Middle and Late Bronze Age Metal Tools from the Aegean, Eastern ...

extremely scarce and the dearth of tin mines is difficult to account for in light of the vast
quantities of bronze objects from the LBA.
The metallurgical chaîne opératoire, or the sequence of activities spanning from
the ore’s acquisition at the mine to the finished metal object, was complex. Upon
successful procurement of cupriferous ore, several operations were carried out to extract
pure copper from the rock. This transformation included initial roasting and smelting of
the ores which produced impure copper, sometimes called matte or furnace
conglomerate. This intermediate product underwent several additional smelts before all
impurities were removed from the pure copper. After this laborious process, smiths could
transport the metal in its raw form or re-melt and mix it with another metal to create an
alloy for casting and production. 11
Following casting, further work was necessary, such
as polishing and sharpening, to ensure the functionality of the finished object. These
various metallurgical stages rarely occurred at a single location, thereby emphasizing the
complexity of the entire industrial process. Other restrictive factors in metalworking
included fuel, weather (e.g. windy conditions to flame a fire), time (e.g. seasonal work),
and market demands.
Several archaeological artifacts attest to metallurgical activity. Furnaces, kilns,
hearths, tuyéres, bellows, and crucibles are necessary equipment for creating and working
with extremely hot temperatures. Molds, slag, and various waste products (investiture
fragments from lost wax processes, for example) represent signs of working with
11 The distinction between smelting and melting is important to recognize within archaeometallurgical
remnants, since the procedures reflect very different stages of the metallurgical process. The difference is
well explained by Swiny (1986, 66): “…the term smelting or primary smelting is used to represent the
initial reduction of an ore to a refined or semi-refined state, as opposed to remelting and/or refining.” It is
also worth noting Tzachili’s (2008a, 9) observation on the difference between smelting and melting:
“Smelting is considered to be a more advanced stage than simply melting, because it requires a
corresponding advance in pyrotechnology.”
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