In the Persian Empire of the book of Esther, the Gnostic fire ... - WBM
In the Persian Empire of the book of Esther, the Gnostic fire ... - WBM
In the Persian Empire of the book of Esther, the Gnostic fire ... - WBM
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Yehud – <strong>the</strong> <strong>Persian</strong> designation for <strong>the</strong> Land<br />
<strong>of</strong> Israel at that time – to provide a fascinating<br />
window into Jewish-Zoroastrian relations, yet<br />
this is not <strong>the</strong> case. Just as we find in <strong>the</strong> Cyrus<br />
Cylinder, <strong>Persian</strong> pragmatism and “secular”<br />
bureaucracy ruled <strong>the</strong> day. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand,<br />
despite its many historical problems and <strong>the</strong><br />
total absence <strong>of</strong> references to divinity, <strong>the</strong> <strong>book</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Es<strong>the</strong>r preserves some intriguing fragments <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Jewish-Zoroastrian encounter.<br />
Zoroastrianism is to be found first and foremost<br />
in <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ophoric names (i.e., those including<br />
<strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> a god) <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>book</strong>’s main<br />
characters. Typical <strong>of</strong> Zoroastrianism, many <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se appellations express concepts deified in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Avesta. For example, <strong>the</strong> name Mehuman<br />
derives from Vohu Manah, which means<br />
“Good Mind.” Fascinatingly, in <strong>the</strong> Zoroastrian<br />
pan<strong>the</strong>on, Vohu Mana is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seven<br />
Amesha Spentas, or beneficent immortals.<br />
This parallels Mehuman’s position as one <strong>of</strong><br />
Ahasuerus’ seven eunuchs. Ano<strong>the</strong>r reference<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Mind can be found in <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
arch villain, Haman, which seems to come from<br />
hammanah – “<strong>of</strong> like mind.” As Harvard scholar<br />
James Russel has put it, rulers in all times and<br />
places tend to cherish yes-men. Haman’s fa<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
similarly, is Hammedatha, which means “<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same dat,” or law. <strong>In</strong>deed, it seems that <strong>the</strong> use<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word dat (source <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hebrew term dat<br />
– religion) throughout <strong>the</strong> <strong>book</strong> <strong>of</strong> Es<strong>the</strong>r subtly<br />
critiques <strong>the</strong> seemingly arbitrary rule <strong>of</strong> law in<br />
<strong>Persian</strong> and Zoroastrian culture.<br />
Once we reach <strong>the</strong> Second Temple era, Jewish<br />
literature and thought shifts dramatically.<br />
Emphasis is placed on <strong>the</strong> afterlife, eschatology,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> soul – now a battleground <strong>of</strong><br />
good versus evil. These ideas dominate<br />
Zoroastrianism and how Zoroastrians perceived<br />
reality. Nowhere in ancient Judaism is this new<br />
dualism stronger than at Qumran, where <strong>the</strong><br />
sect responsible for composing <strong>the</strong> Dead Sea<br />
Scrolls contemplated <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> history and<br />
<strong>the</strong> ultimate war between good and evil. <strong>In</strong><br />
numerous Second Temple texts – including <strong>the</strong><br />
scrolls – evil is seen as separate from God, and<br />
opposing Him. Satan and his cohorts develop<br />
into a full-blown maleficent force. The demon<br />
Ashmedai debuts in Jewish tradition in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>book</strong> <strong>of</strong> Tobit, written in <strong>the</strong> second century BCE.<br />
Unlike his more playful talmudic counterpart,<br />
this character is lustful and dangerous. <strong>In</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
literature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Second Temple period, Jewish<br />
mono<strong>the</strong>ism veers closer to dualism than ever<br />
before.<br />
Surprisingly, this trend takes place at a point<br />
when <strong>the</strong>re was little direct contact between<br />
Jews and Zoroastrians. Alexander <strong>the</strong> Great<br />
had already defeated <strong>the</strong> <strong>Persian</strong> armies during<br />
<strong>the</strong> fourth century BCE; subsequently, Hellenist<br />
forces ruled Judea as well as most Iranian lands.<br />
<strong>In</strong> fact, one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> greatest mysteries <strong>of</strong> ancient<br />
Jewish intellectual history is how Second Temple<br />
Jews, and particularly sects living in relative<br />
isolation, seem to have engaged in a protracted<br />
dialogue with Iranian ideas. However this<br />
encounter came about, its far-reaching effects on<br />
<strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> Judaism are indisputable.<br />
The Sasanian Talmud<br />
Not long after its completion in <strong>the</strong> fifth or<br />
sixth century, <strong>the</strong> Babylonian Talmud became<br />
<strong>the</strong> most influential text in Judaism besides <strong>the</strong><br />
Bible. Its authority was <strong>of</strong> course assumed in<br />
Babylonia, but in time <strong>the</strong> Talmud’s influence<br />
spread to North Africa and Europe as well.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> this pr<strong>of</strong>ound impact, a proper<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Talmud is essential not<br />
only for historians <strong>of</strong> Babylonian Jewry, but also<br />
for scholars <strong>of</strong> subsequent periods <strong>of</strong> Jewish<br />
history. The question <strong>of</strong> how to define <strong>the</strong><br />
voluminous tome that graces <strong>the</strong> Jewish<br />
<strong>book</strong>shelf to this day affects<br />
how Jewish practice,<br />
<strong>the</strong>ology, and culture –<br />
which derive largely from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Talmud – are to be<br />
understood.<br />
This basic definitional<br />
problem has puzzled<br />
Talmud scholars and<br />
historians for centuries.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> one hand, despite<br />
its name, <strong>the</strong> Babylonian<br />
Talmud is preoccupied<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Land <strong>of</strong> Israel<br />
and is a commentary<br />
on and repository <strong>of</strong><br />
Palestinian rabbinic texts.<br />
It explains <strong>the</strong> Mishna,<br />
compares it to <strong>the</strong> Tosefta<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r early rabbinic<br />
works, and transmits <strong>the</strong><br />
opinions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sages,<br />
many <strong>of</strong> whom dwelt in<br />
Palestine. Yet a perusal<br />
<strong>of</strong> its pages<br />
indicates<br />
that it was<br />
firmly<br />
Zoroastrianism<br />
The Cube <strong>of</strong> Zoroaster, from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Achaemenid period<br />
in Naqsh-e Rustam, Iran.<br />
For centuries, this stone<br />
structure was assumed to<br />
be a Zoroastrian <strong>fire</strong> temple,<br />
but this supposition has been<br />
discredited<br />
Photo: dynamosquito<br />
The Jewish Journey through History Shevat/Adar 5772 35