with 42 employees of
the NGOs. The interviewees represent a cross-section of those involved in the
programme from Senior Policy Formulators to Reception Centre staff.
In addition, 35 interviews were conducted with Bosnian refugees at reception centres
over a period of 18 months. These interviews were qualitative in nature, lasted
approximately 90 minutes and aimed at, among other things, collecting sociodemographic
characteristics of this refugee population.
Also, in-depth interviews were conducted with 20 Bosnian families settled in West
Yorkshire or London, in order to elicit from the refugees their evaluation of the
programme and its settlement outcomes.
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Main findings
This evaluation found that the Bosnian programme was far more successful than
previous programmes of its type in the UK. For example, 90 per cent of all arrivals on
the programme were resettled in the six cluster areas, thereby meeting one of the
principal aims of the resettlement policy. The programme’s success in manipulating
resettlement patterns is remarkable in the light of the previous failure to achieve such
objectives (e.g. only 38 per cent of the Ugandan Asians were found accommodation
in designated resettlement areas).
Furthermore, in the case of Bosnian quota refugees, unlike some other resettlement
programmes, there was not any significant secondary migration. The Refugee Council
estimated that by the end of 1997 fewer than 200 Bosnians had engaged in secondary
migration. In contrast, as earlier research showed, fully 51 per cent of dispersed
Vietnamese refugees had left their resettlement address within five years of being
placed there. The relative geographic immobility of resettled quota Bosnian refugees
stands in stark contrast to that of previous refugee arrivals. This suggests that the
location was appropriate and well-liked by the refugees. It also emphasises the fact
that Bosnians did not have any previous ties to the UK in the form of already settled
community, and in that respect they were unusual.
Moreover, the opinions of the Bosnians concerning the programme and its outcome
were overall positive.
The author documents that this relative success of the programme was due to its break
with past precedent since it incorporated lessons learned from past failures. Therefore,
the author concludes, the lessons learned from this programme and experience could
be incorporated in future resettlement policy in the UK and more widely.
Policy assessment and/or recommendations made
The study points to three clear departures of the Bosnian programme from established
principle and practice which, as the author argues, could be incorporated in future
resettlement policy in the UK. These are:
1. Most significantly there was, for the first time, an acknowledgement by
government of the failure of dispersal and implementation instead of clustered
dispersal in which refugees were concentrated in a small number of locations
distributed throughout national space.
It should be emphasised here, however, that this change in policy was not
voluntarily entered into by government but was forced on them by the refusal
of NGOs to implement any new attempts at dispersal. Furthermore, the
government’s recent decision to disperse all spontaneous refugees across the
country while they await the decision of their asylum applications shows that
the Bosnian programme did not represent a turning point in government
thinking, but an aberration from it.
2. An evolution was in how successful resettlement was to be defined. The
definition was broadened from the simple acquisition of housing by the
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individual refugee to a more comprehensive formulation that incorporated the
right of a group to live in areas which could support the development of their
community, through access to appropriate health-care, education, employment
and housing, and where local people were tolerant.
3. The Bosnian programme moved decisively away from front-end loading and
put much greater emphasis upon mid and long-term resettlement support. The
balance of funding was changed to reflect this.
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Zetter, Roger and Pearl, Martyn (2000) “The minority within the minority:
refugee community-based organisations in the UK and the impact of
restrictionism on asylum-seekers” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol.
26, No. 4, p. 675-697
Focus
This study focuses on some of the consequences of increasingly restrictionist policies
and legislation for refugees and asylum-seekers since the mid 1990s. It examines the
effect of these policies on refugee community-based organisations. (RCOs).
Specifically, the study examines restrictions concerning housing entitlement and a
more general exclusion of asylum-seekers from welfare provision, and their impact on
the role and situation of RCOs.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The term ‘refugee’ is used in this study to describe both refugees and asylum seekers.
However, the analysis specifically focuses on asylum-seekers as the most
disadvantaged group among forced migrants.
Refugee community organisations (RCOs) are understood to be part of a larger
voluntary sector of NGO support networks working on behalf of asylum-seekers and
refugees. RCOs are defined as voluntary organisations established by asylum-seekers
and refugees themselves and sometimes are part of a larger community-based network
of immigrants/ethnic groups settled in the UK. Their distinctive characteristic is that
they are constituted as voluntary associations without formal legal status, and lack
organisational structures and professional core staff. Consequently, they tend to
appear and disappear rather rapidly.
Methodological issues
This study is national in scope. The analysis is informed by an earlier research project
commissioned by the Housing Corporation and conducted in 1997-98. The research
was carried out in three study locations – Manchester, Birmingham, and London (the
London Boroughs of Newham and Tower Hamlets).
The main unit of analysis is a group, i.e. refugee community organisation.
Methods used
The research conducted in 1997-98 represents the background for analysis in this
study. The background research was primarily qualitative in nature, based on
interviews with a range of public sector and voluntary agencies, housing providers,
local authorities (housing and social service departments), as well as national
government and voluntary agencies. These interview data covered key areas of
provision, such as strategy and management, collaboration and partnership, support
services, participation and empowerment. In addition, an interview survey of 46
refugee/asylum-seeker tenant households was also conducted. This aimed to reveal
the client group’s response to housing.
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The exploration of the role and situation of RCOs in this study is based on insights,
provided by the above described research methods, into how mainline providers
involved RCOs and worked with them. The discussion in this study is also informed
by the client group’s experiences of the support services offered by the RCOs.
Main findings
The authors document that one of the main impacts of the policy changes introduced
in the UK in the mid 1990s, has been the fragmentation of service delivery, with the
most dramatic effect on access to housing for asylum-seekers.
A significant consequence of these radical changes of asylum policy, which became
more an instrument of marginalisation than reception, is to highlight the role of
RCOs. In such circumstances, asylum-seekers are increasingly turning to RCOs for
support and assistance. Although the level of support and assistance rendered by
RCOs has risen commensurate with the dramatic rise in asylum-seekers, overall
however, their numbers and the level of activity of community-based refugee/asylumseeker
organisations remains very low.
RCOs tend to be concentrated in London. Therefore, for asylum-seekers and refugees
settled outside the South-East, voluntary sector support tends to be provided less by
RCOs, and more by the organisations developed by those outside the refugee/asylumseeker
communities.
Significant institutional and structural barriers, some pre-existing the current
redirection of policy, some engendered by the new asylum policy framework, are
severely inhibiting RCO adaptation and their ability to expand to meet new demands.
There is a well-founded concern amongst many RCOs that, in their relationship with
mainstream providers and agencies, they are perceived less as partners and, at best,
more like agents and sub-contractors. This makes imperative the need to improve
ways of involving RCOs with local authorities, social housing providers and private
landlords. However, the post-1999 framework of centralised management of asylumseeker
housing needs, in a large national agency, and housing delivery through wellestablished
cost-conscious consortia and private landlords, will be the further
exclusion of small agencies like RCOs, which can offer much needed additional
asylum-seeker support.
Recommendations
This study clearly documents the negative effects of the changes of asylum policy
concerning the role and situation of RCOs in securing much needed additional
asylum-seeker support, particularly in the area of housing. The authors give the
following recommendations:
• The new regional consortia in the dispersal regions, from which NASS
commissions accommodation, should make concerted efforts to involve RCOs in
strategy and policy development, and programme delivery;
• With respect to the above, ensuring that RCOs are represented on the steering
groups and management structures of the consortia can facilitate a partnership,
rather than a commissioning agency approach;
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• In terms of programme delivery, the interest of the regional consortia and the
RCOs themselves will be best served by a comprehensive but realistic assessment
of what support services RCOs can competently deliver, and the identification of
what support services they could deliver if effectively resourced and trained;
• Furthermore, clear contractual commitments between the housing providers and
RCOs are essential, in terms of roles and responsibilities; a framework for
performance monitoring and more professional ways of working; clearer
accountability;
• Especially critical is to facilitate the community development/liaison role, since
RCOs provide a crucial link between local communities and the asylum seekers;
• In realising the potential capacity of RCOs in providing support for asylumseekers,
it is paramount to meet staff training needs. For example, by involving
RCO staff into training programmes offered by the main regional consortia
stakeholders, especially local authorities and RSLs, for their staff.
• National and, especially, local RCOs should help to establish and convene locally
based multi-agency fora in which they are major stakeholders. Initiatives of this
kind, in the long run, have a potential of promoting better working and less
competition between RCOs.
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2. Education and Training
Bloch, Alice (1996) Beating the barriers: the employment and training needs of
refugees in Newham London: London Borough of Newham (also relevant to 3.
Labour Market)
Focus
Please note: this study is based on the same empirical data or research as
the study that is reviewed under the category General. Thus, some of the
points in this review, particularly with respect to methodology and methods,
will reiterate what has already been reviewed. It was felt, however, that it is
important and useful to review this study, because it gives a closer insight
into the specific problems of education, training and employment of a group
of refugees and asylum seekers in one locality.
This study focuses on employment and training needs of refugees and explores the
main barriers to their inclusion in the labour market.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
Employment is considered in this study as a key factor affecting the settlement of
refugees, and therefore, it focuses on the economic aspects of integration. It examines
language and literacy of the studied group, as well as their educational and training
needs in relation to employment.
The term ‘refugee’ refers in this study to those with Convention status, those with
ELR, and asylum seekers.
Methodological issues
This study is local in scope, exploring the labour market situation of refugees and
asylum seekers in the London Borough of Newham. Nevertheless, it has both regional
and national relevance, because its findings mach the findings of other research on the
topic (e.g. H. Pile 1997, also reviewed under the category Labour Market) conducted
by other researchers and on different samples and using different research methods.
This research examines the education, training, and employment needs and situation
of refugees from three ethnic groups and or communities: Somali, Tamil and Zairian.
The fieldwork was conducted in 1996. Approximately a half of those involved in this
research arrived in the UK prior to 1992 while another half arrived in 1992 or later.
Consequently, the study combines examination of the process of settlement of
relatively recently arrived and those who have been in the UK for several years.
Methods used
The study is based on a survey, which used translated questionnaires and bi-lingual
interviewers from each of the three communities. The sample of 180 respondents was
based on quotas set for age, gender and length of residence to ensure that variables
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known as important for settlement are included. Based on non-probability methods,
this sample cannot be considered representative of the population of refugees as a
whole. However, given the lack of official and reliable data and the geographic
mobility of refugees it is not possible to compile a complete and accurate sampling
frame. Thus, by combining the use of gatekeepers as a source of information and
access to refugee communities, and quotas as described above, the sample in this
study can be considered as representative as possible within the given constraints.
This study although primarily quantitative, also includes qualitative data on refugeeidentified
factors affecting settlement.
Main findings
This research identifies the following problems concerning:
• Language and literacy: English language courses were the main avenue of
improving language skills of the study group, particularly among Zairians and
Somalis. Tamils were more likely to arrive in the UK with prior knowledge of the
English language. Gender proved to be an important variable in gaining language
skills, because women were less likely than men were to have time to attend
courses. This was due to their parenting responsibilities, and was particularly
significant among the Somali women.
• Assessments of the quality of language courses and training were fairly positive.
There were recommendations, however, that the introduction of teachers from
different refugee communities, different level classes and more taught hours each
week would improve the quality of training.
• Education and training. The study group was, on the whole, well-educated, with
the exception of the Somali community who make up all of those without
formal education within the sample. Most people arrived with qualifications and
most have not been able to recognise their professional skills and many more
have not even tried to do so. More than a third of those interviewed have studied
for qualifications since arriving in the UK. Here again, gender proved to be an
important factor in determining numbers of those who undertake additional
studies in the UK. Men were more likely than women to study. Also, time of
arrival played an important role concerning education and training of the studied
group. Due to grant restrictions, those who have been resident in the UK since
1992 or earlier, were likely to study.
This research found that although some people attended/completed training courses,
there was not enough evidence of a link between training and employment outcomes.
Data actually suggest that getting involved in training seems to lead to labour market
participation in an unrelated area. Training in clerical, office or business
administration skills were the most popular.
• Employment. This research found that refugees and asylum seekers bring with
them skills and experience that remain unused in the UK economy. The type of
work these refugees did before coming to the UK is in sharp contrast to the type of
employment they manage to obtain in this society. This work tends to be low paid
and temporary, which includes working in the evenings and at weekends.
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Discrimination against refugees and asylum seekers was identified as the main barrier
to employment. Language skills and lack of experience in the UK were also identified
as barriers, as well as uncertain status. The latter was particularly relevant for asylum
seekers and those with the ELR.
The studied group primarily relied on informal network of friends in finding work,
with very few people participating in the statutory sector schemes designed to help
people back into work.
In order to escape poverty and isolation of claiming benefits, refugees must have
access to well paid jobs with proper terms and conditions of employment.
Recommendations
This survey of employment and training needs of refugees offers a number of
policy recommendations. These are the following:
1. English language training needs to be available to all refugees, who want it, on
arrival as it is the key to settlement and participation. The classes must include
child care facilities. Members of refugee communities should carry out
teaching, as they understand the experiences, culture and educational
backgrounds of refugees from their community. This training needs to be
provided at different levels to meet different needs.
2. Help getting qualifications recognised is a very important area. Refugees need,
first, help getting their qualification recognised. Second, they need information
and advice on how to use best their skills in the UK labour market.
3. More child care provision is central not only to the language training, but also
to employment in general. Affordable fees for this service would mean a
possibility of being able to work for people with child care responsibilities.
4. Special help for refugee children concerning extra tuition, including intense
English language tutoring should be provided to help refugee children catch
up with their peer group. An example of good practice has been in Newham
where a School Liaison Worker had been employed by Community Education
in the borough. This person works with Bengali families and the scheme is
proving very successful.
5. Dissemination and provision of information advice should be provided in the
form of verbal information. Leaflets are not useful for some groups because
the exchange of information orally is part of certain cultures. In addition, more
trained interpreters are necessary for the dissemination process. Furthermore,
there is a need for more information centres for refugees, because the
voluntary sector is not sufficient and also can be limited for some refugee
groups.
6. Training and employment should be linked (i.e. training and job vacancies)
and better focussed on real opportunities. More work trials are essential
because gaining experience in the UK is a major factor mitigating against
labour market participation (Dr.Korac’s comment: Canada may be a very
good example of providing this type of service/opportunity for refugees and
other immigrants. It has a very well-developed scheme and practice of offering
‘job placements’ as they call it) Also, more general information about where
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to find job vacancies and methods of job seeking are essential. Yet another
critical instrument in enhancing labour market participation would be to
employ refugees in the statutory and voluntary agencies as a way of increasing
the confidence of refugee communities. Further, more advice and information
on setting-up small businesses in the UK would be important, because many
refugees have been self-employed in their country of origin. And finally, more
education of employers in anti-racist employment strategies.
7. The voluntary sector and their representatives should be involved in any
policy or service delivery initiatives which target refugee groups as they know
the most about the needs and the communities they serve.
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McDonald, Jeremy (1998) “Refugee Students’ experiences of the UK education
system” in Refugee Education: mapping the field, edited by Jones Crisps and Jill
Rutter, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham
Focus
This study focuses on the experiences of refugee students concerning educational
problems they face and barriers to their better educational attainment.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The author does not specify the use of the term ‘refugee’ in this study.
Methodological issues
This study is local in scope, but has regional and national relevance. It examines the
experiences of refugee students attending schools and colleges in London. However,
according to the estimates made by the Refugee Council, 89 per cent of newly arrived
refugee children in UK schools are attending schools in Greater London. Thus, this
study has also regional and national relevance.
Methods used
This article does not provide any detailed information about research methods used,
except that the target group of respondents was the 14 to 19 year-old age group. There
are indications, however, that the research was qualitative, based on in-depth or semistructured
interviews.
Main findings
The study points to the following problems and barriers identified by respondents:
1. Lack of provision, such as lack of EAL provision, lack of language and
learning support and a lack of appropriate provision generally;
2. Problems with recognition of previous educational achievement and
qualification obtained. This causes repetition of educational stages, pressure to
re-qualify in the UK system, or restart at a lower stage on the progression
ladder;
3. Problems of access to education in the UK caused by lack of evidence and
guidance, difficulties in finding schools and places, lack of appropriate FE
courses, inadequate or non-existent initial assessment.
The study also provides evidence that many refugee students are very successful
eventually, and in many cases despite lack of advice and support.
Assessment of school practices in working with refugee students
The author points to some examples of good practice, but also states that these
examples are more exceptions than a general trend. The research, however, shows that
where schools had developed induction systems for newly arrived refugee and other
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ilingual children, both students and staff agreed that an induction process combining
diagnostic assessment, language support and tutorial guidance was the most effective
way of supporting the integration of these students into the mainstream curriculum in
a phased and flexible way.
188

Power, Sally; Whitty, Geoff and Youdell, Deborah (1998) “Refugees, asylum
seekers and the housing crisis: no place to learn” in Refugee Education: mapping
the field, edited by Jones Crisps and Jill Rutter, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham
Focus
This study focuses on ways in which homelessness impedes access to appropriate
educational provision for refugee children.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The authors look at both refugees and asylum seekers.
Methodological issues
This study is national in scope. The research examines and assesses the consequences
of the housing policy and its practice, particularly with regard to the situation of
refugees and asylum seekers, and explores their effect on educational progress of the
refugee children.
Methods used
The study draws on a range of data, including a national survey of local education
authorities (LEAs), in-depth research with education professionals at local
government and school level in three areas of the country, and personal accounts of
homeless families of asylum seekers and refugees. Hence, this study combines
quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Main findings
This study found that changes in legislation (the Asylum and Immigration Act of
1993 and 1996) caused changes in social security policy and housing legislation,
which in turn seriously affected the ability of refugee children to learn in schools.
Children of asylum seekers are even more affected by these changes than children of
those with a secured status are and, consequently, have more rights to social security
provision.
These children have to cope with the stigma of homelessness, uncertainty of their
temporary accommodation and/or often very poor housing conditions, all of which is
compounded by problems they face in education, learning a new language and
adjusting to new environment. While many children did find school a welcome
refuge, this study has also documented that the educational needs of many homeless
refugee children had often been unfulfilled.
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Recommendations
The authors state that educationalists cannot change immigration or housing policy,
but there are a number of ways in which they can influence schools and LEAs to
make changes and help prevent the compounding of educational difficulties faced by
homeless asylum-seekers. The recommendations they made are the following:
• At LEA level to: i) monitor overall numbers and distribution of children living in
temporary accommodation in order to target resources and services more
effectively; ii) identify an officer as having key responsibility for the education of
homeless children; iii) include a factor specifically related to homelessness in the
additional educational needs element of LMS formulae in addition to any
allowance already given for overall levels of socially disadvantaged; iv) develop
the criteria to determine eligibility for financial support such as transport,
uniforms, free school meals for children from homeless families; v) to devise
strategies to facilitate the efficient transfer of records to schools and vice versa.
• At school level to: i) provide homeless children with flexible learning
opportunities; ii) introduce befriending schemes in order to minimise the isolation
and stigmatisation experienced by homeless pupils; iii) cover issues relating to
homelessness in the school curriculum in order to heighten awareness and
understanding.
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3. Labour Market
Pile, Helga (1997) The asylum trap: the labour market experiences of refugees
with professional qualification London: Low Pay Unit
Focus
This study focuses on the labour market experiences of refugees and asylum seekers
with professional qualifications. The relevance of this specific group is based on
realisation that this is a dominant common characteristic of the diverse refugee
communities in the UK.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
This study uses terms ‘refugee’ and ‘asylum seeker’ to refer to different sets of rights
concerning employment and welfare provision associated with these legal statuses.
Methodological issues
This study is local in scope, analysing the labour market experiences of refugees and
asylum seekers with professional qualifications who settled in London. The study has,
however, a much wider implications given that its findings match the findings of
research about the same topic done by other researchers on different groups, sample
size, and using different research methods (e.g. Bloch 2000 and 1996 also reviewed
under the categories General, Education and Training, and Labour Market).
Methods used
This research, conducted in February 1997, combined quantitative and qualitative
methods. It involved a postal self-completion survey of 37 refugees and asylum
seekers who had attended jobsearch and orientation courses during 1996/97 run by the
World University Services (WUS) under its Horizon project (the Horizon project was
funded by the European Commission and aimed to help unemployed refugees and
asylum seekers with professional qualifications to improve their prospects of getting a
job and further education in the UK).
In addition to quantitative data collected through the questionnaire, the study is also
based on qualitative data collected through two focus group discussions involving five
to six participants, each containing at least one asylum seeker who had been denied all
welfare benefits under the new legislation (i.e. the 1996 Act).
The sample of respondents was representative of the client profile of the WUS
jobsearch course, and of characteristics identified by Refugee Council asylum
application monitoring. Consequently, the respondents were: i) more male than
female (60 per cent were men and 40 per cent were women); ii) overwhelmingly
between 30 and 40 years of age (50 per cent); iii) just over 50 per cent had dependent
children living with them; iv) nearly 70 per cent were asylum seekers, 16 per cent had
refugee status, and 16 per cent had ELR; v) all had a college or university education.
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In terms of time of their arrival and legal status, nearly 75 per cent had arrived in
Britain between 1991 and 1995, approximately 24 per cent had come in 1996 and
only one (approximately 3 per cent) in 1990. All 24 per cent who arrived in 1996
were still awaiting a decision; of those who arrived between 1991 and 1995 nearly 25
per cent had refugee status and 20 percent had ELR.
In terms of professional qualifications, the largest single occupational group was
medical professionals of which many were doctors, but also of other medical
professions such as radiography and midwifery. The next largest group were those
who had worked as lawyers or teachers and lecturers. Those with medical and legal
qualifications all had a number of years of experience as practising professionals.
In terms of countries of origin, the respondents in this study come from 25 different
countries, the majority from Africa (over 50 per cent), but also from the Middle East,
Eastern Europe and the Balkans, Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean.
Main findings
Nearly 20 per cent of respondents worked at the time of the survey in low paying jobs
and all but one had been in their jobs for less than a year and thus were not protected
by employment rights. Consequently, they were overqualified for the jobs they were
doing, or they were working on a casual, insecure, part-time basis.
Of those working, over 70 per cent were paid below the Council of Europe’s decency
threshold; at the time of the research this was £6.31 an hour. Nearly 30 per cent of
those working were earning less than £4.42 an hour. The fact that those who worked
were in low paying jobs, meant that over 50 per cent of them had to claim benefits as
well – income support and housing benefit. Others felt that they were only marginally
better off in work than when they claimed benefits.
Some 80 per cent of respondents were not working at the time of research and most
were claiming one or more benefits. The rest of those who were not working, about
60 per cent of the whole sample, were excluded from the labour market, in the sense
that there was no requirement to be actively seeking work. Most were claiming urgent
cases of income support, paid to asylum seekers at 90 per cent of the full allowance.
Although these people had qualifications needed on the UK labour market, they were
living in poverty, including those who have not been yet affected by the 1996 benefit
changes.
This study also found that Job Centres are not very suitable for seeking jobs for those
with professional qualifications. The reasons being: i) staff tend to suggest to such
persons that they are overqualified and thus should omit some of their qualifications
from application forms; ii) pressure to take jobs which are far beyond a person’s
qualifications (e.g. a cleaner); iii) the jobs advertised tend to be low paid and menial.
Although Job Centres have a facility to conduct a search of relevant newspapers and
journals for professional job vacancies, the staff seldom do this. Without that kind of
support, refugees and asylum seekers do not stand a chance of finding out about a job,
because they lack the financial resources to buy several newspapers themselves.
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This study identified the following barriers to employment:
1. Uncertain status of asylum seekers and those with ELR is found to be one of
the major barriers to employment. For example, those granted ELR, are able to
have some certainty about their status only after seven years, compared to four
for refugees. This is a problem in terms of their long(er) terms plans and
‘investment’ into their stay in Britain. This has serious effects on employment,
because employers are reluctant to offer these people permanent positions
given the uncertainty about their long-term availability. Also, this problem
offers employers an easy cover for discrimination against those with uncertain
status.
2. New regulations under Section 8 of the 1996 Act, which put a criminal
sanction on employers to check immigration status, would make it even more
difficult to get employers to consider applications from asylum seekers. Thus,
the spirit of the asylum legislation encourages employers to discriminate, and
discourages any notion of rights for asylum seekers.
3. Problems with assessment of the language skills wherein Job Centres often
refuse to register people stating that their English is not good enough when
they are very capable speakers.
4. Lack of recognition of qualification. ‘Regulated’ professions such as medical
doctors, have often cumbersome and costly procedures of qualification
recognition. In ‘unregulated’ professions such as engineering, it is left to
employers’ judgement whether an applicant is well-qualified or not, which is
often a cover for discrimination.
5. Six-month waiting period for asylum seekers to qualify for a permission to
work is found to have very negative consequences for finding employment,
because during that period individuals’ confidence in their skills began to
suffer.
6. Question of references. It is either difficult or not practical to give references
from refugees’ countries of origin. One solution to this problem was to give
WUS as a reference. This, however, may have a negative effect because it may
contribute to their stigmatisation as refugees and/or asylum seekers.
Recommendations
This study assessed the consequences of the following policy measures:
1. Asylum seekers were even more restricted in relation to the sort of jobs they
could take because under the 1996 legislation, they could not receive child
benefit or family credit. Family credit is a top-up to earnings from low paying
jobs for those with dependent children.
2. Just under 25 per cent of the sample, claimed asylum after the new benefit
rules came into effect in February 1996, removing all means of support
(including child benefit) from those who do not claim asylum at the port of
entry, and from those who appeal against a negative decision. Almost half of
them had no benefits at all, having claimed asylum in-country (including those
who applied for asylum one day after arriving in the UK). They were receiving
hostel accommodation and some free meals from their local authority. These
people have to endure for six months, and actually more given the length of
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the procedure, living in state-induced destitution while they wait for
permission to work.
3. There are many additional consequences of benefit denial, including: i) lack of
money to cover travelling expenses to get to training courses, employment
agencies and interviews; ii) being denied access to Job Centres because some
jobs are only open to those on social benefits; iii) limitations on access to
further education courses, such as EFL, because to qualify for concessionary
course fees one has to be eligible for state benefits.
Recommendations:
The study gives the following recommendations for policy if the goal of limiting
benefit dependency is to be achieved:
1. Abolish the six months waiting period for permission to work in the UK.
2. Eliminate legislation which in effect allows employers to make assumptions
about immigration status before even considering candidates’ merits.
3. Eliminate the difficulties and expense of getting overseas qualifications
recognised.
4. Eliminate legal restrictions to income support and other benefits, because this
forces many people into destitution and has long term effect on their
employment prospects, even for those with professional qualifications.
5. Eliminate restrictions on access to training and particularly English language
training.
6. Set up a National employment and training agency for asylum seekers and
refugees. The agency would co-ordinate English language courses, and would
play a key role in co-ordinating procedures for official recognition of
qualifications and could issue certificates of equivalence which employers
would be required to accept. This would speed up the process of refugees and
asylum seekers becoming self-sufficient and they would be able to contribute
to UK society by paying tax and National Insurance.
7. Until legislation is changed, provide clear information about asylum claim
procedures at ports and airports.
8. Speed up the decision-making process concerning status determination.
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4. Health
Gorst-Unsworth. C. and E. Goldenberg (1998) “Psychological sequelae of torture
and organised violence suffered by refugees from Iraq” British Journal of
Psychiatry, 1998, Vol. 172, p. 90-94
Focus
This study examines how stress associated with flight and exile (i.e. social factors in
exile) interact with the original trauma of refugees who settle in the UK.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The authors do not give any indication on whether the respondents were refugees
and/or asylum seekers.
Methodological issues and methods used
There is no clear indication on the place of settlement of the surveyed refugees. The
authors, however, discuss their findings within the national framework and often
make comparisons with situations in other countries referring to findings of research
in the area.
The study is quantitative, based on a complex method of assessment of 84 Iraqi
refugees who were between 18 and 59 years of age, and who arrived in the UK
between 1990 and 1993. All of the sample were separated involuntarily from some
members of their close family, including those separated from their wives or from one
or more of their children (10 and 11 per cent respectively). Over two-thirds were welleducated,
including those with university degrees, and less then a half (46 per cent)
could speak good English at the time of the assessment.
This study measured adverse events and level of social support. Various measures of
psychological morbidity were applied, all of which have been used in previous trauma
research. Results were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPPS, 1988).
Main findings
This study shows that full a 65 per cent of the sample have suffered systematic torture
before flight. This study shows that 39 per cent were dissatisfied with their living
conditions, and most reported low levels of social activity.
It documents that social factors in exile, particularly the level of ‘affective’ social
support, proved important in determining the severity of both post-traumatic stress
disorder and depressive reactions, particularly when combined with a severe level of
trauma/torture. Poor social support is a stronger predictor of depressive morbidity
than trauma factors.
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Recommendations
The authors point out that integrated rehabilitation efforts should meet the
multifactorial nature of risk factors in the psychological health of refugees. This
implies professional help alongside vigorous attempts to improve social environment
and provide appropriate social activities and support.
Effective support, as the authors point out, can only be provided by families and
friends, and may rely on Government policy regarding rights to family reunion for
example more than professional input.
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Jones, David. and Gill, Paramjit S. (1998) “Refugees and primary care: tackling
the inequalities.” British Medical Journal, Vol. 317, , p. 1444-1446
Focus
This article explores the challenges that refugees pose for primary care and suggests
alternative strategies to address inequalities in the care of refugees.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The term ‘refugee’ refers in this study to those with Convention status, those with
ELR, and asylum seekers.
Methodological issues and methods used
This study is national in scope. It draws on findings of exiting research in the field
and other secondary sources and critically examines the problems relating to refugees
and primary care. It specifically looks at the recent changes in legislation (i.e.
dispersal) and their consequences for the health and wellbeing of refugees.
Main findings
The authors point to the fact that the country of origin of refugees determines some of
their health problems, especially parasitic and nutritional diseases. They also
emphasise that mental health problems are influenced by various factors including
language difficulties, family separation, hostility from the host population, and
traumatic experiences before displacement. Furthermore, there is evidence that
refugees who have not yet been granted the right to remain are under particular stress.
The authors highlight the importance of early recognition and treatment of
psychological problems as the way to improve health of refugees in the UK.
The article further points to the following problems concerning primary care and
refugees.
1. There is evidence that some GPs are confused about the rights and
entitlements of refugees regarding primary care (i.e. that they are entitled to a
full range of NHS treatment free of charge, including the right to register with
a GP).
2. Information on GPs’ perceptions of refugees’ health needs is limited.
3. The lack of language skills often causes problems in communication and also
requires more time to assess the health problems of refugees. In relation to
this, the article points to the problem of the lack of knowledge on the part of
health authorities about the languages spoken in their districts and of the
extent of the need for interpreter services. Moreover, the care for refugees
generates an additional workload for GPs, and there is evidence that current
deprivation payments are not adequate. Political will and courage is needed to
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prioritise refugees within the NHS, at the time when other groups in the
indigenous population are in need of greater resources.
4. Effective communication between medical doctors and patients improves
health outcomes. Thus, the authors question who is to be responsible if tragic
mistakes are made as a result of communication failure? Doctors or medical
systems which expect doctors to communicate well but fail to provide
adequate resources for interpreters.
All of the above problems, as the authors emphasise, will only increase as the
consequence of the policy of dispersal, because refugees are being sent to places
outside the Greater London area, which are ill-equipped to deal with their health
needs. Moreover, they are being sent to areas where they do not necessarily have the
support of their compatriots.
Policy assessment and/or recommendations made
In order to improve primary care, the authors argue that a strategic approach is
required. This should include:
1. Providing refugees with intensive language courses in spoken English;
2. An information pack, commissioned by The Department of Health, which
includes a certificate of entitlement to NHS treatment and the development of
patient held medical records for refugees (i.e. to tackle the problem of high
mobility of refugees);
3. The development of a national telephone interpreting service in a range of
languages is a priority;
4. A separate capitation payment for refugee patients, together with a new item
of service payment linked to the duration of each professionally interpreted
consultation;
5. Detailed guidelines for the process of registration provided by health
authorities;
6. Health facilitation recruited from each refugee population to help with
information on detailed medical history, health promotion, and screening.
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Hargreaves, Sally, Holmes, Alison and Jon S. Friendland (1999) 'Health care
provision for asylum seekers and refugees in the uk'. The Lancet, Vol. 353, May
1, 1999, p. 1497-1498
Focus
This study focuses on the extent of health-care provision for asylum seekers and
refugees in the UK. Specifically, it assesses the application of guidelines suggesting
that new arrivals to the UK should enter a tuberculosis-screening programme as part
of health-care provision for asylum seekers and refugees. The authors are concerned
with the lack of adequate health screening of the newly arrived and its effect on the
indigenous population (i.e. a possibility of exposing them to infections such as
tuberculosis).
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The authors refer to both refugees and asylum seekers.
Methodological issues and methods used
This study is local in scope. It draws on findings of a survey of GP surgeries
registered on a database of doctors referring patients and/or microbiological
specimens to the Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College of Science,
Technology and Medicine, London. It has, however, national implications because
most of the asylum seekers and refugees are concentrated in the Greater London area.
The study is quantitative and was based on a survey, using a five-stage telephone
questionnaire with 56 practices (72 per cent of surgeries contacted). Of these, 83 per
cent responded that they treated patients who were refugees or asylum seekers.
Main findings
The study showed that most of a sample of GPs in London were unaware of health
screening at UK points of entry. GPs were in favour of screening, but most did not
recognise the importance of screening for infectious diseases, particularly
tuberculosis.
Another point of concern is the proportion of GPs (28 per cent) who do not offer
asylum seekers a basic new-patient health check. This may result, as the authors
conclude, from asylum seekers being registered as temporary patients for whom
screening is not normally considered.
The authors conclude that findings of this survey suggest that health provision for
asylum seekers in London is inadequate. Consequently, as the authors argue, this may
be inadvertently exposing the indigenous population to infections such as tuberculosis
(Dr Korac’s comment: although this is a serious problem that needs addressing, the
authors do not mention any concern about the health and well-being of refugees and
asylum seekers who may suffer from such disease).
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Recommendations
The authors suggest that departments of specialised centres in areas with many asylum
seekers should be given urgent consideration with a view to linking health screening and
care with social services, translators, and non-governmental organisations. This should
involve, as they suggest, GPs, infectious disease and respiratory physicians, psychiatrists,
paediatricians, community nurses, midwives, health visitors and others.
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Bell, Andy (2000) “Asylum seekers: needy, not guilty” British Journal of Health
Care Management, Vol. 6, No. 5, p. 229-230
Focus
This article focuses on the health needs of asylum seekers and problems concerning
effective planning in preparation to meet their pressing needs.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
This article focuses on asylum seekers.
Methodological issues and methods used
This study is national in scope. It assesses the consequences of the policy of dispersal,
food vouchers etc. for health of asylum seekers by examining the situation of local health
authorities throughout the UK.
Main findings
After examining problems with implementation of the policy of dispersal, specific to
health care provision, the author points out that there is little evidence that the NHS has
been consulted, considered or included in planning the new system. Consequently, health
authorities are left to face a sudden rise in demand for health care from a group of people
they may be ill-prepared to support.
The Policy assessment and/or recommendations made
The author recommends the following:
1. Dispersal must ensure that asylum seekers live in areas where existing refugee
communities have sufficient resources to support them.
2. The Government should take responsibility centrally for funding the support of
asylum seekers. Instead of dispersing them, the state could support them to live
where communities of their nationality already exists. Such an approach would
reduce the total costs of supporting asylum seekers by assisting communities to
provide informal help to newcomers and by concentrating expertise where it is
needed most.
3. If the policy of dispersal is to continue, however, the Government needs to invest
appropriately, in health services and advocacy schemes.
4. Asylum seekers urgently need to be provided with cash at least at the Income
Support level, because without a minimal subsistence they will exit from the
official system and will receive even less attention to their health needs.
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If the above needs are not met, the author concludes, the NHS will be faced with a
challenge of meeting the needs of a group of people deliberately impoverished and
marginalised. The NHS may be one of their few decent points of contact within the state.
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Burnett, Angela and Peel, Michael Health (2001) “Needs of asylum seekers and
refugees in the UK” British Medical Journal, Vol. 322, 3, p. 544-547
Focus
This article focuses on the health problems of refugees and asylum seekers caused by
poverty, dependence, lack of cohesive social support, and racism which they experience
upon their arrival in the UK.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
This article focuses on asylum seekers and refugees.
Methodological issues and methods used
This study is national in scope. It assesses the impact of post-flight factors on the health
of refugees and asylum seekers in the UK. The discussion is based on examination and
discussion of finding of previous research in the field.
Main findings
Some of the needs and problems of asylum seekers and refugees may be non-medical
(e.g. poverty, social isolation, poor accommodation), but they nevertheless affect health.
Moreover, symptoms of psychological distress are common among this category of
people, but do not necessarily signify mental illness.
Health screening procedures set for the newly arrived are often stigmatising, and seem to
focus more on protecting the native population than benefiting the health of the new
arrivals. Also, because refugee health in some areas has become the responsibility of
communicable diseases departments, there is a widespread impression that refugees are
vectors of infection. Refugees with infectious diseases are actually the minority.
Counselling, currently a Western-oriented concept, may be an unfamiliar concept for
many refugees and asylum seekers. Its usefulness depends on an individual’s socioeconomic
background and culture. For it to work, a trust-building and befriending
relationship must develop first. In can be useful if members of refugee communities
develop counselling skills.
Refugee community organisations are invaluable in supporting refugees in all areas
including health. However, it is important for refugees to also develop links and
friendships with people in the host community. The current hostile media headlines and
comments from politicians have not contributed to nurturing good relationships.
Recommendations
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The authors give the following recommendations to improve communication, information
on health services, services for women, and services for children.
1. Communication should be facilitated and enhanced by a trained advocate or
interpreter. Using children to interpret, for example, may place inappropriate
responsibility on them.
2. Information on health services needs to be in relevant languages and in culturally
appropriate form. It is important to acknowledge that printed information is not
always useful, for example, in cases where people are illiterate or where there is a
cultural preference for oral communication.
3. Women’s needs have to be addressed properly, because women in exile face a
range of problems specific to their gender. Thus, it is important to talk to women
directly and to use independent interpreters rather than family members. Also,
trained advocates can enable women to discuss their health and choices more
easily and can remedy misconceptions about health screening. Finally, women
need to be offered a choice as to the sex of the health worker they see and of the
interpreter.
4. Children’s needs have to be met in a multifaceted way, aiming to provide as
normal life as possible. To achieve this, it is important to support parents too, as
they may be experiencing difficulties. Hence, it would be important to promote a
leading role of health visitors in working with refugee families.
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5. Housing
Zetter, Roger and Martyn Pearl (1999a) “Sheltering on the margins: social housing
provision and the impact of restrictionism on asylum seekers and refugees in the UK
“ Policy Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, p. 235-254
Focus
This study assesses the impact of increasingly restrictionist policies for asylum seekers
and refugees from the perspective of social housing provision. Specifically, the
restructuring of housing provision is examined, and the role of housing associations
(significant providers for this client group) is reviewed.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The study examines the situation of both refugees and asylum seekers, with a greater
emphasis on the situation of the latter group of forced migrants.
Methodological issues
This study is national in scope. The analysis is based on a research project commissioned
by the Housing Corporation and conducted in 1997-98. The research was carried out in
three study locations – Manchester, Birmingham, and London (the London Boroughs of
Newham and Tower Hamlets).
The assessment of policies in the UK is made by exploring the social exclusion and
destitution created by disqualifying most asylum seekers from access to local authority
housing, by disentitlement to housing and welfare benefits and by fragmenting service
delivery. The study examines the policy instruments, mobilised through policy shift and
statutory change, as well as access to housing by refugees and asylum seekers.
The housing policy is understood in this study as an important indicator of the overall
agenda and impact of government policy on asylum seekers in particular.
Methods used
The research is primarily qualitative in nature, based on interviews with a range of public
sector and voluntary agencies, housing providers, local authorities (housing and social
service departments), as well as national government and voluntary agencies. These
interview data covered key areas of provision, such as strategy and management,
collaboration and partnership, support services, participation and empowerment. In
addition, an interview survey of 46 refugee/asylum-seeker tenant households was also
conducted. This aimed to reveal the client group’s response to housing provision.
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Main findings
This study documents how the revised policy framework caused the fragmentation of
service delivery and a regrettable decline in previously reasonable standards of
humanitarian response. The authors argue that housing policy is the principal means by
which social exclusion of asylum seekers and refugees has been implemented. The main
consequence of the revised policy framework is increased dependency on
institutionalised provision which in turn undermines options for security and long-term
settlement.
This national study also shows that performance and provision concerning housing of
asylum seekers and refugees do not significantly vary between London and the rest of the
country, or at least between the three main case study locations. This evidence challenges
the common assumption about the uniqueness of London’s situation and policy responses
to it. It is not evident from this study, for example, that housing association provision is
more readily accessible or that their services, overall, are significantly better delivered
outside London.
Further, this research shows that housing associations are emerging as significant
providers of accommodation for both refugees and asylum seekers, but still at the
relatively modest level. Given that the authors have anticipated that the role of housing
associations was likely to expand with the 1999 AIA, their analysis of the problems
concerning housing associations is a way of assessing future outcomes of the new policy
framework. They argue that housing associations will be in competition with local
authorities in the areas where there is surplus public housing, because part of the
government’s unwritten agenda is to use this contrived demand to help fill empty
property. This study has found little evidence to support the view that some associations
were, and will continue to be, prepared to take the risk of housing asylum seekers in order
to fill hard-to-let properties, reduce voids and thus increase income streams.
Recommendations
This assessment documents that the current housing policies and legislation are driving
refugees and asylum seekers into further dependency, and the authors contend that the
1999 AIA will compound this trend.
They also recommend that current conditions make it imperative to disseminate good
practice and improve performance quality. For example, a corporate response to the
increasingly fragmented nature of service provision, such as the proactive approaches of
Manchester and Birmingham documented in this study.
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Zetter, Roger and Martyn Pearl (1999b) “Managing to survive: Asylum seekers,
refugees and access to social housing” Bristol: Policy Press
Focus
Please note that this study is based on the same empirical research as the two
studies already reviewed under the categories General and Housing (Zetter and
Pearl 1999a and 2000). Given the scope of the research, each reviewed study
emphasised different aspect of the problem of housing of refugees and asylum
seekers. This summary will focus solely on one aspect of this complex study, that is,
the question of good practice in housing management and provision
This study focuses on: i) the experience of Registered Social Landlords (RSLs) in
providing housing for refugees and asylum seekers; ii) the responses of RSLs to the
measures contained in the 1996 Asylum and Immigration Act; and iii) the question of
sustainable and good practice.
This review summarises the third aspect of this study and, therefore, points to examples
of good practice and how these can be improved further.
Explanation of concepts and definition of terms used
The study examines the situation of both refugees and asylum seekers concerning
housing, as well as the role of RSLs and Refugee Community-based Organisation
(RCOs) in housing provision and related issues.
Methodological issues
This study is national in scope. The analysis is based on a research project commissioned
by the Housing Corporation and conducted in 1997-98. The research was carried out in
three study locations – Manchester, Birmingham, and London (the London Boroughs of
Newham and Tower Hamlets).
The approach adopted in identifying good practice consisted of evaluation criteria, which
reflect a balance between the specialist nature of the client group to be serviced,
reasonable expectations of effectiveness, and value for money obligations placed on
every organisation operating with or through public subsidy. The criteria used in this
study were: i) access to housing and related services; ii) innovative financing of project;
iii) responsive and progressive management initiatives; iv) means of supporting and
empowering residents; and v) the promotion and development of sustainable
partnerships.
Methods used
The research is primarily qualitative in nature, based on interviews with a range of
public sector and voluntary agencies, housing providers, local authorities (housing
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and social service departments), as well as national government and voluntary
agencies. This interview data covered key areas of provision, such as strategy and
management, collaboration and partnership, support services, participation and
empowerment. In addition, an interview survey of 46 refugee/asylum-seeker tenant
households was also conducted. This aimed to reveal the client group’s response to
housing provision.
Main Findings
This study examined a significant amount of practice across a range of RSLs (and RCOs)
and found that some aspects of the practice identified are largely underdeveloped, in
particularly, empowerment and financial innovation. Others, such as partnership and
management support, are more widespread. However, Housing Plus initiatives, that is, a
holistic approach to housing needs of refugees and asylum seekers, are less evident. This
research found that access and the processes leading to an offer are poorly developed
areas of practice.
The study found that there is considerable variation in the quality of practice, much of
which, if not overtly bad, is certainly mediocre. The authors emphasise that part of the
explanation of poor practice lies in the structural constraints, that is, government policies
and legislation, and reductions in public expenditure in this sector. However, they point
out that the mediocre situation also arises from organisational inefficiency, limited
institutional capacity, and/or ineffective policies and practices borne out of inadequate
training, knowledge or resources.
The following examples of current good practice within mainstream RSL’s in
underdeveloped areas of empowerment and financial innovation were found:
• Provision of hostel accommodation and support service to destitute asylum seekers
despite funding complexities (e.g. providing alternative food source delivered through
external caterers). The housing workers liaise closely with the local SSD, which funds
the scheme through the eligible payments under the 1948 National Assistance Act.
• Innovative sources of fundraising via the National Lottery.
• Provision of a variety of activities and group participation to develop self-esteem of
asylum seekers. For example, by organising cultural days in hostels, which proved
extremely successful in boosting the self-esteem of residents as well as in providing
an informal atmosphere in which management and residents could meet and exchange
ideas.
• Engaging with local community groups to break down the barriers between the hostel
residents and the local community, because tension between the two groups is
frequently a problem where refugees and asylum seekers are housed in relatively
large groups.
• Facilitating empowerment, through social activities and participation in meetings, to
encourage residents to ‘own’ their settlement process. For example, through
encouragement of residents to attend the hostel’s staff’ getting involved meetings. All
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agenda items are open for discussion, and there are no separate meetings for staff and
clients.
• Experimenting with different methods of encouraging tenants participation, for
example, introduction of a questionnaire to identify needs of tenants. Consequently,
information gathering and dissemination within the hostel was improved.
Other examples of current good practice, particularly regarding Housing Plus initiatives,
are the following:
• A holistic, Housing Plus approach to RSL services, such as sensitivity to the
resettlement needs of refugees and asylum seekers, for example, the provision of
language and writing classes.
• Recognition of need for staged housing provision and specialist support, for example,
native language speakers and national/ethnic compatibility of support workers. This is
evident in an understanding of and response to specific refugee community needs.
• Introduction of an extensive and innovative range of social activities, training
programmes, financial support for essential items, therapy and psychiatric support for
asylum seekers.
• Appointment of a specialist development worker, exclusively working with refugees,
asylum seekers and related agencies.
• Experience in providing housing for refugees is fully endorsed at board level. This
provides a positive message to front-line staff who feel confident in delivering
effective services.
• Policy assessment and/or recommendations made
This study also points to areas where, with a few additional resources, significant
improvements could be made to the breadth of service delivery. For example:
1. The linkage of healthcare, particularly TB screening facilities, with existing
housing projects. This would be a positive interpretation of the current emphasis
on Best Value.
2. Enhancing policies and practices for the needs of female-headed refugee and
asylum seeker households. The multiple problems experienced by many femaleheaded
households require additional consideration by policy makers and service
deliverers.
3. Recognising that refugees and asylum seekers are not a homogeneous group, thus
housing management and provision have to be sensitive to their differentiated
needs. As this research documents, the larger RSLs are more suitable for meeting
the housing needs of clients with low support needs, who require few additional
services to enable them to reconstruct their lives. The smaller community-based
RSLs and RCO partners provide the best practice in the crucial area of support
services for asylum seekers and refugees with high support needs.
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